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{{Short description|Iranian language spoken in Tajikistan}}
{{Infobox Language
{{More footnotes needed|date=February 2014}}
|name=Yazgulyam
{{Infobox language
|nativename=''yuzdami zevég''<BR>([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: ''{{IPA|yůzdomi zəvəg}})''
| name = Yazghulami
|states=[[Tajikistan]]
| altname =
|speakers=4,000 (1994)
| nativename = {{lang|yah|йуздоми звег}} {{tlit|yah|yuzdomi zveg}}<br>{{lang|yah|зѓамиѓай}} {{tlit|yah|zǵamiǵai}}
|familycolor=Indo-European
| pronunciation = {{IPA|fa|zɡʲamiˈɡʲai|}}<ref name="Jamison" />
|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| states = [[Tajikistan]]
|fam3=[[Iranian languages|Iranian]]
| speakers = 9,000<ref name="Ethnologue">{{Cite book |editor-last1=Eberhard |editor-first1=David M. |editor-last2=Simons |editor-first2=Gary F. |editor-last3=Fennig |editor-first3=Charles D. |chapter=Yazghulami |title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |publisher=Dallas, Texas: SIL International |year=2023 |chapter-url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yah/}}</ref>
|fam4=[[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern]]
| date = 2010
|fam5=[[Southeastern Iranian languages|Southeastern]]
| familycolor = Indo-European
|fam6=[[Pamir languages|Pamir]]
| fam2 = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|script=None
| fam3 = [[Iranian languages|Iranian]]
<!--|iso1=tg|iso2=tgk|iso3=tgk-->
| fam4 = [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern]]
|notice=nonotice}}
| fam5 = [[Shugni–Yazgulami]]
| script = [[Cyrillic]], [[Latin]]
| iso3 = yah
| lingua = 58-ABD-f
| glotto = yazg1240
| glottorefname = Yazgulyam
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Yazghulami is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''}}}}
}}
The '''Yazghulami language''' (also Yazgulami, Yazgulyami, Iazgulem, Yazgulyam, Yazgulam, Yazgulyamskiy, Jazguljamskij, ({{langx|tg|язғуломӣ (Yazghulomi)}}) is a member of the Southeastern subgroup of the [[Iranian languages]], spoken by around 9,000 people along the [[Yazgulyam River|Yazghulom River]] in [[Gorno-Badakhshan]], [[Tajikistan]]. Together with [[Shughni language|Shugni]], it is classified in a Shugni-Yazgulami subgroup of the [[Language area|areal]] group of Pamir languages.<ref name="EdelmanDodykhudoeva">{{Cite book |editor-last=Windfuhr |editor-first=Gernot |last1=Edelman |first1=D. (Joy) I. |last2=Dodykhudoeva |first2=Leila R. |chapter=The Pamir Languages |title=The Iranian Languages |pages=773–786 |publisher=London, Routledge |year=2009}}</ref> Virtually all speakers are bilingual in the [[Tajik language]].<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Clifton |editor-first=John M. |last1=Tiessen|first1=Gabriela |last2=Abbess |first2=Elisabeth |last3=Müller |first3=Katja |last4=Tiessen |first4=Calvin |chapter=Language Access and Tajik Language Proficiency among the Yazghulami of Tajikistan |chapter-url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/72/06/68/72066897260155831242257462476308411262/silesr2010_018.pdf |title=Studies in Languages of Tajikistan |pages=107–149 |publisher=National State University of Tajikistan and North Eurasia Group, SIL International |year=2005}}</ref>


The Yazghulami people are an exception among the speakers of Pamir languages in that they do not adhere to [[Ismailism]].
The '''Yazgulyam language''' (also Yazgulyami, Iazgulem, Yazgulam; [[Tajik language|Tajik]]: ''yazgulomi'') is a member of the [[Pamir languages|Pamir]] subgroup of the [[Iranian languages]], spoken by ca. 4,000 native speakers (as of 1994) along the [[Yazgulyam River]], [[Gorno-Badakhshan]], [[Tajikistan]]. Together with [[Shugni]], it is classified as the Shugni-Yazgulami subgroup of the Pamir languages. Virtually all speakers are bilingual in the [[Tajik language]].


== Dialects ==
The Yazgulami language consists of two dialects, one of these is spoken higher in the mountains, the other lower. The differences are not significant and are limited to the vocabulary. Differences in the vocabulary are also detectable between the languages used in different villages in the lower mountains. The [[Vanji language]] (''also'' '''Vanži''', is a close relation to Yazgulami, which has become extinct now. Other languages spoken in the Pamirs differ greatly from the Yazgulami language. The disparities are the largest in the vocabulary.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}
The Yazghulami language consists of two dialects: one of these is spoken higher in the mountains, the other lower. The differences are not significant and are limited to the vocabulary. Differences in the vocabulary are also detectable between the languages used in different villages in the lower mountains. The extinct [[Vanji language]] (also Vanži, Wanji) was once the nearest linguistic relative of Yazghulami. Yazghulami shares many grammatical and lexical features with the other languages spoken in the Pamirs,<ref name="Pakhalina">{{cite book |last1=Pakhalina |first1=T. M. |title=Pamirskie jazyki [The Pamir Languages] |date=1969 |publisher=Nauka |location=Moscow}}</ref> but even its most closely related living relative, Shughni, is not mutually intelligible with it.


== History ==
The language was first recorded by Russian traveller G. Arandarenko in [[1889]], listing 34 Yazgulami words recorded in 1882. The language was described in greater detail by French linguist, R. Gauthiot in ''Notes sur le yazggoulami, dialecte iraniren des Confins du Pamir'' ([[1916]]).
The language was first recorded by Russian traveller G. Arandarenko in 1889, listing 34 Yazghulami words recorded in 1882. The language was described in greater detail by French linguist [[Robert Gauthiot]] in ''Notes sur le yazgoulami, dialecte iranien des Confins du Pamir'' (1916). The most significant research to date on the Yazghulami language was done by Russian linguist Dzhoi (Joy) I. Ėdel’man, resulting in multiple publications from the 1960s through the early 2000s. Most of her works are in the Russian language.


In 1954 the Yazghulami living in villages at higher elevations (deeper into the Yazghulam valley) were resettled, about 20% of them forcibly, to the [[Vakhsh River|Vakhsh]] valley, where they live dispersed among the Tajiks, Uzbeks, Russians and other ethnic groups.
The Yazgulyam people are an exception among the speakers of Pamir languages in that they do not adhere to [[Ismailism]].

In 1954 the Yazgulami living on the mountain slopes were resettled, about 20% of them forcibly, to the [[Vakhsh River|Vakhsh]] valley, where they live dispersed among the Tadjiks, Uzbeks, Russians and other ethnic groups.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
The phonology of the Yazgulyam language differs from the basic "Shugni-Roshani" type its system of [[dorsal consonant]]s: In addition to the velar and uvular stops ''g, k, q'' and fricatives ''x̌, γ̌, x, γ,'', Yazgulami has a palatalized and a labialized series, transcribed as ''ḱ, ǵ'' (palatalized velars), ''k° g° x̌°'' (labialized velars, there is no labialized velar voiced fricative) and ''q° x° γ°'' (labialized uvulars). A significant number of labialized consonants etymologically correspond to Proto-Iranian ''*Cv'' or ''*Cu'', e.g. ''x̌°arg'' < ''*hvaharā-'' "sister", while others are unrelated to Proto-Iranian ''v'', e.g. ''sk°on'' < ''skana-'' "puppy".
The Yazghulami language has 45 phonemes: 8 vowels and 37 consonants.<ref name="Pakhalina" /><ref name="Edelman" /> The phonology of the Yazghulami language differs from the basic "Shughni-Roshani" type in its system of [[dorsal consonant]]s: in addition to the velar and uvular stops {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/q/}} and fricatives {{IPA|/x/}}, {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, {{IPA|/χ/}}, {{IPA|/ʁ/}}, Yazghulami has a palatalised and a labialised series {{IPA|/kʲ/}}, {{IPA|/ɡʲ/}} (palatalised velars), {{IPA|/kʷ/}}, {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}}, {{IPA|/xʷ/}} (labialised velars, there is no labialised voiced velar fricative) and {{IPA|/qʷ/}}, {{IPA|/χʷ/}}, {{IPA|/ʁʷ/}} (labialised uvulars).<ref name="Edelman">{{cite book |last1=Edelman |first1=D. I. |title=Jazguljamskij jazyk [The Yazghulami Language] |date=1966 |publisher=Nauka |location=Moscow}}</ref> A significant number of labialised consonants etymologically correspond to Proto-Iranian ''*Cv'' or ''*Cu'', e.g. ''xʷarɡ'' < ''*hvaharā-'' "sister", while others are unrelated to Proto-Iranian ''v'', e.g. ''skʷon'' < ''skana-'' "puppy".


This threefold system of articulation of dorsals has been compared typologically to the three reconstructed rows of dorsals in the [[Proto-Indo-European language]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}}
This threefold system of articulation of dorsals has been compared typologically to the three reconstructed rows of dorsals in the [[Proto-Indo-European language]].<ref name="EdelmanDodykhudoeva" />


==Literature==
=== Vowels ===
The following are the vowels of Yazghulami:
*Payne, John, "Pamir languages" in ''Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum'' ed. Schmitt (1989), 417&ndash;444.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|{{IPA link|ʉ}}
|{{IPA link|u}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}}
|{{IPA link|ə}}
|{{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|{{IPA link|a}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɑː}}
|}


* {{IPA|/ʉ/}} was recognized as a separate phoneme by earlier researchers, but a recent study finds that it now contrasts with {{IPA|/u/}} only in the speech of older speakers.<ref name="Jamison">{{Cite book |last=Jamison |first=Rachel |title=The enclitic =da and the marking of indicative and subjunctive mood in Yazghulami |url=https://diu.edu/documents/theses/Jamison_Rachel-thesis.pdf |publisher=Dallas International University |year=2022}}</ref>
==External links==
*http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/yazgulamis.shtml
*http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Tajikistan
*http://www.christusrex.org/www1/pater/JPN-yazgulyami.html


=== Consonants ===
*[http://www.angelfire.com/sd/tajikistanupdate/yazghulami.html A Short List of Yazghulami Words]
The following are the consonants of Yazghulami:
*[http://www.angelfire.com/sd/tajikistanupdate/engpamirlanguages.html English-Ishkashimi- Zebaki-Wakhi-Yazghulami Vocabulary]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" |[[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Palato-alveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="3" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="2" |[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
|-
!{{small|plain}}
!{{small|[[Sibilant consonant|sibilant]]}}
!{{small|plain}}
!<small>[[Labialization|lab.]]</small>
![[Palatalization (phonetics)|<small>pal.</small>]]
!{{small|plain}}
!<small>[[Labialization|lab.]]</small>
|- align="center"
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align="center"
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|{{IPA link|t͡s}}
|{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|{{IPA link|kʷ}}
|{{IPA link|kʲ}}
|{{IPA link|q}}
|{{IPA link|qʷ}}
|- align="center"
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d}}
|{{IPA link|d͡z}}
|{{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡʷ}}
|{{IPA link|ɡʲ}}
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|{{IPA link|f}}
|{{IPA link|θ}}
|{{IPA link|s}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}}
|
|{{IPA link|x}}
|{{IPA link|xʷ}}
|
|{{IPA link|χ}}
|{{IPA link|χʷ}}
|- align="center"
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|{{IPA link|v}}
|{{IPA link|ð}}
|{{IPA link|z}}
|{{IPA link|ʒ}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɣ}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ʁ}}
|{{IPA link|ʁʷ}}
|- align="center"
! colspan="2" align="left" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|{{IPA link|w}}
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|
|
|
|- align="center"
! colspan="2" |[[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}


* Sounds {{IPA|/kʲ, ɡʲ/}} can also be heard as sounds {{IPA|[c, ɟ]}} in free variation.<ref name="Edelman" />
{{Iranian Languages Group}}
* The phoneme {{IPA|/d͡z/}} is somewhat marginal, occurring in only a few words.<ref name="Narin">{{Cite book |last=Narin |first=Matilda |title=Phonological features of Yazghulami: A field study |publisher=Stockholm University |year=2016}}</ref>


==Grammar==
[[Category:Pamir languages]]
The basic word order of Yazghulami is [[subject–object–verb|subject–object–verb (SOV)]].
[[Category:Southeastern Iranian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Tajikistan]]


In the past tense, Yazghulami has [[Tripartite language|tripartite]] marking—one of the very few languages in the world to have this feature. This means that the subject of an [[intransitive verb|intransitive]] sentence is marked differently from both the subject and the object of a [[transitive verb|transitive]] sentence.<ref>[[R. M. W. Dixon|Dixon, R.M.W.]] (1994). ''Ergativity''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 40.</ref> This tripartite alignment only appears in singular pronouns in past tense clauses. Plural pronouns in past tense clauses and all pronouns in non-past tense clauses show nominative-accusative alignment.<ref name="Payne">{{cite journal |last1=Payne |first1=John R. |title=The Decay of Ergativity in Pamir Languages |journal=Lingua |date=1980 |volume=51 |pages=147–186}}</ref>
[[br:Yazgoulyameg]]


Morphological marking of core cases does not occur on nouns, however, the preposition ''na(ʒ)'' "from" is optionally used to indicate that the following noun is the direct object. All nominal forms may be marked for dative case or for either of two genitive cases by means of enclitics: ''=ra'' (dative), ''=i'' (genitive 1), and ''=me'' (genitive 2). The genitive 1 case marks attributive possession and is practically identical in function with the Tajik [[Ezāfe|''izofat'']] ''=i'' which links a modifier to its noun. However, the order of constituents in the two languages is reversed, meaning that in Yazghulami the modifier precedes its noun (''qatol-'''i''' kud'' "big-'''''i''''' house") whereas in Tajik the modifier follows the noun (''χona-'''i''' kalon'' "house-'''''i''''' big"). The genitive 2 case is used only to mark predicative possession, e.g. ''ju kud=ai '''mo=me''''' "this house is '''mine'''".<ref name="Jamison" />


==Literature==
{{ie-lang-stub}}
*Ėdel’man, D. I. (1966). ''Jazguljamskij jazyk''. Moscow: Nauka.
*Ėdel’man, D. I. (1971). ''Jazguljamsko-russkij slovar’''. Moscow: Nauka.
*Edelman, D. I. and Leila R. Dodykhudoeva. (2009). "The Pamir Languages" in: Gernot Windfuhr (ed.), ''The Iranian Languages'', 773‑786. London: Routledge.
*Gauthiot, Robert. (1916). "Notes sur le Yazgoulami: Dialecte Iranien des Confins du Pamir". ''Journal Asiatique'', vol. 11, no. 7, p.&nbsp;239‑270.
* Grierson, George A. (1920). "[https://archive.org/details/cu31924026915441 Ishkashmi, Zebaki, and Yazghulami, an account of three Eranian dialects."] London, Royal Asiatic Society.[https://archive.org/details/cu31924026915441] [https://archive.org/details/ishkashmizebakiy00grieuoft]
**[https://www.angelfire.com/sd/tajikistanupdate/yazghulami.html Yazghulami wordlist from Grierson article]
**[https://www.angelfire.com/sd/tajikistanupdate/engpamirlanguages.html Full wordlist from Grierson article]
*Jamison, Rachel E. (2022). ''[https://diu.edu/documents/theses/Jamison_Rachel-thesis.pdf The enclitic =da and the marking of indicative and subjunctive mood in Yazghulami]'' (MA Thesis). Dallas International University.
*Payne, John. (1989). "Pamir languages" in: Rüdiger Schmitt (ed.), ''Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum'', 417‑444. Wiesbaden: Reichert.
*[[Ivan Ivanovich Zarubin|Zarubin, I. I.]] (1936). "Two Yazghulāmī Texts". ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies'', University of London, vol. 8, no. 2/3, p.&nbsp;875‑881.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{incubator|yah}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041205004918/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/pater/JPN-yazgulyami.html The Lord's Prayer in Yazgulyami]
*[http://olac.ldc.upenn.edu/language/yah OLAC Resources for Yazgulyam]
*[http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/yazgulamis.shtml The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire: The Yazgulamis]
*[https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_yaz World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS): Yazgulyam]
*[https://www.webonary.org/yazghulami/ Yazghulami Dictionary on Webonary]
*[https://www.webonary.org/yazghulami/files/Yazghulami-Picture-Dictionary.pdf Yazghulami Picture Dictionary]

{{Languages of Tajikistan}}
{{Iranian languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yazghulami Language}}
[[Category:Pamir languages]]
[[Category:Eastern Iranian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:Endangered Iranian languages]]

Latest revision as of 19:55, 31 December 2024

Yazghulami
йуздоми звег yuzdomi zveg
зѓамиѓай zǵamiǵai
Pronunciation[zɡʲamiˈɡʲai][1]
Native toTajikistan
Native speakers
9,000[2] (2010)
Cyrillic, Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-3yah
Glottologyazg1240
ELPYazgulyami
Linguasphere58-ABD-f
Yazghulami is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

The Yazghulami language (also Yazgulami, Yazgulyami, Iazgulem, Yazgulyam, Yazgulam, Yazgulyamskiy, Jazguljamskij, (Tajik: язғуломӣ (Yazghulomi)) is a member of the Southeastern subgroup of the Iranian languages, spoken by around 9,000 people along the Yazghulom River in Gorno-Badakhshan, Tajikistan. Together with Shugni, it is classified in a Shugni-Yazgulami subgroup of the areal group of Pamir languages.[3] Virtually all speakers are bilingual in the Tajik language.[4]

The Yazghulami people are an exception among the speakers of Pamir languages in that they do not adhere to Ismailism.

Dialects

[edit]

The Yazghulami language consists of two dialects: one of these is spoken higher in the mountains, the other lower. The differences are not significant and are limited to the vocabulary. Differences in the vocabulary are also detectable between the languages used in different villages in the lower mountains. The extinct Vanji language (also Vanži, Wanji) was once the nearest linguistic relative of Yazghulami. Yazghulami shares many grammatical and lexical features with the other languages spoken in the Pamirs,[5] but even its most closely related living relative, Shughni, is not mutually intelligible with it.

History

[edit]

The language was first recorded by Russian traveller G. Arandarenko in 1889, listing 34 Yazghulami words recorded in 1882. The language was described in greater detail by French linguist Robert Gauthiot in Notes sur le yazgoulami, dialecte iranien des Confins du Pamir (1916). The most significant research to date on the Yazghulami language was done by Russian linguist Dzhoi (Joy) I. Ėdel’man, resulting in multiple publications from the 1960s through the early 2000s. Most of her works are in the Russian language.

In 1954 the Yazghulami living in villages at higher elevations (deeper into the Yazghulam valley) were resettled, about 20% of them forcibly, to the Vakhsh valley, where they live dispersed among the Tajiks, Uzbeks, Russians and other ethnic groups.

Phonology

[edit]

The Yazghulami language has 45 phonemes: 8 vowels and 37 consonants.[5][6] The phonology of the Yazghulami language differs from the basic "Shughni-Roshani" type in its system of dorsal consonants: in addition to the velar and uvular stops /ɡ/, /k/, /q/ and fricatives /x/, /ɣ/, /χ/, /ʁ/, Yazghulami has a palatalised and a labialised series /kʲ/, /ɡʲ/ (palatalised velars), /kʷ/, /ɡʷ/, /xʷ/ (labialised velars, there is no labialised voiced velar fricative) and /qʷ/, /χʷ/, /ʁʷ/ (labialised uvulars).[6] A significant number of labialised consonants etymologically correspond to Proto-Iranian *Cv or *Cu, e.g. xʷarɡ < *hvaharā- "sister", while others are unrelated to Proto-Iranian v, e.g. skʷon < skana- "puppy".

This threefold system of articulation of dorsals has been compared typologically to the three reconstructed rows of dorsals in the Proto-Indo-European language.[3]

Vowels

[edit]

The following are the vowels of Yazghulami:

Front Central Back
Close i ʉ u
Mid ɛ ə ɔ
Open a ɑː
  • /ʉ/ was recognized as a separate phoneme by earlier researchers, but a recent study finds that it now contrasts with /u/ only in the speech of older speakers.[1]

Consonants

[edit]

The following are the consonants of Yazghulami:

Labial Dental/
Alveolar 		Post-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar Uvular
plain sibilant plain lab. pal. plain lab.
Nasal m n
Plosive/
Affricate 		voiceless p t t͡s t͡ʃ k kʷ kʲ q qʷ
voiced b d d͡z d͡ʒ ɡ ɡʷ ɡʲ
Fricative voiceless f θ s ʃ x xʷ χ χʷ
voiced v ð z ʒ ɣ ʁ ʁʷ
Approximant w l j
Rhotic r
  • Sounds /kʲ, ɡʲ/ can also be heard as sounds [c, ɟ] in free variation.[6]
  • The phoneme /d͡z/ is somewhat marginal, occurring in only a few words.[7]

Grammar

[edit]

The basic word order of Yazghulami is subject–object–verb (SOV).

In the past tense, Yazghulami has tripartite marking—one of the very few languages in the world to have this feature. This means that the subject of an intransitive sentence is marked differently from both the subject and the object of a transitive sentence.[8] This tripartite alignment only appears in singular pronouns in past tense clauses. Plural pronouns in past tense clauses and all pronouns in non-past tense clauses show nominative-accusative alignment.[9]

Morphological marking of core cases does not occur on nouns, however, the preposition na(ʒ) "from" is optionally used to indicate that the following noun is the direct object. All nominal forms may be marked for dative case or for either of two genitive cases by means of enclitics: =ra (dative), =i (genitive 1), and =me (genitive 2). The genitive 1 case marks attributive possession and is practically identical in function with the Tajik izofat =i which links a modifier to its noun. However, the order of constituents in the two languages is reversed, meaning that in Yazghulami the modifier precedes its noun (qatol-i kud "big-i house") whereas in Tajik the modifier follows the noun (χona-i kalon "house-i big"). The genitive 2 case is used only to mark predicative possession, e.g. ju kud=ai mo=me "this house is mine".[1]

Literature

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Jamison, Rachel (2022). The enclitic =da and the marking of indicative and subjunctive mood in Yazghulami (PDF). Dallas International University.
  2. ^ Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2023). "Yazghulami". Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
  3. ^ a b Edelman, D. (Joy) I.; Dodykhudoeva, Leila R. (2009). "The Pamir Languages". In Windfuhr, Gernot (ed.). The Iranian Languages. London, Routledge. pp. 773–786.
  4. ^ Tiessen, Gabriela; Abbess, Elisabeth; Müller, Katja; Tiessen, Calvin (2005). "Language Access and Tajik Language Proficiency among the Yazghulami of Tajikistan" (PDF). In Clifton, John M. (ed.). Studies in Languages of Tajikistan. National State University of Tajikistan and North Eurasia Group, SIL International. pp. 107–149.
  5. ^ a b Pakhalina, T. M. (1969). Pamirskie jazyki [The Pamir Languages]. Moscow: Nauka.
  6. ^ a b c Edelman, D. I. (1966). Jazguljamskij jazyk [The Yazghulami Language]. Moscow: Nauka.
  7. ^ Narin, Matilda (2016). Phonological features of Yazghulami: A field study. Stockholm University.
  8. ^ Dixon, R.M.W. (1994). Ergativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 40.
  9. ^ Payne, John R. (1980). "The Decay of Ergativity in Pamir Languages". Lingua. 51: 147–186.
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Yazghulami language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator
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