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Trikāṇḍī ("Three books") is a Sanskrit treatise on the philosophy of language and grammar (vyakarana), written by the 5th-century Indian grammarian and philosopher Bhartṛhari. Some 19th-20th century printed editions refer to it by the title Vākyapadiya, which is actually the title of a part of it. Bhartṛhari's work is significant for its comprehensive treatment of the relationship between language, thought, and reality.

Naming

Trikāṇḍī which literally means three books, is the name of the works.^[1] However, the early printed editions of the work, such as those from 1888 and 1905, incorrectly presented Vākyapadiya as the title of the entire collection containing the three books. Vākyapadiya originally referred only to the second book of the collection, and later came to refer to the first two books.^[2]

Structure & content

The Trikāṇḍī, also known as Vākyapadīya, contains 3 kāṇḍas (sections): Brahmakāṇḍa (Book of Brahman), Vākyakāṇḍa (Book of Sentences), and Padakāṇḍa (Book of Words).^[1] Bhartrhari's Trikāṇḍī presents Vedas as the organizing principle of the world, serving not just as a guide (upadestr) for proper conduct and knowledge, but as the underlying essence (prakrti) of the universe, suggesting that the Veda is both the source of knowledge and the foundation of the world's existence.^[3]

The first two parts are divided into kārikās (verses) and vṛtti (commentary).^[2] Since the earliest times, tradition attributes the authorship of the vṛttis to Bhartṛhari himself, although some manuscripts name Harivṛṣabha alias Vṛṣabha as their author.^[2]

The structure of the text provides a holistic view of language, encompassing its philosophical foundations, sentence structurer, and word formation.^[1]

Brahmakāṇḍa

The Brahmakāṇḍa discusses the concept of Brahman, stating that it "creates the diversity of the world out of language".^[4] It briefly discusses the Vedic branches and the Vedas as a source of rites, smṛti, schools of philosophy, and traditional knowledge. The author highlights the importance of the grammar (vyakarana), calling it "the door to liberation", and describing it as the first among the six auxiliary sciences, because other sciences can be understood only through it.^[5]

The text then discusses various topics, including words, meanings, and the relationship between them; the scope of grammar; linguistic forms; sphota; cognizance of the sound, etc.^[6] The author states that children understand language because of "dispositional tendencies" from their previous births; they attempt to speak out of intuition, not because they are taught to speak. In the vrtti, the author explains that something that exists is as good as non-existent unless spoken of using language; similarly, non-existent things become as good as real when language brings them to one's mind.^[7]

The author describes language as the basis of all branches of knowledge, and of all arts and crafts. He discusses the relationship between language and other concepts, such as cognition, consciousness, merit, spirituality, and scriptures. He also discusses the use of incorrect linguistic forms (apabhramsha).^[8]

Vākyakāṇḍa

The author lists various definitions of a sentence by different authorities, such as Katyayana, the Mimamsa school, and different logicians (nyaya-vadins).^[9] He then discusses the concept of sphota, and various views regarding the divisibility and indivisibility of a sentence and its meaning.^[10]

The author discusses 12 views regarding the meaning of linguistic forms. He lists six varieties of intuition, and discusses the role of intuition in understanding the meaning of a sentence. He then discusses constituents of words (such as prefix, suffix, stem, and roots); linguistic forms (nouns, verbs, prepositions, particles, and postpositions); phonemes; compound words; homophones; concatenations of words.^[11]

The author states that one must distinguish between the possible and intended meanings of the linguistic forms, and discusses various factors that determine the meaning. He also discusses various views on the relationship between language and meaning. For example, some people think that language only produces a memory, it does not establish the meaning: a burned man understands the meaning of burning when he comes in contact with fire, as opposed to learning the meaning of the word "burning" through language. The author also discusses other related topics, such as completeness of a sentence, emphasis, and related topics.^[12]

In the epilogue, the author talks about different grammar traditions of India, stating that his teacher had mastered all of them. He mentions several earlier scholars, including Panini, Patanjali, Chandra, Baiji, Saubhava, and Haryaska. He states that it is important to learn about various traditions and the works of earlier scholars.^[13]

Padakāṇḍa

The final book is focused on individual words, their formation, and their meanings. The rules governing the formation and interpretation of words is also discussed here.^[1]

Book 3 comprises 14 chapters (samuddeśas):^[14]

On Universal Property (Jāti-samuddeśa)
On Substance (Dravya-samuddeśa)
On Relation (Saṃbandha-parīkṣā)
More on Substance (Bhūyodravya-samuddeśa)
On Quality (Guṇa-samuddeśa)
On Spatial Direction (Dik-samuddeśa)
On the Means to Action (Sādhana-samuddeêa)
On Action (Kriyā-samuddeśa)
On Time (Kāla-samuddeśa)
On Person (Puruṣa-samuddeśa)
On Number (Saṃkhyā-samuddeśa)
On Aspect (Upa-graha-samuddeśa)
On Gender (Liṅga-samuddeśa)
On Linguistic Formations (Vṛtti-samuddeśa)

Commentaries

The following commentaries of the work are known:

Book 1

Paddhati or Sphutakshara, a tika by Vṛṣabhadeva.^[15] Harivṛṣabha alias Vṛṣabha (c. 650 CE) was a son of Devayashas and a protege of king Vishnu-gupta; his Vakyapadiya-paddhati is the earliest known commentary on Bhartṛhari's work, composed by someone other than Bhartṛhari.^[16]

Book 2

Original vritti by Bhartṛhari or Harivṛṣabha^[17]
Vakyapradipatika, by Bhartrhari, provides an explanation of the kārikās^[17]^[18]
A summary in verses of the tika by Punya-raja or Rajanaka-shura-varman; this was likely a summary of a now-lost commentary by Helaraja^[17]
Vākya-padiya-prameya-samgraha, a summary of the tika, by an unknown redactor.^[17]

Book 3

Prakirna-vrtti by the Yogachara teacher Dhrama-pala (6th-7th century); this work is now lost, and is known from the Chinese tradition and I-tsing. The title Prakirna-vrtti is known from Durveka Mishra's Dharmottara-pradipa.^[19]
Prakirna[ka]-prakasha by Hela-raja, with two gaps filled by Phulla-raja (likely same as Punya-raja); this work contains an explanation of the kārikās^[17]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Potter, Karl H., ed. (1977). Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07281-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c Bhate, Saroja; Bronkhorst, Johannes; Bhartṛhari; International Conference on Bhartṛhari, eds. (1997). Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) (Reprint der Aufl. 1994 ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-81-208-1198-0.
^ Llewellyn, John Earl, ed. (2018). Defining Hinduism: a reader. Critical categories in the study of religion (First issued in paperback 2018 ed.). London New York: Routledge. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-1-904768-73-9.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 126–127. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Coward, Harold G.; Kunjunni Raja, Kumarapuram (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies. Princeton (N.J.): Princeton university press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 128–134. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 135–138. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 139–142. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 143–147. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 147–152. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ Bhate, Saroja; Bronkhorst, Johannes; Bhartṛhari; International Conference on Bhartṛhari, eds. (1997). Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) (Reprint der Aufl. 1994 ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 14, 153–172. ISBN 978-81-208-1198-0.
^ Bhate, Saroja; Bronkhorst, Johannes, eds. (1994). Bhartr̥hari, philosopher and grammarian: proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartr̥hari (University of Poona, January 6-8, 1992) (1st ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 33. ISBN 978-81-208-1198-0.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Bhate, Saroja; Bronkhorst, Johannes; Bhartṛhari; International Conference on Bhartṛhari, eds. (1997). Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) (Reprint der Aufl. 1994 ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 33. ISBN 978-81-208-1198-0.
^ "Bhartrihari | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Retrieved 2024-07-03.
^ Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[:0-1] Potter, Karl H., ed. (1977). Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07281-4.

[:1-2] Bhate, Saroja; Bronkhorst, Johannes; Bhartṛhari; International Conference on Bhartṛhari, eds. (1997). Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) (Reprint der Aufl. 1994 ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-81-208-1198-0.

[3] Llewellyn, John Earl, ed. (2018). Defining Hinduism: a reader. Critical categories in the study of religion (First issued in paperback 2018 ed.). London New York: Routledge. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-1-904768-73-9.

[4] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 126–127. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[:6-5] Coward, Harold G.; Kunjunni Raja, Kumarapuram (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies. Princeton (N.J.): Princeton university press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[6] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 128–134. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[7] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[8] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 135–138. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[9] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[10] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 139–142. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[11] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 143–147. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[12] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. pp. 147–152. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[13] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[14] Bhate, Saroja; Bronkhorst, Johannes; Bhartṛhari; International Conference on Bhartṛhari, eds. (1997). Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) (Reprint der Aufl. 1994 ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 14, 153–172. ISBN 978-81-208-1198-0.

[15] Bhate, Saroja; Bronkhorst, Johannes, eds. (1994). Bhartr̥hari, philosopher and grammarian: proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartr̥hari (University of Poona, January 6-8, 1992) (1st ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 33. ISBN 978-81-208-1198-0.

[16] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

[:2-17] Bhate, Saroja; Bronkhorst, Johannes; Bhartṛhari; International Conference on Bhartṛhari, eds. (1997). Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) (Reprint der Aufl. 1994 ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 33. ISBN 978-81-208-1198-0.

[18] "Bhartrihari | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". Retrieved 2024-07-03.

[19] Coward, Harold G., ed. (1990). The philosophy of the grammarians. The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-691-07331-6.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{for|the thesarus|Amarakosha}}
-'''''Tri-kāṇḍī''''' ("Three books") is a [[Sanskrit]]-language work on the [[philosophy of language]] and grammar (''[[vyakarana]]''), written by the 5th-century grammarian [[Bhartṛhari]] in present-day India. Some 19th-20th century printed editions refer to it by the title '''''Vākya-padiya''''', which is actually the title of a part of it.
+'''''Trikāṇḍī''''' ("Three books") is a [[Sanskrit]] treatise on the [[philosophy of language]] and grammar (''[[vyakarana]]''), written by the 5th-century Indian grammarian and philosopher [[Bhartṛhari]]. Some 19th-20th century printed editions refer to it by the title '''''Vākyapadiya''''', which is actually the title of a part of it. Bhartṛhari's work is significant for its comprehensive treatment of the relationship between language, thought, and reality.
 == Naming ==
-''Trikāṇḍī'' which literally means three books, is the name of the works.<ref name=":0" /> However, the early printed editions of the work, such as those from 1888 and 1905, incorrectly presented ''Vākyapadiya'' as the title of the entire collection containing the three books. ''Vākyapadiya'' originally referred only to the second book of the collection, and later came to refer to the first two books.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian ; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ |isbn=978-81-208-1198-0 |editor-last=Bhate |editor-first=Saroja |edition=Reprint der Aufl. 1994 |location=Delhi |editor-last2=Bronkhorst |editor-first2=Johannes |editor-last3=Bhartṛhari |editor-last4=International Conference on Bhartṛhari}}</ref>
+''Trikāṇḍī'' which literally means three books, is the name of the works.<ref name=":0" /> However, the early printed editions of the work, such as those from 1888 and 1905, incorrectly presented ''Vākyapadiya'' as the title of the entire collection containing the three books. ''Vākyapadiya'' originally referred only to the second book of the collection, and later came to refer to the first two books.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |title=Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ |isbn=978-81-208-1198-0 |editor-last=Bhate |editor-first=Saroja |edition=Reprint der Aufl. 1994 |location=Delhi |pages=23–24 |editor-last2=Bronkhorst |editor-first2=Johannes |editor-last3=Bhartṛhari |editor-last4=International Conference on Bhartṛhari}}</ref>
 == Structure & content ==
-The ''Trikāṇḍī,'' also known as ''Vākyapadīya,'' contains 3 ''kāṇḍas'' (sections): ''Brahmakāṇḍa'' (Book of Brahman), ''Vākyakāṇḍa'' (Book of Sentences), and ''Padakāṇḍa'' (Book of Words).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies |date=1977 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-07281-4 |editor-last=Potter |editor-first=Karl H. |location=Princeton, N.J}}</ref>
+The ''Trikāṇḍī,'' also known as ''Vākyapadīya,'' contains 3 ''kāṇḍas'' (sections): ''Brahmakāṇḍa'' (Book of Brahman), ''Vākyakāṇḍa'' (Book of Sentences), and ''Padakāṇḍa'' (Book of Words).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies |date=1977 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-07281-4 |editor-last=Potter |editor-first=Karl H. |location=Princeton, N.J}}</ref> Bhartrhari's ''Trikāṇḍī'' presents Vedas as the organizing principle of the world, serving not just as a guide (''upadestr'') for proper conduct and knowledge, but as the underlying essence (''prakrti'') of the universe, suggesting that the Veda is both the source of knowledge and the foundation of the world's existence.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Defining Hinduism: a reader |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-904768-73-9 |editor-last=Llewellyn |editor-first=John Earl |edition=First issued in paperback 2018 |series=Critical categories in the study of religion |location=London New York |pages=19–20}}</ref>
+The first two parts are divided into ''kārikā''s (verses) and ''vṛtti'' (commentary).<ref name=":1" /> Since the earliest times, tradition attributes the authorship of the ''vṛtti''s to Bhartṛhari himself, although some manuscripts name Harivṛṣabha alias Vṛṣabha as their author.<ref name=":1" />
-=== Brahmakāṇḍa ===
+The structure of the text provides a holistic view of language, encompassing its philosophical foundations, sentence structurer, and word formation.<ref name=":0" />
-=== Vākyakāṇḍa ===
-=== Padakāṇḍa ===
+=== Brahmakāṇḍa ===
+The ''Brahmakāṇḍa'' discusses the concept of [[Brahman]], stating that it "creates the diversity of the world out of language".<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=126–127}}</ref> It briefly discusses the Vedic branches and the Vedas as a source of rites, [[smṛti]], [[Hindu philosophy|schools of philosophy]], and traditional knowledge. The author highlights the importance of the grammar (''[[vyakarana]]''), calling it "the door to liberation", and describing it as the first among the [[Vedanga|six auxiliary sciences]], because other sciences can be understood only through it.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Coward |first=Harold G. |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |last2=Kunjunni Raja |first2=Kumarapuram |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton university press |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |series=Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies |location=Princeton (N.J.) |pages=128}}</ref>
+The text then discusses various topics, including words, meanings, and the relationship between them; the scope of grammar; linguistic forms; [[sphota]]; cognizance of the sound, etc.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=128–134}}</ref> The author states that children understand language because of "dispositional tendencies" from their previous births; they attempt to speak out of intuition, not because they are taught to speak. In the ''vrtti'', the author explains that something that exists is as good as non-existent unless spoken of using language; similarly, non-existent things become as good as real when language brings them to one's mind.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=135}}</ref>
-== Contents ==
+The author describes language as the basis of all branches of knowledge, and of all arts and crafts. He discusses the relationship between language and other concepts, such as cognition, consciousness, merit, spirituality, and scriptures. He also discusses the use of incorrect linguistic forms (''[[apabhramsha]]'').<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=135–138}}</ref>
-Trikāṇḍī comprises three books (''kāṇḍas''):{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=27,33}}
+=== Vākyakāṇḍa ===
-# ''Agama-samuchchaya'' ("Collection of traditionally received knowledge") or ''Brahma-kāṇḍa''
+The author lists various definitions of a sentence by different authorities, such as Katyayana, the Mimamsa school, and different logicians (''nyaya-vadins'').<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=138}}</ref> He then discusses the concept of ''[[sphota]]'', and various views regarding the divisibility and indivisibility of a sentence and its meaning.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=139–142}}</ref>
-# ''Vākya-padiya'' or ''Vākya-kāṇḍa''
-# ''Prakirna(ka)'' ("Miscellany") or ''Pada-kāṇḍa''
+The author discusses 12 views regarding the meaning of linguistic forms. He lists six varieties of intuition, and discusses the role of intuition in understanding the meaning of a sentence. He then discusses constituents of words (such as prefix, suffix, stem, and roots); linguistic forms (nouns, verbs, prepositions, particles, and postpositions); phonemes; compound words; homophones; concatenations of words.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=143–147}}</ref>
-The alternative titles - ''Brahma-kāṇḍa'', ''Vakyā-kāṇḍa'', and ''Pada-kāṇḍa'' - likely do not originate from the author.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=28}}
+The author states that one must distinguish between the possible and intended meanings of the linguistic forms, and discusses various factors that determine the meaning. He also discusses various views on the relationship between language and meaning. For example, some people think that language only produces a memory, it does not establish the meaning: a burned man understands the meaning of burning when he comes in contact with fire, as opposed to learning the meaning of the word "burning" through language. The author also discusses other related topics, such as completeness of a sentence, emphasis, and related topics.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=147–152}}</ref>
+In the epilogue, the author talks about different grammar traditions of India, stating that his teacher had mastered all of them. He mentions several earlier scholars, including [[Pāṇini|Panini]], [[Mahabhashya|Patanjali]], Chandra, Baiji, Saubhava, and Haryaska. He states that it is important to learn about various traditions and the works of earlier scholars.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=153}}</ref>
-The first two parts are divided into ''kārikā''s (verses) and ''vṛtti'' (commentary).{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=14}} Since the earliest times, tradition attributes the authorship of the ''vṛtti''s to Bhartṛ-hari himself, although some manuscripts name Hari-vṛṣabha alias Vṛṣabha as their author.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=54-55}}
+=== Padakāṇḍa ===
-Scholar [[Ashok Aklujkar]] theorizes that Bhartṛ-hari originally conceived the three books as "relatively independent" treatises, but later thought of unifying them into a single work. However, he died after composing commentaries (''vṛtti'') on the first two books. Dharma-pala (6th century{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=177}}) wrote the ''vṛtti'' on the third book.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|pp=25-26}}
+The final book is focused on individual words, their formation, and their meanings. The rules governing the formation and interpretation of words is also discussed here.<ref name=":0" />
-=== Book 1: ''Agama-samuchchaya'' ===
-The Book I discusses the concept of [[Brahman]], stating that it "creates the diversity of the world out of language".{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=126-127}} It briefly discusses the Vedic branches and the Vedas as a source of rites, [[smṛti]], [[Hindu philosophy|schools of philosophy]], and traditional knowledge. The author highlights the importance of the grammar (''[[vyakarana]]''), calling it "the door to liberation", and describing it as the first among the [[Vedanga|six auxiliary sciences]], because other sciences can be understood only through it.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=128}}
-The text then discusses various topics, including words, meanings, and the relationship between them; the scope of grammar; linguistic forms; [[sphota]]; cognizance of the sound, etc.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=128-134}} The author states that children understand language because of "dispositional tendencies" from their previous births; they attempt to speak out of intuition, not because they are taught to speak. In the ''vrtti'', the author explains that something that exists is as good as non-existent unless spoken of using language; similarly, non-existent things become as good as real when language brings them to one's mind.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=135}}
-The author describes language as the basis of all branches of knowledge, and of all arts and crafts. He discusses the relationship between language and other concepts, such as cognition, consciousness, merit, spirituality, and scriptures. He also discusses the use of incorrect linguistic forms (''[[apabhramsha]]'').{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=135-138}}
-=== Book 2: ''Vākya-padiya''===
-The author lists various definitions of a sentence by different authorities, such as Katyayana, the Mimamsa school, and different logicians (''nyaya-vadins'').{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=138}} He then discusses the concept of ''[[sphota]]'', and various views regarding the divisibility and indivisibility of a sentence and its meaning.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=139-142}}
-The author discusses 12 views regarding the meaning of linguistic forms. He lists six varieties of intuition, and discusses the role of intuition in understanding the meaning of a sentence. He then discusses constituents of words (such as prefix, suffix, stem, and roots); linguistic forms (nouns, verbs, prepositions, particles, and postpositions); phonemes; compound words; homophones; concatenations of words etc.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=143-147}}
-The author states that one must distinguish between the possible and intended meanings of the linguistic forms, and discusses various factors that determine the meaning. He also discusses various views on the relationship between language and meaning. For example, some people think that language only produces a memory, it does not establish the meaning: a burned man understands the meaning of burning when he comes in contact with fire, as opposed to learning the meaning of the word "burning" through language. The author also discusses other related topics, such as completeness of a sentence, emphasis etc.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|pp=147-152}}
-In the epilogue, the author talks about different grammar traditions of India, stating that his teacher had mastered all of them. He mentions several earlier scholars, including [[Pāṇini|Panini]], [[Mahabhashya|Patanjali]], Chandra, Baiji, Saubhava, and Haryaska. He states that it is important to learn about various traditions and the works of earlier scholars.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=153}}
-=== Book 3: ''Prakirna(ka)'' ===
+Book 3 comprises 14 chapters (''samuddeśas''):<ref>{{Cite book |title=Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ |isbn=978-81-208-1198-0 |editor-last=Bhate |editor-first=Saroja |edition=Reprint der Aufl. 1994 |location=Delhi |pages=14, 153–172 |editor-last2=Bronkhorst |editor-first2=Johannes |editor-last3=Bhartṛhari |editor-last4=International Conference on Bhartṛhari}}</ref>
-Book 3 comprises 14 chapters (''samuddeśas''):{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|pp=14, 153-172}}
 # On Universal Property (''Jāti-samuddeśa'')
@@ Line 73: / Line 55: @@
 '''Book 1'''
+* ''Paddhati'' or ''Sphutakshara'', a ''tika'' by Vṛṣabhadeva.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Bhartr̥hari, philosopher and grammarian: proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartr̥hari (University of Poona, January 6-8, 1992) |date=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-1198-0 |editor-last=Bhate |editor-first=Saroja |edition=1st |location=Delhi |pages=33 |language=English |editor-last2=Bronkhorst |editor-first2=Johannes}}</ref> Harivṛṣabha alias Vṛṣabha (c. 650 CE) was a son of Devayashas and a protege of king Vishnu-gupta; his ''Vakyapadiya-paddhati'' is the earliest known commentary on Bhartṛhari's work, composed by someone other than Bhartṛhari.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=179}}</ref>
-* Original, longer ''vritti'' by Bhartṛ-hari or Hari-vṛṣabha{{efn|Some manuscripts attributed the authorship of the ''kārikā'' and the ''vritti'' to Hari-vṛṣabha.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}} }}
-* Shorter ''vritti'' by an unknown redactor{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
-* ''Paddhati'' or ''Sphutakshara'', a ''tika'' by Vṛṣabha-deva.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}} Hari-vṛṣabha alias Vṛṣabha (c. 650 CE) was a son of Deva-yashas and a protege of king Vishnu-gupta; his ''Vakyapadiya-paddhati'' is the earliest known commentary on Bhartṛ-hari's work, composed by someone other than Bhartṛ-hari.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=179}}
 '''Book 2'''
+* Original ''vritti'' by Bhartṛhari or Harivṛṣabha<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Bhartṛhari: philosopher and grammarian; proceedings of the First International Conference on Bhartṛhari (University of Poona, January 6 - 8, 1992) |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ |isbn=978-81-208-1198-0 |editor-last=Bhate |editor-first=Saroja |edition=Reprint der Aufl. 1994 |location=Delhi |pages=33 |editor-last2=Bronkhorst |editor-first2=Johannes |editor-last3=Bhartṛhari |editor-last4=International Conference on Bhartṛhari}}</ref>
-* Original ''vritti'' by Bhartṛ-hari or Hari-vṛṣabha{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
+* ''Vakyapradipatika'', by Bhartrhari, provides an explanation of the ''kārikās<ref name=":2" />''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhartrihari {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/bhartrihari/ |access-date=2024-07-03 |language=en-US}}</ref>
-* A ''tika'', probably titled ''Vakya-pradipa'', by Punya-raja or Rajanaka-shura-varman; this work contains an explanation of the ''kārikās''{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
-* A summary in verses of the ''tika'' by Punya-raja or Rajanaka-shura-varman; this was likely a summary of a now-lost commentary by Hela-raja{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
+* A summary in verses of the ''tika'' by Punya-raja or Rajanaka-shura-varman; this was likely a summary of a now-lost commentary by Helaraja<ref name=":2" />
-* ''Vākya-padiya-prameya-samgraha'', a summary of the ''tika'', by an unknown redactor{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
+* ''Vākya-padiya-prameya-samgraha'', a summary of the ''tika'', by an unknown redactor.<ref name=":2" />
 '''Book 3'''
-* ''Prakirna-vrtti'' by the Yogachara teacher Dhrama-pala (6th-7th century); this work is now lost, and is known from the Chinese tradition and I-tsing. The title ''Prakirna-vrtti'' is known from Durveka Mishra's ''Dharmottara-pradipa''.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=177}}
+* ''Prakirna-vrtti'' by the Yogachara teacher Dhrama-pala (6th-7th century); this work is now lost, and is known from the Chinese tradition and I-tsing. The title ''Prakirna-vrtti'' is known from Durveka Mishra's ''Dharmottara-pradipa''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The philosophy of the grammarians |date=1990 |publisher=Princeton Univ. Pr |isbn=978-0-691-07331-6 |editor-last=Coward |editor-first=Harold G. |series=The encyclopedia of Indian philosophies / gen. ed.: Karl Potter |location=Princeton, NJ |pages=177}}</ref>
-* ''Prakirna[ka]-prakasha'' by Hela-raja, with two gaps filled by Phulla-raja (likely same as Punya-raja{{efn|"Phulla" as a variation of "Punya" may have originated because of a misreading of the [[Sharada script]].{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=23}} }}); this work contains an explanation of the ''kārikās''{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
+* ''Prakirna[ka]-prakasha'' by Hela-raja, with two gaps filled by Phulla-raja (likely same as Punya-raja); this work contains an explanation of the ''kārikās<ref name=":2" />''
-== Editions ==
-* 1887: Gangadhara-shastri Manavalli's edition containing{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
-** the ''kārikās'' and shorter ''vṛtti'' of the first book
-** the ''kārikās'' and tika of the second book
-* 1934: Charu-deva Shastri's edition containing{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
-** the ''kārikās'' nad the longer ''vṛtti'' of the first book
-** excerpts from Vṛṣabha's ''tika''
-* 1935: K. Samba-shiva-shastri's edition of chapters 8-13 of the third book and Hela-raja's commentary on these{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
-* 1941: Charu-deva Shastri's incomplete edition of the ''kārikās'' and ''vṛtti'' of the second book{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
-* 1942: L.A. Ravi Varma's edition of hcapter 14 of the third bok and Hela-raja's ''tika'' on it{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
-* K.A. Subramania Iyer's editions,{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|pp=34-35}} with English translations{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=19-20}}
-** 1963: chapters 1-7 of the third book and Hela-raja's commentary on these
-** 1966: Complete text of Vṛṣabha's ''tika' to the first book
-** 1973: Chapters 8-14 of the third book and Hela-raja's ''tika'' on these
-* 1977: Wilhelm Rau's edition of the ''kārikās'' of the three books
-== Notes ==
-{{notelist}}
 == References ==
 {{reflist}}
-=== Bibliography ===
-{{refbegin}}
-* {{cite book |author=Ashok Aklujkar |author-link=Ashok Aklujkar |chapter=An introduction to the study of Bhartṛ-hari |editor1=Saroja Bhate |editor2=Johannes Bronkhorst |title=Bhartr̥hari, Philosopher and Grammarian |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SbrQ44SCnGUC }}
-* {{cite book |editor1=Harold G. Coward |editor2=K. Kunjunni Raja |editor2-link=K. Kunchunniraja |title=The Philosophy of the Grammarians |series=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies |volume=5 |year=1990 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |page=371 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC |ref={{harvid|Harold G. Coward|1990}} }}
-{{refend}}
 [[Category:Ancient Indian grammar works]]