Battle of Samdhara: Difference between revisions
ditto Tags: Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit |
Tpsreport84 (talk | contribs) m Grammar edit(s) Tags: Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit |
||
| (31 intermediate revisions by 4 users not shown) | |||
| Line 17: | Line 17: | ||
| strength2 = 10,000 troops<br>10,000 cavalry<br>400 war boats<br>2,000 musketeers<ref>{{cite book |title=Mohamed Nasr, Ahom Mughal Relations A Study In Diplomatic History |pages=82 |url=https://archive.org/details/AhomMughalRelationsAStudyInDiplomaticHistory/page/n89/mode/2up}}</ref> |
| strength2 = 10,000 troops<br>10,000 cavalry<br>400 war boats<br>2,000 musketeers<ref>{{cite book |title=Mohamed Nasr, Ahom Mughal Relations A Study In Diplomatic History |pages=82 |url=https://archive.org/details/AhomMughalRelationsAStudyInDiplomaticHistory/page/n89/mode/2up}}</ref> |
||
| casualties1 = Light |
| casualties1 = Light |
||
| casualties2 = |
| casualties2 = 1,700 killed |
||
| date = January |
| date = January 1616 |
||
| image = Bhomoraguri Rock inscription 1616, commemorating the victory of Ahoms over the Mughals in Samdhara.png |
| image = Bhomoraguri Rock inscription 1616, commemorating the victory of Ahoms over the Mughals in Samdhara.png |
||
| caption = Bhomoraguri Rock inscription 1616, commemorating the victory of Ahoms over the Mughals in Samdhara |
| caption = Bhomoraguri Rock inscription 1616, commemorating the victory of Ahoms over the Mughals in Samdhara |
||
| Line 26: | Line 26: | ||
== Background == |
== Background == |
||
The first direct clash of arms between the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahoms]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] was occasioned by an illegal trade-affair carried by a merchant, Ranta or Ratan Shah by name, who was procuring aloes-wood for [[Jahangir]], at Singri, that lay to the east of the [[Barnadi River|Barnadi]] and within the [[Ahom kingdom]]. On detection, his goods were confiscated and he was expelled from the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom territory]]. Shortly afterwards, unauthorised merchants of [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]] were found to the north of Kajali buying pulses, mustard seeds and other commodities. Two such mechant vessels were seized by the Ahom government and two of the tradesmen killed.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.03465/page/n47/mode/2up |title=Kamrupar Buranji: or an account of ancient Kamarupa and a history of the Mogul conflicts with Assam and Cooch Behar , up to A.D. 1682 |year=1930 |pages=20|publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam }}</ref> The incident of killing |
The first direct clash of arms between the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahoms]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] was occasioned by an illegal trade-affair carried by a merchant, Ranta or Ratan Shah by name, who was procuring aloes-wood for [[Jahangir]], at Singri, that lay to the east of the [[Barnadi River|Barnadi]] and within the [[Ahom kingdom]]. On detection, his goods were confiscated and he was expelled from the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom territory]]. Shortly afterwards, unauthorised merchants of [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]] were found to the north of Kajali buying pulses, mustard seeds, and other commodities. Two such mechant vessels were seized by the Ahom government and two of the tradesmen killed.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.03465/page/n47/mode/2up |title=Kamrupar Buranji: or an account of ancient Kamarupa and a history of the Mogul conflicts with Assam and Cooch Behar , up to A.D. 1682 |year=1930 |pages=20|publisher=Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam }}</ref> The incident of killing the merchants was only a pretext to launch an invasion to Assam, the Mughal viceroy had long preparing for an invasion.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mohamed Nasr, Ahom Mughal Relations A Study In Diplomatic History |pages=81 |url=https://archive.org/details/AhomMughalRelationsAStudyInDiplomaticHistory/page/n89/mode/2up}}</ref> |
||
== Expedition == |
== Expedition == |
||
This stern action of the Ahom government was taken exception to by the Mughal government in [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]], which was further dissatisfied with the Ahom king [[Susenghphaa|Pratap Singha]] for sheltering [[Balinarayan]], brother of Parikshit. [[Qasim Khan Chishti|Seikh Qasim Khan]], the governor of Bengal, sent immediately a force consisting of over 10,000 troops, and 300 well-equipped war-boats, under Syed Hakkim and Syed Aba Bakr.<ref name="Comprehensive history of Assam, SL"/> Sattrajit, son of the zamindar of Bhusna near [[Dhaka|Dacca]], who had earlier fought successfully against Parikshit and had been rewarded by his appointment as thanadar of [[Pandu, Guwahati|Pandu]] and [[Guwahati|Guahati]], also accompanied the expeditionary force. Beside, some noted officers of the central government like Raja Jagdeo, grandson of Raja [[Todar Mal]], Jamal Khan Mankali accompanied Aba Bakr.<ref>{{cite book |title=Comprehensive history of Assam, SL Baruah |pages=ibid}}</ref> The expeditionary force started from Bajrapur in Bengal in March 1616 and reached the mouth of the [[Kolong River|Kalang river]] in the midst of rains in May/June of that year. The Ahom fleet stationed at the Kajali Choucki attacked the invading force but suffered defeat and retreated with the loss of some boats. Elated at this victory, Sattrajit entered Sala by way of the [[Kolong River|Kalang]], killed a few men and looted a royal store. After three days, he crossed the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], moved westward and carried away three female dancers from the Siva temple at [[Biswanath district|Biswanath]] and sailed off.<ref name=":0"/> |
This stern action of the Ahom government was taken exception to by the Mughal government in [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]], which was further dissatisfied with the Ahom king [[Susenghphaa|Pratap Singha]] for sheltering [[Balinarayan]], brother of Parikshit. [[Qasim Khan Chishti|Seikh Qasim Khan]], the governor of Bengal, sent immediately a force consisting of over 10,000 troops, and 300 well-equipped war-boats, under Syed Hakkim and Syed Aba Bakr.<ref name="Comprehensive history of Assam, SL"/> Sattrajit, son of the zamindar of Bhusna near [[Dhaka|Dacca]], who had earlier fought successfully against Parikshit and had been rewarded by his appointment as thanadar of [[Pandu, Guwahati|Pandu]] and [[Guwahati|Guahati]], also accompanied the expeditionary force. Beside, some noted officers of the central government like Raja Jagdeo, grandson of Raja [[Todar Mal]], Jamal Khan Mankali accompanied Aba Bakr.<ref>{{cite book |title=Comprehensive history of Assam, SL Baruah |pages=ibid}}</ref> The expeditionary force started from Bajrapur in Bengal in March 1616 and reached the mouth of the [[Kolong River|Kalang river]] in the midst of rains in May/June of that year. The Ahom fleet stationed at the Kajali Choucki attacked the invading force but suffered defeat and retreated with the loss of some boats. Elated at this victory, Sattrajit entered Sala by way of the [[Kolong River|Kalang]], killed a few men and looted a royal store. After three days, he crossed the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], moved westward and carried away three female dancers from the Siva temple at [[Biswanath district|Biswanath]] and sailed off.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title=Comprehensive history of Assam, SL Baruah |pages=243}}</ref> |
||
== Battle == |
== Battle == |
||
Qasim Khan's campaign to extend Mughal control over Assam culminated in a major expedition led by Sayyid Aba Bakr. This force, consisting of 10,000–12,000 cavalry and infantry, 200 musketeers, and 300–400 warboats, was accompanied by 1,500 imperial officers, including prominent figures like Raja Satrajit of Bhusna and Jamal Khan Mankali. The Mughal forces advanced into Ahom territory, capturing key forts at Kajali, Kalang, Kalibar, and Sala, while also looting the Bishwanath Temple and seizing Ahom royal treasures. |
[[Qasim Khan Chishti|Qasim Khan]]'s campaign to extend [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] control over [[Assam]] culminated in a major expedition led by Sayyid Aba Bakr. This force, consisting of 10,000–12,000 cavalry and infantry, 200 musketeers, and 300–400 warboats, was accompanied by 1,500 imperial officers, including prominent figures like Raja Satrajit of Bhusna and Jamal Khan Mankali. The Mughal forces advanced into [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]] territory, capturing key forts at Kajali, Kalang, Kalibar, and Sala, while also looting the [[Bishyanath Temple|Bishwanath Temple]] and seizing Ahom royal treasures.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Nag |first=Sajal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEa8EAAAQBAJ |title=The Mughals and the North-East: Encounter and Assimilation in Medieval India |date=2023-07-17 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-90525-0 |pages=453–454 |language=en}}</ref> |
||
| ⚫ | In response, the Ahoms fortified Samdhara, a strategically located fort near the confluence of the [[Bharali river|Bharali]] and [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra rivers]]. The [[Burhagohain]], [[Borgohain|Bargohain]], and [[Borpatragohain|Barpatragohain]] led efforts to reinforce the fort with 14,000 additional troops. Meanwhile, Ahkek Gohain, a former defector who returned to the Ahom side under a promise of pardon, provided critical intelligence about Mughal movements. The Mughals eventually stationed themselves on the Bharali's right bank, opposite Samdhara.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> |
||
The Ahoms, after consulting astrologers, |
|||
The [[Ahom kingdom|Ahoms]], after consulting astrologers, planned a surprise night attack for January 1616. Exploiting the unpreparedness of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], the Ahom forces launched a devastating offensive, quickly overpowering their enemy. Key Mughal commanders, including Sayyid Aba Bakr, Jamal Khan Kankali, and Gokul Chand, were slain, along with 1,700 Mughal soldiers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Mohamed Nasr, Ahom Mughal Relations A Study In Diplomatic History |pages=84}}</ref> The Mughal fleet initially resisted but collapsed after the death of Aba Bakr. The Ahoms captured almost the entire Mughal flotilla, including its commander Miran Sayed Masud, while Satrajit and Sona Ghazi narrowly escaped with two boats. Many Mughal officers, including Ilahdad Khan Dakhini, Raja Rai, and Karamchand, were taken prisoner.<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
| ⚫ | In response, the Ahoms fortified Samdhara, a strategically located fort near the confluence of the Bharali and Brahmaputra rivers. The Burhagohain, Bargohain, and Barpatragohain led efforts to reinforce the fort with 14,000 additional troops. Meanwhile, Ahkek Gohain, a former defector who returned to the Ahom side under a promise of pardon, provided critical intelligence about Mughal movements. The Mughals eventually stationed themselves on the Bharali's right bank, opposite Samdhara. |
||
Ahom spies played a crucial role in the victory by exposing weaknesses in the Mughal defenses, including poorly fortified camps and uncleared jungles. The Ahoms used this intelligence to clear the jungle and prepare for their assault, catching the Mughals by surprise. Following the victory, the Ahoms captured vast war resources, including elephants, horses, guns, and ammunition.<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
The Ahoms had been watching carefully the movement of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] and, in the meantime, strengthened the fort of Samdhara, which stood near the confluence of the [[Bharali River|Bharali]] and the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]]. They managed to gain valuable information about the Mughals from Ahkek Gohain, who previously went to the Mughal side, and was brought back to Ahom camp after being promised pardon. The Mughal also proceeded to the Bharali and stationed at its right bank, opposite of the Ahom fort at Samdhara.<ref name=":0" /> At this, the Burhagohain, Boragohain and other officials asked for auspicious moment to attack, from the Deodhai's (astrologers), which they advised in a night attack (January 1616). The Mughals who were unprepared, were unable to face the enemy were easily overpowered. Large number of officers including Syed Hakim, Jamal Khan Kankali, Bhaaaban Roxi, Gokul Chand, Lakshmi Rajput, Abu Bakr and his son were slain.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Mohamed Nasr, Ahom Mughal Relations A Study In Diplomatic History |pages=84}}</ref> |
|||
King [[Susenghphaa|Pratap Singha]], upon hearing of the triumph at Samdhara, ordered that the captured [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] officers be spared, as he wished to see them personally. However, most of the prisoners were already slain by the time he arrived. Enraged, Pratap Singha ordered the execution of the Ahom officers responsible for killing the captives. To commemorate the victory, Pratap Singha constructed a new fort at Samdhara and inscribed the achievement as ''Visama Samara Vijayana'' (Victory in Unequal Battle). This marked a decisive moment in the Ahom-Mughal conflict, showcasing the resilience and military strategy of the Ahoms.<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
The imperial fleet of Mughals at first resisted, but couldn't after the fall of their commander Abu Bakr, and gave up further resistance. Almost whole of the Mughal fleet was captured by the Ahoms and some naval officers including Miran Sayed Masud, in-charge of the war boats were slain. Sattrajit with Sona Ghazi made a narrow escape with two boats, while Ilahdad Khan Dakhini, Raja Rai, Narsing Rai, Karamchand, son of Satrajit and many others were captured. The casualties on the Mughal side, is estimated to around 1,700 men killed on the spot.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title=Comprehensive history of Assam, SL Baruah |pages=243}}</ref> [[Pratap Singha]] having heard of the victory at Samdhara, ordered not to kill the captive officers, as he was anxious to see them in person. He rushed to Samdhara, but until then most of the Mughal officers were slain. At this he ordered the Ahom officers put to death, responsible for killing the captive Mughal officers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Mohamed Nasr, Ahom Mughal Relations A Study In Diplomatic History |pages=84–86}}</ref> |
|||
== Aftermath == |
== Aftermath == |
||
Thus the maiden attempt [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] to expand towards the east was successfully thwarted by the Ahoms. This defeat brought both ignominy and disaster to the Mughals.[[Qasim Khan Chishti|Qasim Khan]] was replaced by [[Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang|Ibrahim Khan Fathjang]] as the governor of [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]] in April 1617 and Lakshmi Narayan, who has been placed in detention for three years, was re-installed in his kingdom on the condition that he would serve the cause of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] in their fight against the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahoms]]. On the Ahom side, this victory greatly increased their prestige and solidified their position as the master-power of [[Northeast India|north-east]]. It was at this time that |
Thus the maiden attempt of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] to expand towards the east was successfully thwarted by the Ahoms. This defeat brought both ignominy and disaster to the Mughals.[[Qasim Khan Chishti|Qasim Khan]] was replaced by [[Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang|Ibrahim Khan Fathjang]] as the governor of [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]] in April 1617 and Lakshmi Narayan, who has been placed in detention for three years, was re-installed in his kingdom on the condition that he would serve the cause of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] in their fight against the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahoms]]. On the Ahom side, this victory greatly increased their prestige and solidified their position as the master-power of modern [[Northeast India|north-east]] India. It was at this time that they brought under their control the entire tract between the Barnadi and the [[Bharali River|Bharali]]. [[Pratap Singha]], the Ahom king, established [[Balinarayan]] as the tributary raja of [[Darrang district|Darrang]] and renamed him as [[Dharmanarayan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Baruah, S L (1986), A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram Manoharlal |pages=243}}</ref> Many of the captured soldiers and commanders were sacrificed to goddess [[Kamakhya]] in [[Kamakhya Temple]], including the captured son of Sattrajit.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Power of Tantra: Religion, Sexuality and the Politics of South Asian Studies | isbn=9780857731586 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJ-LDwAAQBAJ&dq=ahoms+sacrificed+muslims+to+kamakhya&pg=PP138| last1=Urban | first1=Hugh B. | date=30 October 2009 | publisher=Bloomsbury }}</ref> |
||
==See also== |
==See also== |
||
Latest revision as of 19:03, 9 January 2025
Battle of Samdhara was the first naval battle fought between Mughals and the Ahoms in 1616.[1]
| Battle of Samdhara | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of Ahom-Mughal conflicts | |||||||
 Bhomoraguri Rock inscription 1616, commemorating the victory of Ahoms over the Mughals in Samdhara | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
 Ahom kingdom | |||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
|
Pratap Singha Shamkula Borgohain Lasham Charing Gohain Ailas Gohain Lama Barua Chepta Barua Langu Deoghria Bharali Barua Piksai Hazarika |
Qasim Khan Chishti Syed Hakkim khan Syed Aba bakr Sattrajit Raja Jagdeo Jamal khan Mankali | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
|
30,000 men 700 war elephants[2] |
10,000 troops 10,000 cavalry 400 war boats 2,000 musketeers[3] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| Light | 1,700 killed | ||||||
| Part of a series on the |
| History of Assam |
|---|
 |
| Categories |
Background
[edit]The first direct clash of arms between the Ahoms and Mughals was occasioned by an illegal trade-affair carried by a merchant, Ranta or Ratan Shah by name, who was procuring aloes-wood for Jahangir, at Singri, that lay to the east of the Barnadi and within the Ahom kingdom. On detection, his goods were confiscated and he was expelled from the Ahom territory. Shortly afterwards, unauthorised merchants of Bengal were found to the north of Kajali buying pulses, mustard seeds, and other commodities. Two such mechant vessels were seized by the Ahom government and two of the tradesmen killed.[4] The incident of killing the merchants was only a pretext to launch an invasion to Assam, the Mughal viceroy had long preparing for an invasion.[5]
Expedition
[edit]This stern action of the Ahom government was taken exception to by the Mughal government in Bengal, which was further dissatisfied with the Ahom king Pratap Singha for sheltering Balinarayan, brother of Parikshit. Seikh Qasim Khan, the governor of Bengal, sent immediately a force consisting of over 10,000 troops, and 300 well-equipped war-boats, under Syed Hakkim and Syed Aba Bakr.[1] Sattrajit, son of the zamindar of Bhusna near Dacca, who had earlier fought successfully against Parikshit and had been rewarded by his appointment as thanadar of Pandu and Guahati, also accompanied the expeditionary force. Beside, some noted officers of the central government like Raja Jagdeo, grandson of Raja Todar Mal, Jamal Khan Mankali accompanied Aba Bakr.[6] The expeditionary force started from Bajrapur in Bengal in March 1616 and reached the mouth of the Kalang river in the midst of rains in May/June of that year. The Ahom fleet stationed at the Kajali Choucki attacked the invading force but suffered defeat and retreated with the loss of some boats. Elated at this victory, Sattrajit entered Sala by way of the Kalang, killed a few men and looted a royal store. After three days, he crossed the Brahmaputra, moved westward and carried away three female dancers from the Siva temple at Biswanath and sailed off.[7]
Battle
[edit]Qasim Khan's campaign to extend Mughal control over Assam culminated in a major expedition led by Sayyid Aba Bakr. This force, consisting of 10,000–12,000 cavalry and infantry, 200 musketeers, and 300–400 warboats, was accompanied by 1,500 imperial officers, including prominent figures like Raja Satrajit of Bhusna and Jamal Khan Mankali. The Mughal forces advanced into Ahom territory, capturing key forts at Kajali, Kalang, Kalibar, and Sala, while also looting the Bishwanath Temple and seizing Ahom royal treasures.[8]
In response, the Ahoms fortified Samdhara, a strategically located fort near the confluence of the Bharali and Brahmaputra rivers. The Burhagohain, Bargohain, and Barpatragohain led efforts to reinforce the fort with 14,000 additional troops. Meanwhile, Ahkek Gohain, a former defector who returned to the Ahom side under a promise of pardon, provided critical intelligence about Mughal movements. The Mughals eventually stationed themselves on the Bharali's right bank, opposite Samdhara.[8][7]
The Ahoms, after consulting astrologers, planned a surprise night attack for January 1616. Exploiting the unpreparedness of the Mughals, the Ahom forces launched a devastating offensive, quickly overpowering their enemy. Key Mughal commanders, including Sayyid Aba Bakr, Jamal Khan Kankali, and Gokul Chand, were slain, along with 1,700 Mughal soldiers.[9] The Mughal fleet initially resisted but collapsed after the death of Aba Bakr. The Ahoms captured almost the entire Mughal flotilla, including its commander Miran Sayed Masud, while Satrajit and Sona Ghazi narrowly escaped with two boats. Many Mughal officers, including Ilahdad Khan Dakhini, Raja Rai, and Karamchand, were taken prisoner.[8]
Ahom spies played a crucial role in the victory by exposing weaknesses in the Mughal defenses, including poorly fortified camps and uncleared jungles. The Ahoms used this intelligence to clear the jungle and prepare for their assault, catching the Mughals by surprise. Following the victory, the Ahoms captured vast war resources, including elephants, horses, guns, and ammunition.[8]
King Pratap Singha, upon hearing of the triumph at Samdhara, ordered that the captured Mughal officers be spared, as he wished to see them personally. However, most of the prisoners were already slain by the time he arrived. Enraged, Pratap Singha ordered the execution of the Ahom officers responsible for killing the captives. To commemorate the victory, Pratap Singha constructed a new fort at Samdhara and inscribed the achievement as Visama Samara Vijayana (Victory in Unequal Battle). This marked a decisive moment in the Ahom-Mughal conflict, showcasing the resilience and military strategy of the Ahoms.[8]
Aftermath
[edit]Thus the maiden attempt of the Mughals to expand towards the east was successfully thwarted by the Ahoms. This defeat brought both ignominy and disaster to the Mughals.Qasim Khan was replaced by Ibrahim Khan Fathjang as the governor of Bengal in April 1617 and Lakshmi Narayan, who has been placed in detention for three years, was re-installed in his kingdom on the condition that he would serve the cause of the Mughals in their fight against the Ahoms. On the Ahom side, this victory greatly increased their prestige and solidified their position as the master-power of modern north-east India. It was at this time that they brought under their control the entire tract between the Barnadi and the Bharali. Pratap Singha, the Ahom king, established Balinarayan as the tributary raja of Darrang and renamed him as Dharmanarayan.[10] Many of the captured soldiers and commanders were sacrificed to goddess Kamakhya in Kamakhya Temple, including the captured son of Sattrajit.[11]
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ a b Comprehensive history of Assam, SL Baruah. p. 242.
- ^ Sudhindra Nath Bhattacharya, A History of Mughal North-east Frontier Policy. p. 155.
- ^ Mohamed Nasr, Ahom Mughal Relations A Study In Diplomatic History. p. 82.
- ^ Kamrupar Buranji: or an account of ancient Kamarupa and a history of the Mogul conflicts with Assam and Cooch Behar , up to A.D. 1682. Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam. 1930. p. 20.
- ^ Mohamed Nasr, Ahom Mughal Relations A Study In Diplomatic History. p. 81.
- ^ Comprehensive history of Assam, SL Baruah. pp. ibid.
- ^ a b Comprehensive history of Assam, SL Baruah. p. 243.
- ^ a b c d e Nag, Sajal (17 July 2023). The Mughals and the North-East: Encounter and Assimilation in Medieval India. Taylor & Francis. pp. 453–454. ISBN 978-1-000-90525-0.
- ^ Mohamed Nasr, Ahom Mughal Relations A Study In Diplomatic History. p. 84.
- ^ Baruah, S L (1986), A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 243.
- ^ Urban, Hugh B. (30 October 2009). The Power of Tantra: Religion, Sexuality and the Politics of South Asian Studies. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780857731586.
References
[edit]- Baruah, S L (1986), A Comprehensive History of Assam, Munshiram Manoharlal