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#REDIRECT [[Shaivism#Origins and history]]
{{About|the history of the religion [[Shaivism]]|history of the deity|Shiva}}
[[File:DevelopmentofShaivism.jpg|right|thumb|350px|The Development of the Saiva Traditions]]


{{Rcat shell|
'''[[Shaivism]]''' (also spelled "Saivism"), refers to the religious traditions of [[Hinduism]] that focus on the deity [[Shiva]].<ref>Flood (1996), p. 149.</ref>
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{{R from subtopic}}
The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India, Sri Lanka and Nepal.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 17</ref><ref>Keay, p.xxvii.</ref> Shaivism has many different schools showing both regional variations and differences in [[philosophy]].<ref>For an overview of the Shaiva Traditions, see Flood, Gavin, "The Śaiva Traditions", in: Flood (2003), pp. 200–228.</ref> Shaivism has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools, including non-dualist ([[Non-difference|abheda]]), dualist (bheda), and [[Bhedabheda|non-dual-with-dualism]] ({{IAST|bhedābheda}}) perspectives.<ref>Tattwananda, p. 54.</ref>
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{{R printworthy}}
It is very difficult to determine the early history of Shaivism.<ref name="Tattwananda, p. 45">Tattwananda, p. 45.</ref> [[Axel Michaels]] explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows:
}}

<blockquote>Like {{IAST|Vişņu}}, {{IAST|Śiva}} is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: {{IAST|Śaivism}}. Like {{IAST|Vaişņavism}}, the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.<ref>Michaels, p. 215.</ref>
</blockquote>

==Predecessors==

===Prehistory===
Some people believe that artifacts from [[Mohenjo-daro]], [[Harappa]] and other [[archaeology|archaeological]] sites of northwestern India and Pakistan indicate that some early form of Shiva worship was practiced in the [[Indus Valley]]. These artifacts include [[lingam]]s and the "Pashupati seal" that has been the subject of much study. The [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley civilization]] reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE, when trade links with [[Mesopotamia]] are known to have existed, was in decline by 1800 BCE, and faded away by 1500 BCE.<ref>For dating as fl. 2300–2000 BCE, decline by 1800 BCE, and extinction by 1500 BCE see: Flood (1996), p. 24.</ref>

====Lingams====
Lingams have also been discovered from the Indus Valley Civilization era, both in Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

<gallery caption="Lingams found from the Indus Valley Civilization" widths="154px" heights="108px" perrow="4">
File:LINGAM-1.jpg|Lingam from Harappa - Two decorated bases and a lingam, Mohenjodaro.
File:LINGAM-3.jpg|Lingam from Mohenjodaro|Lingam, grey sandstone in situ, Harappa, Trench Ai, Mound F, Pl. X (c) (After Vats). "In an earthenware jar, No. 12414, recovered from Mound F, Trench IV, Square I... in this jar, six lingams were found along with some tiny pieces of shell, a unicorn seal, an oblong grey sandstone block with polished surface, five stone pestles, a stone palette, and a block of chalcedony..." (Vats, EH, p. 370)
File:Lingam4.jpg
File:Lingam5.jpg
</gallery>

====The Pashupati seal and meditative seals====
<gallery>
File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|The so-called ''Shiva Pashupati'' seal
File:Yogisea 2l.jpg|Another IVC seal
File:Fragment farmer.jpg
File:Nag harap.jpg|Harappa seal with mendicant in center and two devotees on sides with [[Nagas]] over their heads.
</gallery>

A seal discovered during excavation of the [[Mohenjodaro|Mohenjo-daro]] archaeological site in the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.<ref name="Flood 1996, pp. 28-29">Flood (1996), pp. 28–29.</ref> This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, [[Sanskrit]] ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'')<ref>For translation of ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref> seal shows a large central figure that is surrounded by animals. The central figure is often described as a seated figure, possibly [[phallic|ithyphallic]], surrounded by animals.<ref>For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref> [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "[[yoga]] posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head are often interpreted as two horns. [[Gavin Flood]] characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva [[iconographic]] themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a [[bull]].<ref name="Flood 1996, pp. 28-29"/><ref>Flood (2003), pp. 204–205.</ref>

Many scholars such as Marshall associated Pashupati seal with Shiva because We would discuss these features under the following heads : (1) three faces (2) the attitude of yoga (3) ithyphallicism (4) connection with animals (5) pair of horns.<ref> P. 79 ''Calcutta Review'' By University of Calcutta </ref>

Shiva's association with the 'Pashupati seal' is that the seal reads "Lord of the Cattle" and "Lord of the animals" and Shiva has been described as both the lord of cattle and animals. The Pashupati seal also depicts the mendicant in the yogasana which is another attributed associated with Shiva from scriptures.

In reference to the bulls that appear on the Indus Valley seals, archeologists have linked them to Shiva as the bull is associated with him in scriptures. In the Rig Veda, Shiva (Rudra) is termed ''Vrishaba'' or "bull."<ref> P. 89 ''The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages'' By Mahadev Chakravarti </ref>

Shiva connection with the three heads on the Indus Valley yogi seal is that Shiva has been described and portrayed a three-headed in certain parts of history. For example, in the an Elora temple he is depicted with three heads.<ref> P. 461 ''The Cave Temples of India'' By James Burgess </ref>

====Animal tamer seals====
Rudra in the Vedas has been described as a hunter and tamer of animals.<ref> P. 21 ''The Presence of Siva'' By Stella Kramrisch </ref>

<gallery>
File:Meditative and taming.jpg|Harappa seal[http://www.maravot.com/harappa_shiva.gif] depicting meditator and rhino tamer
File:Figure between two tigers. Mold of Seal, Indus valley civilization.jpg
File:Indus taming 3.jpg|Harappa seal discovered in 1997, depicting figure fighting two tigers while standing on elephant
File:Indus taming 2.jpg|Harappa[http://www.harappa.com/script/gif/parpola8.gif] seal depicting figures atop fighting tigers
File:Indus taming.jpg
</gallery>

====Standing meditative seal====
The standing yogic position in Hindu scriptures is associated with Shiva and has in earliest occurrences been mentioned as the ''sthanu'' asana. Shiva has repeatedly been called Sthanu in several scriptures.<ref> P. 33 ''The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages'' By Mahadev Chakravarti </ref> That Shiva's standing pose is a meditative penance is clear from the pose being associated in Kalidas' literature as "Tapasvinah Sthanu"<ref> P. 104 ''The Birth of Kumāra'' By Kālidāsa </ref> and ''tapasvin'' is the term for a mendicant. Also Shiva as Sthanu in Kalidas' literature has been described as "Sthanu sthira-bhakti-yoga-sulabha" meaning "attainable through devotion yoga."<ref> P. 14 ''The Megha-Dūta of Kālidāsa'' By Kālidāsa </ref> In modern Hindu yoga too the standing yoga asana is applied and called ''samabhanga asana''<ref> P. 16 ''The Book of Hindu Imagery: Gods, Manifestations and Their Meaning'' By Eva Rudy Jansen </ref> and ''tadasana''.

===Vedic Rudra===
:''For information on the history of the deity, see the articles for [[Rudra]] and [[Shiva]]''

Shaivism is devoted to worship of the god Shiva.<ref>Tattwananda, pp. 43–44.</ref> The Sanskrit word '''{{IAST|śiva}}''' ([[Devanagari]] {{lang|sa|शिव}}) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.<ref>Apte, p. 919.</ref><ref name="Macdonell, p. 314">Macdonell, p. 314.</ref> As a proper name, it means "The Auspicious One", used as a [[euphenism|euphemistic]] name for [[Rudra]].<ref name="Macdonell, p. 314"/> In simple English [[transliteration]], it may be written either as ''Shiva'' or ''Siva''.

Over the course of time, many regional approaches to the worship and understanding of Shiva would be reconciled.<ref>Keay, p. xxvii.</ref>

==Emergence of Shaivism==
The documentation of formal religious history, as opposed to archaeological evidence or scriptural mentions, is marked by Gavin Flood's remark that:

<blockquote>The formation of Śaiva traditions as we understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to 100 AD.<ref name="Flood 2003, p. 205">Flood (2003), p. 205.</ref>
</blockquote>

The two great epics of India, the [[Mahabharata]]<ref>For analysis of references to Shiva in the Mahabharata, see: Sharma (1988), pp. 20–21.</ref> and the [[Ramayana]], deal extensively with stories of both [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]],<ref>Tattwananda, p. 46.</ref> and there are references to early Shiva [[Asceticism|ascetics]] in the Mahabharata.<ref>For references to Shiva ascetics in the Mahabharata see: Flood (1996), p. 154.</ref>

The ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad|{{IAST|Śvetāśvatara}} Upanishad]]'' (400 – 200 BCE)<ref>For dating to 400–200 BCE see: Flood (1996), p. 86.</ref> is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.<ref>For {{IAST|Śvetāśvatara}} Upanishad as a systematic philosophy of Shaivism see: Chakravarti, p. 9.</ref> As explained by Gavin Flood, the text proposes:

<blockquote>... a theology which elevates Rudra to the status of supreme being, the Lord (Sanskrit: {{IAST|Īśa}}) who is transcendent yet also has cosmological functions, as does Śiva in later traditions.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 153.</ref></blockquote>

In the grammarian [[Patanjali]]'s "Great Commentary" (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|Mahābhasya}}'') on [[Pāṇini|Pāṇini's]] Sanskrit grammar (2nd century BCE), he describes a devotee of Shiva as clad in animal skins and carrying an iron lance as the symbol of his god, perhaps a precursor of Shiva's trident.<ref>For Patanjali's description of the Shiva ''bhakta'' see: Flood (1996), p. 154.</ref><ref>For mention of a Shaiva sect by Patanjali see: Bhandarkar (1913), p. 165.</ref>

==Puranic Shaivism==
It is with the Puranas that Shaivism spread rapidly, eventually throughout the subcontinent, through the singers and composers of the Puranic narratives.<ref>For the Puranic period as important to the spread across the subcontinent, see: Flood (1996), p. 154.</ref> The [[Puranas|Puranic]] literature has its origins in the later [[Gupta period]] (6th century) and develops during c. the 8th to 11th centuries.<ref>For dating of Gupta Period as c. 300–500, see: Keay, pp. 129–154; For dating of Gupta dynasty as 320–500 AD see: Flood (1996), p. 110.</ref> along with [[Smartha Tradition|Smarta]] Brahmin forms of worship.<ref name="Flood 2003, p. 205"/> The convergence of various Shaiva and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] trends, as well as their growing popularity, may have been partly the outcome of dominant dynasties like the Guptas assimilating the resources and cultural elements of their conquered territories.<ref>For the geopolitical analysis that Shaiva and Vaisnava consolidation may have been due to Gupta empirical consolidation see: Keay, p. 147.</ref>

The bulk of the material contained in the Puranas was established during the reign of the Guptas, with incremental additions taking place to the texts up to later medieval times.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 110">Flood (1996), p. 110.</ref> There are eighteen major Puranas, and these are traditionally classified into three groups of six each, with Shiva considered to be the central deity in the [[Shiva Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Matsya Purana]], [[Kurma Purana|Kurma purana]], [[Skanda Purana]], and [[Agni Purana]].<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 110"/> However this traditional grouping is inexact, for while the Shiva Purana is strongly sectarian in its focus on Shiva, others are not so clearly sectarian and include material about other deities as well, particularly [[Vishnu]].<ref>For the inexact nature of the traditional group of six, see: Flood (1996), p. 110.</ref>

The Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults, as Gavin Flood explains:

<blockquote>
Although these texts are related to each other, and material in one is found in another, they nevertheless each present a view of ordering of the world from a particular perspective. They must not be seen as random collections of old tales, but as highly selective and crafted expositions and presentations of worldviews and soteriologies, compiled by particular groups of Brahmins to propagate a particular vision, whether it be focused on {{IAST|Viṣṇu}}, {{IAST|Śiva}}, or {{IAST|Devī}}, or, indeed, any number of deities.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 111.</ref>
</blockquote>

For example, the [[Vishnu Purana]] (4th century) presents a Vaisnava viewpoint in which Vishnu awakens, becomes the creator god [[Brahma]] to create the universe, sustains it, and then destroys it as Rudra (Shiva).<ref>For dating of 4th century and synopsis of Vishnu Purana see: Flood (1996), p. 111.</ref>

Shaiva theism was expounded in the Agamas, which number two hundred including the Upagamas (the "Lesser" Agamas), which were composed before the 7th century.<ref name="Tattwananda, p. 45"/> In the 7th century, Banabhatta included the worship of Shiva in his account of the prominent religious sects of that time.<ref name="Tattwananda, p. 45"/>

In the 7th century the great Chinese traveller [[Xuanzang]] (Huen Tsang) toured India and wrote in Chinese about the prevalence of Shiva worship at that time, describing Shiva temples at Kanoj, [[Karachi]], [[Malwa]], Gandhar ([[Kandahar]]), and especially at [[Varanasi]] (Benares) where he saw twenty large temples dedicated to Shiva.<ref>For Huen Tsang's account see: Tattwananda, p. 46.</ref>

==Non-Puranic Shaivism==

===Smartism===
[[Smartism]] is a denomination of Hinduism that places emphasis on a group of five deities rather than just a single deity.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 17.</ref> The "worship of the five forms" ''pañcāyatana pūjā'' system, which was popularized by the philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] (also known as ''Śaṅkarācārya'') (between 650 and 800, traditionally 788&ndash;820),<ref>For traditional dating of 788-820, see: Keay, pp. 62, 194; and for broad dating of 650-800, see: Keay, p. 62.</ref> invokes the five deities Shiva, [[Ganesha]], [[Vishnu]], [[Devi|Devī]], and [[Surya|Sūrya]].<ref>Dating for the pañcāyatana pūjā and its connection with Smārta Brahmins is from Courtright, p. 163.</ref><ref>For worship of the five forms as central to Smarta practice see: Flood (1996), p. 113.</ref> This system was instituted by {{IAST|Śaṅkarācārya}} primarily to unite the principal deities of the five major sects on an equal status.<ref>Grimes, p. 162.</ref> The monistic philosophy preached by {{IAST|Śaṅkarācārya}} made it possible to choose one of these as a preferred principal deity and at the same time worship the other four deities as different forms of the same all-pervading [[Brahman]].

===Saiva Siddhanta===
The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a sophisticated theology propagted by theologians Sadyojoti, Bhatta Nārāyanakantha and his son Bhatta Rāmakantha (c. 950–1000).<ref>Flood, Gavin. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.'' Malden: Blackwell. pg. 210.</ref> Considered normative [[Tantra|tantric]] Saivism, Shaiva Siddhanta provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of tantric Saivism.<ref>Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. P.120</ref> Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an [[Ontology|ontologically]] distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace).<ref>Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. P.122</ref> This tradition was once practiced all over India. However the [[Muslim]] subjugation of north India restricted Shaiva Siddhanta to the south,<ref>Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. P.34</ref> where it merged with the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] Saiva cult expressed in the bhakti poetry of the [[Nayanars]].<ref name="Flood, Gavin 1996. P.168">Flood, Gavin. D. 1996. An Introduction to Hinduism. P.168</ref> It is in this historical context that Shaiva Siddhanta is commonly considered a "southern" tradition, one that is still very much alive.<ref name="Flood, Gavin 1996. P.168"/>

===Nayanars===
By the 7th century, the [[Nayanars]], a tradition of poet-saints in the bhakti tradition developed in South India with a focus on Shiva by the comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars.<ref>For emergency of the Nayanmars by 7th century and comparison with [[Vishnu|Vaisnava]] [[Alvars]] see: Flood (1996), 131.</ref> The devotional poems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven collections together with a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Purana]] called the ''Periya Puranam''. The first seven collections are known as the ''[[Tevaram|Thevaram]]'' and are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to the [[Vedas]].<ref>For eleven collections, with the first seven (the ''Thevaram'') regarded as Vedic, see: Tattwananda, p. 55.</ref> They were composed in the 7th century by [[Sambandar]], [[Appar]], and [[Sundarar]].<ref>For dating of Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar as 7th century see: Tattwananda, p. 55.</ref>

[[Thirumoolar|Tirumular]], also spelled ({{IAST|Tirumūlār}} or {{IAST|Tirumūlar}}) the author of the ''Tirumantiram'' (also spelled ''Tirumandiram'') is considered by Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas.<ref>Tattwananda, p. 55.</ref> Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century by Maurice Winternitz.<ref>Winternitz, p. 588, note 1.</ref> The ''Tirumantiram'' is a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon.<ref>For the Tirumantiram as the tenth book of the Shaiva Siddhanta canon see Brooks, Douglas Renfrew. "Auspicious Fragments and Uncertain Wisdom", in: Harper and Brown, p. 63.</ref> The ''[[Thiruvasakam|Tiruvacakam]]'' by [[Manikkavasagar|Manikkavacagar]] is an important collection of hymns of which [[Charles Eliot (diplomat)|Sir Charles Eliot]] wrote, "In no literature with which I am acquainted, has the individual religious life, its struggles and dejections, its hopes and fears, its confidence and its triumph received a delineation more frank and more profound."<ref>Quotation from Sir Charles Eliot's Hinduism and Buddhism, volume II, p. 127, is provided in: Tattwananda, p. 56.</ref> The ''Tiruvacakam'' praises Siva as belonging to the southern country, India, yet worshipped by people of all countries.<ref>Thiruvachakam 4 (Potri Thiruvakaval); lines 164, 165.</ref>

==Tamil areas==
{{main|Shaiva Siddhanta}}
There are numerous Siva temples in [[Tamil Nadu]], most located in the [[Thanjavur]] region which was a major part of the [[Chola]] empire between 800 and 1200. A particular branch of Shaivism, the philosophy of [[Shaiva Siddhanta]], is particularly popular in southern India, [[Sri Lanka]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]] and every other country where [[Tamil people|Tamils]] are living.<ref name=arulsamy>S. Arulsamy, ''Saivism – A Perspective of Grace'', Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, 1987, pp.1</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Hinduism}}
* [[Kaśmir Śaivism]]
* [[Shaiva Siddhanta]]
* [[Shaivism]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Basham |first=A. L. |authorlink= |coauthors=Zysk, Kenneth (Editor) |title=The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism |year=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York |isbn=0-19-507349-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Bhandarkar |first=Ramakrishna Gopal |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Vaisnavism, Śaivism, and Minor Religious Systems |year=1913 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-206-0122-X }} Third AES reprint edition, 1995.
* {{cite book |last=Chakravati |first=Mahadev |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages |year=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0053-2 }} (Second Revised Edition; Reprint, Delhi, 2002).
* {{cite book |last=Harper |first=Katherine Anne|authorlink= |coauthors=Brown, Robert L. |title=The Roots of Tantra|year=2002 |publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, New York |isbn=0-7914-5306-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivram |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1965 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0567-4 }} (fourth revised & enlarged edition).
* {{cite book |last=Courtright |first=Paul B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title={{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-505742-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |authorlink= Gavin Flood |coauthors= |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn= 0-521-43878-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin (Editor)|authorlink= Gavin Flood|coauthors= |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-4051-3251-5 }}
* {{cite book |series=SUNY Series in Religious Studies |last=Grimes |first=John A. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Ganapati: Song of the Self |year=1995 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=0-7914-2440-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Keay |first=John|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=India: A History |year=2000 |publisher=Grove Press |location=New York |isbn=0-8021-3797-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Michaels |first=Axel|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Hinduism: Past and Present |year=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=0-691-08953-1 }}
* {{cite book |series= |last=Oberlies |first=T. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Die Religion des Rgveda |year=1998 |publisher= |location=Vienna |isbn= }}
* {{cite book |series= |last=Sharma |first=Ram Karan |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata|year=1988 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-0544-5 }} Second edition.
* {{cite book |last=Tattwananda |first=Swami|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship |year=1984 |publisher=Firma KLM Private Ltd. |location=Calcutta |isbn= }} First revised edition.
* {{cite book |series= |last=Winternitz |first=Maurice |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=History of Indian Literature |year=1972 |publisher=Oriental Books Reprint Corporation |location=New Delhi |isbn= }} Second revised reprint edition. Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta.

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