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{{Short description|Genus of fishes}}
{{Taxobox
{{Distinguish|peacock cichlid}}
| color = pink
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
| name = Peacock bass
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = peacock_bass.jpg
| image = Cichla ocellaris Dvur zoo 1.jpg
| regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]]
| image_caption = An adult [[butterfly peacock bass]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| image2 = Peacock bass.jpg
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| image2_caption = juvenile [[Orinoco peacock bass]]
| ordo = [[Perciformes]]
| taxon = Cichla
| familia = [[Cichlidae]]
| authority = [[Marcus Elieser Bloch|Bloch]] & [[Johann Gottlob Schneider|Schneider]], 1801<ref>{{ITIS |id=169856 |taxon=Cichla |access-date=30 January 2006}}</ref>
| genus = ''[[Cichla]]''
| species = '''''C. orinocensis'''''
| type_species = ''[[Cichla ocellaris]]''
| type_species_authority = Bloch & Schneider, 1801
| binomial = ''Cichla orinocensis''
| synonyms = ''Acharnes'' {{small|[[Henrik Johan Holmberg|Holmberg]], 1891}}<ref name=Kullander/>
}}
}}


'''Peacock bass''' or '''Brazilian tucunaré''' are large [[freshwater fish|freshwater]] [[cichlid]]s of the [[genus]] '''''Cichla'''''.<ref name=Willis>{{cite journal|last=Willis|first=Stuart|author2=Izeni Farias |author3=Guillermo Orti | year=2012 | title=Simultaneous delimitation of species and quantification of interspecific hybridization in Amazonian peacock cichlids (genus Cichla) using multi-locus data|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=12|issue=96|page=96|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-12-96|pmid=22727018|pmc=3563476 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Reiss2012>{{cite journal |author1=Reiss, P. |author2=K.W. Able |author3=M.S. Nunes |author4=T. Hrbek | year=2012 | title=Color pattern variation in Cichla temensis (Perciformes: Cichlidae): resolution based on morphological, molecular, and reproductive data | journal=Neotrop. Ichthyol. | volume=10 | issue=1 | pages=59–70 | doi=10.1590/S1679-62252012000100006 | doi-access=free }}</ref> These are [[diurnality|diurnal]] [[predatory fish]]es native to the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins, as well as rivers of the [[Guianas]], in tropical [[South America]].<ref name=Kullander>{{cite journal|last=Kullander|first=Sven|author2=Efrem Ferreira|title=A review of the South American cichlid genus Cichla, with descriptions of nine new species (Teleostei: Cichlidae)|journal=Ichthyological Explorations of Freshwaters|year=2006|volume=17|issue=4}}</ref> They are sometimes referred to in English by their [[Brazilian Portuguese|Brazilian]] name ''tucunaré'' or their [[Spanish language|Spanish]] name ''pavon''.<ref name=Reiss2012/> Despite the common name and their superficial similarity, they are not closely related to other fish known as [[bass (fish)|bass]], such as the North American [[largemouth bass]] (''Micropterus salmoides'').<ref name=WhatPeacockBass>{{cite web | title=What is a Peacock Bass? | url=http://www.acuteangling.com/amazon-gamefish-science/peacock-bass.html | publisher=Acute Angling | access-date=17 October 2017 }}</ref><ref name=TropFF>{{cite web | title=Peacock Bass - Spectacular Cichlids for Big Aquaria | url=http://www.tropicalfishfinder.co.uk/article-detail?id=134 | publisher=Tropical Fish Finder | access-date=17 October 2017 }}</ref>
The '''Cichla orinocensis''' is a tropical, freshwater fish and is native to the [[Amazon River]] basin of [[South America]] and also exists as a non-native species in [[Singapore]], [[Peninsular Malaysia]] and the [[United States]] (specifically [[Florida]] and [[Hawaii]]). It is commonly known as the '''peacock bass''' or '''peacock cichlid''' in [[English]]. In [[Brazil]] it is called the '''tucunaré''' (too-coon-a-REH), and in [[Spanish]] it is the '''pavón''' (pah-VON). There are several subspecies of peacock bass.


Peacock bass are important [[food fish]] and are also considered valuable [[game fish]]. This has resulted in their accidental (escapees from [[fish farm]]s) or deliberate (release by fishers) [[introduced species|introduction]] to regions outside their native range,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Franco|first1=Ana Clara Sampaio|last2=Petry|first2=Ana Cristina|last3=Tavares|first3=Marcela Rosa|last4=Fátima Ramos Guimarães|first4=Taís|last5=Santos|first5=Luciano Neves|date=2021-10-28|title=Global distribution of the South American peacock basses Cichla spp. follows human interference|journal=Fish and Fisheries|volume=23 |issue=2 |language=en|pages=407–421|doi=10.1111/faf.12624|s2cid=240206544|issn=1467-2960}}</ref> both elsewhere in South America,<ref name=Ortega2015>{{cite journal | author=Ortega, J.C.G. | year=2015 | title=First record of Peacock bass Cichla kelberi Kullander & Ferreira, 2006 in the Brazilian Pantanal | journal=BioInvasions Records | volume=4 | issue=2 | pages=133–138 | doi=10.3391/bir.2015.4.2.10 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Gasques2015>{{cite journal |author=Luciano Seraphim Gasques |author2=Sônia Maria Alves Pinto Prioli |author3=Alberto José Prioli |author4=Daniela Dib Gonçalves |author5=Thomaz Manzini Carrenho Fabrin | year=2015 | title=Prospecting molecular markers to distinguish Cichla kelberi, C. monoculus and C. piquiti | journal=Acta Scientiarum | volume=37 | issue=4 | pages=455–462 | doi=10.4025/actascibiolsci.v37i4.25985 | doi-access=free }}</ref> and in warm parts of North America and Asia.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nico, L. |author2=M. Neilson | year=2017 | title=Cichla ocellaris Bloch and Schneider, 1801 | url=https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=437 | publisher=U.S. Geological Survey, Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database | access-date=17 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Peacock Bass (introduced) | url=http://www.ecologyasia.com/verts/fishes/peacock-bass.htm | publisher=Ecology Asia | access-date=17 October 2017 }}</ref> Singles have been caught elsewhere, including Australia,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/peacock-bass-found-in-mackays-pioneer-river/news-story/ad12e69343ee77e8424739d9ac9bc9fa|title=Peacock bass found in Mackay's Pioneer River|website=The Courier-Mail|language=en|access-date=2018-01-17}}</ref> but do not appear to have become established there.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/about-us/news-and-updates/fisheries/news/no-peacock-bass-found-in-pioneer-river-following-sampling|title=No peacock bass found in Pioneer River following sampling|publisher=Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland Government|date=2018-02-01|access-date=2018-02-14}}</ref> Where established as an introduced species, they may become [[Invasive species|invasive]] and damage the ecosystem because of their highly predatory behavior, feeding extensively on smaller native fish.<ref name=Pelicice>{{cite journal|last=Pelicice|first=Fernando M.|author2=Agostinho, Angelo A. |title=Fish fauna destruction after the introduction of a non-native predator (Cichla kelberi) in a Neotropical reservoir |journal=Biological Invasions |date=14 October 2008 |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1789–1801 |doi=10.1007/s10530-008-9358-3|s2cid=28019655}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Franco|first1=Ana Clara Sampaio|last2=García-Berthou|first2=Emili|last3=Santos|first3=Luciano Neves dos|date=2021-03-20|title=Ecological impacts of an invasive top predator fish across South America|journal=Science of the Total Environment|language=en|volume=761|page=143296|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143296|pmid=33187704|bibcode=2021ScTEn.761n3296F|s2cid=226948167|issn=0048-9697}}</ref>
As a member of the [[Cichlidae]] family, it can grow up to 62 cm in length and can be identified by three verticle stripes on its body, and a spot on the tail fin that resembles the eyes on a peacock's train feathers, a feature which gave it its common name in [[English]]. This species of cichla is multicolored in adulthood exhibiting impressive shades of bright green, orange and gold. Also, the adult male has a pronounced hump on its forehead, a feature common among cichlids.


The largest species in the genus, the [[speckled peacock bass]] (''C. temensis''), reaches up to {{convert|13|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in weight and {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} in length, possibly making it the largest species of cichlid<ref name=Reis2015>{{citation | author=Reis, P. | year=2015 | title=Aspects of life history of Cichla temensis (Perciformes: Cichlidae) and its relationship to the Amazon basin's flood pulse | publisher=[[Rutgers University]] }}</ref> (others suggest that record goes to the African [[giant cichlid]], ''Boulengerochromis microlepis'').<ref>{{cite web | title=The 10 biggest cichlids | url=http://www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk/features/articles/the-10-biggest-cichlids | publisher=Practical Fishkeeping | date=13 June 2016 | access-date=17 October 2017 }}</ref> Other peacock bass species are smaller.<ref name=FishBase>{{FishBase genus | genus = Cichla| month = October | year = 2017}}</ref> They are sometimes kept in aquariums, but even the smaller species require a very large tank.<ref name=TropFF/><ref>{{cite web | title=Cichla orinocensis | url=http://www.seriouslyfish.com/species/cichla-orinocensis/ | publisher=SeriouslyFish | access-date=17 October 2017 }}</ref>
==Reputation as a sports fish==
[[Image:larryl.jpg|left|thumb|Larry Larsen with a speckled peacock bass]]
The peacock bass is prized as an angling game fish for its fighting qualities. World renowned peacock bass fisherman [[Larry Larsen]] refers to it as a “freshwater bully” due to its ferocious nature when hunting and its tendency to damage fishing lures when striking. (Larsen is a four-time world record holder for catching peacock bass). Despite these qualities, peacock bass have been identified as a potential liability for causing an ecological imbalance in some of its introduced areas.


==Common names==
Although its eating quality is good, most professional American anglers recommend practicing catch and release for this species to protect its numbers in the United States.
{{no footnotes|section|date=October 2017}}


Many common names are used for these fish in Brazil, the country of their largest native region. The most popular of these is ''tucunaré''. In Spanish, the generic common name for these cichlids is ''pavόn''. Pavón, in Spanish, means "peacock", while the Brazilian name comes from [[Tupian languages|Tupi]], an indigenous language of Brazil, meaning "friend of the tree", as this peacock bass usually stays close to submerged trees to hunt and to protect itself and its nests.
==American Introduction==
[[Florida]] wildlife officials deliberately introduced two sub-species of peacock bass to southern [[Florida]] in 1984: these are the butterfly peacock bass (''Cichla ocellaris'') and speckled peacock bass (''Cichla temensis'') where they prey on other non-native, invasive fish such as the [[oscar]] and the [[spotted tilapia]]. Also, its introduction now provides additional sports fishing opportunities for local anglers. However, because of its tropical origins, peacock bass cannot tolerate low water temperatures. This factor has prevented this species from becoming abundant outside of [[Miami-Dade]] and [[Broward]] counties within the state of [[Florida]].


==Description==
Peacock bass have also been introduced into [[Hawaii]].
{{no footnotes|section|date=October 2017}}
[[File:Pesca Esportiva na Amazônia 16.JPG|thumb|Adult ''[[Cichla orinocensis]]'' is easily recognized by its three large gold-edged spots (not bars) on the side of the body<ref name="Kullander" />]]


The speckled peacock bass is the largest species and can grow to {{convert|1|m|ft|abbr=on}} in length, and may be the largest of all cichlid fishes. Most display a color pattern based on a theme of three wide vertical stripes on their bodies, sometimes with smaller intermediate bands, only a grey, brown, yellow, or green background. They also exhibit a spot on their tail fins that resembles the eyes on a peacock's tail feathers—a feature which resulted in their common names (this "ocellus" is a common feature of South American cichlids, and is thought to deter predators and fin-biting piranhas). In addition, many adult fishes (primarily males, but also some females) develop a pronounced hump on their foreheads (nuchal hump) shortly before and during the rainy season, when the fishes generally spawn. Other physical traits can vary greatly, depending on the species, individual, and stage of development. These include dark rosettes instead of stripes, light speckles, and impressive shades of bright green, orange, blue, and gold. Very young fish exhibit dark horizontal stripes down half (''C. orinocensis, C. ocellaris, et al.'') or the whole (''C. temensis, C. pinima, et al.'') body.
==In the aquarium==
As aquarium fish they are voracious and predatory, eating any smaller tank mates and fighting with others of equivalent size. They require live food as juveniles but later in their development will accept meaty, dry or frozen foods.


==Taxonomy and species==
Most species of peacock bass grow to a length of two feet but the Cichla temensis may grow as large as three feet. For this reason, adult peacocks need very large tanks (they must hold at least 240 gallons), however larger tanks are better.
Following a [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] review published in 2006,<ref name=Kullander/> 15 ''Cichla'' species are recognized by [[FishBase]]:<ref name=FishBase/>
{| class="wikitable "
|-
! Image !! Scientific name !! Common Name !! Distribution
|-
|
|''[[Cichla cataractae]]''
{{Small|Sabaj, López-Fernández, Willis, Hemraj, Taphorn & Winemiller, 2020}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Sabaj|first1=Mark H.|last2=López-Fernández|first2=Hernán|last3=Willis|first3=Stuart C.|last4=Hemraj|first4=Devya D.|last5=Taphorn|first5=Donald C.|last6=Winemiller|first6=Kirk O.|date=2020-03-17|title=Cichla cataractae (Cichliformes: Cichlidae), new species of peacock bass from the Essequibo Basin, Guyana and Venezuela|url=https://bioone.org/journals/proceedings-of-the-academy-of-natural-sciences-of-philadelphia/volume-167/issue-1/053.167.0106/Cichla-cataractae-Cichliformes--Cichlidae-new-species-of-peacock-bass/10.1635/053.167.0106.full|journal=Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia|volume=167|issue=1|pages=69–86|doi=10.1635/053.167.0106|s2cid=216409842|issn=0097-3157}}</ref>
|
|Essequibo River basin.
|-
||| ''[[Cichla intermedia]]'' <small>[[Antonio Machado-Allison|Machado-Allison]], 1971</small> || Royal peacock bass|| Orinoco River basin in Venezuela and Colombia.
|-
||| ''[[Cichla jariina]]'' <small>[[Sven O. Kullander|S. O. Kullander]] & [[Efrem Jorge Gondim Ferreira|E. J. G. Ferreira]], 2006</small> || Jari peacock bass||Brazil.
|-
||| ''[[Cichla kelberi]]'' <small>S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006</small> || Kelberi peacock bass||Brazil.
|-
|[[File:Xingu-Kammbuntbarsch (Cichla melaniae) (cropped).jpg|frameless|228x228px]]|| ''[[Cichla melaniae]]'' <small>S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006</small> || Xingu peacock bass||Brazil, restricted to the Lower Rio Xingu drainage.
|-
||| ''[[Cichla mirianae]]'' <small>S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006</small> || Tapajós peacock bass|| Brazil.
|-
|[[File:ButterflyPeacockBass 01.jpg|228x228px]]|| ''[[Cichla monoculus]]'' <small>[[Louis Agassiz|Agassiz]], 1831</small> || monoculus peacock bass, tucanare peacock bass|| Rio Solimões-Amazonas along the main channel and lower courses of tributaries; Peru, Colombia and Brazil; including Araguari and lower Oyapock rivers north of the Amazon.
|-
||| ''[[Cichla nigromaculata]]'' <small>[[Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet|Jardine]] & [[Robert Hermann Schomburgk|R. H. Schomburgk]], 1843</small> || ||Upper Orinoco and Casiquiare tributaries and the middle Rio Negro.
|-
|[[File:Cichla ocellaris Dvur zoo 1 (cropped).jpg|227x227px]]|| ''[[Cichla ocellaris]]'' <small>[[Marcus Elieser Bloch|Bloch]] & [[Johann Gottlob Schneider|J. G. Schneider]], 1801</small> ||butterfly peacock bass|| Marowijne drainage in Suriname and French Guiana to the Essequibo drainage in Guyana.
|-
|[[File:Pesca Esportiva na Amazônia 16 (cropped).JPG|227x227px]]|| ''[[Cichla orinocensis]]'' <small>[[Alexander von Humboldt|Humboldt]], 1821</small> || Orinoco peacock bass|| Orinoco River basin, in tributaries of the Orinoco River in Colombia and Venezuela; Amazon River basin, in the Negro River basin, Brazil.
|-
|||''[[Cichla pinima]]'' <small>S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006</small> || spotted peacock bass|| Brazil.
|-
|[[File:Cichla piquiti 29769333 (cropped).jpg|frameless|229x229px]]|| ''[[Cichla piquiti]]'' <small>S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006</small> || blue peacock bass||South America.
|-
|[[File:Cichla pleiozona 296042172 (cropped).jpg|frameless|229x229px]]|| ''[[Cichla pleiozona]]'' <small>[[Sven O. Kullander|S. O. Kullander]] & [[Efrem Jorge Gondim Ferreira|E. J. G. Ferreira]], 2006</small><ref>{{cite web | title=Lake Gatun Peacock | url=http://www.acuteangling.com/amazon-gamefish-science/peacock-bass-species-guide/taxonomy-2006/cichla-pleiozona.html | publisher=Acute Angling | access-date=6 June 2018 }}</ref> || Lake Gatun peacock bass|| Bolivian Amazon basin including the Rio Madre de Dios, Beni, Mamoré, and Guaporé river drainages of Bolivia and Brazil; and in Rio Jamari, a tributary of the Rio Madeira.
|-
| [[File:Cichla Temensis from Cinaruco1 (cropped).jpg|frameless|228x228px]]|| ''[[Cichla temensis]]'' <small>Humboldt, 1821</small>|| speckled pavon, speckled peacock bass, three-barred peacock bass||Amazon River basin in the Negro and Uatumã River drainages; Orinoco River basin in tributaries of the Orinoco River in Venezuela and Colombia.
|-
||| ''[[Cichla thyrorus]]'' <small>S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006</small> || Trombetas peacock bass||Brazil.
|-
||| ''[[Cichla vazzoleri]]'' <small>S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006</small> || Vazzoler's peacock bass||Brazil.
|-
|}


In addition, possibly [[undescribed species]] of peacock bass are known from the [[Travessão River|Travessão]] and [[Paru River]]s in Brazil.<ref>{{cite web | title=Rio Travessao Peacock Bass | url=http://www.acuteangling.com/amazon-gamefish-science/peacock-bass-species-guide/unidentified-taxa/rio-travessao.html | publisher=Acute Angling | access-date=17 October 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Rio Paru Peacock Bass | url=http://www.acuteangling.com/amazon-gamefish-science/peacock-bass-species-guide/unidentified-taxa/rio-paru-peacock.html | publisher=Acute Angling | access-date=17 October 2017 }}</ref>
==Links and References==
* [http://www.flyfisherman.com/florida/wjpeacockbass/ Florida Peacock Bass Fishing]
* [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=457 FishBase.org, Peacock Bass]
* [http://floridafisheries.com/Fishes/non-native.html#peacock FloridaFisheries.com Peacock Bass]
* {{ITIS|ID=648359|taxon=Cichla orinocensis|year=2006|date=30 January}}
* {{FishBase_species|genus=Cichla|species=orinocensis|year=2005|month=10}}


Traditionally, only five peacock bass were recognized, but in the review in 2006, nine new species were described and ''C. nigromaculata'' was revalidated.<ref name=Kullander/> In general, the various species are similar in proportions and most [[meristics]], but differ in colour pattern (and range). This is similar to other [[Diurnality|diurnal]] cichlids, where visual clues play an important role in the behavior, including breeding.<ref name=Kullander/> The speckled or three-barred peacock bass (''C. temensis'') in particular has caused problems due to its extensive variation, but the speckled pattern has now been shown to be present in nonbreeders and the three-barred when breeding.<ref name=Reiss2012/> Although minor variations are known from adults of other peacock bass species, none shows the extreme variation of the speckled/three-barred peacock bass.<ref name=Reiss2012/>
[[Category:Cichlidae]]
[[Category:Fauna of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Fauna of Singapore]]


A [[Genetics|genetic]] study published in 2012 has cast doubt on the validity of some of the species recognized in the review in 2006.<ref name=Willis /> Aside from limited [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] among many species, in both natural and human-altered environments, several species do not show sufficient differentiation to imply reproductive isolation and/or a history of independent evolution.<ref name=Willis /> Among the species implicated as probable "good" species were ''C. intermedia'', ''C. orinocensis'', ''C. temensis'', ''C. melaniae'', ''C. mirianae'', and ''C. piquiti''. The other species were suggested to be part of two widespread meta-species or [[species complex]]es, called ''Cichla pinima [[sensu lato]]'' (including ''C. jariina'', ''C. thyrorus'', and ''C. vazzoleri'') and ''C. ocellaris sensu lato'' (including ''C. monoculus'', ''C. nigromaculata'', ''C. pleiozona'', and ''C. kelberi'').<ref name=Willis /> In contrast, a genetic study published in 2007 suggested that two of those demoted [[taxa]], ''C. monoculus'' and ''C. pleiozona'', are valid species (this study lacked samples from some of the more localized proposed species).<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Willis |author2=Nunes |author3=Montaña |author4=Farias |author5=Lovejoy | year=2007 | title=Systematics, biogeography, and evolution of the Neotropical peacock basses Cichla (Perciformes: Cichlidae) | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume=44 | issue=1 | pages=291–307 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.12.014 | pmid=17275345 }}</ref>


A 2020 study described a new species, ''C. cataractae.''<ref name=":0" />
{{Cichlidae-stub}}

{{Singapore-stub}}
The peacock bass genus ''Cichla'' has been placed by some authorities as the only genus in the [[Monotypy|monogeneric]] [[Tribe (biology)|tribe]] Cichlini.<ref name="Smith">{{cite journal | author1 = Wm. Leo Smith | author2 = Prosanta Chakrabarty | author3 = John S. Sparks | year=2008 | title = Phylogeny, taxonomy, and evolution of Neotropical cichlids (Teleostei: Cichlidae: Cichlinae) | url = http://static1.squarespace.com/enwiki/static/54a3679de4b0d88dbda40971/t/54a3aa48e4b01142025f09fc/1420012104511/20_SmithetalCichlinae.pdf | journal = Cladistics | volume = 24 | issue = 5 | pages = 624–641}}</ref>

==Conservation status==
The [[IUCN]] has not investigated the conservation status of any peacock bass species. Therefore, they do not appear on its red list.<ref>{{cite web | title=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species <!-- search "Cichla" --> | url=http://www.iucnredlist.org | publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature | access-date=17 October 2017 }}</ref> Some of the species have relatively small distributions,<ref name=Kullander/> and ''C. melaniae'' is restricted to the lower [[Xingu River]] in an area that will be heavily affected by the [[Belo Monte Dam]].<ref>{{cite news | author=Pérez, M.S. | date=November–December 2015 | title=Where the Xingu Bends and Will Soon Break | url=http://symbiont.ansp.org/ixingu/publications/publications/2015-11SabajPerez_FINAL.pdf | publisher=americanscientist.org | pages=395–403 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Zuluaga-Gómez, M.A. |author2=D.B. Fitzgerald |author3=T. Giarrizzo |author4=K.O. Winemiller | year=2016 | title=Morphologic and trophic diversity of fish assemblages in rapids of the Xingu River, a major Amazon tributary and region of endemism | journal=Environ Biol Fish | volume=99 | issue=8–9 | pages=647–658 | doi=10.1007/s10641-016-0506-9 | s2cid=13838223 }}</ref>

==As gamefish==
{{no footnotes|section|date=October 2017}}
{{fly fishing targets}}
[[Recreational fishing|Sport fishermen]] have made these cichlids prized game fish for their fighting qualities, so much so that many travel agencies now arrange fishing trips to Brazil and Florida specifically to catch peacock bass.

Renowned American peacock bass fisherman and fishing author, [[Larry Larsen]], refers to them as "freshwater bullies" due to their ferocious nature when hunting and their tendency to damage and sometimes destroy fishing gear when striking.

The most common techniques for catching these cichlids are similar to those for catching [[largemouth bass]], with the notable exception that peacock bass usually will not strike artificial worms, a widely used lure among largemouth bass fisherman. In addition, [[fly fishing]] techniques, including lures such as [[Artificial fly|poppers]] and large [[Artificial fly|streamers]], are becoming increasingly popular for catching them.

==Introductions==
[[File:Peacock bass (Cichla) from Jurong Lake, Singapore - 20110322.jpg|thumb|Peacock bass caught in Singapore]]

===Invasive species===
Peacock bass have been identified as [[invasive species]] and cause of ecological imbalances in some of their introduced areas.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://insider.si.edu/2016/12/peacock-bass-invasion-devastating-long-term-effects-native-panamanian-fish/ | title=Peacock bass invasion Had devastating, long-term impact on Panama's Fish| date=2016-12-12}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

Peacock bass introduction in the Rosana Reservoir and upper [[Paraná River]], both in [[Brazil]], resulted in a 95% decline in native fish density and 80% decline in richness in only two years.<ref name=Pelicice/>

Few measures can protect native fish once peacock bass have been introduced. Reduction in native species' richness in lakes with introduced peacock bass was observed in all of the Gatun-area lakes, regardless of the presence of macrophyte refugia.<ref name=Latini>{{cite journal|last=Latini|first=A. O.|author2=Petrere, M. |title=Reduction of a native fish fauna by alien species: an example from Brazilian freshwater tropical lakes |journal=Fisheries Management and Ecology |date=1 April 2004 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=71–79 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2400.2003.00372.x|citeseerx=10.1.1.510.8982}}</ref> After initial increases in abundance, introduced peacock bass often deplete local prey and resort to [[Cannibalism (zoology)|cannibalism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Santos |first=G.B. |author2=Maia-Barbosa, P. |author3=Vieira, F. |author4= Lopez, C.M. |year=1994 |chapter=Fish and zooplankton community structure in reservoirs of Southeastern Brazil: effects of the introduction of exotic fish|editor=Pinto-Coelho, R.M. |editor2=Giani, A. |editor3=von Sperling, E.|title=Ecology and human impact on lakes and reservoirs in Minas Gerais, with special reference to future development and management strategies. SEGRAC, Belo Horizonte |pages=115–132}}</ref><ref name=Gomiero>{{cite journal|last=Gomiero|first=L. M.|author2=Braga, F. M. S.|title=Cannibalism as the main feeding behaviour of tucunares introduced in Southeast Brazil|journal=Brazilian Journal of Biology|date=1 August 2004|volume=64|issue=3b|pages=625–632|doi=10.1590/S1519-69842004000400009|pmid=15620000|doi-access=free|hdl=11449/21105|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Fugi>{{cite journal|last=Fugi|first=Rosemara|author2=Luz-Agostinho, Karla D. G. |author3=Agostinho, Angelo A. |title=Trophic interaction between an introduced (peacock bass) and a native (dogfish) piscivorous fish in a Neotropical impounded river|journal=Hydrobiologia|year=2008|volume=607|issue=1|pages=143–150|doi=10.1007/s10750-008-9384-2|s2cid=32412610|url=http://repositorio.uem.br:8080/jspui/handle/1/5289 }}</ref>

===In Panama's Gatun Lake===
''Cichla ''cf.'' ocellaris'' was introduced into Panama via a freshwater creek in the [[Rio Chagres]] drainage region unintentionally in the late 1950s (experts are not certain of the exact date). A well-known [[aquarist]] and medical doctor began raising peacock bass in a small pond in his back yard for sale as aquarium fish. Within a year, heavy rains flooded the pond, causing some [[:wikt:fry#Etymology 2|fry]] to escape into a nearby creek which drained into [[Gatun Lake]]. By 1964, the lake and nearby rivers and creeks were overrun with the cichlids, providing sport fishing opportunities that had not existed previously. Since then, ''C.'' cf. ''ocellaris'' has become the dominant sport fish species in the area.

The presence of peacock bass in Panama has caused significant damage to the native fish assemblage, by eliminating seven of eleven previously common fish species, and significantly reducing three others. Local extinctions and a decrease in abundance of many species led to cascading second-order effects on [[zooplankton]] and tertiary consumer communities.<ref name=Zaret>{{cite journal|last1=Zaret |first1=T.M. |last2=Paine |first2=R.T. |year=1973 |title=Species Introduction in a Tropical Lake |journal=Science |volume=182 |issue=2|pages=449–455 |doi=10.1126/science.182.4111.449 |pmid=17832455|bibcode=1973Sci...182..449Z |s2cid=19268817 }}</ref> Malaria incidence was reported to have risen significantly in the area around Gatun following the elimination of prey fishes that had previously kept the mosquito population at lower levels.<ref name=Zaret /> This is an example of how species introductions can have explicit consequences for human health.

===In Florida===
In 1984, after 10 years of study, Florida officials deliberately [[Introduced species|introduced]] butterfly peacock bass and speckled peacock bass to the southern region of that state<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shafland |first=Paul |url=http://myfwc.com/docs/WildlifeHabitats/Nonnative_FW_PeacockBass2008FlWildlifeMag.pdf |title=Butterfly peacock bass: A new Florida tradition |journal=Florida Wildlife |date=May–June 2008 |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=27–29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211121007/http://myfwc.com/docs/WildlifeHabitats/Nonnative_FW_PeacockBass2008FlWildlifeMag.pdf |archive-date=11 February 2010 }}</ref> to prey on other non-native species, including the [[Oscar (fish)|oscar]] (''Astronotus ocellatus''), [[Amphilophus citrinellus|Midas cichlid]] (''Amphilophus citrinellus''), and [[spotted tilapia]] (''Tilapia mariae''). Their introduction also provided additional [[sport fishing]] opportunities for anglers. While the butterfly peacock bass has flourished in Florida, the speckled peacock bass has not. Therefore, it is now illegal to kill or possess speckled peacock bass in Florida. The butterfly peacock bass tends to flourish in the canals and fresh waterways throughout south Florida.

Because of their tropical origins, peacock bass cannot tolerate low water temperatures. This has prevented them from becoming abundant in Florida outside of [[Palm Beach County, Florida|Palm Beach]], [[Broward County, Florida|Broward]], and [[Miami-Dade County, Florida|Miami-Dade]] Counties. However, reports of them have extended to other counties in South Florida such as [[Collier County, Florida|Collier]], [[Lee County, Florida]], and [[Hendry County, Florida|Hendry]] counties. Especially near [[Alligator Alley]].
<!-- ==Aquaria==
{{How-to section|date=October 2017}}
{{no inline|section|date=October 2017}}
Peacock bass make for great aquarium fish if kept in a large enough aquarium. The minimum tank size for an adult of one of the smaller species (e.g. ''C. ocellaris'') would be 180 gallons, and nothing less than a 300-gallon tank should be reserved for ''C. temensis''. As with all specialty fish, buy healthy stock from a reputable dealer. Tankmates should be other fish that are too large to swallow, such as [[arowana]]s, other large cichlids, and larger members of the [[Loricariidae]] family. The peacock bass produces more waste and uses more energy than a typical tropical fish, therefore significant biological filtration and aeration are necessary. Water changes of up to 25% weekly are required with such messy fish. Feeding should be 2 to 3 times a day for young peacock bass (under 4"), decreasing to once a day as they get older, then as an adult they should be fed every other day just enough to round off their stomachs. Peacock bass can be trained to take pellets, though occasionally this is a challenge. Avoid feeding them live goldfish (bait minnows would be a better choice). Even if they do not accept pellets, they may still eat other foods such as krill, bloodworms, and silversides. The temperature of the aquarium should range from 78 to 84&nbsp;°F. Temperature plays a big role on the looks, behavior, and feeding habits of the fish. Lower temperatures cause the fish to eat less, and reduces the efficiency of the immune system. Higher temperatures also affect aggression, making the fish more aggressive. A strong lid is an absolute must with these fish, as they will often bolt and attempt to jump out of the tank if startled. For the same reason, sharp decorations should be avoided in a ''Cichla'' tank.
-->

==Aquaculture==
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2023}}
[[Tilapia]] farmers sometimes keep peacock bass to eat any spawn that occur among their fish, in addition to eating any invasive fish that pose a threat to young tilapia (e.g. [[Centrarchidae|sunfish]], [[piranha]]). Spawning and brood-raising reduce the growth rate of the tilapia, so introduction of ''Cichla'' is thought to maintain a high growth rate in the tilapia.

They are also raised commercially for the [[aquarium trade]]; Asia is one of the main sources for aquacultured peacock bass. As a large predatory fish they are informally referred to as "[[Predatory fish#Freshwater|monster fish]]".

Peacock bass prey on any species that catches their eye, but those in which they seem most interested are tilapia, crayfish, tadpoles, mosquitofish, minnows, and guppies. Also, they will eat their own young when other fish are scarce.

==Eating quality==
[[File:Tucunaré (Peacock Bass) (20750719960).jpg|thumb|A serving of peacock bass]]
Their eating quality is very good. Their flesh is white and sweet when cooked, and has very little oil, making it similar in taste to [[Lutjanidae|snapper]] or [[grouper]]. Also, they are not excessively bony. However, most professional American anglers recommend practicing [[catch and release]] for these species to protect their numbers in the United States. To help ensure this, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission officers strictly enforce [[bag limits]] for these fish.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Cichla}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100722081608/http://www.panamafishingandcatching.com/gatun.htm Gatun Lake]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q2764835|from2=Q3468}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cichla]]
[[Category:Cichlid fish of South America]]
[[Category:Cichlid genera]]
[[Category:Recreational fishing]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Marcus Elieser Bloch]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider]]

Latest revision as of 02:41, 27 September 2024

Not to be confused with peacock cichlid.

Peacock bass
An adult butterfly peacock bass
juvenile Orinoco peacock bass
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Cichliformes
Family: Cichlidae
Tribe: Cichlini
Genus: Cichla
Bloch & Schneider, 1801[1]
Type species
Cichla ocellaris
Bloch & Schneider, 1801
Synonyms

Acharnes Holmberg, 1891[2]

Peacock bass or Brazilian tucunaré are large freshwater cichlids of the genus Cichla.[3][4] These are diurnal predatory fishes native to the Amazon and Orinoco basins, as well as rivers of the Guianas, in tropical South America.[2] They are sometimes referred to in English by their Brazilian name tucunaré or their Spanish name pavon.[4] Despite the common name and their superficial similarity, they are not closely related to other fish known as bass, such as the North American largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides).[5][6]

Peacock bass are important food fish and are also considered valuable game fish. This has resulted in their accidental (escapees from fish farms) or deliberate (release by fishers) introduction to regions outside their native range,[7] both elsewhere in South America,[8][9] and in warm parts of North America and Asia.[10][11] Singles have been caught elsewhere, including Australia,[12] but do not appear to have become established there.[13] Where established as an introduced species, they may become invasive and damage the ecosystem because of their highly predatory behavior, feeding extensively on smaller native fish.[14][15]

The largest species in the genus, the speckled peacock bass (C. temensis), reaches up to 13 kg (29 lb) in weight and 1 m (3.3 ft) in length, possibly making it the largest species of cichlid[16] (others suggest that record goes to the African giant cichlid, Boulengerochromis microlepis).[17] Other peacock bass species are smaller.[18] They are sometimes kept in aquariums, but even the smaller species require a very large tank.[6][19]

Common names

[edit]

Many common names are used for these fish in Brazil, the country of their largest native region. The most popular of these is tucunaré. In Spanish, the generic common name for these cichlids is pavόn. Pavón, in Spanish, means "peacock", while the Brazilian name comes from Tupi, an indigenous language of Brazil, meaning "friend of the tree", as this peacock bass usually stays close to submerged trees to hunt and to protect itself and its nests.

Description

[edit]
Adult Cichla orinocensis is easily recognized by its three large gold-edged spots (not bars) on the side of the body[2]

The speckled peacock bass is the largest species and can grow to 1 m (3.3 ft) in length, and may be the largest of all cichlid fishes. Most display a color pattern based on a theme of three wide vertical stripes on their bodies, sometimes with smaller intermediate bands, only a grey, brown, yellow, or green background. They also exhibit a spot on their tail fins that resembles the eyes on a peacock's tail feathers—a feature which resulted in their common names (this "ocellus" is a common feature of South American cichlids, and is thought to deter predators and fin-biting piranhas). In addition, many adult fishes (primarily males, but also some females) develop a pronounced hump on their foreheads (nuchal hump) shortly before and during the rainy season, when the fishes generally spawn. Other physical traits can vary greatly, depending on the species, individual, and stage of development. These include dark rosettes instead of stripes, light speckles, and impressive shades of bright green, orange, blue, and gold. Very young fish exhibit dark horizontal stripes down half (C. orinocensis, C. ocellaris, et al.) or the whole (C. temensis, C. pinima, et al.) body.

Taxonomy and species

[edit]

Following a taxonomic review published in 2006,[2] 15 Cichla species are recognized by FishBase:[18]

Image Scientific name Common Name Distribution
Cichla cataractae

Sabaj, López-Fernández, Willis, Hemraj, Taphorn & Winemiller, 2020[20]

Essequibo River basin.
Cichla intermedia Machado-Allison, 1971 Royal peacock bass Orinoco River basin in Venezuela and Colombia.
Cichla jariina S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006 Jari peacock bass Brazil.
Cichla kelberi S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006 Kelberi peacock bass Brazil.
Cichla melaniae S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006 Xingu peacock bass Brazil, restricted to the Lower Rio Xingu drainage.
Cichla mirianae S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006 Tapajós peacock bass Brazil.
Cichla monoculus Agassiz, 1831 monoculus peacock bass, tucanare peacock bass Rio Solimões-Amazonas along the main channel and lower courses of tributaries; Peru, Colombia and Brazil; including Araguari and lower Oyapock rivers north of the Amazon.
Cichla nigromaculata Jardine & R. H. Schomburgk, 1843 Upper Orinoco and Casiquiare tributaries and the middle Rio Negro.
Cichla ocellaris Bloch & J. G. Schneider, 1801 butterfly peacock bass Marowijne drainage in Suriname and French Guiana to the Essequibo drainage in Guyana.
Cichla orinocensis Humboldt, 1821 Orinoco peacock bass Orinoco River basin, in tributaries of the Orinoco River in Colombia and Venezuela; Amazon River basin, in the Negro River basin, Brazil.
Cichla pinima S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006 spotted peacock bass Brazil.
Cichla piquiti S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006 blue peacock bass South America.
Cichla pleiozona S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006[21] Lake Gatun peacock bass Bolivian Amazon basin including the Rio Madre de Dios, Beni, Mamoré, and Guaporé river drainages of Bolivia and Brazil; and in Rio Jamari, a tributary of the Rio Madeira.
Cichla temensis Humboldt, 1821 speckled pavon, speckled peacock bass, three-barred peacock bass Amazon River basin in the Negro and Uatumã River drainages; Orinoco River basin in tributaries of the Orinoco River in Venezuela and Colombia.
Cichla thyrorus S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006 Trombetas peacock bass Brazil.
Cichla vazzoleri S. O. Kullander & E. J. G. Ferreira, 2006 Vazzoler's peacock bass Brazil.

In addition, possibly undescribed species of peacock bass are known from the Travessão and Paru Rivers in Brazil.[22][23]

Traditionally, only five peacock bass were recognized, but in the review in 2006, nine new species were described and C. nigromaculata was revalidated.[2] In general, the various species are similar in proportions and most meristics, but differ in colour pattern (and range). This is similar to other diurnal cichlids, where visual clues play an important role in the behavior, including breeding.[2] The speckled or three-barred peacock bass (C. temensis) in particular has caused problems due to its extensive variation, but the speckled pattern has now been shown to be present in nonbreeders and the three-barred when breeding.[4] Although minor variations are known from adults of other peacock bass species, none shows the extreme variation of the speckled/three-barred peacock bass.[4]

A genetic study published in 2012 has cast doubt on the validity of some of the species recognized in the review in 2006.[3] Aside from limited hybridization among many species, in both natural and human-altered environments, several species do not show sufficient differentiation to imply reproductive isolation and/or a history of independent evolution.[3] Among the species implicated as probable "good" species were C. intermedia, C. orinocensis, C. temensis, C. melaniae, C. mirianae, and C. piquiti. The other species were suggested to be part of two widespread meta-species or species complexes, called Cichla pinima sensu lato (including C. jariina, C. thyrorus, and C. vazzoleri) and C. ocellaris sensu lato (including C. monoculus, C. nigromaculata, C. pleiozona, and C. kelberi).[3] In contrast, a genetic study published in 2007 suggested that two of those demoted taxa, C. monoculus and C. pleiozona, are valid species (this study lacked samples from some of the more localized proposed species).[24]

A 2020 study described a new species, C. cataractae.[20]

The peacock bass genus Cichla has been placed by some authorities as the only genus in the monogeneric tribe Cichlini.[25]

Conservation status

[edit]

The IUCN has not investigated the conservation status of any peacock bass species. Therefore, they do not appear on its red list.[26] Some of the species have relatively small distributions,[2] and C. melaniae is restricted to the lower Xingu River in an area that will be heavily affected by the Belo Monte Dam.[27][28]

As gamefish

[edit]
Fly fishing
targets
See also

Sport fishermen have made these cichlids prized game fish for their fighting qualities, so much so that many travel agencies now arrange fishing trips to Brazil and Florida specifically to catch peacock bass.

Renowned American peacock bass fisherman and fishing author, Larry Larsen, refers to them as "freshwater bullies" due to their ferocious nature when hunting and their tendency to damage and sometimes destroy fishing gear when striking.

The most common techniques for catching these cichlids are similar to those for catching largemouth bass, with the notable exception that peacock bass usually will not strike artificial worms, a widely used lure among largemouth bass fisherman. In addition, fly fishing techniques, including lures such as poppers and large streamers, are becoming increasingly popular for catching them.

Introductions

[edit]
Peacock bass caught in Singapore

Invasive species

[edit]

Peacock bass have been identified as invasive species and cause of ecological imbalances in some of their introduced areas.[29][7][15]

Peacock bass introduction in the Rosana Reservoir and upper Paraná River, both in Brazil, resulted in a 95% decline in native fish density and 80% decline in richness in only two years.[14]

Few measures can protect native fish once peacock bass have been introduced. Reduction in native species' richness in lakes with introduced peacock bass was observed in all of the Gatun-area lakes, regardless of the presence of macrophyte refugia.[30] After initial increases in abundance, introduced peacock bass often deplete local prey and resort to cannibalism.[31][32][33]

In Panama's Gatun Lake

[edit]

Cichla cf. ocellaris was introduced into Panama via a freshwater creek in the Rio Chagres drainage region unintentionally in the late 1950s (experts are not certain of the exact date). A well-known aquarist and medical doctor began raising peacock bass in a small pond in his back yard for sale as aquarium fish. Within a year, heavy rains flooded the pond, causing some fry to escape into a nearby creek which drained into Gatun Lake. By 1964, the lake and nearby rivers and creeks were overrun with the cichlids, providing sport fishing opportunities that had not existed previously. Since then, C. cf. ocellaris has become the dominant sport fish species in the area.

The presence of peacock bass in Panama has caused significant damage to the native fish assemblage, by eliminating seven of eleven previously common fish species, and significantly reducing three others. Local extinctions and a decrease in abundance of many species led to cascading second-order effects on zooplankton and tertiary consumer communities.[34] Malaria incidence was reported to have risen significantly in the area around Gatun following the elimination of prey fishes that had previously kept the mosquito population at lower levels.[34] This is an example of how species introductions can have explicit consequences for human health.

In Florida

[edit]

In 1984, after 10 years of study, Florida officials deliberately introduced butterfly peacock bass and speckled peacock bass to the southern region of that state[35] to prey on other non-native species, including the oscar (Astronotus ocellatus), Midas cichlid (Amphilophus citrinellus), and spotted tilapia (Tilapia mariae). Their introduction also provided additional sport fishing opportunities for anglers. While the butterfly peacock bass has flourished in Florida, the speckled peacock bass has not. Therefore, it is now illegal to kill or possess speckled peacock bass in Florida. The butterfly peacock bass tends to flourish in the canals and fresh waterways throughout south Florida.

Because of their tropical origins, peacock bass cannot tolerate low water temperatures. This has prevented them from becoming abundant in Florida outside of Palm Beach, Broward, and Miami-Dade Counties. However, reports of them have extended to other counties in South Florida such as Collier, Lee County, Florida, and Hendry counties. Especially near Alligator Alley.

Aquaculture

[edit]

Tilapia farmers sometimes keep peacock bass to eat any spawn that occur among their fish, in addition to eating any invasive fish that pose a threat to young tilapia (e.g. sunfish, piranha). Spawning and brood-raising reduce the growth rate of the tilapia, so introduction of Cichla is thought to maintain a high growth rate in the tilapia.

They are also raised commercially for the aquarium trade; Asia is one of the main sources for aquacultured peacock bass. As a large predatory fish they are informally referred to as "monster fish".

Peacock bass prey on any species that catches their eye, but those in which they seem most interested are tilapia, crayfish, tadpoles, mosquitofish, minnows, and guppies. Also, they will eat their own young when other fish are scarce.

Eating quality

[edit]
A serving of peacock bass

Their eating quality is very good. Their flesh is white and sweet when cooked, and has very little oil, making it similar in taste to snapper or grouper. Also, they are not excessively bony. However, most professional American anglers recommend practicing catch and release for these species to protect their numbers in the United States. To help ensure this, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission officers strictly enforce bag limits for these fish.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Cichla". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 30 January 2006.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Kullander, Sven; Efrem Ferreira (2006). "A review of the South American cichlid genus Cichla, with descriptions of nine new species (Teleostei: Cichlidae)". Ichthyological Explorations of Freshwaters. 17 (4).
  3. ^ a b c d Willis, Stuart; Izeni Farias; Guillermo Orti (2012). "Simultaneous delimitation of species and quantification of interspecific hybridization in Amazonian peacock cichlids (genus Cichla) using multi-locus data". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 12 (96): 96. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-12-96. PMC 3563476. PMID 22727018.
  4. ^ a b c d Reiss, P.; K.W. Able; M.S. Nunes; T. Hrbek (2012). "Color pattern variation in Cichla temensis (Perciformes: Cichlidae): resolution based on morphological, molecular, and reproductive data". Neotrop. Ichthyol. 10 (1): 59–70. doi:10.1590/S1679-62252012000100006.
  5. ^ "What is a Peacock Bass?". Acute Angling. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  6. ^ a b "Peacock Bass - Spectacular Cichlids for Big Aquaria". Tropical Fish Finder. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  7. ^ a b Franco, Ana Clara Sampaio; Petry, Ana Cristina; Tavares, Marcela Rosa; Fátima Ramos Guimarães, Taís; Santos, Luciano Neves (28 October 2021). "Global distribution of the South American peacock basses Cichla spp. follows human interference". Fish and Fisheries. 23 (2): 407–421. doi:10.1111/faf.12624. ISSN 1467-2960. S2CID 240206544.
  8. ^ Ortega, J.C.G. (2015). "First record of Peacock bass Cichla kelberi Kullander & Ferreira, 2006 in the Brazilian Pantanal". BioInvasions Records. 4 (2): 133–138. doi:10.3391/bir.2015.4.2.10.
  9. ^ Luciano Seraphim Gasques; Sônia Maria Alves Pinto Prioli; Alberto José Prioli; Daniela Dib Gonçalves; Thomaz Manzini Carrenho Fabrin (2015). "Prospecting molecular markers to distinguish Cichla kelberi, C. monoculus and C. piquiti". Acta Scientiarum. 37 (4): 455–462. doi:10.4025/actascibiolsci.v37i4.25985.
  10. ^ Nico, L.; M. Neilson (2017). "Cichla ocellaris Bloch and Schneider, 1801". U.S. Geological Survey, Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  11. ^ "Peacock Bass (introduced)". Ecology Asia. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  12. ^ "Peacock bass found in Mackay's Pioneer River". The Courier-Mail. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
  13. ^ "No peacock bass found in Pioneer River following sampling". Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Queensland Government. 1 February 2018. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
  14. ^ a b Pelicice, Fernando M.; Agostinho, Angelo A. (14 October 2008). "Fish fauna destruction after the introduction of a non-native predator (Cichla kelberi) in a Neotropical reservoir". Biological Invasions. 11 (8): 1789–1801. doi:10.1007/s10530-008-9358-3. S2CID 28019655.
  15. ^ a b Franco, Ana Clara Sampaio; García-Berthou, Emili; Santos, Luciano Neves dos (20 March 2021). "Ecological impacts of an invasive top predator fish across South America". Science of the Total Environment. 761: 143296. Bibcode:2021ScTEn.761n3296F. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143296. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 33187704. S2CID 226948167.
  16. ^ Reis, P. (2015), Aspects of life history of Cichla temensis (Perciformes: Cichlidae) and its relationship to the Amazon basin's flood pulse, Rutgers University
  17. ^ "The 10 biggest cichlids". Practical Fishkeeping. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  18. ^ a b Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Species in genus Cichla". FishBase. October 2017 version.
  19. ^ "Cichla orinocensis". SeriouslyFish. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  20. ^ a b Sabaj, Mark H.; López-Fernández, Hernán; Willis, Stuart C.; Hemraj, Devya D.; Taphorn, Donald C.; Winemiller, Kirk O. (17 March 2020). "Cichla cataractae (Cichliformes: Cichlidae), new species of peacock bass from the Essequibo Basin, Guyana and Venezuela". Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 167 (1): 69–86. doi:10.1635/053.167.0106. ISSN 0097-3157. S2CID 216409842.
  21. ^ "Lake Gatun Peacock". Acute Angling. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
  22. ^ "Rio Travessao Peacock Bass". Acute Angling. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  23. ^ "Rio Paru Peacock Bass". Acute Angling. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  24. ^ Willis; Nunes; Montaña; Farias; Lovejoy (2007). "Systematics, biogeography, and evolution of the Neotropical peacock basses Cichla (Perciformes: Cichlidae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 44 (1): 291–307. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.12.014. PMID 17275345.
  25. ^ Wm. Leo Smith; Prosanta Chakrabarty; John S. Sparks (2008). "Phylogeny, taxonomy, and evolution of Neotropical cichlids (Teleostei: Cichlidae: Cichlinae)" (PDF). Cladistics. 24 (5): 624–641.
  26. ^ "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  27. ^ Pérez, M.S. (November–December 2015). "Where the Xingu Bends and Will Soon Break" (PDF). americanscientist.org. pp. 395–403.
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