White Mexicans: Difference between revisions
Source number 12: "For these reasons, skin color determines the opportunities of Mexicans" speaks of the skin tone of Mexicans and the economic sectors where they worked, but does not indicate that 59 million Mexicans are white or 47% of the Mexican population. this source cannot be used to validate that quantity. Tag: Reverted |
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{{Short description|Ethnic group(s)}} |
{{Short description|Ethnic group(s)}} |
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{{Use American English|date = March 2019}} |
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}} |
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{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2024}} |
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{{Infobox ethnic group |
{{Infobox ethnic group |
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| group = White Mexicans |
| group = White Mexicans |
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| native_name = |
| native_name = {{native name|es|Mexicanos blancos}} |
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| flag = {{flagicon|Mexico}} |
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| native_name_lang = |
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| image = |
| image = Mexican Girls.jpg |
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| pop = '''Mexico'''<br/> Estimates range 11 million to 59 million<ref name=CIA-Factbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/|title=The World Factbook: North America: Mexico: People and Society|publisher=The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)|quote=mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 62%, predominantly Amerindian 21%, Amerindian 7%, other 10% (mostly European)|access-date=August 23, 2017}}</ref><ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/Ethnic-groups|title=Mexico: Ethnic groups|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=August 23, 2017|postscript=: Ethnic composition (2010): 64.3% mestizo; 15% Mexican white; 10.5% detribalized Amerindian; 7.5% other Amerindian; 1% Arab; 0.5% Mexican black; 1.2% other.}}</ref><ref name="conapred21Marzo">{{cite web|url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf|title=21 de Marzo: Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial|trans-title=March 21: International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination|language=es|publisher=[[National Council to Prevent Discrimination|CONAPRED]]|location=Mexico|page=7|date=2017|access-date=August 23, 2017}}</ref><ref name="conapredEncuesta">{{cite book|url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf|title=Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico|trans-title=National Survey on Discrimination in Mexico|language=es|publisher=CONAPRED|location=Mexico|date=June 2011|access-date=August 24, 2017}}</ref> <br/>9–47% of Mexican population<ref name=Britannica/> <br/>'''United States'''<br/> 16,794,111<ref>Sharon R. Ennis, Merarys Ríos-Vargas, Nora G. Albert (May 2011). https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf U.S. Census Bureau, p. 14 (Table 6). Retrieved 2011-07-11.</ref> <br/> 5.4% of United States population <br/> 33.3%<!-- 16794111/50477594==0.3327 --> of Hispanic and Latino Americans |
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| pop = '''Mexico'''<br /> '''52 million'''<ref name=MMSI>[http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.pdf "Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709120023/http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.pdf |date=July 9, 2018 }}, ''INEGI'', June 16, 2017, Retrieved on April 30, 2018.</ref><ref name=Britannica>Ethnic composition (2010): ''Approximately two fifths''{{cite encyclopedia |title=Mexico: Ethnic groups |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/Ethnic-groups |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=March 6, 2022}}</ref><ref name="conapred21Marzo">{{cite web |url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf|title=21 de Marzo: Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial|trans-title=March 21: International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination |language=es|publisher=[[National Council to Prevent Discrimination|CONAPRED]]|location=Mexico|page=7|date=2017|access-date=August 23, 2017 |archive-date=May 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525133622/http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf|url-status=live}} In the page 7 of the press release, the council reported that 53.5% of Mexican women and 39.4% of Mexican men identified with the lightest skin colors used in the census questionary, ''CONAPRED'', Mexico, March 21. Retrieved on April 28, 2017.</ref><ref name="conapredEncuesta">{{cite web |url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf |title=Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico 2010|trans-title=National Survey on Discrimination in Mexico 2010|language=es |publisher=CONAPRED|location=Mexico |date=June 2011|access-date=August 24, 2017|url-status=live |archive-date=November 8, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108095738/http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf}}</ref> <br />40% of the Mexican population<br /><small>(weighted average of available sources)</small><ref name="conapred21Marzo"/><ref name=Britannica/><br>'''United States'''<br /> 16,794,111 (2010)<ref>{{cite report |last1=Ennis |first1=Sharon R. |last2=Rios-Vargas |first2=Merarys |last3= ALbert |first3=Nora G. |date=May 2011 |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf |title=2010 Census |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127044304/https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf |archive-date=January 27, 2018 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |page=14 (Table 6) |access-date=July 11, 2011}}</ref><br />'''White Mexican groups:'''<br><small>([[Spaniards in Mexico|Spaniards]], [[Arab Mexicans|Arabs]], [[Italian immigration to Mexico|Italians]], [[German Mexicans|Germans]], [[French Mexicans|French]], etc.)</small> |
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| regions = [[Sonora]], [[Sinaloa]], [[Baja California Sur]], [[Baja California Norte]], [[Durango]], [[Jalisco]], [[Nayarit]], [[San Luis Potosí]] |
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| regions = Mainly in [[Northern Mexico]] and in the [[Bajío]], to a lesser extent in [[Mexico City]] |
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| languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]], <br />[[Venetian language|Venetian]] ([[Chipilo Venetian dialect|Chipilo Venetian]]), <br /> [[Plautdietsch language|Plautdietsch]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://imbeurope.org/embracepdf/profiles/plautdietsch.pdf|title=Plautdietsch in Mexico|work=europeanpeoples.imb.org|access-date=January 13, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102957/http://imbeurope.org/embracepdf/profiles/plautdietsch.pdf|archive-date=October 6, 2014}}</ref> |
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| languages = Majority: [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ([[Mexican Spanish]])<br>Minority: [[German language|German]] ([[Plautdietsch language|Plautdietsch]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://imbeurope.org/embracepdf/profiles/plautdietsch.pdf|title=Plautdietsch in Mexico|work=europeanpeoples.imb.org|access-date=January 13, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102957/http://imbeurope.org/embracepdf/profiles/plautdietsch.pdf|archive-date=October 6, 2014}}</ref><br>[[Venetian language|Venetian]] ([[Chipilo Venetian dialect|Chipilo Venetian]]) |
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| religions = [[Christianity]] (predominantly [[Roman Catholicism]], minority [[Protestantism]]), [[Judaism]], [[Mormonism]] |
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| religions = [[Christianity]] (predominantly [[Roman Catholicism]] and minority [[Protestantism]]{{·}}[[Mormonism]]) |
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| related = Other [[White Latin Americans]] · Other [[White Hispanic]] · [[Spaniards]] · [[Italians]] · [[French people|French]] · [[Germans]]<ref>Includes Poles: Wojciech Tyciński, Krzysztof Sawicki, Departament Współpracy z Polonią MSZ (Warsaw, 2009). "Raport o sytuacji Polonii i Polaków za granicą (The official report on the situation of Poles and Polonia abroad)" (PDF file, direct download 1.44 MB). Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland), pp. 1–466. Retrieved June 14, 2013 (Internet Archive).</ref> |
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| related = [[Spaniards]]{{·}}[[Arab people|Arabs]]{{·}}[[Italians]]{{·}}[[Germans]]<ref>Includes Poles: Wojciech Tyciński, Krzysztof Sawicki, Departament Współpracy z Polonią MSZ (Warsaw, 2009). "Raport o sytuacji Polonii i Polaków za granicą (The official report on the situation of Poles and Polonia abroad)" (PDF file, direct download 1.44 MB). Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland), pp. 1–466. Retrieved June 14, 2013 (Internet Archive).</ref>{{·}}[[Mestizo Mexicans|Mestizo]]{{·}}Other [[White Latin Americans]] |
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| footnotes = {{smallsup|a}} [[Mexican Americans]] |
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| footnotes = |
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'''White Mexicans''' ({{ |
'''White Mexicans''' ({{langx|es|Mexicanos blancos}}) are individuals in Mexico who identify as [[White people|white]], often due to their physical appearance or their recognition of [[Europe|European]] or [[West Asia|West Asian]] ancestry.<ref name="fnavarrete"/> The [[Federal government of Mexico|Mexican government]] conducts ethnic censuses that allow individuals to identify as "White,"<ref name=MMSI1>[http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.pdf "Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709120023/http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.pdf |date=July 9, 2018 }}, ''INEGI'', June 16, 2017, Retrieved on April 30, 2018.</ref> but the specific results of these censuses are not made public. Instead, the government releases data on the percentage of "light-skinned Mexicans" in the country, with nationwide surveys conducted by the Mexico's [[INEGI|National Institute of Statistics]] and the [[National Council to Prevent Discrimination]] reporting results that range from 27%<ref name=ENADIS2017-1 /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación (ENADIS) 2022 |url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/enadis/2022/#:~:text=La%20ENADIS%202022%20se%20suma,manera%20estructural%20han%20sido%20discriminados. |access-date=April 2, 2024 |website=www.inegi.org.mx |language=es}}</ref> to 47%.<ref name="conapred21Marzo" /><ref name=MMSI2>[http://bibliodigitalibd.senado.gob.mx/bitstream/handle/123456789/3525/JASC%2520IBD%2520MMSI%25202016%2520V1.0.pdf?sequence=6&isAllowed=y "Visión INEGI 2021 Dr. Julio Santaella Castell"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121234012/http://bibliodigitalibd.senado.gob.mx/bitstream/handle/123456789/3525/JASC%2520IBD%2520MMSI%25202016%2520V1.0.pdf?sequence=6&isAllowed=y |date=January 21, 2019 }}, ''INEGI'', July 3, 2017, Retrieved on April 30, 2018.</ref> The term "Light-skinned Mexican" is preferred by both the government and media to describe individuals in Mexico who possess European physical traits when discussing ethno-racial dynamics.<ref name="DISC-RACIAL 2011">[http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/Dossier%20DISC-RACIAL.pdf "Documento Informativo Sobre Discriminación Racial En México"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525133620/http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/Dossier%20DISC-RACIAL.pdf |date=May 25, 2017 }}, ''CONAPRED'', Mexico, March 21, 2011, retrieved on April 28, 2017.</ref> However, "White Mexican" is still used at times.<ref name=huffpost>[https://www.huffingtonpost.com.mx/2017/06/26/por-estas-razones-el-color-de-piel-de-los-mexicanos-determina-su_a_23001217/ "Por estas razones el color de piel determina las oportunidades de los mexicanos"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622011146/https://www.huffingtonpost.com.mx/2017/06/26/por-estas-razones-el-color-de-piel-de-los-mexicanos-determina-su_a_23001217/ |date=June 22, 2018 }}, ''Huffington post'', July 26, 2017, Retrieved on April 30, 2018.</ref><ref name=ElUniversal>[http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/entrada-de-opinion/articulo/ricardo-fuentes-nieva/nacion/2017/07/6/ser-blanco "Ser Blanco"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619075811/http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/entrada-de-opinion/articulo/ricardo-fuentes-nieva/nacion/2017/07/6/ser-blanco |date=June 19, 2018 }}, ''El Universal'', July 6, 2017, Retrieved on June 19, 2018.</ref><ref name=Forbes>[https://www.forbes.com.mx/inegi-lo-confirma-en-mexico-te-va-mejor-si-eres-blanco "Comprobado con datos: en México te va mejor si eres blanco"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105202809/https://www.forbes.com.mx/inegi-lo-confirma-en-mexico-te-va-mejor-si-eres-blanco/ |date=November 5, 2018 }}, ''forbes'', August 7, 2018, Retrieved on November 4, 2018.</ref><ref name=Economiahoy>[https://www.economiahoy.mx/nacional-eAm-mx/noticias/10398162/03/20/Sears-racista-Causa-polemica-su-nueva-campana-de-publicidad.html "¿Seras racista? Causa polémica su nueva campaña de publicidad"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721213516/https://www.economiahoy.mx/nacional-eAm-mx/noticias/10398162/03/20/Sears-racista-Causa-polemica-su-nueva-campana-de-publicidad.html |date=July 21, 2020 }}, ''Economiahoy.mx'', March 5, 2020, Retrieved on July 21, 2020.</ref><ref name=Tomatazos>[https://www.tomatazos.com/noticias/435020/Critican-series-mexicanas-de-Netflix-por-solo-tener-personajes-blancos "Critican series mexicanas de Netflix por sólo tener personajes blancos"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419222723/https://www.tomatazos.com/noticias/435020/Critican-series-mexicanas-de-Netflix-por-solo-tener-personajes-blancos |date=April 19, 2021 }}, ''Tomatazos.com'', 23 mayo 2020, consultado el 19 de diciembre de 2020.</ref><ref name=Resultadosvidaycolor>[http://bibliodigitalibd.senado.gob.mx/bitstream/handle/123456789/3525/Presentacion_MMSI2016_Senado.pdf?sequence=7&isAllowed=y "Resultados de vida y color de piel en México"], ''Biblioteca del senado de México'', July 3, 2017, Retrieved on December 30, 2018.</ref> |
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Estimates of Mexico's |
Estimates of Mexico's White population vary significantly due to the different methodologies used. Unofficial sources such as the World Factbook or Latinobarómetro, suggest a white population of just 10%.<ref name=CIA-Factbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/|title=The World Factbook: North America: Mexico: People and Society|publisher=The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)|quote=other 10% (mostly European)|access-date=August 23, 2017|archive-date=January 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126164719/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=latinobarometro : latinobarometro : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming |url=https://archive.org/details/latinobarometro |access-date=2024-06-01 |website=Internet Archive |language=en}}</ref> A 2005 study by a professor of the National Autonomous University of Mexico estimated said group at 15% using as base the results of the 1921 census which is admitted, may be inaccurate.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lizcano |first=Francisco |date=2005 |title=Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI |url=http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920172933/http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf |archive-date=September 20, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Latinobarómetro |url=https://www.latinobarometro.org/latOnline.jsp}}</ref> Other historians have also questioned the accuracy of the 1921 census' results,<ref name="MexicoRacista1" /> with independent research in 2008 and 2010 also suggesting that Mexicans may not identify in the way the 1921 census indicate.<ref name="Clute Journals">R. Martínez & C. De La Torre (2008): [https://www.clutejournals.com/index.php/JDM/article/download/4993/5084 "Racial Appearance And Income In Contemporary Mexico, pag 9 note 1"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806021728/https://www.clutejournals.com/index.php/JDM/article/download/4993/5084 |date=August 6, 2021 }}, ''Journal of Diversity Management'', 2008, Retrieved April 1, 2021.</ref><ref name="Schwartz-Marín & Silva-Zolezzi 2010"/> Other sources suggest higher percentages: ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' estimates them at around 30% of the population,<ref name=Britannica/> field surveys that use the presence of [[blond hair]] as a reference to classify a Mexican as White found that 23% of the [[Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana|Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico]] population could be classified as such,<ref name="pmid21537803">{{cite journal |last1=Ortiz-Hernández |first1=Luis |last2=Compeán-Dardón |first2=Sandra |last3=Verde-Flota |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Flores-Martínez |first4=Maricela Nanet |title=Racism and mental health among university students in Mexico City |journal=Salud Pública de México |date=April 2011 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=125–133 |doi=10.1590/s0036-36342011000200005 |pmid=21537803 |doi-access=free |issn=0036-3634 }}</ref> the [[American Sociological Association]] obtained a nationwide percentage of 18.8% using the same method.<ref name="jstor20799484">{{cite journal |last1=Villarreal |first1=Andrés |title=Stratification by Skin Color in Contemporary Mexico |journal=American Sociological Review |date=2010 |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=652–678 |doi=10.1177/0003122410378232 |jstor=20799484 |s2cid=145295212 }}</ref> Another study conducted by the [[University College London]] in collaboration with [[Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia|National Institute of Anthropology and History]] found that 18% of Mexicans had blond hair and 28% had light eyes.<ref name="journals.plos.org">[http://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572 "Admixture in Latin America: Geographic Structure, Phenotypic Diversity and Self-Perception of Ancestry Based on 7,342 Individuals" table 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525170929/http://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572 |date=May 25, 2017 }}, ''Plosgenetics'', September 25, 2014. Retrieved on May 9, 2017.</ref> |
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The presence of Europeans in Mexico dates back to the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]], and during the colonial period, most European immigration was Spanish. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries, significant waves of European and European-derived populations from North and South America immigrated to Mexico. This intermixing between European immigrants and [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous peoples]] resulted in the emergence of the Mestizo group, which became the majority of Mexico's population by the time of the [[Mexican Revolution]].<ref name="fnavarrete">{{cite web |url= http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130823015618/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html |archive-date= August 23, 2013 |url-status=dead |title=El mestizaje y las culturas |first=Federico |last=Navarrete |work=México Multicultural |publisher=[[UNAM]] |language=es |trans-title=Mixed race and cultures |access-date=July 19, 2011 }}</ref> Some scholars challenge this narrative, citing church and census records that indicate interracial unions in Mexico were rare among all groups.<ref>{{harvnb|Federico Navarrete|2016|pp=109–110|ps=: "To make matters worse, the few Germans, Italians and other Europeans who did reach our shores also did not mix in large numbers with the Mexican population, and even less so with the indigenous people, whom they were supposed to make disappear with the superior powers of Mexico: its race. In fact, they founded regional enclaves where they married preferentially among themselves, as the Creoles and the indigenous had traditionally done. The historian Moisés González Navarro studied the population censuses of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which allow us to know more accurately the behavior of the population than in previous periods. Contrary to what the mestizaje legend would have us believe, he found that informal marriages and unions between white men and indigenous women, or any other combination, hardly existed.2"}}</ref><ref name="San Miguel 2000">{{cite journal |last1=San Miguel |first1=G. |title=Ser mestizo en la nueva España a fines del siglo XVIII: Acatzingo, 1792 |trans-title=To be 'mestizo' in New Spain at the end of the XVIII th century. Acatzingo, 1792 |language=es |journal=Cuadernos de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy |date=November 2000 |issue=13 |pages=325–342 |url=http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1668-81042000000100018 |access-date=July 1, 2017 |archive-date=October 23, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023172608/http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1668-81042000000100018 |url-status=live }}</ref> These records also dispute other academic narratives, such as the idea that European immigrants were predominantly male or that "pure Spanish" individuals formed a small elite. In fact, Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in colonial cities<ref name="EnsayospoblaciónMéxico">{{cite book|author1=Sherburne Friend Cook|author2=Woodrow Borah|title=Ensayos sobre historia de la población. México y el Caribe 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSCVztyTANcC&pg=PA223 |access-date=September 12, 2017|date=1998|publisher=Siglo XXI|isbn=9789682301063|page=223}}</ref><ref>[https://fsu.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fsu:182427/datastream/PDF/view "Household Mobility and Persistence in Guadalajara, Mexico: 1811–1842, page 62"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210110946/https://fsu.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fsu:182427/datastream/PDF/view |date=December 10, 2018 }}, ''fsu org'', December 8, 2016. Retrieved on December 9, 2018.</ref> and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of full Spanish origin.<ref name="San Miguel 2000" /> |
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While genetic evidence suggests that most European immigrants to Mexico were male, and that the modern population of Mexico was primarily formed through the [[genetic admixture|mixing]] of Spanish males and Native American females,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonilla |first1=C. |last2=Parra |first2=E. J. |last3=Pfaff |first3=C. L. |last4=Dios |first4=S. |last5=Marshall |first5=J. A. |last6=Hamman |first6=R. F. |last7=Ferrell |first7=R. E. |last8=Hoggart |first8=C. L. |last9=McKeigue |first9=P. M. |last10=Shriver |first10=M. D. |title=Admixture in the Hispanics of the San Luis Valley, Colorado, and its implications for complex trait gene mapping |journal=Annals of Human Genetics |date=March 2004 |volume=68 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=139–153 |doi=10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00084.x |pmid=15008793 |hdl=2027.42/65937 |s2cid=13702953 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15008793/ |issn=0003-4800 |access-date=October 3, 2022 |archive-date=October 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003095425/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15008793/ |url-status=live |hdl-access=free }} "Both studies have revealed a pattern of directional mating in this population, an asymmetric interaction between Spanish males and Native American females, much like in other Hispanic populations of Latin America (Green et al. 2000; Carvajal-Carmona et al. 2000, 2003; Rodriguez-Delfin et al. 2001). During the conquest and colonization of America the immigration of women from the Iberian Peninsula was significantly lower than that of men, so European males frequently took native women as wives or partners (Morner, 1967). After the initial directional contact between European and Native American populations it seems likely that the admixed group became mostly endogamic, which would explain the high levels of Native American mtDNA (Merriwether et al. 1997)."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wheelwright |first1=Jeff |title=The Wandering Gene and the Indian Princess: Race, Religion, and DNA |date=January 16, 2012 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-08342-2 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDiZHxAASM0C&pg=PA96 |language=en}} "The Hispanos generally resemble other Hispanic and Mexican-American groups while having a somewhat higher proportion of European blood than the rest. Genetics research has also confirmed the harshly one-sided nature of the admixture. By paying special attention to the Y-chromosome and the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), scientists proved that the genetic exchange in the early years of New Mexico was almost entirely between Spanish males and Indian females." [...] "The Y chromosome of Hispano men is hardly Native American at all, while their mtDNA is about 85 percent Indian. Again, the former represents fatherhood, the latter motherhood. The skew between the two means that mating happened in one direction. It means that Indian men and Spanish women were largely on the sidelines when the admixture between Spanish men and Indian women occurred."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Suarez-Kurtz |first1=Dr G. |title=Pharmacogenomics in Admixed Populations |date=August 3, 2007 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4987-1379-5 |page=39 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mS1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |language=en}} "In Mexico, approximately 90% of the maternal lineages are of Native American ancestry, implying that there has been very little European female contribution throughout colonial and post-colonial history."</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |last2=Bellis |first2=Claire |last3=Zlojutro |first3=Mark |last4=Melton |first4=Phillip E. |last5=Blangero |first5=John |last6=Curran |first6=Joanne E. |title=Large scale mitochondrial sequencing in Mexican Americans suggests a reappraisal of Native American origins |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |date=October 7, 2011 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=293 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-293 |pmid=21978175 |pmc=3217880 |issn=1471-2148 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011BMCEE..11..293K }} "Thus the observed frequency of Native American mtDNA in Mexican/Mexican Americans is higher than was expected on the basis of autosomal estimates of Native American admixture for these populations i.e. ~ 30-46% [53, 55]. The difference is indicative of directional mating involving preferentially immigrant men and Native American women. This type of genetic asymmetry has been observed in other populations, including Brazilian individuals of African ancestry, as the analysis of sex specific and autosomal markers has revealed evidence for substantial European admixture that was mediated mostly through men [56]."</ref> how pronounced said gender asymmetry was varies considerably depending on the study. The Native American maternal contribution figures range from 90% to 59%,<ref name="Analysis3">Campos-Sanchez et al. (2006): [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17506286/ "Genetic structure analysis of three Hispanic populations from Costa Rica, Mexico, and the southwestern United States using Y-chromosome STR markers and mtDNA sequences"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004202217/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17506286/ |date=October 4, 2022 }}, ''Pubmed'', 2006, Retrieved October 4, 2022.</ref> while research on the X chromosome shows less variation, with the reported Native American female contribution oscillating between 50%<ref name="Geographic Patterns of Genome Admix"/> and 54%.<ref name="A Genomewide Admixture Map for Lati">{{cite journal |last1=Price |first1=Alkes L. |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Yu |first3=Fuli |last4=Cox |first4=David R. |last5=Waliszewska |first5=Alicja |last6=McDonald |first6=Gavin J. |last7=Tandon |first7=Arti |last8=Schirmer |first8=Christine |last9=Neubauer |first9=Julie |last10=Bedoya |first10=Gabriel |last11=Duque |first11=Constanza |last12=Villegas |first12=Alberto |last13=Bortolini |first13=Maria Catira |last14=Salzano |first14=Francisco M. |last15=Gallo |first15=Carla |last16=Mazzotti |first16=Guido |last17=Tello-Ruiz |first17=Marcela |last18=Riba |first18=Laura |last19=Aguilar-Salinas |first19=Carlos A. |last20=Canizales-Quinteros |first20=Samuel |last21=Menjivar |first21=Marta |last22=Klitz |first22=William |last23=Henderson |first23=Brian |last24=Haiman |first24=Christopher A. |last25=Winkler |first25=Cheryl |last26=Tusie-Luna |first26=Teresa |last27=Ruiz-Linares |first27=Andrés |last28=Reich |first28=David |display-authors=4 |title=A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=June 2007 |volume=80 |issue=6 |pages=1024–1036 |doi=10.1086/518313 |pmid=17503322 |pmc=1867092}} "Results are reported in table 2 and indicate higher total Native American ancestry for LA Latinos and Mexicans (45% and 44%, respectively) than for Brazilians and Colombians (18% and 19%, respectively), which is in line with previous studies.21,22 We also observed uniformly higher Native American ancestry on the X chromosome (57% for LA Latinos, 54% for Mexicans, 33% for Brazilians, and 27% for Colombians), which is consistent with evidence of predominantly European patrilineal and Native American matrilineal ancestry in Latino populations.22"</ref> Present day [[Mestizos in Mexico|Mestizos]] have varying degrees of European and Indigenous ancestry, with some having European genetic ancestry exceeding 90%,<ref name="Geographic Patterns of Genome Admix">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Sijia |last2=Ray |first2=Nicolas |last3=Rojas |first3=Winston |last4=Parra |first4=Maria V. |last5=Bedoya |first5=Gabriel |last6=Gallo |first6=Carla |last7=Poletti |first7=Giovanni |last8=Mazzotti |first8=Guido |last9=Hill |first9=Kim |last10=Hurtado |first10=Ana M. |last11=Camrena |first11=Beatriz |last12=Nicolini |first12=Humberto |last13=Klitz |first13=William |last14=Barrantes |first14=Ramiro |last15=Molina |first15=Julio A. |last16=Freimer |first16=Nelson B. |last17=Bortolini |first17=Maria Cátira |last18=Salzano |first18=Francisco M. |last19=Petzl-Erler |first19=Maria L. |last20=Tsuneto |first20=Luiza T. |last21=Dipierri |first21=José E. |last22=Alfaro |first22=Emma L. |last23=Bailliet |first23=Graciela |last24=Bianchi |first24=Nestor O. |last25=Llop |first25=Elena |last26=Rothhammer |first26=Francisco |last27=Excoffier |first27=Laurent |last28=Ruiz-Linares |first28=Andrés |display-authors=4 |title=Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=March 21, 2008 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=e1000037 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037 |pmid=18369456 |pmc=2265669 |doi-access=free }}</ref> albeit after the [[Mexican Revolution]] the government began defining ethnicity on cultural standards (mainly the language spoken) rather than racial or phenotypic ones, which led to a large number of White persons to be classified as Mestizos.<ref name="Lizcano Fernández 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Lizcano Fernández |first1=Francisco |title=Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI |trans-title=Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the XXI Century |language=es |journal=Convergencia |date=August 2005 |volume=12 |issue=38 |pages=196 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-14352005000200185 |access-date=November 18, 2020 |archive-date=September 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922054604/https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-14352005000200185 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Another ethnic group in Mexico, the [[Mestizos in Mexico|Mestizos]], is characterized by having people with varying degrees of European ancestry and Amerindian heritage, with some even showing a European genetic ancestry higher than 90%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Sijia |last2=Ray |first2=Nicolas |last3=Rojas |first3=Winston |last4=Parra |first4=Maria V. |last5=Bedoya |first5=Gabriel |last6=Gallo |first6=Carla |last7=Poletti |first7=Giovanni |last8=Mazzotti |first8=Guido |last9=Hill |first9=Kim |last10=Hurtado |first10=Ana M. |last11=Camrena |first11=Beatriz |last12=Nicolini |first12=Humberto |last13=Klitz |first13=William |last14=Barrantes |first14=Ramiro |last15=Molina |first15=Julio A. |last16=Freimer |first16=Nelson B. |last17=Bortolini |first17=Maria Cátira |last18=Salzano |first18=Francisco M. |last19=Petzl-Erler |first19=Maria L. |last20=Tsuneto |first20=Luiza T. |last21=Dipierri |first21=José E. |last22=Alfaro |first22=Emma L. |last23=Bailliet |first23=Graciela |last24=Bianchi |first24=Nestor O. |last25=Llop |first25=Elena |last26=Rothhammer |first26=Francisco |last27=Excoffier |first27=Laurent |last28=Ruiz-Linares |first28=Andrés |title=Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=21 March 2008 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=e1000037 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037 |pmid=18369456 |pmc=2265669 }}</ref> However, the criteria for defining what constitutes a Mestizo varies from study to study as in Mexico a large number of European descended people have been historically classified as Mestizos because after the [[Mexican revolution]] the Mexican government began defining ethnicity on cultural standards (mainly the language spoken) rather than racial ones.<ref name="Lizcano Fernández 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Lizcano Fernández |first1=Francisco |title=Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI |trans-title=Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the XXI Century |language=es |journal=Convergencia |date=August 2005 |volume=12 |issue=38 |pages=185–232 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-14352005000200185 }}</ref> |
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==History== |
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==Distribution and estimates== |
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===Establishment of Europeans in Mexico=== |
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[[File:Retrato de familia Fagoaga Arozqueta - Anónimo ca.1730.jpg|thumb|right|''Portrait of the family Fagoaga Arozqueta.'' An upper class colonial Mexican family of Spanish ancestry (referred to as Criollos) in Mexico City, [[New Spain]], ca. 1730.]] |
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The presence of Europeans in what is nowadays known as Mexico dates back to the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]] in the early 16th century<ref name="jleff">{{cite journal |last1=Fortes de Leff |first1=Jacqueline |title=Racism in Mexico: Cultural Roots and Clinical Interventions1 |journal=Family Process |date=December 2002 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=619–623 |doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.00619.x |pmid=12613120 }}</ref><ref name="lealmart">{{Cite thesis |degree=PhD |title= For The Enjoyment of All:" Cosmopolitan Aspirations, Urban Encounters and Class Boundaries in Mexico City |author= Alejandra M. Leal Martínez |year=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences 3453017 }}</ref> by [[Hernán Cortés]], his troops and a number of indigenous city-states who were tributaries and rivals of the Aztecs, such as the [[Totonacs]], the [[Tlaxcala (Nahua state)|Tlaxcaltecas]] and Texcocanos among others. After years of war, the coalition led by Cortés finally managed to conquer the [[Aztec Empire]] which would result in the foundation of the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]] and while this new state granted a series of privileges to the members of the allied indigenous tribes such as nobiliary titles and swathes of land, the Spanish held the most political and economic power.<ref name="cathenc">{{cite web |url= http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14747c.htm |title= Tlaxcala |publisher= New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia |access-date= March 11, 2012 |archive-date= May 22, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120522064530/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14747c.htm |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="jleff"/><ref name="lizcano">{{Cite thesis |degree=PhD |title=Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI |url=http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920172933/http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf |archive-date=September 20, 2008 |author= Francisco Lizcano Fernández |year=2005 |publisher= Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, UAEM, Mexico |access-date=July 19, 2011 }}</ref> The small number of Spaniards who inhabited the new kingdom would soon be complemented by a steady migration flow of Spanish people,<ref name="lizcano"/> as it was the interest of the Spanish crown to Hispanicize and Christianize the region given that Indigenous peoples and their customs were considered uncivilized, thus the Spanish language and culture were imposed and indigenous ones suppressed.<ref name="jleff"/><ref name="lmmm">{{cite web |url=http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Poblacioninmigrante-lapoliticacolonizadora.html |title=Población inmigrante |first=Luz María |last=Martinez Montiel |work=México Multicultural |publisher=[[UNAM]] |location=Mexico |language=es |trans-title=Immigrant population |access-date=July 19, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722230642/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Poblacioninmigrante-lapoliticacolonizadora.html |archive-date=July 22, 2011 }}</ref> |
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[[File:Nebel Voyage 16 La Mantilla.jpg|thumb|right|250px|White Mexican women wearing the ''[[mantilla]]'', painting by [[Carl Nebel]], 1836.]] |
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The Mexican experience mirrors much of that of the rest of [[Latin America]], as attitudes towards race, including identification, were set by the conquistadors and Spanish who came soon after.<ref name="lizcano"/> Through the colonial period, the Spanish and their descendants, called "[[criollo people|criollos]]" remained outnumbered by the [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|indigenous]] and "[[mestizo]]s" or those of mixed Spanish and indigenous parents<ref name="jleff"/><ref name="lmmm"/> (albeit a person of 7/8 Spanish ancestry and 1/8 or less indigenous ancestry could be considered to be "criollo").<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morales |first1=Efraín Castro |title=Los cuadros de castas de la Nueva España |trans-title=Caste cadres of New Spain |language=es |journal=Jahrbuch für Geschichte Lateinamerikas |date=January 1983 |volume=20 |issue=1 |doi=10.7767/jbla.1983.20.1.671 |s2cid=162365969 }}</ref> To keep power, the Spanish enforced a hierarchical class system in New Spain's society, with those born in Spain (known as ''Peninsulares'') being the most privileged, followed by criollos, then Mestizos, then the indigenous and finally the Africans. Nonetheless, the system was not completely rigid and elements such as social class, social relations and who a person descended from did figure into it. However, the notion of "Spanishness" would remain at the top and "Indianness" would be at the bottom, with those mixed being somewhere in the middle. This idea remained officially in force through the rest of the colonial period.<ref name="jleff"/> |
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Contrary to popular belief, Mexico's government does conduct ethnic censuses on which a Mexican has the choice of identify as "White",<ref name=MMSI1/> the results, however, remain unpublished. Instead the Mexican government does publish results regarding the frequencies of different phenotypical traits in Mexicans such as skin color, and in discourses and investigations regarding problematics such as racism has opted for splitting Mexicans on "light skinned Mexicans" and "dark skinned Mexicans" rather than on "White Mexicans" and "Mestizo Mexicans". Other studies made by independent institutions often use the presence of light hair colors (particularly blond) to calculate Mexico's white population, however it must be noted that to use said features to delineate said ethnic group results in a underestimation of its numbers as not all of Europe's native populations have those traits, similarly, not only people with those phenotypical features are considered to be white by the majority of Mexican society.<ref name=Economiahoy /><ref name=Tomatazos/> |
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Mexico's European heritage is strongly associated with Spanish settlement during the colonial period, Mexico not having witnessed the same scale of mass recent-immigration as other [[New World]] countries such as the United States, Brazil, and Argentina.<ref name="lealmart"/> However, this ruling is less blanket fact and more of a consequence due to Mexico's enormous population. Regardless, Mexico ranks 3rd behind Brazil and Argentina for European immigration in Latin America with its culture owing a great deal to the significant German, Italian, Irish, British, Polish, and French populations. White Mexicans rather, descend of a considerably [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentrist]] group of Spanish people who, beginning with the arrival and establishment of the [[conquistador]]s to then be supplemented with clerics, workers, academics etc. immigrated to what today is Mexico. The [[criollo people|criollos]] (as people born in the colonies to Spanish parents were called until the beginning of the 20th century)<ref name="lizcano" /> would favor for marriage other Spanish immigrants even if they were of a less privileged economic class than them, as to preserve the Spanish lineage and customs was seen as the top priority. Once Mexico achieved its independence and immigration from European countries other than Spain became accepted, the criollos did the same, and sought to assimilate the new European immigrants into the overwhelmingly Spanish-origin white Mexican population, as the yearly immigration rate of Europeans to Mexico never exceeded 2% in relation to the country's total population, assimilation of the new immigrants was easy and Mexican hyphenated identities never appeared.<ref name="buchenau" /> |
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Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of [[Ethnic groups of Europe|white]] population, with the majority of the people not having native admixture or being of predominantly European ancestry, resembling in aspect that of [[Spaniards|northern Spaniards]].<ref name="UnitedStatesandMexico">{{cite book|author1=Howard F. Cline|title=THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPl8c4XINgoC&q=northern+spanish|access-date=May 18, 2017|date=1963|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674497061|page=104}}</ref> In the north and west of Mexico, the indigenous tribes were substantially smaller than those found in central and southern Mexico, and also much less organized, thus they remained isolated from the rest of the population or even in some cases were hostile towards Mexican colonists. The northeast region, in which the indigenous population was eliminated by early European settlers, became the region with the highest proportion of whites during the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|Spanish colonial period]]. However, recent immigrants from southern Mexico have been changing, to some degree.<ref name=Britannica/> |
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[[File:Dell'Acqua Ernennung Maximilians zum Kaiser Mexikos.jpg|thumb|right|Maximilian receiving a Mexican delegation at [[Miramare Castle]] in [[Trieste]]. Painting by Cesare dell'Acqua (1821-1905)]] |
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[[File:Skin color in Mexico.PNG|left|thumb|Results of the survey conducted by the CONAPRED in 2010.<ref name="Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación en México 2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf|title=Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico|pages=40–43|website=Conapred.org.mx|date=June 2011|access-date=28 April 2017}}</ref>]] |
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Another way on which European immigration to Mexico differed from that of other New World countries was on the profile of the needed immigrant. As New Spain's main economic activities were not related to agriculture (and the manpower for it was already supplied by the converted indigenous population)the country didn't enforce any sort of programs that would make it an attractive destination for European farmers. Much more important to the economy was mining and miners came from Europe, in particular from [[Cornwall]], U.K. and even today parts of [[Mineral del Monte]] and [[Pachuca]] maintain strong links to both their British heritage and with the United Kingdom. There was also strong demand for people with specialized skills in fields such as geology, metallurgy, commerce, law, medicine etc. As stories of professional immigrants amassing huge wealth in a pair of years were commonly heard, New Spain became very attractive only for Europeans who filled these profiles and their families, which in the end resulted on the country getting relatively less European immigration,<ref name="lmmm"/><ref name="buchenau"/> is also because of the aforementioned reasons that the majority of Spanish immigrants who arrived to the country were from the northern regions of Spain, mainly [[Cantabria]], [[Navarra]], [[Asturias]], [[Galicia Spain|Galicia]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]].<ref name="MinerosYcomerciantes">{{cite book|author1=David A. Branding|author2=Woodrow Borah|title=Mineros y comerciantes en el México borbónico (1763-1810)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYH_DAAAQBAJ&q=Cantabria+Navarra+Asturias&pg=PT140|access-date=January 27, 2018|date=1975|publisher=Fondo de Cultura Económica|isbn=9789681613402|page=150}}</ref> |
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In 2010, the [[National Council to Prevent Discrimination|CONAPRED]] (Mexico's National Council for the Prevention of Discrimination) conducted the ENADIS 2010 (National Survey About Discrimination)<ref name="conapredEncuesta"/> with the purpose of addressing the problems of racism that Mexicans of mainly [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous]] or [[Afro-Mexicans|African]] ancestry suffer at hands of a society that favors light-skinned, European-looking Mexicans.<ref name="DISC-RACIAL 2011"/> In the press release of said report, the CONAPRED stated that 47% of Mexicans (54% of women and 40% of men) identified with the lightest skin colors used in the census questionnaire. The council makes the supposition that the high difference reported between males and females is due to the "frequently racist publicity in media and due racial prejudices in Mexico's society which shuns dark skin in favor of light skin, thus making women think that white is beautiful," the report also states that men do not suffer this problem and thus have no problem recognizing their real skin color.<ref name="Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS 2017">[http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf "21 de Marzo Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial"] In the page 7 of the press release, the council reported that 47% of Mexicans (54% of women and 40% of men) identified with the lightest skin colors used in the census questionary, ''CONAPRED'', Mexico, 21 March. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.</ref> However, a subsequent question in the same survey contradicts said supposition, as it asks Mexicans to evaluate, from 0 to 10 how comfortable they are with their skin color, with the average result being 9.4 out of ten.<ref>[http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf "Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico" pag. 42], "CONAPRED", Mexico DF, June 2011. Retrieved on 28 April 2011.</ref> Furthermore, scientific research proving that human females tend to have lighter skin than their male counterparts exists.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jablonski |first1=Nina G. |last2=Chaplin |first2=George |title=The evolution of human skin coloration |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |date=July 2000 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=57–106 |doi=10.1006/jhev.2000.0403 |pmid=10896812 }}</ref> |
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Criollo resentment of the privileges afforded to the ''Peninsulares'' was the main reason behind the [[Mexican War of Independence]]. When the war ended in 1821, the new Mexican government expelled the peninsulares (approximately 10,000 – 20,000 people) in the 1820s and 1830s which, to a degree, kept the European ethnicity from growing as a percentage;<ref name="lmmm"/> this expulsion, however, did not lead to any permanent ban on European immigrants, even from Spain.<ref name="lealmart"/> Independence did not end the economic and social privilege based on race, as the Criollos took over from those of Spanish birth. A division between "Spanish" and "indigenous" remained, with Criollos distinguishing themselves from the rest of society as the guardians of Spanish culture as well as the Catholic religion.<ref name="buchenau">{{cite journal |last=Buchenau |first=Jurgen |date=Spring 2001 |title= Small numbers, great impact: Mexico and its immigrants, 1821–1973 |journal=Journal of American Ethnic History |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=23–49 |doi=10.2307/27502710 |jstor=27502710 |pmid=17605190 |s2cid=29111441 }}</ref> However, due to the abolition of the caste system, the division became more about money and social class and less about biological differences, which increased the possibilities of social mobility for Mestizo and Indigenous Mexicans. For this reason, many of the political and cultural struggles of the latter 19th and early 20th centuries would be between the Criollos and the Mestizos.<ref name="lmmm"/> |
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Besides the visual identification of skin color, the same survey included a question on which it asked Mexicans "what would they call their skin color?" while the press report by the CONAPRED remarks that six out of ten people considered themselves to be "moreno" (brunette in English) and only one out of ten considered their skin to be "blanco" (white)<ref>[http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf "21 de Marzo Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" pag. 2], ''CONAPRED'', Mexico, 21 March. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.</ref> the actual questionnaire included as choices other words who are colloquially used to refer to white people in Mexico such as "Güero" (informal for white), "Claro" (clear), "Aperlado" (Pearly) and other words who may or not refer to a white person depending of the case, such as "Quemadito" (Burnt), "Bronceado" (Tanned), "Apiñonado" (Spiced), "Amarillo" (Yellow) and "Canela" (Cinnamon). Further complicating the situation, several words used specifically for brown skin also appear as choices such as "Café" (Brown), "Negro" (Black), "Chocolate" (translation unnecessary), "Oscuro" (Dark), "Prieto" (Very dark) and "Trigueño" (other word for brown).<ref>[http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf "Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico" pag. 42], "CONAPRED", Mexico DF, June 2011. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.</ref> The word "moreno" itself has a very wide definition in Spanish and has no specific racial connotations, being used equally to define light-skinned people with dark hair as to define people of African ancestry.<ref>[http://www.wordreference.com/definicion/moreno "moreno - Definición"], "Wordreference", Retrieved on 29 April 2017.</ref> |
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According to Mexico's first ever racial census published in 1793, the Euro-descendant population was between 18%-22% of the population (with Mestizos being 21%-25% and Amerindians being 51%-61%);<ref name="Lerner1968">{{cite journal |last1=Lerner |first1=Victoria |title=Consideraciones sobre la población de la Nueva España (1793-1810): Según Humboldt y Navarro y Noriega |trans-title=Considerations on the population of New Spain (1793-1810): According to Humboldt and Navarro and Noriega |language=es |journal=Historia Mexicana |date=1968 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=327–348 |jstor=25134694 }}</ref> but by 1921, when the second nationwide census that considered a person's race took place, 59% of the population self-identified as being of European descent, with 59% being Mestizo and 29% being Amerindian.<ref name="fnavarrete" /> While for a long time the 1921 census' results were taken as fact, with international, although unofficial publications such as ''[[The World Factbook]]'' using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition up to this day,<ref name=CIA-Factbook/> more recently, Mexican academics have subjected them to scrutiny, claiming that such a drastic alteration of demographic trends is not possible and cite, among other statistics, the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries.<ref name="El mestizaje">{{cite web|last1=Anchondo|first1=Sandra|last2=de Haro|first2=Martha|url=http://istmo.mx/index.php/2016/07/04/el-mestizaje-es-un-mito-la-identidad-cultural-si-importa/|title=El mestizaje es un mito, la identidad cultural sí importa|trans-title=Miscegenation is a myth, cultural identity does matter|language=es|publisher=Istmo|location=Mexico|date=July 4, 2016|access-date=August 24, 2017|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010154747/http://istmo.mx/2016/07/04/el-mestizaje-es-un-mito-la-identidad-cultural-si-importa/|archive-date=October 10, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="MexicoRacista1">{{cite book |author1=Federico Navarrete |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FC_4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT86 |title=Mexico Racista |date=2016 |publisher=Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico |isbn=9786073143646 |page=86 |access-date=February 23, 2018}}</ref> |
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==Official censuses== |
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Historically, population studies and censuses have never been up to the standards that a population as diverse and numerous such as Mexico's require: the first racial census was made in 1793, being also Mexico's (then known as [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|New Spain]]) first ever nationwide population census, of it, only part of the original datasets survive, thus most of what is known of it comes from essays made by researchers who back in the day used the census' findings as reference for their own works. More than a century would pass until the Mexican government conducted a new racial census in 1921 (some sources assert that the census of 1895 included a comprehensive racial classification,<ref name="fnavarrete"/> however according to the historic archives of [[National Institute of Statistics and Geography (Mexico)|Mexico's National Institute of Statistics]] that was not the case).<ref>[http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/proyectos/ccpv/1895 "censo General de la Republica Mexicana 1895"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810035109/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/proyectos/ccpv/1895/ |date=August 10, 2017 }}, "[[INEGI]]", Mexico, Retrieved on July 24, 2017.</ref> While the 1921 census was the last time the Mexican government conducted a census that included a comprehensive racial classification, in recent time it has conducted nationwide surveys to quantify most of the ethnic groups who inhabit the country as well as the social dynamics and inequalities between them. |
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===1793 census=== |
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[[File:Mapa del Virreinato de la Nueva España (1819).svg|thumb|left|New Spain in 1819 with the boundaries established at the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]]]] |
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Also known as the "Revillagigedo census" due to its creation being ordered by the Count of the same name, this census was Mexico's (then known as the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]]) first ever nationwide population census. Most of its original datasets have reportedly been lost; thus most of what is known about it nowadays comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had access to the census data and used it as reference for their works such as Prussian geographer [[Alexander von Humboldt]]. Each author gives different estimations for each racial group in the country, although they don't vary much, with Europeans ranging from 18% to 22% of New Spain's population, Mestizos ranging from 21% to 25%, Indians ranging from 51% to 61% and Africans being between 6,000 and 10,000, The estimations given for the total population range from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354. It is concluded then, that across nearly three centuries of colonization, the population growth trends of whites and mestizos were even, while the total percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13%-17% per century. The authors assert that rather than whites and mestizos having higher birthrates, the reason for the indigenous population's numbers decreasing lies on them suffering of higher mortality rates, due living in remote locations rather than on cities and towns founded by the Spanish colonists or being at war with them. It is also for these reasons that the number of Indigenous Mexicans presents the greater variation range between publications, as in cases their numbers in a given location were estimated rather than counted, leading to possible overestimations in some provinces and possible underestimations in others.<ref name="Lerner1968"/> |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:center; text-align:center;" |
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|- |
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!Intendecy/territory |
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!European population (%) |
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!Indigenous population (%) |
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!Mestizo population (%) |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[State of Mexico|Mexico]] |
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| 16.9% |
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| 66.1% |
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| 16.7% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Puebla]] |
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| 10.1% |
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| 74.3% |
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| 15.3% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Oaxaca]] |
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| 06.3% |
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| 88.2% |
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| 05.2% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Guanajuato]] |
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| 25.8% |
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| 44.0% |
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| 29.9% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[San Luis Potosi]] |
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| 13.0% |
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| 51.2% |
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| 35.7% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Zacatecas]] |
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| 15.8% |
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| 29.0% |
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| 55.1% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Durango]] |
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| 20.2% |
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| 36.0% |
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| 43.5% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Sonora]] |
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| 28.5% |
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| 44.9% |
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| 26.4% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Yucatan]] |
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| 14.8% |
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| 72.6% |
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| 12.3% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Guadalajara]] |
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| 31.7% |
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| 33.3% |
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| 34.7% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Veracruz]] |
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| 10.4% |
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| 74.0% |
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| 15.2% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Michoacan|Valladolid]] |
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| 27.6% |
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| 42.5% |
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| 29.6% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[New Mexico|Nuevo Mexico]] |
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| ~ |
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| 30.8% |
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| 69.0% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Baja California|Vieja California]] |
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| ~ |
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| 51.7% |
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| 47.9% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Alta California|Nueva California]] |
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| ~ |
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| 89.9% |
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| 09.8% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Coahuila]] |
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| 30.9% |
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| 28.9% |
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| 40.0% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Nuevo Leon]] |
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| 62.6% |
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| 05.5% |
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| 31.6% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Nuevo Santander]] |
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| 25.8% |
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| 23.3% |
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| 50.8% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Texas]] |
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| 39.7% |
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| 27.3% |
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| 32.4% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Tlaxcala]] |
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| 13.6% |
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| 72.4% |
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| 13.8% |
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|- |
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|} |
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~<small>Europeans are included within the Mestizo category.</small> |
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Regardless of the possible imprecisions related to the counting of Indigenous peoples living outside of the colonized areas, the effort that New Spain's authorities put on considering them as subjects is worth mentioning, as censuses made by other colonial or post-colonial countries did not consider American Indians to be citizens/subjects, as example the censuses made by the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] would only count the inhabitants of the colonized settlements.<ref name=scarecrow>''Historical Dictionary of Argentina''. London: Scarecrow Press, 1978. pp. 239–40.</ref> Other example would be the censuses made by the United States, that did not include Indigenous peoples living among the general population until 1860, and indigenous peoples as a whole until 1900.<ref>[https://www.archives.gov/research/census/native-americans/1790-1930.html "American Indians in the Federal Decennial Census"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120144444/https://www.archives.gov/research/census/native-americans/1790-1930.html |date=November 20, 2020 }}, Retrieved on July 25, 2017.</ref> |
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===1921 census=== |
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[[File:1909. Vendedora de ollas. Saturnino Herrán.jpg|thumb|Vendedora de ollas (Pot saleswoman). [[Saturnino Herrán]], 1909.]] |
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Made right after the consummation of the Mexican revolution, the social context on which this census was made makes it particularly unique, as the government of the time was in the process of rebuilding the country and was looking forward to unite all Mexicans under a single national identity. The 1921 census' final results in regards to race, which assert that 59.3% of the Mexican population self-identified as Mestizo, 29.1% as Indigenous and only 9.8% as White were then essential to cement the "mestizaje" ideology (that asserts that the Mexican population as a whole is product of the admixture of all races) which shaped Mexican identity and culture through the 20th century and remain prominent nowadays, with extraofficial international publications such as ''[[The World Factbook]]'' using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition up to this day.<ref name=CIA-Factbook/> |
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Nonetheless, in recent times the census' results have been subjected to scrutiny by historians, academics, and social activists alike, who assert that such drastic alterations in demographics for the 1793 census are not possible and cite, among other statistics the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries in colonial and early independent Mexico.<ref name="El mestizaje"/><ref name="MexicoRacista1"/> It is claimed that the "mestizaje" process sponsored by the state was more "cultural than biological" which resulted in the numbers of the Mestizo Mexican group being inflated at the expense of the identity of other races.<ref name="PlaBrugat2011">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.dimensionantropologica.inah.gob.mx/?p=7401 |title=Más desindianización que mestizaje. Una relectura de los censos generales de población |last=Pla Brugat |first=Dolores |website=Dimensión Antropológica |volume=53 |date=September–December 2011 |pages=69–91 |language=es |trans-title=More de-Indianization than miscegenation. A rereading of the general population censuses |access-date=November 18, 2020 |archive-date=December 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206022341/https://www.dimensionantropologica.inah.gob.mx/?p=7401 |url-status=live }}</ref> Controversies aside, this census constituted the last time the [[Mexican Government]] conducted a comprehensive racial census with the breakdown by states being the following (foreigners and people who answered "other" not included):<ref>[http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_Serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/1921/EUM/RCGH21I.pdf DEPARTAMENTO DE LA ESTADISTICA NACIONAL] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060335/http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_Serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/1921/EUM/RCGH21I.pdf |date=March 4, 2016 }} CENSO GENERAL DE HABITANTES 1921 Census (Page: 62)</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:center; text-align:center;" |
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|- |
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!Federative Units |
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!Mestizo Population (%) |
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!Amerindian Population (%) |
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!White Population (%) |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Aguascalientes]] |
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| 66.12% |
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| 16.70% |
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| 16.77% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Baja California|Baja California<br />(Distrito Norte)]] |
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| 72.50% |
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| 07.72% |
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| 00.35% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Baja California Sur|Baja California<br />(Distrito Sur)]] |
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| 59.61% |
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| 06.06% |
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| 33.40% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Campeche]] |
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| 41.45% |
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| 43.41% |
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| 14.17% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Coahuila]] |
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| 77.88% |
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| 11.38% |
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| 10.13% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Colima]] |
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| 68.54% |
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| 26.00% |
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| 04.50% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Chiapas]] |
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| 36.27% |
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| 47.64% |
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| 11.82% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] |
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| 50.09% |
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| 12.76% |
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| 36.33% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Durango]] |
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| 89.85% |
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| 09.99% |
|||
| 00.01% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Guanajuato]] |
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| 96.33% |
|||
| 02.96% |
|||
| 00.54% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Guerrero]] |
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| 54.05% |
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| 43.84% |
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| 02.07% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]] |
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| 51.47% |
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| 39.49% |
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| 08.83% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Jalisco]] |
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| 75.83% |
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| 16.76% |
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| 07.31% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Mexico City]] |
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| 54.78% |
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| 18.75% |
|||
| 22.79% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[State of Mexico]] |
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| 47.71% |
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| 42.13% |
|||
| 10.02% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Michoacan]] |
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| 70.95% |
|||
| 21.04% |
|||
| 06.94% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Morelos]] |
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| 61.24% |
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| 34.93% |
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| 03.59% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Nayarit]] |
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| 73.45% |
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| 20.38% |
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| 05.83% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Nuevo Leon]] |
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| 75.47% |
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| 05.14% |
|||
| 19.23% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Oaxaca]] |
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| 28.15% |
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| 69.17% |
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| 01.43% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Puebla]] |
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| 39.34% |
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| 54.73% |
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| 05.66% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Querétaro]] |
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| 80.15% |
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| 19.40% |
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| 00.30% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Quintana Roo]] |
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| 42.35% |
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| 20.59% |
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| 15.16% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[San Luis Potosí]] |
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| 61.88% |
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| 30.60% |
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| 05.41% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Sinaloa]] |
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| 98.30% |
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| 00.93% |
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| 00.19% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Sonora]] |
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| 41.04% |
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| 14.00% |
|||
| 42.54% |
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|- |
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|align="left"| [[Tabasco]] |
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| 53.67% |
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| 18.50% |
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| 27.56% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Tamaulipas]] |
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| 69.77% |
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| 13.89% |
|||
| 13.62% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Tlaxcala]] |
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| 42.44% |
|||
| 54.70% |
|||
| 02.53% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Veracruz]] |
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| 50.09% |
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| 36.60% |
|||
| 10.28% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Yucatán]] |
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| 33.83% |
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| 43.31% |
|||
| 21.85% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Zacatecas]] |
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| 86.10% |
|||
| 08.54% |
|||
| 05.26% |
|||
|- |
|||
|} |
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When the 1921 census's results are compared with the results of Mexico's recent censuses<ref name="Encuesta Intercensal 2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/intercensal/2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf|title=Principales resultados de la Encuesta Intercensal 2015|trans-title=Principal results of the Intercensal Survey 2015|language=es|publisher=[[INEGI]]|location=Mexico|date=December 2015|access-date=August 23, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422033628/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/intercensal/2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf|archive-date=April 22, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as with modern genetic research,<ref name=":2">[http://www.investigacionyciencia.es/revistas/investigacion-y-ciencia/matemticas-del-planeta-tierra-585/el-impacto-del-mestizaje-en-mxico-11442 "El impacto del mestizaje en México"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622040134/http://www.investigacionyciencia.es/revistas/investigacion-y-ciencia/matemticas-del-planeta-tierra-585/el-impacto-del-mestizaje-en-mxico-11442 |date=June 22, 2017 }}, "Investigación y Ciencia", Spain, October 2013. Retrieved on June 1, 2017.</ref> high consistence is found in regards to the distribution of Indigenous Mexicans across the country, with states located in south and south-eastern Mexico having both, the highest percentages of population that self-identifies as Indigenous and the highest percentages of Amerindian genetic ancestry. However this is not the case when it comes to European Mexicans, as there are instances on which states that have been shown to have a considerably high European ancestry per scientific research are reported to have very small white populations in the 1921 census, with the most extreme case being that of the state of Durango, where the aforementioned census asserts that only 0.01% of the state's population (33 persons) self-identified as "white" while modern scientific research shows that the population of Durango has similar genetic frequencies to those found on [[Ethnic groups of Europe|European peoples]] (with the state's Indigenous population showing almost no foreign admixture either).<ref name=pmid16638736/> Various authors theorize that the reason for these inconsistencies may lie in the Mestizo identity promoted by the Mexican government, which reportedly led to people who are not biologically Mestizos to identify as such.<ref name="Lizcano Fernández 2005"/><ref>[http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html El mestizaje y las culturas regionales] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823015618/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html |date=August 23, 2013 }}.</ref> |
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===Present day=== |
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[[File:Vicente Fox (23847933328).jpg|thumb|[[Vicente Fox|Vicente Fox Quesada]], 62nd President of Mexico.]] |
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Since the end of the [[Mexican Revolution]], the official identity promoted by the government for non-indigenous Mexicans has been the Mestizo one (a mix of European and indigenous culture and heritage).<ref name="fnavarrete" /> Established with the original intent of eliminating divisions and creating a unified identity that would allow Mexico to modernize and integrate with the international community,<ref name="lealmart" /> this policy has not been able to achieve its goal. It is speculated that this is due to the identity's own internal contradictions,<ref name="fnavarrete" /> as it includes in the same theoretical race people who, in daily interactions, do not consider each other to be of the same race and have little in common biologically,<ref name="Navarrete">{{cite web|url=http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteelmestizaje.pdf|title=El mestizaje en Mexico|access-date=June 23, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801102632/http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteelmestizaje.pdf|archive-date=August 1, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> with some of them being entirely Indigenous, others entirely European, and including also Africans and Asians.<ref name="Lizcano Fernández 2005" /> Today, there is no definitive census that quantifies Mexico's white population, with estimates from the Mexican government raging from 27%<ref name="ENADIS2017-1" /> to 47%,<ref name="conapred21Marzo" /><ref name="conapredEncuesta" /> with this figure being based on phenotypical traits instead of self-identification of ancestry. The lack of a clear dividing line between white and mixed race Mexicans has made the concept of race relatively fluid, with descent being more of a determining factor than biological traits.<ref name="fnavarrete" /><ref name="lealmart" /> Even though there is a large variation in phenotypes among Mexicans, European looks are still strongly preferred in Mexican society, with lighter skin receiving more positive attention, as it is associated with higher social class, power, money, and modernity.<ref name="lealmart" /><ref name="lizcano" /> In contrast, Indigenous ancestry is often associated with having an inferior social class, as well as lower levels of education.<ref name="fnavarrete" /><ref name="jleff" /> These distinctions are strongest in [[Mexico City]], where the most powerful of the country's elite are located.<ref name="lealmart" /> |
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Even though the Mexican government didn't use racial terms related to [[ethnic groups in Europe|European]] or [[white people]] officially for almost a century (resuming using such terms after 2010), the concepts of "white people" (known as ''güeros'' or ''blancos'' in [[Mexican Spanish]]) and of "being white" didn't disappear <ref name=":1">Nutini, Hugo; Barry Isaac (2009). ''Social Stratification in central Mexico 1500 - 2000''. University of Texas Press, p. 55.</ref> and are still present in everyday Mexican culture: different idioms of race are used in Mexico's society that serve as mediating terms between racial groups. It is not strange to see street vendors calling a potential customer ''Güero'' or ''güerito'', sometimes even when the person is not light-skinned. In this instance it is used to initiate a kind of familiarity, but in cases where social/racial tensions are relatively high, it can have the opposite effect.<ref name="lealmart" /> However contemporary sociologists and historians agree that, given that the concept of "race" has a psychological foundation rather than a biological one and to society's eyes a Mestizo with a high percentage of European ancestry is considered "white" and a Mestizo with a high percentage of Indigenous ancestry is considered "Indian," a person who identifies with a given ethnic group should be allowed to, even if biologically doesn't completely belong to that group.<ref name="Navarrete"/> |
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<gallery> |
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File:Aracely Arámbula 2013 02.jpg|[[Aracely Arámbula]] |
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File:Guillermo del Toro by Gage Skidmore.jpg|[[Guillermo del Toro]] |
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File:Inés Sainz en la presentación del OppOFind7.jpg|[[Inés Sainz|Inés Sainz Gallo]] |
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File:María Inés 2022.jpg|[[María Inés]] |
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File:Saúl Álvarez 2013b.jpg|[[Canelo Álvarez|Saúl "Canelo" Álvarez]] |
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File:Lorena Herrera entrevista.jpg|[[Lorena Herrera]] |
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File:Gael García Bernal (Guadalajara Film Festival) (cropped).jpg|[[Gael García Bernal]] |
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File:Alicia Villarreal - Vive Grupero 2010.jpg|[[Alicia Villarreal]] |
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</gallery> |
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==Distribution and estimations== |
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Contrary to popular belief, Mexico's government does conduct ethnic censuses on which a Mexican has the choice of identifying as "White".<ref name=MMSI1/> The results, however, remain unpublished. Instead, the Mexican government publishes results regarding the frequencies of different phenotypical traits in Mexicans, such as skin color. In discourses and investigations regarding problematics such as racism, it has opted for splitting Mexicans into "light-skinned Mexicans" and "dark-skinned Mexicans" rather than "White Mexicans" and "Mestizo Mexicans" albeit it must be considered that in Mexican society, the terms "Light complexion/skin" and "White complexion/skin" are synonyms<ref name="Synonyms">[https://synonyms.reverso.net/sinonimo/es/de+tez+blanca] "Sinónimos de "Tez Blanca""], ''Reverse net'', retrieved on June 19, 2024.</ref> and tend to be used interchangeably.<ref name="GQMX">[https://gq.com.mx/estilo-de-vida/articulo/color-piel-en-mexico/ "El color de piel nos da privilegios en México?"], ''GQ'', Mexico, 2019, retrieved on June 19, 2024.</ref> Other studies made by independent institutions often use the presence of light hair colors (particularly blond) to calculate Mexico's white population; however, to use such features to delineate said ethnic group results in an underestimation of its numbers as not all of Europe's native populations have those traits. Similarly, not only people with those phenotypical features are considered to be white by the majority of Mexican society.<ref name=Economiahoy /><ref name=Tomatazos/> |
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[[File:Nebel Voyage 16 La Mantilla.jpg|thumb|right|White Mexican women wearing the ''[[mantilla]]'', painting by [[Carl Nebel]], 1836]] |
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Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of [[Ethnic groups of Europe|white]] population, with the majority of the people not having native admixture or being of predominantly European ancestry.<ref name="UnitedStatesandMexico">{{cite book|author1=Howard F. Cline|title=THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybZVAAAAMAAJ&q=well+built|access-date=May 18, 2017|date=1963|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=9780674497061|page=104}}</ref> In the north and west of Mexico the indigenous tribes were substantially smaller and unlike those found in central and southern Mexico they were mostly nomadic, therefore remaining isolated from colonial population centers, with hostilities between them and Mexican colonists often taking place.<ref name="MesoZac">[https://www.mesoweb.com/es/articulos/sub/Zacatecas.pdf "Nómadas y sedentarios, El pasado prehispánico de Zacatecas"], ''Mesoweb'', Mexico, page 10, retrieved on July 7, 2024.</ref> This eventually led the northeast region of the country to become the region with the highest proportion of whites during the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|Spanish colonial period]] albeit recent migration waves have been changing its demographic trends.<ref name="Transición">[https://paradigmaeconomico.uaemex.mx/article/download/22617/16871/ "Transición migratoria y demográfica de México. Nuevos patrones"], page 17, retrieved on September 12, 2024.</ref> |
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In 2010, [[National Council to Prevent Discrimination|CONAPRED]] (Mexico's National Council for the Prevention of Discrimination) conducted the ENADIS 2010 (National Survey About Discrimination)<ref name="conapredEncuesta"/> with the purpose of addressing the problems of racism that Mexicans of mainly [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous]] or [[Afro-Mexicans|African]] ancestry suffer in the hands of a society that favors light-skinned, European-looking Mexicans.<ref name="DISC-RACIAL 2011"/> In the press release of said report, CONAPRED stated that 47% of Mexicans (54% of women and 40% of men) identified with the lightest skin colors used in the census questionnaire. The council makes the supposition that the high difference reported between males and females is due to the "frequently racist publicity in media and due to racial prejudices in Mexico's society which shuns dark skin in favor of light skin, thus making women think that white is beautiful," stating that men are more likely to recognize their real skin color.<ref name="conapred21Marzo"/> A subsequent question in the same survey asks Mexicans to evaluate, from 0 to 10, how comfortable they are with their skin color, with the average score being 9.4 out of 10.<ref name=CONAPRED.42>{{cite web |url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf |title=Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico 2010|trans-title=National Survey on Discrimination in Mexico 2010|language=es |publisher=CONAPRED|location=Mexico |date=June 2011|page=42|access-date=April 28, 2011|url-status=live |archive-date=November 8, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108095738/http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf}}</ref> Furthermore, there is scientific research proving that human females tend to have lighter skin than their male counterparts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jablonski |first1=Nina G. |last2=Chaplin |first2=George |date=July 2000 |title=The evolution of human skin coloration |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=57–106 |doi=10.1006/jhev.2000.0403 |pmid=10896812|bibcode=2000JHumE..39...57J }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sebastián-Enesco |first1=Carla |last2=Semin |first2=Gün R. |date=November 2020 |title=The brightness dimension as a marker of gender across cultures and age |journal=Psychological Research |volume=84 |issue=8 |pages=2375–2384 |doi=10.1007/s00426-019-01213-2 |pmc=7515938 |pmid=31201533}}</ref> |
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[[File:Skin color in Mexico.PNG|left|thumb|upright=1.15|Results of the survey conducted by the CONAPRED in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf |title=Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico 2010 |trans-title=National Survey on Discrimination in Mexico 2010|language=es |publisher=CONAPRED |location=Mexico |pages=40–43 |date=June 2011 |access-date=April 28, 2017|url-status=live |archive-date=November 8, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108095738/http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf}}</ref>]] |
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Besides the visual identification of skin color, the same survey asked Mexicans how they would refer to their skin color. The press report by CONAPRED remarks that six out of ten people considered themselves to be "moreno" (dark-skinned) and only one out of ten considered their skin to be "blanco" (white).<ref>[http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf "21 de Marzo Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" pag. 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525133622/http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf |date=May 25, 2017 }}, ''CONAPRED'', Mexico, March 21. Retrieved on April 28, 2017.</ref> The questionnaire included as choices other words that are colloquially used to refer to white people in Mexico such as "güero" (informal for white), "claro" (clear), "aperlado" (pearly) and other words that may or may not refer to a white person depending on the case, such as "quemadito" (burnt), "bronceado" (tanned), "apiñonado" (spiced), "amarillo" (yellow) and "canela" (cinnamon). Further complicating the situation, several words used specifically for brown skin also appear as choices such as "café" (brown), "negro" (black), "chocolate", "oscuro" (dark), "prieto" (also dark) and "trigueño" (another word for brown).<ref name=CONAPRED.42/> The word "moreno" itself has a very wide definition in Spanish and has no specific racial connotations, being used equally to define light-skinned people with dark hair as to define people of African ancestry.<ref>[http://www.wordreference.com/definicion/moreno "moreno - Definición"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823165306/http://www.wordreference.com/definicion/moreno |date=August 23, 2017 }}, "Wordreference", Retrieved on April 29, 2017.</ref> |
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In 2017, Mexico's [[National Institute of Statistics and Geography]] published the Intergenerational Social Mobility Module (MMSI),<ref name="MMSI1" /> composed of a series of nationwide surveys focused on education, generational economic mobility and ethnicity. It is particularly notorious for giving Mexicans the possibility to identify with a race (the available choices being "Indigenous", "Mestizo", "White", “Black” or "Other"). While the results of questions directly related to race were published, the percentage of Mexicans who identified with each race was not. Also included in the survey was a color palette (the same as the one used in the PERLA project: composed of 11 different tones with "A" being the darkest and "K" being the lightest) so a person could choose what color the skin of his/her face was. The percentage of Mexicans that identified with each skin color was not included in the main MMSI document but unlike racial composition it was made public through other official publications.<ref name="MMSI2" /> The study's results received significant media coverage, which led to discussions about concepts including [[Institutional racism|systemic racism]], [[white privilege]] and [[colonialism]].<ref name="huffpost" /><ref name="Universal">[http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/articulo/nacion/sociedad/2017/06/16/presenta-inegi-estudio-que-relaciona-color-de-piel-con "Presenta INEGI estudio que relaciona color de piel con oportunidades"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501102534/http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/articulo/nacion/sociedad/2017/06/16/presenta-inegi-estudio-que-relaciona-color-de-piel-con |date=May 1, 2018 }}, ''El Universal'', June 16, 2017, Retrieved on April 30, 2018.</ref> The study concluded that Mexicans with medium ("F" tone) and darker skin tones have in average lower profile occupations than Mexicans with lighter skin tones. Also stated is that Mexicans with lighter skin tones (lighter than "F") have higher levels of academic achievement.<ref name="MMSI1" /> The study also points out that out of the 4 racial categories used in the study, that of Indigenous Mexicans is the one that shows the highest percentage of positive social mobility (meaning that a person is better off than his/her parents were) while White Mexicans are the ones who have the lowest positive social mobility.<ref name="MMSI1" /> |
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[[File:Diego_Boneta_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg|thumb|right|[[Diego Boneta]], Mexican actor.]] |
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In 2018, the new edition of the ENADIS was published, this time being a joint effort by the CONAPRED and the INEGI with collaboration of the [[UNAM]], the [[CONACyT]] and the [[CNDH]].<ref name=ENADIS2017-1>[http://www.cndh.org.mx/sites/all/doc/OtrosDocumentos/Doc_2018_061.pdf "Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810235454/http://www.cndh.org.mx/sites/all/doc/OtrosDocumentos/Doc_2018_061.pdf |date=August 10, 2018 }}, ''CNDH'', August 6, 2018, Retrieved on August 10, 2018.</ref> Like its 2010 antecessor, it surveyed Mexican citizens about topics related to discrimination and collected data related to phenotype and ethnic self-identification. It concluded that Mexico is still a fairly conservative country regarding minority groups such as religious minorities, ethnic minorities, foreigners and members of the LGBT community. Albeit there's pronounced regional differences, with states in the south-center regions of Mexico having in general notoriously higher discrimination rates towards the aforementioned social groups than the ones states in the western-north regions have.<ref name=ENADIS2017-1/> For the collecting of data related to skin color the palette used was again the PERLA one. This time 11% of Mexicans were reported to have "dark skin tones (A-E)" 59% to have "medium skin tones (F-G)" and 28% to have "light skin tones (H-K)".<ref name=ENADIS2017-1/> The reason for the huge difference regarding the reported percentages of Mexicans with light skin (around 18% lower) and medium skin (around 16% higher) in the relation to previous nationwide surveys lies in the fact that the ENADIS 2017 prioritized the surveying of Mexicans from "vulnerable groups" which among other measures meant that states with known high numbers of people from said groups surveyed more people.<ref name=ENADIS2017-2>[http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/enadis/2017/doc/enadis2017_diseno_muestral.pdf "Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017. ENADIS. Diseño muestral. 2018"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810235340/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/enadis/2017/doc/enadis2017_diseno_muestral.pdf |date=August 10, 2018 }}, ''INEGI'', August 6, 2018, Retrieved on August 10, 2018.</ref> In 2023, the 2022 edition of the ENADIS by the INEGI was published, this time 29.2% of Mexicans were reported to belong to the group of the "lightest skin tones (H-K)" 49.7% were reported to belong to "medium skin tones (F-G)" and 21.1% reported to belong to "Dark skin tones (A-E)."<ref name="Enadis2022">{{Cite web |title=Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación (ENADIS) 2022 |url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/enadis/2022/#:~:text=La%20ENADIS%202022%20se%20suma,manera%20estructural%20han%20sido%20discriminados. |access-date=April 2, 2024 |website=www.inegi.org.mx |language=es}}</ref> On a similar manner to its predecessor, the survey was conducted with special attention on disadvantaged social groups, meaning that states with a known higher presence of such groups conducted more surveys proportionally.<ref name="Muestra-ENADIS2022">[https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/nueva_estruc/889463904366.pdf "Diseño Muestral ENADIS 2022"], ''INEGI'', Mexico, 2023, page 23, retrieved on June 19, 2024.</ref> |
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In 2017, Mexico's [[National Institute of Statistics and Geography]] published the Intergenerational Social Mobility Module (MMSI),<ref name=MMSI1/> composed of a series of nationwide surveys focused on education, generational economic mobility and ethnicity, it's particularly notorious for giving Mexicans the possibility to identify with a race (the aviable choices being "Indigenous", "Mestizo", "White" and "Other"). While the results of questions directly related to race were published, the percentage of Mexicans who identified with each race was not. Also included in the survey was a color palette (the same as the one used in the PERLA project: composed of 11 different tones with "A" being the darkest and "K" being the lightest) so a person could chose what color the skin of his/her face was. The percentage of Mexicans that identified with each skin color was not included in the main MMSI document but unlike racial composotion it was made public through other official publications.<ref name=MMSI2/> Unlike the survey published by the CONAPRED in 2010, the results of this study received enormous media coverage, with media outlets bringing to Mexico's mainstream opinion circles concepts such as systemic racism, white privilege and colonialism.<ref name=huffpost/><ref name=Universal>[http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/articulo/nacion/sociedad/2017/06/16/presenta-inegi-estudio-que-relaciona-color-de-piel-con "Presenta INEGI estudio que relaciona color de piel con oportunidades"], ''El Universal'', l6 June 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.</ref> as the study concluded that Mexicans with medium ("F" tone) and darker skin tones have in average lower profile occupations than Mexicans with lighter skin tones. Also stated is that Mexicans with lighter skin tones (lighter than "F") have higher levels of academic achievement.<ref name=MMSI1/> The study also points out that out of the 4 racial categories used in the study, that of Indigenous Mexicans is the one that shows the highest percentage of positive social mobility (meaning that a person is better off than his/her parents were) while White Mexicans are the ones who have the lowest positive social mobility.<ref name=MMSI1/> Said section of the study, alongside the ones who did not address race, received almost no media coverage. |
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Independent field studies have been made in attempt to quantify the number of European Mexicans living in modern Mexico, using [[Blond|blond hair]] as reference to classify a Mexican as white, the [[Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana|Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico]] calculated their percentage at 23%, the study explicitly states that [[Red Hair|red-haired]] people were not classified as white but as "other."<ref name="pmid21537803" /> A study made by the [[University College London]] which included multiple Latin American countries and was made with collaboration of each country's anthropology and genetics institutes reported that the frequency of blond hair and [[Eye color|light eyes]] in Mexicans was of 18.5% and 28.5% respectively,<ref name="journals.plos.org" /> making Mexico the country with the second-highest frequency of blond hair in the study. Despite this, the European ancestry estimated for Mexicans is also the second-lowest of all countries included, the reason behind such discrepancy may lie in the fact that the samples used in Mexico's case were highly disproportional, as [[List of Mexican states by population|the northern and western regions of Mexico contain 45% of Mexico's population]], but no more than 10% of the samples used in the study came from the states located in these regions. For the most part, the rest of the samples hailed from [[Mexico City]] and southern Mexican states.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruiz-Linares |first1=Andrés |last2=Adhikari |first2=Kaustubh |last3=Acuña-Alonzo |first3=Victor |last4=Quinto-Sanchez |first4=Mirsha |last5=Jaramillo |first5=Claudia |last6=Arias |first6=William |last7=Fuentes |first7=Macarena |last8=Pizarro |first8=María |last9=Everardo |first9=Paola |last10=de Avila |first10=Francisco |last11=Gómez-Valdés |first11=Jorge |last12=León-Mimila |first12=Paola |last13=Hunemeier |first13=Tábita |last14=Ramallo |first14=Virginia |last15=Silva de Cerqueira |first15=Caio C. |last16=Burley |first16=Mari-Wyn |last17=Konca |first17=Esra |last18=de Oliveira |first18=Marcelo Zagonel |last19=Veronez |first19=Mauricio Roberto |last20=Rubio-Codina |first20=Marta |last21=Attanasio |first21=Orazio |last22=Gibbon |first22=Sahra |last23=Ray |first23=Nicolas |last24=Gallo |first24=Carla |last25=Poletti |first25=Giovanni |last26=Rosique |first26=Javier |last27=Schuler-Faccini |first27=Lavinia |last28=Salzano |first28=Francisco M. |last29=Bortolini |first29=Maria-Cátira |last30=Canizales-Quinteros |first30=Samuel |last31=Rothhammer |first31=Francisco |last32=Bedoya |first32=Gabriel |last33=Balding |first33=David |last34=Gonzalez-José |first34=Rolando |display-authors=4 |title=Admixture in Latin America: Geographic Structure, Phenotypic Diversity and Self-Perception of Ancestry Based on 7,342 Individuals |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=September 25, 2014 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=e1004572 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572 |pmid=25254375 |pmc=4177621 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014PLOSG..10.4572R }}</ref> |
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[[File:Nailea Norvind.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Nailea Norvind]], Mexican actress]] |
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In 2018, the new edition of the ENADIS was published, this time being a joint effort by the CONAPRED and the INEGI with collaboration of the [[UNAM]], the [[CONACyT]] and the [[CNDH]].<ref name=ENADIS2017-1>[http://www.cndh.org.mx/sites/all/doc/OtrosDocumentos/Doc_2018_061.pdf "Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017"], ''CNDH'', 6 August 2018, Retrieved on 10 August 2018.</ref> Like it's 2010 antecesor, it surveyed Mexican citizens about topics related to discrimination and collected data related to phenotype and ethnic self-identification. It concluded that Mexico is still a fairly conservative country regarding minority groups such as religious minorities, ethnic minorities, foreigners, members of the LGBT collective etc. albeit there's pronounced regional differences, with states in the south-center regions of Mexico having in general notoriously higher discrimination rates towards the aforementioned social groups than the ones states in the western-north regions have.<ref name=ENADIS2017-1/> For the collecting of data related to skin color the palette used was again the PERLA one. This time 11% of Mexicans were reported to have "dark skin tones (A-E)" 59% to have "medium skin tones (F-G)" and 29% to have "light skin tones (H-K)".<ref name=ENADIS2017-1/> The reason for the huge difference regarding the reported percentages of Mexicans with light skin (around 18% lower) and medium skin (around 16% higher) in the relation to previous nationwide surveys lies in the fact that the ENADIS 2017 prioritized the surveying of Mexicans from "vulnerable groups" which among other measures meant that states with known high numbers of people from said groups surveyed more people.<ref name=ENADIS2017-2>[http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/enadis/2017/doc/enadis2017_diseno_muestral.pdf "Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017. ENADIS. Diseño muestral. 2018"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810235340/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/enadis/2017/doc/enadis2017_diseno_muestral.pdf |date=August 10, 2018 }}, ''INEGI'', 6 August 2018, Retrieved on 10 August 2018.</ref> |
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In 2010 a study published by the [[American Sociological Association]] explored social inequalities between Mexicans of different skin colors. The field research consisted of three waves of interviews on different Mexican states during the timespan of a year, people surveyed where split on 3 different groups: "White," "Light brown" and "Dark brown," with the classification being up to the criteria of the interviewers who is claimed, were trained for the task. It is stated that, in order to obtain stable results and prevent inconsistencies regarding who belongs to a given category, additional phenotypic traits besides the respondents' skin color were considered, such as the presence of blond hair in the case of individuals that were to be classified in the "White" category, because "unlike skin color, hair color does not darken with exposure to sunlight." It is indeed claimed within the study that out of the three color categories used, the percentages obtained for the "White" one through the three waves of interviews were the most consistent. According to the results of the study, the average percentage of Mexicans who were classified as "White" per the presence of blond hair was 18.8%, with the Northeast and Northwest regions having the highest frequencies at 23.9% and 22.3% respectively, followed by the Center region with 21.3%, the Center-West region with 18.4% and finally the South region with 11.9%. The study makes the clarification that [[Mexico City]] (Center region) as well as rural areas of the states of [[Oaxaca]], [[Chiapas]] (both from the south region) and [[Jalisco]] (Center-West region) were oversampled.<ref name="jstor20799484" /> |
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Independent field studies have been made in attempt to quantify the number of European Mexicans living in modern Mexico, using [[Blond|blond hair]] as reference to classify a Mexican as white, the [[Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana|Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico]] calculated their percentage at 23%, the study explicitly states that [[Red Hair|red-haired]] people were not classified as white but as "other."<ref name=pmid21537803/> A study made by the [[University College London]] which included multiple Latin American countries and was made with collaboration of each country's anthropology and genetics institutes reported that the frequency of blond hair and [[Eye color|light eyes]] in Mexicans was of 18.5% and 28.5% respectively,<ref name="journals.plos.org"/> making Mexico the country with the second-highest frequency of blond hair in the study. Despite this, the European ancestry estimated for Mexicans is also the second-lowest of all countries included, the reason behind such discrepancy may lie in the fact that the samples used in Mexico's case were highly disproportional, as [[List of Mexican states by population|the northern and western regions of Mexico contain 45% of Mexico's population]], but no more than 10% of the samples used in the study came from the states located in these regions. For the most part, the rest of the samples hailed from [[Mexico City]] and southern Mexican states.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruiz-Linares |first1=Andrés |last2=Adhikari |first2=Kaustubh |last3=Acuña-Alonzo |first3=Victor |last4=Quinto-Sanchez |first4=Mirsha |last5=Jaramillo |first5=Claudia |last6=Arias |first6=William |last7=Fuentes |first7=Macarena |last8=Pizarro |first8=María |last9=Everardo |first9=Paola |last10=de Avila |first10=Francisco |last11=Gómez-Valdés |first11=Jorge |last12=León-Mimila |first12=Paola |last13=Hunemeier |first13=Tábita |last14=Ramallo |first14=Virginia |last15=Silva de Cerqueira |first15=Caio C. |last16=Burley |first16=Mari-Wyn |last17=Konca |first17=Esra |last18=de Oliveira |first18=Marcelo Zagonel |last19=Veronez |first19=Mauricio Roberto |last20=Rubio-Codina |first20=Marta |last21=Attanasio |first21=Orazio |last22=Gibbon |first22=Sahra |last23=Ray |first23=Nicolas |last24=Gallo |first24=Carla |last25=Poletti |first25=Giovanni |last26=Rosique |first26=Javier |last27=Schuler-Faccini |first27=Lavinia |last28=Salzano |first28=Francisco M. |last29=Bortolini |first29=Maria-Cátira |last30=Canizales-Quinteros |first30=Samuel |last31=Rothhammer |first31=Francisco |last32=Bedoya |first32=Gabriel |last33=Balding |first33=David |last34=Gonzalez-José |first34=Rolando |title=Admixture in Latin America: Geographic Structure, Phenotypic Diversity and Self-Perception of Ancestry Based on 7,342 Individuals |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=25 September 2014 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=e1004572 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572 |pmid=25254375 |pmc=4177621 }}</ref> |
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A study performed in hospitals of Mexico City suggests that socioeconomic factors influence the frequency of Mongolian spots among newborns, as evidenced by the higher prevalence of 85% in newborns from a public institution, typically associated with lower socioeconomic status, compared to a 33% prevalence in newborns from private hospitals, which generally cater to families with higher socioeconomic status.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magaña |first1=Mario |last2=Valerio |first2=Julia |last3=Mateo |first3=Adriana |last4=Magaña-Lozano |first4=Mario |title=Alteraciones cutáneas del neonato en dos grupos de población de México |trans-title=Skin lesions two cohorts of newborns in Mexico City |language=es |journal=Boletín médico del Hospital Infantil de México |date=April 2005 |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=117–122 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1665-11462005000200005 |access-date=June 2, 2017 |archive-date=June 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630042947/http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1665-11462005000200005 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Mongolian spot appears with a very high frequency (85-95%) in Asian, Native American and African children.<ref>{{cite book|page=90|edition=3, illustrated|year=1999|access-date=May 17, 2014|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|author=Miller|title=Nursing Care of Older Adults: Theory and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJ3pBEh1osMC&q=ines+mongolian+spot|isbn=978-0781720762}}</ref> The skin lesion reportedly almost always appears on South American<ref name=med>{{EMedicine|article|1068732|Congenital Dermal Melanocytosis (Mongolian Spot)}}</ref> and Mexican children who are racially [[Mestizo]]s<ref>{{cite book|page=197|year=2012|access-date=May 17, 2014|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|editor1=Lawrence C. Parish|editor2=Larry E. Millikan|others=M. Amer, R.A.C. Graham-Brown, S.N. Klaus, J.L. Pace|title=Global Dermatology: Diagnosis and Management According to Geography, Climate, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JXwBwAAQBAJ&q=spanish+mongolian+spot&pg=PA197|isbn=978-1461226147|archive-date=January 13, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113013504/https://books.google.com/books?id=2JXwBwAAQBAJ&q=spanish+mongolian+spot&pg=PA197|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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In 2010 a study published by the [[American Sociological Association]] explored social inequalities between Mexicans of different skin colors. The field research consisted of three waves of interviews on different Mexican states during the timespan of a year, people surveyed where split on 3 different groups: "White," "Light brown" and "Dark brown," with the classification being up to the criteria of the interviewers who is claimed, were trained for the task. It is stated that, in order to obtain stable results and prevent inconsistencies regarding who belongs to a given category, additional phenotypical traits besides the respondents' skin color were considered, such as the presence of blond hair in the case of individuals that were to be classified in the "White" category, because "unlike skin color, hair color does not darken with exposure to sunlight." It is indeed claimed within the study that out of the three color categories used, the percentages obtained for the "White" one through the three waves of interviews were the most consistent. According to the results of the study, the average percentage of Mexicans who were classified as "White" per the presence of blond hair was 18.8%, with the Northeast and Northwest regions having the highest frequencies at 23.9% and 22.3% respectively, followed by the Center region with 21.3%, the Center-West region with 18.4% and finally the South region with 11.9%. The study makes the clarification that [[Mexico City]] (Center region) as well as rural areas of the states of [[Oaxaca]], [[Chiapas]] (both from the south region) and [[Jalisco]] (Center-West region) were oversampled.<ref name=jstor20799484/> |
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while having a very low frequency (5-10%) in Caucasian children.<ref name=tokyo>{{cite web|url=http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/about.htm|title=About Mongolian Spot|work=tokyo-med.ac.jp|access-date=October 1, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208184218/http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/about.htm|archive-date=December 8, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to Ana Rosa Alvarado, a dermatologist who works for the [[Mexican Social Security Institute|IMSS]] Jalisco division, around half of the babies born have the Mongolian spot.<ref>[http://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/822893.html "Tienen manchas mongólicas 50% de bebés"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200601130338/https://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/822893.html |date=June 1, 2020 }}, ''El Universal'', January 2012. Retrieved on July 3, 2017.</ref> |
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According to the [[United States Census, 2010|2010 US Census]], 52.8% of [[Mexican Americans]] (approximately 16,794,111 people) self-identified as being [[White Hispanic and Latino Americans|White]].<ref name="US Census 2010">{{cite web |title=The Hispanic Population: 2010 Census Brief |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127044304/https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf |archive-date=January 27, 2018 |access-date=November 16, 2012}}</ref> |
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The following tables (the first from a study published in 2002<ref name="FrecuenciasBCS">{{cite journal |last1=del Peón-Hidalgo |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Pacheco-Cano |first2=Ma Guadalupe |last3=Zavala-Ruiz |first3=Mirna |last4=Madueño-López |first4=Alejandro |last5=García-González |first5=Adolfo |title=Frecuencias de grupos sanguíneos e incompatibilidades ABO y RhD, en La Paz, Baja California Sur, México |trans-title=Blood group frequencies and ABO and RhD incompatibilities in La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico |language=es |journal=Salud Pública de México |date=September 2002 |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=406–412 |doi=10.1590/S0036-36342002000500004 |pmid=12389483 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and the second from a study published in 2018<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Canizalez-Román |first1=A |last2=Campos-Romero |first2=A |last3=Castro-Sánchez |first3=JA |last4=López-Martínez |first4=MA |last5=Andrade-Muñoz |first5=FJ |last6=Cruz-Zamudio |first6=CK |last7=Ortíz-Espinoza |first7=TG |last8=León-Sicairos |first8=N |last9=Gaudrón Llanos |first9=AM |last10=Velázquez-Román |first10=J |last11=Flores-Villaseñor |first11=H |last12=Muro-Amador |first12=S |last13=Martínez-García |first13=JJ |last14=Alcántar-Fernández |first14=J |title=Blood Groups Distribution and Gene Diversity of the ABO and Rh (D) ''Loci'' in the Mexican Population |journal=BioMed Research International |date=2018 |volume=2018 |pages=1925619 |doi=10.1155/2018/1925619 |pmid=29850485 |pmc=5937518 }}</ref>) show the frequencies of different blood types in various Mexican cities and states, as Mexico's Amerindian/Indigenous population exclusively exhibits the "O" blood type, the presence of other blood groups can give an approximate idea of the amount of foreign influence there is in each state that has been analyzed. The results of this studies however, shouldn't be taken as exact, literal estimations for the percentages of different ethnic groups that there may be in Mexico (I.E. A+B blood groups = percentage of White Mexicans) for reasons such as the fact that a Mestizo Mexican can have "A", "B" etc. blood types or the fact that the "O" blood type does exist in Europe, with it having a frequency of 44% in Spain for example.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.donarsangre.org/grupos-sanguineos/ |title=Cruz Roja Espanola/Grupos Sanguineos|publisher=Donarsangre.org |access-date=2019-07-15}}</ref> |
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The following tables (the first from a study published in 2002<ref name="FrecuenciasBCS">{{cite journal |last1=del Peón-Hidalgo |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Pacheco-Cano |first2=Ma Guadalupe |last3=Zavala-Ruiz |first3=Mirna |last4=Madueño-López |first4=Alejandro |last5=García-González |first5=Adolfo |title=Frecuencias de grupos sanguíneos e incompatibilidades ABO y RhD, en La Paz, Baja California Sur, México |trans-title=Blood group frequencies and ABO and RhD incompatibilities in La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico |language=es |journal=Salud Pública de México |date=September 2002 |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=406–412 |doi=10.1590/S0036-36342002000500004 |pmid=12389483 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and the second from a study published in 2018<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Canizalez-Román |first1=A |last2=Campos-Romero |first2=A |last3=Castro-Sánchez |first3=JA |last4=López-Martínez |first4=MA |last5=Andrade-Muñoz |first5=FJ |last6=Cruz-Zamudio |first6=CK |last7=Ortíz-Espinoza |first7=TG |last8=León-Sicairos |first8=N |last9=Gaudrón Llanos |first9=AM |last10=Velázquez-Román |first10=J |last11=Flores-Villaseñor |first11=H |last12=Muro-Amador |first12=S |last13=Martínez-García |first13=JJ |last14=Alcántar-Fernández |first14=J |title=Blood Groups Distribution and Gene Diversity of the ABO and Rh (D) ''Loci'' in the Mexican Population |journal=BioMed Research International |date=2018 |volume=2018 |pages=1925619 |doi=10.1155/2018/1925619 |pmid=29850485 |pmc=5937518 |doi-access=free }}</ref>) show the frequencies of different blood types in various Mexican cities and states, as Mexico's Amerindian/Indigenous population exclusively exhibits the "O" blood type, the presence of other blood groups can give an approximate idea of the amount of foreign influence there is in each state that has been analyzed. The results of this studies however, shouldn't be taken as exact, literal estimations for the percentages of different ethnic groups that there may be in Mexico (I.E. A+B blood groups = percentage of White Mexicans) for reasons such as the fact that a Mestizo Mexican can have "A", "B" etc. blood types or the fact that the "O" blood type does exist in Europe, with it having a frequency of 44% in Spain for example.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.donarsangre.org/grupos-sanguineos/ |title=Cruz Roja Espanola/Grupos Sanguineos |publisher=Donarsangre.org |access-date=July 15, 2019 |archive-date=October 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019155740/https://www.donarsangre.org/grupos-sanguineos/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:center; text-align:center;" |
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:center; text-align:center;" |
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| 63.1% |
| 63.1% |
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| 26.5% |
| 26.5% |
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| 9 |
| 9% |
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| 1.4% |
| 1.4% |
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|- |
|- |
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Line 237: | Line 570: | ||
!AB (%) |
!AB (%) |
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|- |
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Baja California |
|align="left"| [[Baja California]] |
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| 60.25% |
| 60.25% |
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| 28.79% |
| 28.79% |
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Line 347: | Line 680: | ||
|} |
|} |
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Both studies find similar trends regarding the distribution of different blood groups, with foreign blood groups being more common in the North and Western regions of Mexico, which is congruent with the findings of genetic studies that have been made in the country through the years |
Both studies find similar trends regarding the distribution of different blood groups, with foreign blood groups being more common in the North and Western regions of Mexico, which is congruent with the findings of genetic studies that have been made in the country through the years and could be attributed to different factors like migrations, nonrandom mating, and infectious diseases among others. The study published in 2018 found no significant difference in blood groups by age and only a slight difference by gender, which could be attributed to the sampling method used. |
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==Europeans in Independent Mexico== |
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A study performed in hospitals of Mexico City reported that in average 51.8% of Mexican newborns presented the [[Congenital disorder|congenital]] skin [[birthmark]] known as the [[Mongolian spot]] whilst it was absent in 48.2% of the analyzed babies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magaña |first1=Mario |last2=Valerio |first2=Julia |last3=Mateo |first3=Adriana |last4=Magaña-Lozano |first4=Mario |title=Alteraciones cutáneas del neonato en dos grupos de población de México |trans-title=Skin lesions two cohorts of newborns in Mexico City |language=es |journal=Boletín médico del Hospital Infantil de México |date=April 2005 |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=117–122 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1665-11462005000200005 }}</ref> The Mongolian spot appears with a very high frequency (85-95%) in Asian, Native American and African children.<ref>{{cite book|page=90|edition=3, illustrated|year=1999|access-date=May 17, 2014|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|author=Miller|title=Nursing Care of Older Adults: Theory and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJ3pBEh1osMC&q=ines+mongolian+spot|isbn=978-0781720762}}</ref> The skin lesion reportedly almost always appears on South American<ref name=med>{{EMedicine|article|1068732|Congenital Dermal Melanocytosis (Mongolian Spot)}}</ref> and Mexican children who are racially [[Mestizo]]s<ref>{{cite book|page=197|year=2012|access-date=May 17, 2014|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|editor1=Lawrence C. Parish|editor2=Larry E. Millikan|others=M. Amer, R.A.C. Graham-Brown, S.N. Klaus, J.L. Pace|title=Global Dermatology: Diagnosis and Management According to Geography, Climate, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JXwBwAAQBAJ&q=spanish+mongolian+spot&pg=PA197|isbn=978-1461226147}}</ref> |
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[[File:Inmigrantesitalianosamexico.jpg|thumb|right|Italian immigrants in [[Monterrey]] in 1905]] |
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while having a very low frequency (5-10%) in Caucasian children.<ref name=tokyo>{{cite web|url=http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/about.htm|title=About Mongolian Spot|work=tokyo-med.ac.jp|access-date=1 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208184218/http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/about.htm|archive-date=December 8, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the [[Mexican Social Security Institute]] (shortened as IMSS) nationwide, around half of Mexican babies have the Mongolian spot.<ref>[http://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/822893.html "Tienen manchas mongólicas 50% de bebés"], ''El Universal'', January 2012. Retrieved on 3 July 2017.</ref> |
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After the war of independence, the country's almost completely European elite would associate civilization with European characteristics, blaming the country's indigenous heritage for its inability to keep up with the economic development of the rest of the world. This led to active efforts to encourage the arrival of additional European immigrants.<ref name="lealmart"/> One of these efforts was the dispossession of large tracts of land from the Catholic Church with the aim of selling them to immigrants and others who would develop them. However, this did not have the desired effect mostly because of political instability. The [[Porfirio Díaz]] regime of the decades before the [[Mexican Revolution]] tried again, and expressly desired European immigration to promote modernization, instill [[Protestantism|Protestant]] work ethics and buttress what remained of [[Geography of Mexico|Mexico's North]] from further U.S. expansionism. Díaz also expressed a desire to "whiten" Mexico's heavily racially mixed population, although this had more to do with culture than with biological traits. However, the Díaz regime knew it had to be cautious, as previously large concentrations of Americans in [[Mexican Texas|Texas]], would eventually lead to the [[Texas Revolution|secession]] of that territory.<ref name="lmmm"/><ref name="buchenau"/> This precautions meant that the government had more success luring investors than permanent residents, even in rural areas despite government programs. No more than forty foreign farming colonies were ever formed during this time and of these only a few Italian and German ones survived.<ref name="buchenau"/> Mexico's northwest-pacific region (particularly [[Sinaloa]], [[Sonora]], and the [[Baja California Peninsula]]) experienced major surges of Northern Spanish immigration in the late 19th and early 20th century, specifically from [[Asturias]] and [[Galicia (Spain)]]. Most of Latin America's colonial and industrial era Spanish immigration originates from Southern Spain and the Canary Islands, thus this regional enclave of Northern Spaniards is exceptional and remains the biggest diaspora of Asturias and Galicians by heritage in the Americas.<ref name=":2" /> |
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By the mid-19th century, between Europeans and ethnically European Americans and Canadians, there were only 30,000 to 40,000 European immigrants in Mexico, compared to an overall population of over eight million, but their impact was strongly felt as they came to dominate the textile industry and various areas of commerce and industry. Many were not immigrants, but rather "trade conquistadors" who remained in Mexico only long enough to make their fortunes to return to their home countries to retire. This led Diaz to nationalize industries dominated by foreigners such as trains, which caused many trade conquistadors to leave.<ref name="buchenau"/> In January 1883, the government signed a law to promote the Irish, German and French immigration to Mexico, this time with fewer restrictions, resulting in the arrival of relatively more conventional immigrants and their families.<ref name=Irish-German-French-promotion>{{cite book|title=Guía e inventario del archivo Manuel González: acervos históricos|year=1993|publisher=Universidad Iberoamericana|location=México, D. F.|page=39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZK4X6NcQWqEC&q=inmigracion+francesa+en+Jalisco&pg=PA39|author=Georgette Emilia José Valenzuela|access-date=January 5, 2014|language=es|isbn=9789688591109}}</ref> Up to 1914, 10,000 French settled in Mexico,<ref name=French-migration>{{cite web|title=Jean Meyer|url=http://etzakutarakua.colmich.edu.mx/relaciones/002/pdf/JeanMeyer.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106032808/http://etzakutarakua.colmich.edu.mx/relaciones/002/pdf/JeanMeyer.pdf|archive-date=January 6, 2014|access-date=January 5, 2014|pages=16–17|language=es}}</ref> alongside other 100,000 Europeans.<ref name=French-migration/> Despite being the most violent conflict in Mexico's history, the [[Mexican Revolution]] did not discourage European immigration nor scared away white Mexicans, who, for concentrating in urban areas were largely unaffected by it and thought of it as a conflict pertinent only to rural people.<ref name="buchenau"/> Later on, bellic conflicts in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s such as the [[Spanish Civil War]] and the [[World War II|Second World War]] caused additional waves of European immigration to the country.<ref>[http://sipse.com/milenio/el-origen-del-mexico-refugio-en-el-siglo-xx-opinion-merida-yucatan-268964.html "El origen del México refugio en el siglo XX"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017044629/http://sipse.com/milenio/el-origen-del-mexico-refugio-en-el-siglo-xx-opinion-merida-yucatan-268964.html |date=October 17, 2017 }}, ''Milenio'', September 17, 2016. Retrieved on October 11, 2017.</ref> |
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According to the [[United States Census, 2010|2010 US Census]], 52.8% of [[Mexican Americans]] (approximately 16,794,111 people) self-identified as being [[White Hispanic and Latino Americans|White]].<ref name="US Census 2010">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf |title=The Hispanic Population: 2010 Census Brief |access-date=November 16, 2012}}</ref> |
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[[File:Niños polacos de Santa Rosa, Guanajuato.jpg|thumb|Orphaned Polish children arriving to [[Guanajuato]], Mexico during World War II.]] |
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==Genetic research== |
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By the end of the Second World War, Americans, British, French, Germans and Spanish were the most conspicuous Europeans in Mexico but their presence was limited to urban areas, especially Mexico City, living in enclaves and involved in business. These European immigrants would quickly adapt to the Mexican attitude that "whiter was better" and keep themselves separate from the non-European population of the host country. This and their status as foreigners offered them considerable social and economic advantages, blunting any inclination to assimilate. There was little incentive to integrate with the general Mexican population and when they did, it was limited to the criollo and mestizo upper class, failing to produce the "whitening" effect desired. For this reason, one can find non–Spanish surnames, especially in Mexico City and Guadalajara.<ref name="lmmm"/><ref name="buchenau"/> |
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[[File:Mexican Girls.jpg|225px|thumbnail|right|Mexican girls of European ancestry in [[Zapopan]], [[Jalisco]].]] |
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Even in the cases when generalized mixing did occur, such as with the Cornish miners in Hidalgo state around Pachuca and Real de Monte, their cultural influence remains strong. In these areas, English style houses can be found, the signature dish is the "paste" a variation of the Cornish pasty<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thisiscornwall.co.uk/news/Ex-West-Briton-writer-helps-tell-tale-Mexico-s-Cornish-miners/article-2982225-detail/article.html|title=Ex-West Briton writer helps tell tale of Mexico's Cornish miners|publisher=Thisiscornwall.co.uk|date=December 9, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503105209/http://www.thisiscornwall.co.uk/Ex-West-Briton-writer-helps-tell-tale-Mexico-s-Cornish-miners/story-11411931-detail/story.html|archive-date=May 3, 2012}}</ref> and they ended up introducing [[Association football|football]] (soccer) to Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cornish-mexico.org.uk/|title=The Cornish Mexican Cultural Society: Building on Cornwall's International Heritage|publisher=[[Cornish Mexican Cultural Society]]|work=cornish-mexico.org.uk|access-date=January 13, 2016|archive-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109170135/http://cornish-mexico.org.uk/|url-status=live}}</ref> In the early 20th century, a group of about 100 Russian immigrants, mostly Pryguny and some Molokane and [[Cossacks]] came to live in area near [[Ensenada, Baja California]]. The main colony is in the Valle de Guadalupe and locally known as the Colonia Rusa near the town of Francisco Zarco. Other smaller colonies include San Antonio, Misión del Orno and Punta Banda. There are an estimated 1,000 descendants of these immigrants in Mexico, nearly all of whom have intermarried. The original settlements are now under the preservation of the Mexican government and have become tourist attractions.<ref name="pryguny">{{cite web |url= http://www.molokane.org/places/Mexico/ |title= Pryguny in Baja California, Mexico |date= January 21, 2011 |access-date= July 19, 2011 |archive-date= June 19, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120619162133/http://www.molokane.org/places/Mexico/ |url-status= live }}</ref> This region also experienced concentrated waves of modern European immigration during the 20th century such as Italian and French, and the culture of the region reflects its lack of indigenous admixture. European rooted holidays like [[Saints days]], [[Carnival]] as well as gastronomy such as bread, cheese, and wine production remain unique to the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bonnett|first=Alastair|date=November 1998|title=Who was white? The disappearance of non-European white identities and the formation of European racial whiteness|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419879808565651|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=21|issue=6|pages=1029–1055|doi=10.1080/01419879808565651|issn=0141-9870}}</ref> |
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[[File:Nena Thurman.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Nena von Schlebrügge|Nena von Schlebrügge (Thurman)]], former Swedish-American model, born in Mexico.]] |
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Genetic research in the [[Mexicans|Mexican population]] is numerous and has yielded a myriad of different results, it is not rare that different genetic studies done in the same location vary greatly, clear examples of said variation are the city of [[Monterrey]] in the state of [[Nuevo León]], which, depending on the study presents an average [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] ancestry ranging from 38%<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martinez-Fierro |first1=Margarita L |last2=Beuten |first2=Joke |last3=Leach |first3=Robin J |last4=Parra |first4=Esteban J |last5=Cruz-Lopez |first5=Miguel |last6=Rangel-Villalobos |first6=Hector |last7=Riego-Ruiz |first7=Lina R |last8=Ortiz-Lopez |first8=Rocio |last9=Martinez-Rodriguez |first9=Herminia G |last10=Rojas-Martinez |first10=Augusto |title=Ancestry informative markers and admixture proportions in northeastern Mexico |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |date=September 2009 |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=504–509 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2009.65 |pmid=19680268 |s2cid=13714976 |doi-access=free }}</ref> to 78%,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cerda-Flores |first1=RM |last2=Kshatriya |first2=GK |last3=Barton |first3=SA |last4=Leal-Garza |first4=CH |last5=Garza-Chapa |first5=R |last6=Schull |first6=WJ |last7=Chakraborty |first7=R |title=Genetic structure of the populations migrating from San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas to Nuevo León in Mexico. |journal=Human Biology |date=June 1991 |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=309–27 |pmid=2055589 }}</ref> and [[Mexico City]], whose European admixture ranges from as little as 21%<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luna-Vazquez |first1=A |last2=Vilchis-Dorantes |first2=G |last3=Paez-Riberos |first3=L.A |last4=Muñoz-Valle |first4=F |last5=González-Martin |first5=A |last6=Rangel-Villalobos |first6=H |title=Population data of nine STRs of Mexican-Mestizos from Mexico City |journal=Forensic Science International |date=September 2003 |volume=136 |issue=1–3 |pages=96–98 |doi=10.1016/s0379-0738(03)00254-8 |pmid=12969629 }}</ref> to as high as 70%,<ref name=pmid28557218>{{cite journal |last1=Lisker |first1=Rubén |last2=Ramírez |first2=Eva |last3=González-Villalpando |first3=Clicerio |last4=Stern |first4=Michael P. |title=Racial admixture in a Mestizo population from Mexico City |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |date=1995 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=213–216 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.1310070210 |pmid=28557218 |s2cid=8177392 }}</ref> reasons behind such variation may include the socioeconomic background of the analyzed samples<ref name=pmid28557218/> as well as the criteria to recruit volunteers: some studies only analyze Mexicans who self-identify as [[Mestizo]]s,<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ashg.org/genetics/abstracts/abs06/f1065.htm|title=Evaluation of Ancestry and Linkage Disequilibrium Sharing in Admixed Population in Mexico|author1=J.K. Estrada|author2=A. Hidalgo-Miranda|author3=I. Silva-Zolezzi|author4=G. Jimenez-Sanchez|publisher=ASHG|access-date=18 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913031830/http://www.ashg.org/genetics/abstracts/abs06/f1065.htm|archive-date=September 13, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> others may classify the entire Mexican population as "mestizo",<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martínez-Cortés |first1=Gabriela |last2=Salazar-Flores |first2=Joel |last3=Gabriela Fernández-Rodríguez |first3=Laura |last4=Rubi-Castellanos |first4=Rodrigo |last5=Rodríguez-Loya |first5=Carmen |last6=Velarde-Félix |first6=Jesús Salvador |last7=Franciso Muñoz-Valle |first7=José |last8=Parra-Rojas |first8=Isela |last9=Rangel-Villalobos |first9=Héctor |title=Admixture and population structure in Mexican-Mestizos based on paternal lineages |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |date=September 2012 |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=568–574 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2012.67 |pmid=22832385 |s2cid=2876124 |doi-access=free }}</ref> other studies may do both, such as the 2009 genetic study published by the [[Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica|INMEGEN]] (Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine), which states that 93% of the Mexican population is Mestizo with the remaining population being [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]], this particular statement has received considerable media exposure through the years<ref>[http://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/582460.html "Mestizos, 93% de los Mexicanos según estudio"], ''El Universal'', 10 March 2009, Retrieved on 26 April 2018.</ref><ref>[http://www.elsiglodedurango.com.mx/noticia/224979.trazan-el-mapa-genetico-de-la-poblacion-mestiza-mexicana.html "Trazan el mapa genético de la población mestiza mexicana"], ''El Siglo de Durango'', 18 August 2009, Retrieved on 26 April 2018.</ref> to dismay of scientists from the aforementioned institute, who have complained about the study being misinterpreted by the press as it wasn't meant to represent Mexico's population as a whole.<ref name="Schwartz-Marín & Silva-Zolezzi 2010"/> According to the methodology of the aforementioned study the institute only recruited people who explicitly self-identified as Mestizos.<ref name="INMEGEN">{{cite journal |last1=Silva-Zolezzi |first1=Irma |last2=Hidalgo-Miranda |first2=Alfredo |last3=Estrada-Gil |first3=Jesus |last4=Fernandez-Lopez |first4=Juan Carlos |last5=Uribe-Figueroa |first5=Laura |last6=Contreras |first6=Alejandra |last7=Balam-Ortiz |first7=Eros |last8=del Bosque-Plata |first8=Laura |last9=Velazquez-Fernandez |first9=David |last10=Lara |first10=Cesar |last11=Goya |first11=Rodrigo |last12=Hernandez-Lemus |first12=Enrique |last13=Davila |first13=Carlos |last14=Barrientos |first14=Eduardo |last15=March |first15=Santiago |last16=Jimenez-Sanchez |first16=Gerardo |title=Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=26 May 2009 |volume=106 |issue=21 |pages=8611–8616 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0903045106 |pmid=19433783 |pmc=2680428 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.8611S }}</ref> Finally there are studies which avoid using any racial classification whatsoever, including in them any person who self-identifies as Mexican; these studies are the ones that usually report the highest European admixture for a given location.<ref name=pmid17503322>{{cite journal |last1=Price |first1=Alkes L. |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Yu |first3=Fuli |last4=Cox |first4=David R. |last5=Waliszewska |first5=Alicja |last6=McDonald |first6=Gavin J. |last7=Tandon |first7=Arti |last8=Schirmer |first8=Christine |last9=Neubauer |first9=Julie |last10=Bedoya |first10=Gabriel |last11=Duque |first11=Constanza |last12=Villegas |first12=Alberto |last13=Bortolini |first13=Maria Catira |last14=Salzano |first14=Francisco M. |last15=Gallo |first15=Carla |last16=Mazzotti |first16=Guido |last17=Tello-Ruiz |first17=Marcela |last18=Riba |first18=Laura |last19=Aguilar-Salinas |first19=Carlos A. |last20=Canizales-Quinteros |first20=Samuel |last21=Menjivar |first21=Marta |last22=Klitz |first22=William |last23=Henderson |first23=Brian |last24=Haiman |first24=Christopher A. |last25=Winkler |first25=Cheryl |last26=Tusie-Luna |first26=Teresa |last27=Ruiz-Linares |first27=Andrés |last28=Reich |first28=David |title=A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=June 2007 |volume=80 |issue=6 |pages=1024–1036 |doi=10.1086/518313 |pmid=17503322 |pmc=1867092 }}</ref> |
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One of the few Porfirian-era European settlements to survive to this day is centered on the small town of [[Chipilo]] in the state of [[Puebla]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzvpLSe_xSwC&q=D%C3%ADaz+apparently+wanted+immigrants+from+Latin+countries+in+Europe+but+not+from+Spain%2C+so+he+settled+for+northern+Italians+from+the+Veneto+area&pg=PA341|title = The Mexican Aristocracy: An Expressive Ethnography, 1910–2000|isbn = 9780292773318|last1 = Nutini|first1 = Hugo G.|date = January 2010| publisher=University of Texas Press }}</ref> They are the descendants of about 500 Venetian refugee immigrants which came over in the 1880s, keeping their [[Venice|Venetian]]-derived dialect and distinct ethnic identity, even though many have intermarried with other Mexicans. Many still farm and raise livestock but economic changes have pushed many into industry.<ref name="montagner">{{cite journal |last= Montagner Anguiano |first= Eduardo |title= El dialecto véneto de Chipilo |trans-title= The Venician dialect of Chipilo |journal= Orbis Latinus |language= es |access-date= July 19, 2011 |url= http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Venetan/Dialects/Chipilo.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110606110821/http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Venetan/Dialects/Chipilo.html |archive-date= June 6, 2011 |url-status= dead }}</ref> During the Mexican Revolution, [[Álvaro Obregón]] invited a group of German-speaking [[Mennonite]]s in Canada to resettle in [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] state. By the late 1920s, almost 10,000 had arrived from both Canada and Europe.<ref name="buchenau"/><ref name="insular">{{cite news |title= Mexico's insular Mennonites under siege, overlooked: The Tribune's Oscar Avila reports on Mexico's insular and targeted sect |first=Oscar |last=Avila |newspaper=McClatche-Tribune Business News |location=Washington |date=November 22, 2008 |page=8 }}</ref> Today, Mexico accounts for about 42% of all Mennonites in Latin America with 115,000 practicing Mennonites accounted for.<ref name="lizcano"/> Mennonites in the country especially stand out within their rural surroundings because of their traditional clothing, Plautdietsch language, light skin, hair and eyes. They own their own businesses in various communities in Chihuahua, and account for about half of the state's farm economy, standing out in [[Cheeses of Mexico|cheese production]].<ref name="insular"/> Legal vestiges of attempts to "whiten" the population ended with the 1947 "Ley General de Población" along with the blurring of the lines between most of Mexico immigrant colonies and the general population. This blurring was hastened by the rise of a Mexican middle class, who enrolled their children in schools for foreigners and foreign organizations such as the German Club having a majority of Mexican members. However, this assimilation still has been mostly limited to Mexico's white peoples. Mass culture promoted the Spanish language and most other European languages have declined and almost disappeared. Restrictive immigration policies since the 1970s have further pushed the assimilation process. Despite all of the aforementioned pressure, as of 2013 Mexico is the country with most international immigrants in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://criteriohidalgo.com/notas.asp?id=164446|title=México, primer lugar en migrantes internacionales|trans-title=Mexico, primary spot for international migrants|language=es|publisher=criteriohidalgo.com|work=United Nations|date=April 23, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227135423/http://criteriohidalgo.com/notas.asp?id=164446|archive-date=December 27, 2014}}</ref> |
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[[File:Edith_González_-_Premio_Luz_de_Plata_2018_(44761024532)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Edith González]] was a Mexican actress and dancer. González studied acting in New York, London and Paris.]] |
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[[File:Niña menonita en Cuauhtémoc.jpg|thumb|upright|A Mennonite girl in [[Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua]]]] |
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The Mestizaje ideology, which has blurred the lines of race at an institutional level has also had a significative influence in genetic studies done in Mexico.<ref name="Schwartz-Marín & Silva-Zolezzi 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Schwartz-Marín |first1=Ernesto |last2=Silva-Zolezzi |first2=Irma |title="The Map of the Mexican's Genome": overlapping national identity, and population genomics |journal=Identity in the Information Society |date=December 2010 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=489–514 |doi=10.1007/s12394-010-0074-7 |s2cid=144786737 |doi-access=free }}</ref> As the criteria used in studies to determine if a Mexican is Mestizo or indigenous often lies in cultural traits such as the language spoken instead of racial self-identification or a phenotype-based selection there are studies on which populations who are considered to be Indigenous per virtue of the language spoken show a higher degree of European genetic admixture than the one populations considered to be Mestizo report in other studies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buentello-Malo |first1=Leonora |last2=Peñaloza-Espinosa |first2=Rosenda I. |last3=Salamanca-Gómez |first3=Fabio |last4=Cerda-Flores |first4=Ricardo M. |title=Genetic admixture of eight Mexican indigenous populations: Based on five polymarker, HLA-DQA1, ABO, and RH loci |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |date=November 2008 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=647–650 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.20747 |pmid=18770527 |s2cid=28766515 }}</ref> The opposite also happens, as there instances on which populations considered to be Mestizo show genetic frequencies very similar to continental European peoples in the case of Mestizos from the state of [[Durango]]<ref name=pmid16638736>{{cite journal |last1=Sosa-Macías |first1=Martha |last2=Elizondo |first2=Guillermo |last3=Flores-Pérez |first3=Carmen |last4=Flores-Pérez |first4=Janet |last5=Bradley-Alvarez |first5=Francisco |last6=Alanis-Bañuelos |first6=Ruth E. |last7=Lares-Asseff |first7=Ismael |title=CYP2D6 Genotype and Phenotype in Amerindians of Tepehuano Origin and Mestizos of Durango, Mexico |journal=The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology |date=May 2006 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=527–536 |doi=10.1177/0091270006287586 |pmid=16638736 |s2cid=41443294 }}</ref> or to [[White Americans|European derived Americans]] in the case of Mestizos from the state of [[Jalisco]].<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Valdez-Velazquez |first1=Laura L |last2=Mendoza-Carrera |first2=Francisco |last3=Perez-Parra |first3=Sandra A |last4=Rodarte-Hurtado |first4=Katia |last5=Sandoval-Ramirez |first5=Lucila |last6=Montoya-Fuentes |first6=Héctor |last7=Quintero-Ramos |first7=Antonio |last8=Delgado-Enciso |first8=Ivan |last9=Montes-Galindo |first9=Daniel A |last10=Gomez-Sandoval |first10=Zeferino |last11=Olivares |first11=Norma |last12=Rivas |first12=Fernando |title=Renin gene haplotype diversity and linkage disequilibrium in two Mexican and one German population samples |journal=Journal of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System |date=September 2011 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=231–237 |doi=10.1177/1470320310388440 |pmid=21163863 |s2cid=26481247 }}</ref> |
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This widespread preference that Mexicans, even those who are of predominant indigenous ancestry, have for European cultures and values, over Indigenous ones, has come to be known as ''[[malinchismo]]'', which means to identify or favor a North American or European culture over the native one. It derives from [[La Malinche]], the native interpreter who served with Hernán Cortés during the Conquest, whose story still is a Mexican fable. Examples of practices considered as ''malinchismo'' in modern Mexico include Mexican parents choosing English given names for their kids, due to the desire to be associated with the United States.<ref name="jleff" /> Due to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the resulting economic decline and high unemployment in Spain, many Spaniards have been emigrating to Mexico to seek new opportunities.<ref>{{cite web |author=Louis E.V. Nevaer |url=http://newamericamedia.org/2013/02/as-spains-economy-worsens-young-adults-flock-to-mexico-for-jobs.php |title=As Spain's Economy Worsens, Young Adults Flock to Mexico for Jobs |publisher=New America Media |date=February 2, 2013 |access-date=January 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203052506/http://newamericamedia.org/2013/02/as-spains-economy-worsens-young-adults-flock-to-mexico-for-jobs.php |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> For example, during the last quarter of 2012, a number of 7,630 work permits were granted to Spaniards.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Nathaniel Parish Flannery |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/nathanielparishflannery/2013/04/30/as-spain-falters-spaniards-look-to-latin-america/#2715e4857a0b7e36506e3846 |title=As Spain Falters, Spaniards Look to Latin America |magazine=Forbes.com |date=April 30, 2013 |access-date=January 13, 2016}}</ref> Other Southern Europeans joined the Spaniards in the 2010s by finding better work opportunities in Mexico with thousands of Italians, Portuguese, French and Greeks finding professional opportunities along with the Spaniards in Mexico. |
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Since 2000, Mexico's economic growth has increased international migration to the country, including people of European descent who leave their countries (particularly France and Spain) in the search of better work opportunities. People from the United States have moved too, now making up more than three-quarters of Mexico's roughly one million documented foreigners, up from around two-thirds in 2000. Nowadays, more people originally from United States have been added to the population of Mexico than Mexicans have been added to the population of the United States, according to government data in both nations.<ref>{{cite news|last=Cave|first=Damien|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/22/world/americas/for-migrants-new-land-of-opportunity-is-mexico.html?_r=0|title=For Migrants, New Land of Opportunity Is Mexico|work=New York Times|date=September 21, 2013|access-date=January 13, 2016|archive-date=December 27, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227130241/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/22/world/americas/for-migrants-new-land-of-opportunity-is-mexico.html?_r=0|url-status=live}}</ref> Immigration was restricted by governments after Diaz's but never stopped entirely during the 20th century. Between 1937 and 1948, more than 18,000 [[Spanish Republican]]s arrived as refugees from the [[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Nationalists]] and [[Francoist Spain]]. Their reception by the Mexican criollo elite was mixed but they manage to experience success as most of these newcomers were educated as scholars and artists. This group founded the [[Colegio de Mexico]], one of the country's top academic institutions. Sixty-seven percent of Latin America's English-speaking population lives in Mexico.<ref name="lizcano"/> Most of these are American nationals, with an influx of people from the U.S. coming to live in Mexico since the 1930s, becoming the largest group of foreigners in the country since then. However, most Americans in Mexico are not immigrants in the traditional sense, as they are there living as retirees or otherwise do not consider themselves permanent residents.<ref name="buchenau"/><ref name="palmamora">{{cite journal|last=Palma Mora|first=Mónica|url=http://www.colef.mx/migracionesinternacionales/revistas/MI09/n09-029-057.pdf|title=Asociaciones de inmigrantes extranjeros en la ciudad de México. Una mirada a fines del siglo XX|trans-title=Immigrant Associations in Mexico City. A Look at the end of the 20th century|language=es|journal=Migraciones Internacionales|date=July–December 2005|volume=3|issue=2|pages=29–57|issn=1665-8906|access-date=July 19, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203034823/http://www.colef.mx/migracionesinternacionales/revistas/MI09/n09-029-057.pdf|archive-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref> |
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Regardless of the criteria used, all the autosomal DNA studies made coincide on there being a significant genetic variation depending of the region analyzed, with southern Mexico having prevalent Amerindian and small but higher than average [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|African]] genetic contributions, the central region of Mexico shows a balance between Amerindian and European components,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hernández-Gutiérrez |first1=S. |last2=Hernández-Franco |first2=P. |last3=Martínez-Tripp |first3=S. |last4=Ramos-Kuri |first4=M. |last5=Rangel-Villalobos |first5=H. |title=STR data for 15 loci in a population sample from the central region of Mexico |journal=Forensic Science International |date=June 2005 |volume=151 |issue=1 |pages=97–100 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.09.080 |pmid=15935948 }}</ref> with the later gradually increasing as one travels northwards and westwards, where European ancestry becomes the majority of the genetic contribution<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cerda-Flores |first1=Ricardo M. |last2=Villalobos-Torres |first2=Maria C. |last3=Barrera-Saldaña |first3=Hugo A. |last4=Cortés-Prieto |first4=Lizette M. |last5=Barajas |first5=Leticia O. |last6=Rivas |first6=Fernando |last7=Carracedo |first7=Angel |last8=Zhong |first8=Yixi |last9=Barton |first9=Sara A. |last10=Chakraborty |first10=Ranajit |title=Genetic admixture in three mexican mestizo populations based on D1S80 and HLA-DQA1 Loci: Genetic Admixture in Mexican Populations |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |date=March 2002 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=257–263 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.10020 |pmid=11891937 |s2cid=31830084 }}</ref> up until cities located in the [[Mexico–United States border]], where studies suggest there is a significant resurgence of Amerindian and African admixture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loya Méndez |first1=Yolanda |last2=Reyes Leal |first2=G |last3=Sánchez González |first3=A |last4=Portillo Reyes |first4=V |last5=Reyes Ruvalcaba |first5=D |last6=Bojórquez Rangel |first6=G |title=Variantes genotípicas del SNP-19 del gen de la CAPN 10 y su relación con la diabetes mellitus tipo 2 en una población de Ciudad Juárez, México |trans-title=SNP-19 genotypic variants of CAPN 10 gene and its relation to diabetes mellitus type 2 in a population of Ciudad Juarez, Mexico |language=es |journal=Nutrición Hospitalaria |date=1 February 2015 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=744–750 |doi=10.3305/nh.2015.31.2.7729 |pmid=25617558 }}</ref> |
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==Genetic research== |
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To date, no genetic research focusing on Mexicans of complete or predominant European ancestry has been made. |
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[[File:European_Genetic_Admixture_in_the_Mexican_Population.png|thumbnail|upright=1.2|European Genetic Admixture in the Mexican Population]]The numerous studies of the genetic makeup [[Mexicans|Mexican population]] have yielded a myriad of different results; it is not unusual that different genetic studies done in the same location vary greatly. Clear examples of such variations are seen in the city of [[Monterrey]], in the state of [[Nuevo León]], which, depending on the study, presents an average [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] ancestry ranging from 38%<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martinez-Fierro |first1=Margarita L |last2=Beuten |first2=Joke |last3=Leach |first3=Robin J |last4=Parra |first4=Esteban J |last5=Cruz-Lopez |first5=Miguel |last6=Rangel-Villalobos |first6=Hector |last7=Riego-Ruiz |first7=Lina R |last8=Ortiz-Lopez |first8=Rocio |last9=Martinez-Rodriguez |first9=Herminia G |last10=Rojas-Martinez |first10=Augusto |display-authors=4 |title=Ancestry informative markers and admixture proportions in northeastern Mexico |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |date=September 2009 |volume=54 |issue=9 |pages=504–509 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2009.65 |pmid=19680268 |s2cid=13714976 |doi-access=free }}</ref> to 78%,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cerda-Flores |first1=RM |last2=Kshatriya |first2=GK |last3=Barton |first3=SA |last4=Leal-Garza |first4=CH |last5=Garza-Chapa |first5=R |last6=Schull |first6=WJ |last7=Chakraborty |first7=R |title=Genetic structure of the populations migrating from San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas to Nuevo León in Mexico. |journal=Human Biology |date=June 1991 |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=309–27 |pmid=2055589 }}</ref> and in [[Mexico City]], whose European admixture ranges from as little as 21%<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luna-Vazquez |first1=A |last2=Vilchis-Dorantes |first2=G |last3=Paez-Riberos |first3=L.A |last4=Muñoz-Valle |first4=F |last5=González-Martin |first5=A |last6=Rangel-Villalobos |first6=H |title=Population data of nine STRs of Mexican-Mestizos from Mexico City |journal=Forensic Science International |date=September 2003 |volume=136 |issue=1–3 |pages=96–98 |doi=10.1016/s0379-0738(03)00254-8 |pmid=12969629 }}</ref> to as high as 70%.<ref name=pmid28557218>{{cite journal |last1=Lisker |first1=Rubén |last2=Ramírez |first2=Eva |last3=González-Villalpando |first3=Clicerio |last4=Stern |first4=Michael P. |title=Racial admixture in a Mestizo population from Mexico City |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |date=1995 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=213–216 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.1310070210 |pmid=28557218 |s2cid=8177392 }}</ref> The reasons behind such variation may include the socioeconomic background of the analyzed samples,<ref name=pmid28557218/> as well as the criteria for recruiting volunteers: some studies only analyze Mexicans who self-identify as [[Mestizo]]s,<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ashg.org/genetics/abstracts/abs06/f1065.htm|title=Evaluation of Ancestry and Linkage Disequilibrium Sharing in Admixed Population in Mexico|author1=J.K. Estrada|author2=A. Hidalgo-Miranda|author3=I. Silva-Zolezzi|author4=G. Jimenez-Sanchez|publisher=ASHG|access-date=July 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913031830/http://www.ashg.org/genetics/abstracts/abs06/f1065.htm|archive-date=September 13, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> others may classify the entire Mexican population as "mestizo",<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martínez-Cortés |first1=Gabriela |last2=Salazar-Flores |first2=Joel |last3=Gabriela Fernández-Rodríguez |first3=Laura |last4=Rubi-Castellanos |first4=Rodrigo |last5=Rodríguez-Loya |first5=Carmen |last6=Velarde-Félix |first6=Jesús Salvador |last7=Muñoz-Valle |first7=José Francisco |last8=Parra-Rojas |first8=Isela |last9=Rangel-Villalobos |first9=Héctor |display-authors=4 |title=Admixture and population structure in Mexican-Mestizos based on paternal lineages |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |date=September 2012 |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=568–574 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2012.67 |pmid=22832385 |s2cid=2876124 |doi-access=free }}</ref> other studies may do both, such as the 2009 genetic study published by the [[Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica|INMEGEN]] (Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine), which states that 93% of the Mexican population is Mestizo with the remaining population being [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]], this particular statement having received considerable media exposure through the years<ref>[http://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/582460.html "Mestizos, 93% de los Mexicanos según estudio"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430233846/http://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/582460.html |date=April 30, 2018 }}, ''El Universal'', March 10, 2009, Retrieved on April 26, 2018.</ref><ref>[http://www.elsiglodedurango.com.mx/noticia/224979.trazan-el-mapa-genetico-de-la-poblacion-mestiza-mexicana.html "Trazan el mapa genético de la población mestiza mexicana"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502064138/https://www.elsiglodedurango.com.mx/noticia/224979.trazan-el-mapa-genetico-de-la-poblacion-mestiza-mexicana.html |date=May 2, 2018 }}, ''El Siglo de Durango'', August 18, 2009, Retrieved on April 26, 2018.</ref> to the dismay of scientists from the aforementioned institute, who have complained about the study being misinterpreted by the press as it wasn't meant to represent Mexico's population as a whole.<ref name="Schwartz-Marín & Silva-Zolezzi 2010"/> According to the methodology of the aforementioned study, the institute only recruited people who explicitly self-identified as Mestizos.<ref name="INMEGEN">{{cite journal |last1=Silva-Zolezzi |first1=Irma |last2=Hidalgo-Miranda |first2=Alfredo |last3=Estrada-Gil |first3=Jesus |last4=Fernandez-Lopez |first4=Juan Carlos |last5=Uribe-Figueroa |first5=Laura |last6=Contreras |first6=Alejandra |last7=Balam-Ortiz |first7=Eros |last8=del Bosque-Plata |first8=Laura |last9=Velazquez-Fernandez |first9=David |last10=Lara |first10=Cesar |last11=Goya |first11=Rodrigo |last12=Hernandez-Lemus |first12=Enrique |last13=Davila |first13=Carlos |last14=Barrientos |first14=Eduardo |last15=March |first15=Santiago |last16=Jimenez-Sanchez |first16=Gerardo |display-authors=4 |title=Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=May 26, 2009 |volume=106 |issue=21 |pages=8611–8616 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0903045106 |pmid=19433783 |pmc=2680428 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.8611S |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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The Mestizaje ideology, which has blurred the lines of race at an institutional level has also had a significant influence in genetic studies done in Mexico.<ref name="Schwartz-Marín & Silva-Zolezzi 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Schwartz-Marín |first1=Ernesto |last2=Silva-Zolezzi |first2=Irma |title="The Map of the Mexican's Genome": overlapping national identity, and population genomics |journal=Identity in the Information Society |date=December 2010 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=489–514 |doi=10.1007/s12394-010-0074-7 |s2cid=144786737 |doi-access=free |hdl=10871/33766 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> As the criteria used in studies to determine if a Mexican is Mestizo or indigenous often lies in cultural traits such as the language spoken instead of racial self-identification or a phenotype-based selection there are studies on which populations who are considered to be Indigenous per virtue of the language spoken show a higher degree of European genetic admixture than the one populations considered to be Mestizo report in other studies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buentello-Malo |first1=Leonora |last2=Peñaloza-Espinosa |first2=Rosenda I. |last3=Salamanca-Gómez |first3=Fabio |last4=Cerda-Flores |first4=Ricardo M. |title=Genetic admixture of eight Mexican indigenous populations: Based on five polymarker, HLA-DQA1, ABO, and RH loci |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |date=November 2008 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=647–650 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.20747 |pmid=18770527 |s2cid=28766515 }}</ref> The opposite also happens, as there instances on which populations considered to be Mestizo show genetic frequencies very similar to continental European peoples in the case of Mestizos from the state of [[Durango]]<ref name=pmid16638736>{{cite journal |last1=Sosa-Macías |first1=Martha |last2=Elizondo |first2=Guillermo |last3=Flores-Pérez |first3=Carmen |last4=Flores-Pérez |first4=Janet |last5=Bradley-Alvarez |first5=Francisco |last6=Alanis-Bañuelos |first6=Ruth E. |last7=Lares-Asseff |first7=Ismael |title=CYP2D6 Genotype and Phenotype in Amerindians of Tepehuano Origin and Mestizos of Durango, Mexico |journal=The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology |date=May 2006 |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=527–536 |doi=10.1177/0091270006287586 |pmid=16638736 |s2cid=41443294 }}</ref> or to [[White Americans|European derived Americans]] in the case of Mestizos from the state of [[Jalisco]].<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Valdez-Velazquez |first1=Laura L |last2=Mendoza-Carrera |first2=Francisco |last3=Perez-Parra |first3=Sandra A |last4=Rodarte-Hurtado |first4=Katia |last5=Sandoval-Ramirez |first5=Lucila |last6=Montoya-Fuentes |first6=Héctor |last7=Quintero-Ramos |first7=Antonio |last8=Delgado-Enciso |first8=Ivan |last9=Montes-Galindo |first9=Daniel A |last10=Gomez-Sandoval |first10=Zeferino |last11=Olivares |first11=Norma |last12=Rivas |first12=Fernando |title=Renin gene haplotype diversity and linkage disequilibrium in two Mexican and one German population samples |journal=Journal of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System |date=September 2011 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=231–237 |doi=10.1177/1470320310388440 |pmid=21163863 |s2cid=26481247 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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A 2014 publication summarizing [[population genetics]] research in Mexico, including three nationwide surveys and several region-specific surveys, found that in the studies done to date, counting only studies that looked at the ancestry of both parents (autosomal ancestry): "Amerindian ancestry is most prevalent (51% to 56%) in the three general estimates (initially published by the INMEGEN in 2009), followed by European ancestry (40% to 45%); the African share represents only 2% to 5%. In [[Mexico City]], the European contribution was estimated as 21% to 32% in six of the seven reports, with the anomalous value of 57% obtained in a single sample of 19 subjects, albeit said percentage can't really be called anomalous, as autosomal studies that obtain percentages of European ancestry of 51%,<ref name="Cerda-Flores et al, 2002">{{cite journal | pmid = 11891937 | doi=10.1002/ajhb.10020 | volume=14 | issue=2 | title=Genetic admixture in three Mexican Mestizo populations based on D1S80 and HLA-DQA1 loci. | journal=Am J Hum Biol | pages=257–63 | last1 = Cerda-Flores | first1 = RM | last2 = Villalobos-Torres | first2 = MC | last3 = Barrera-Saldaña | first3 = HA | last4 = Cortés-Prieto | first4 = LM | last5 = Barajas | first5 = LO | last6 = Rivas | first6 = F | last7 = Carracedo | first7 = A | last8 = Zhong | first8 = Y | last9 = Barton | first9 = SA | last10 = Chakraborty | first10 = R | year=2002| s2cid=31830084 }}</ref> 52%,<ref name=pmid17503322/> 70%<ref name=pmid28557218/> and 52%,<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15935948 "STR for 15 Loci in a population Sample From the Central Region of Mexico"], ''Pubmed'', Retrieved on 21 December 2017.</ref> exists, (with the last one being for Mexico's central region as a whole) but were not included on this publication for unspecified reasons. According to the studies that were included, European ancestry is most prevalent in the north ([[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]], 50%; [[Sonora]], 62%; [[Nuevo León]], 55%), but in a recent sample from Nuevo León and elsewhere in the country, Amerindian ancestry is dominant."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salzano |first1=Francisco Mauro |last2=Sans |first2=Mónica |title=Interethnic admixture and the evolution of Latin American populations |journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology |date=2014 |volume=37 |issue=1 suppl 1 |pages=151–170 |doi=10.1590/s1415-47572014000200003 |pmid=24764751 |pmc=3983580 }}</ref> |
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Regardless of the criteria used, all the autosomal DNA studies made coincide on there being a significant genetic variation depending on the region analyzed, with southern Mexico having prevalent Amerindian and small but higher than average [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|African]] genetic contributions, the central region of Mexico shows a balance between Amerindian and European components,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hernández-Gutiérrez |first1=S. |last2=Hernández-Franco |first2=P. |last3=Martínez-Tripp |first3=S. |last4=Ramos-Kuri |first4=M. |last5=Rangel-Villalobos |first5=H. |title=STR data for 15 loci in a population sample from the central region of Mexico |journal=Forensic Science International |date=June 2005 |volume=151 |issue=1 |pages=97–100 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.09.080 |pmid=15935948 }}</ref> with the later gradually increasing as one travels northwards and westwards, where European ancestry becomes the majority of the genetic contribution<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cerda-Flores |first1=Ricardo M. |last2=Villalobos-Torres |first2=Maria C. |last3=Barrera-Saldaña |first3=Hugo A. |last4=Cortés-Prieto |first4=Lizette M. |last5=Barajas |first5=Leticia O. |last6=Rivas |first6=Fernando |last7=Carracedo |first7=Angel |last8=Zhong |first8=Yixi |last9=Barton |first9=Sara A. |last10=Chakraborty |first10=Ranajit |title=Genetic admixture in three mexican mestizo populations based on D1S80 and HLA-DQA1 Loci: Genetic Admixture in Mexican Populations |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |date=March 2002 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=257–263 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.10020 |pmid=11891937 |s2cid=31830084 }}</ref> up until cities located in the [[Mexico–United States border]], where studies suggest there is a significant resurgence of Amerindian and African admixture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loya Méndez |first1=Yolanda |last2=Reyes Leal |first2=G |last3=Sánchez González |first3=A |last4=Portillo Reyes |first4=V |last5=Reyes Ruvalcaba |first5=D |last6=Bojórquez Rangel |first6=G |title=Variantes genotípicas del SNP-19 del gen de la CAPN 10 y su relación con la diabetes mellitus tipo 2 en una población de Ciudad Juárez, México |trans-title=SNP-19 genotypic variants of CAPN 10 gene and its relation to diabetes mellitus type 2 in a population of Ciudad Juarez, Mexico |language=es |journal=Nutrición Hospitalaria |date=February 1, 2015 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=744–750 |doi=10.3305/nh.2015.31.2.7729 |pmid=25617558 |s2cid=196279677 }}</ref> |
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A 2006 nationwide autosomal study, the first ever conducted by Mexico's [[National Institute of Genomic Medicine INMEGEN|National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN)]], which included the states of [[Guerrero]], [[Oaxaca]], [[Veracruz]], [[Yucatan]], [[Zacatecas]] and [[Sonora]] reported that self-identified Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 35.05% Amerindian, and 5.03% Other.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> |
A 2006 nationwide autosomal study, the first ever conducted by Mexico's [[National Institute of Genomic Medicine INMEGEN|National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN)]], which included the states of [[Guerrero]], [[Oaxaca]], [[Veracruz]], [[Yucatan]], [[Zacatecas]] and [[Sonora]] reported that self-identified Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 35.05% Amerindian, and 5.03% Other.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> |
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A 2014 publication summarizing [[population genetics]] research in Mexico, including three nationwide surveys and several region-specific surveys, found that in the studies done to date, counting only studies that looked at the ancestry of both parents (autosomal ancestry): "Amerindian ancestry is most prevalent (51% to 56%) in the three general estimates (initially published by the INMEGEN in 2009), followed by European ancestry (40% to 45%); the African share represents only 2% to 5%. In [[Mexico City]], the European contribution was estimated as 21% to 32% in six of the seven reports, with the anomalous value of 57% obtained in a single sample of 19 subjects, albeit said percentage can't really be called anomalous, as autosomal studies that obtain percentages of European ancestry of 51%,<ref name="Cerda-Flores et al, 2002">{{cite journal | pmid = 11891937 | doi=10.1002/ajhb.10020 | volume=14 | issue=2 | title=Genetic admixture in three Mexican Mestizo populations based on D1S80 and HLA-DQA1 loci. | journal=Am J Hum Biol | pages=257–63 | last1 = Cerda-Flores | first1 = RM | last2 = Villalobos-Torres | first2 = MC | last3 = Barrera-Saldaña | first3 = HA | last4 = Cortés-Prieto | first4 = LM | last5 = Barajas | first5 = LO | last6 = Rivas | first6 = F | last7 = Carracedo | first7 = A | last8 = Zhong | first8 = Y | last9 = Barton | first9 = SA | last10 = Chakraborty | first10 = R | year=2002| s2cid=31830084 }}</ref> 52%,<ref name="pmid17503322">{{cite journal |last1=Price |first1=Alkes L. |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Yu |first3=Fuli |last4=Cox |first4=David R. |last5=Waliszewska |first5=Alicja |last6=McDonald |first6=Gavin J. |last7=Tandon |first7=Arti |last8=Schirmer |first8=Christine |last9=Neubauer |first9=Julie |last10=Bedoya |first10=Gabriel |last11=Duque |first11=Constanza |last12=Villegas |first12=Alberto |last13=Bortolini |first13=Maria Catira |last14=Salzano |first14=Francisco M. |last15=Gallo |first15=Carla |display-authors=4 |date=June 2007 |title=A Genomewide Admixture Map for Latino Populations |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=80 |issue=6 |pages=1024–1036 |doi=10.1086/518313 |pmc=1867092 |pmid=17503322 |last16=Mazzotti |first16=Guido |last17=Tello-Ruiz |first17=Marcela |last18=Riba |first18=Laura |last19=Aguilar-Salinas |first19=Carlos A. |last20=Canizales-Quinteros |first20=Samuel |last21=Menjivar |first21=Marta |last22=Klitz |first22=William |last23=Henderson |first23=Brian |last24=Haiman |first24=Christopher A. |last25=Winkler |first25=Cheryl |last26=Tusie-Luna |first26=Teresa |last27=Ruiz-Linares |first27=Andrés |last28=Reich |first28=David}}</ref> 70%<ref name=pmid28557218/> and 52%,<ref>{{cite journal| pmid=15935948 | doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.09.080 | volume=151 | title=STR data for 15 loci in a population sample from the central region of Mexico | year=2005 | journal=Forensic Sci Int | pages=97–100 | last1 = Hernández-Gutiérrez | first1 = S | last2 = Hernández-Franco | first2 = P | last3 = Martínez-Tripp | first3 = S | last4 = Ramos-Kuri | first4 = M | last5 = Rangel-Villalobos | first5 = H| issue=1 }}</ref> exists, (with the last one being for Mexico's central region as a whole) but were not included on this publication for unspecified reasons. According to the studies that were included, European ancestry is most prevalent in the north ([[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]], 50%; [[Sonora]], 62%; [[Nuevo León]], 55%), but in a recent sample from Nuevo León and elsewhere in the country, Amerindian ancestry is dominant."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salzano |first1=Francisco Mauro |last2=Sans |first2=Mónica |title=Interethnic admixture and the evolution of Latin American populations |journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology |date=2014 |volume=37 |issue=1 suppl 1 |pages=151–170 |doi=10.1590/s1415-47572014000200003 |pmid=24764751 |pmc=3983580 }}</ref> |
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An autosomal ancestry study performed on Mexico city reported that the European ancestry of Mexicans was 52% with the rest being Amerindian and a small African contribution, additionally maternal ancestry was analyzed, with 47% being of European origin. The only criteria for sample selection was that the volunteers self-identified as Mexicans.<ref name=pmid17503322/> |
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A 2007 study that included Mexicans from [[Mexico City]] reported that the [[autosomal]] ancestry of Mexicans was 52% European, while the Native American ancestry was 44%. However, the authors noted that Native American ancestry on the [[X chromosome]] was 54%. The authors stated that this is consistent with the genetic formation of [[Latinos]], a process which involved primarily European males and Native American females.<ref name="A Genomewide Admixture Map for Lati"/> |
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==Establishment of Europeans in Mexico== |
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[[File:Nebel Voyage 11 Hacendero.jpg|thumb|right|''El Hacendero y su Mayordomo'' (The [[Hacendado|Hacendero]] and his Butler). Painting by [[Carl Nebel]], c. 1836.]] |
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[[File:Retrato de familia Fagoga Arozqueta - Anónimo ca.1730.jpg|thumb|right|''Portrait of the family Fagoga Arozqueta.'' An upper class colonial Mexican family of Spanish ancestry (referred to as Criollos) in Mexico City, [[New Spain]], ca. 1730.|250x200px]] |
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The presence of Europeans in what is nowadays known as Mexico dates back to the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire]] in the early 16th century<ref name="jleff">{{cite journal |last1=Fortes de Leff |first1=Jacqueline |title=Racism in Mexico: Cultural Roots and Clinical Interventions1 |journal=Family Process |date=December 2002 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=619–623 |doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.00619.x |pmid=12613120 }}</ref><ref name="lealmart">{{Cite thesis |degree=PhD |title= For The Enjoyment of All:" Cosmopolitan Aspirations, Urban Encounters and Class Boundaries in Mexico City |author= Alejandra M. Leal Martínez |year=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences 3453017 }}</ref> by [[Hernán Cortés]], his troops and a number of indigenous city states who were tributaries and rivals of the Aztecs, such as the [[Totonacs]], the [[Tlaxcala (Nahua state)|Tlaxcaltecas]] and Texcocans among others. There are stories about [[Moctezuma II|Moctezuma]] taking Cortés to be the return of the God [[Quetzalcoatl]] due to his light skin and light-colored hair and eyes, which had never been seen before by the people of [[Mesoamerica]]. However, this has been disputed. After years of war the coalition led by Cortés finally managed to conquer the [[Aztec Empire]] which would result on the foundation of the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]] and while this new state granted a series of privileges to the members of the allied indigenous tribes such as nobiliary titles and swathes of land, the Spanish held the most political and economic power.<ref name="cathenc">{{cite web |url= http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14747c.htm |title= Tlaxcala |publisher= New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia |access-date=March 11, 2012}}</ref><ref name="jleff"/><ref name="lizcano">{{Cite thesis |degree=PhD |title=Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI |url=http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920172933/http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf |archive-date=2008-09-20 |author= Francisco Lizcano Fernández |year=2005 |publisher= Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, UAEM, Mexico |access-date=July 19, 2011 }}</ref> The small number of Spaniards who inhabited the new kingdom would soon be complemented by a steady migration flow of Spanish people,<ref name="lizcano"/> as it was the interest of the Spanish crown to Hispanicize and Christianize the region given that Indigenous peoples and their customs were considered uncivilized, thus the Spanish language and culture were imposed and indigenous ones suppressed.<ref name="jleff"/><ref name="lmmm">{{cite web |url=http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Poblacioninmigrante-lapoliticacolonizadora.html |title=Población inmigrante |first=Luz María |last=Martinez Montiel |work=México Multicultural |publisher=[[UNAM]] |location=Mexico |language=es |trans-title=Immigrant population |access-date=July 19, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722230642/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Poblacioninmigrante-lapoliticacolonizadora.html |archive-date=July 22, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> |
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The Mexican experience mirrors much of that of the rest of [[Latin America]], as attitudes towards race, including identification, were set by the conquistadors and Spanish who came soon after.<ref name="lizcano"/> Through the colonial period, the Spanish and their descendants, called "[[criollo people|criollos]]" remained outnumbered by the [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|indigenous]] and "[[mestizo]]s" or those of mixed Spanish and indigenous parents<ref name="jleff"/><ref name="lmmm"/> (albeit a person of 7/8 Spanish ancestry and 1/8 or less indigenous ancestry could be considered to be "criollo").<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morales |first1=Efraín Castro |title=Los cuadros de castas de la Nueva España |trans-title=Caste cadres of New Spain |language=es |journal=Jahrbuch für Geschichte Lateinamerikas |date=January 1983 |volume=20 |issue=1 |doi=10.7767/jbla.1983.20.1.671 |s2cid=162365969 }}</ref> To keep power, the Spanish enforced a hierarchical class system in New Spain's society, with those born in Spain (known as ''Peninsulares'') being the most privileged, followed by criollos, then Mestizos, then the indigenous and finally the Africans. Nonetheless the system was not completely rigid and elements such as social class, social relations and who a person descended from did figure into it. However, the notion of "Spanishness" would remain at the top and "Indianness" would be at the bottom, with those mixed being somewhere in the middle. This idea remained officially in force through the rest of the colonial period.<ref name="jleff"/> |
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[[File:Nena Thurman.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Nena von Schlebrügge|Nena von Schlebrügge (Thurman)]], a former international fashion model and the mother of popular actress [[Uma Thurman]].]] |
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Criollo resentment of the privileges afforded to the ''Peninsulares'' was the main reason behind the [[Mexican War of Independence]]. When the war ended in 1821, the new Mexican government expelled the peninsulares (approximately 10,000 – 20,000 people) in the 1820s and 1830s which at a degree, kept the European ethnicity from growing as a percentage;<ref name="lmmm"/> this expulsion however, did not lead to any permanent ban on European immigrants, even from Spain.<ref name="lealmart"/> Independence did not do away with economic and social privilege based on race as the Criollos took over those of Spanish birth. A division between "Spanish" and "indigenous" remained with Criollos distinguishing themselves from the rest of society as the guardians of Spanish culture as well as the Catholic religion.<ref name="buchenau">{{cite journal |last=Buchenau |first=Jurgen |date=Spring 2001 |title= Small numbers, great impact: Mexico and its immigrants, 1821–1973 |journal=Journal of American Ethnic History |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=23–49 |pmid=17605190 }}</ref> Due to the abolition of the caste system the division, however, became more about money and social class and less about biological differences which widened the possibilities of social mobility for Mestizo and Indigenous Mexicans. For this reason many of the political and cultural struggles of the latter 19th and early 20th centuries would be between the Criollos and the Mestizos.<ref name="lmmm"/> |
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According to Mexico's first ever racial census published in 1793, the Eurodescendant population was between 18%-22% of the population (with Mestizos being 21%-25% and Amerindians being 51%-61%)<ref name="Lerner1968">{{cite journal |last1=Lerner |first1=Victoria |title=Consideraciones sobre la población de la Nueva España (1793-1810): Según Humboldt y Navarro y Noriega |trans-title=Considerations on the population of New Spain (1793-1810): According to Humboldt and Navarro and Noriega |language=es |journal=Historia Mexicana |date=1968 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=327–348 |jstor=25134694 }}</ref> but by 1921, when the second nationwide census that considered a person's race took place, only 9% of the population self identified as being of European descent, with 59% being Mestizo and 29% being Amerindian.<ref name="fnavarrete" /> While for a long time the 1921 census' results were taken as fact, with international publications such as ''[[The World Factbook]]'' and [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition up to this day,<ref name=CIA-Factbook/><ref name=Britannica/> in recent time Mexican academics have subjected them to scrutiny, claiming that such a drastic alteration on demographic trends is not possible and cite, among other statistics the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries.<ref name="El mestizaje">{{cite web|last1=Anchondo|first1=Sandra|last2=de Haro|first2=Martha|url=http://istmo.mx/index.php/2016/07/04/el-mestizaje-es-un-mito-la-identidad-cultural-si-importa/|title=El mestizaje es un mito, la identidad cultural sí importa|trans-title=Miscegenation is a myth, cultural identity does matter|language=es|publisher=Istmo|location=Mexico|date=July 4, 2016|access-date=August 24, 2017|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010154747/http://istmo.mx/2016/07/04/el-mestizaje-es-un-mito-la-identidad-cultural-si-importa/|archive-date=October 10, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="MexicoRacista1"/> The authors claim that the Mexican society went through a "more cultural than biological mestizaje process" sponsored by the state which resulted on the inflation of the percentage of the Mestizo Mexican group at the expense of the identity of other races. It is important to note that the Mexican academics who question the census numbers are doing so primarily on behalf of Indigenous peoples, who they claim have been forcefully classified as Mestizos but state or suggest nonetheless, that the same thing has happened to European Mexicans.<ref name="PlaBrugat2011">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.dimensionantropologica.inah.gob.mx/?p=7401 |title=Más desindianización que mestizaje. Una relectura de los censos generales de población |last=Pla Brugat |first=Dolores |website=Dimensión Antropológica |volume=53 |date=September-December 2011 |pages=69–91 |language=es |trans-title=More de-Indianization than miscegenation. A rereading of the general population censuses}}</ref> In the early 1890s, Northern Italian immigrants were brought from the Veneto area to Mexico to whiten the population.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzvpLSe_xSwC&q=D%C3%ADaz+apparently+wanted+immigrants+from+Latin+countries+in+Europe+but+not+from+Spain%2C+so+he+settled+for+northern+Italians+from+the+Veneto+area&pg=PA341|title = The Mexican Aristocracy: An Expressive Ethnography, 1910–2000|isbn = 9780292773318|last1 = Nutini|first1 = Hugo G.|date = January 2010}}</ref> |
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==In today's society== |
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[[File:Emilio Azcárraga Jean.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Emilio Azcárraga Jean|Emilio Azcárraga]] is the owner of [[Televisa]] and one of the richest people in [[Latin America]].<ref name="PaxmanFernández2013">{{cite book|author1=Andrew Paxman|author2=Claudia Fernández|title=El tigre: Emilio Azcárraga y su imperio Televisa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRpnAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1|access-date=January 13, 2016|date=2013|publisher=Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial México|isbn=978-607-31-1747-0|page=1}}</ref>]] |
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The lack of a clear defining line between white and mixed race Mexicans has made the concept of race relatively fluid, with descent being more of a determining factor than biological traits.<ref name="fnavarrete" /><ref name="lealmart" /> Even though there is large variation in phenotypes among Mexicans, European looks are still strongly preferred in Mexican society, with lighter skin receiving more positive attention as it is associated with higher social class, power, money and modernity.<ref name="lealmart" /><ref name="lizcano" /> In contrast, Indigenous ancestry is often associated with having an inferior social class as well as lower levels of education.<ref name="fnavarrete" /><ref name="jleff" /> These distinctions are strongest in [[Mexico City]], where the most powerful of the country's elite are located.<ref name="lealmart" /> |
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Since the end of the [[Mexican Revolution]], the official identity promoted by the government for non-indigenous Mexicans has been the Mestizo one (a mix of European and indigenous culture and heritage).<ref name="fnavarrete" /> Installed with the original intent of eliminating divisions and creating a unified identity that would allow Mexico to modernize and integrate into the international community,<ref name="lealmart" /> the Mestizo identity has not been able to achieve its goal. The reason for this is speculated to be the identity's own internal contradictions,<ref name="fnavarrete" /> as it includes in the same theoretical race people who, in daily interactions, do not consider each other to be of the same race and have little in common biologically,<ref name="Navarrete">{{cite web|url=http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteelmestizaje.pdf|title=El mestizaje en Mexico|access-date=June 23, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801102632/http://enp4.unam.mx/amc/libro_munioz_cota/libro/cap4/lec10_federiconavarreteelmestizaje.pdf|archive-date=August 1, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> with some of them being entirely Indigenous, others entirely European and including also Africans and Asians.<ref name="Lizcano Fernández 2005" /> |
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Today, there is no definitive census that quantifies Mexico's white population, with estimations from different publications varying greatly, ranging from just 9% of the total<ref name="CIA-Factbook" /><ref name="schwartzman">{{cite book |last1= Schwartzman |first1=Simon |author-link=Simon Schwartzman |title= Étnia, condiciones de vida y discriminación |trans-title=Ethnicity, lifestyles and discrimination |chapter-url=http://www.schwartzman.org.br/simon/coesion_etnia.pdf |access-date=July 19, 2011 |volume=1 |year=2008 |publisher=Schwartzman |location=Brazil |language=es |chapter=II }}</ref> to 47%,<ref name="conapred21Marzo" /><ref name="conapredEncuesta" /> with this figure being based on phenotypical traits instead of self-identification of ancestry. |
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[[File:Marion Reimers por Itzel Navarrete.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Marion Reimers]] a Mexican journalist, sports commentator and television presenter]] |
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Despite what the mestizaje discourse asserts, Mexico is a country where Eurodescendants are not a minority, neither a clear majority but rather exist on an even amount in relation to Mestizos.<ref name=":0">[https://www.nexos.com.mx/?p=13695 "Contra la idea de México"], ''Nexos'', 01 June 2010. Retrieved on February 28, 2018.</ref> Because of this even though the Mexican government didn't used racial terms related to [[ethnic groups in Europe|European]] or [[white people]] officially for almost a century (retaking this practice until after 2010), the concepts of "white people" (known as ''güeros'' or ''blancos'' in [[Mexican Spanish]]) and of "being white" didn't disappear <ref name=":1">Nutini, Hugo; Barry Isaac (2009). ''Social Stratification in central Mexico 1500 - 2000''. University of Texas Press, p. 55.</ref> and are still present on everyday Mexican culture: different idioms of race are used in Mexico's society that serve as mediating terms between racial groups. It is not strange to see street vendors calling a potential costumer "''Güero''" or "''güerito''", sometimes even when the person is not light-skinned. In this instance it is used to initiate a kind of familiarity, but in cases where social/racial tensions are relatively high, it can have the opposite effect.<ref name="lealmart"/> |
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This widespread preference that Mexicans, even those who are of predominant indigenous ancestry show to European cultures and values over Indigenous ones has come to be known as ''[[malinchismo]]'' which means to identify or favor a North American or European culture over the native one. It derives from [[La Malinche]], the native interpreter who allied with Hernán Cortés during the Conquest. The story is still an important social imagery for Mexicans. Examples of practices considered as ''malinchismo'' in modern Mexico include Mexican parents choosing English given names for their kids, due to the desire to be associated with the United States.<ref name="jleff"/> |
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==European immigration to Mexico== |
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Mexico's European heritage is strongly associated to Spanish settlement during the colonial period, not having witnessed the same scale of mass recent-immigration as other [[New World]] countries such as the United States, [[Brazil]] and [[Argentina]].<ref name="lealmart"/> However, this ruling is less blanket fact and more of a consequence due to Mexico's enormous population. Regardless, Mexico ranks 3rd behind Brazil and Argentina for European immigration in Latin America with its culture owing a great deal to the significant German, Polish, and French populations. White Mexicans rather, descend of a considerably [[Ethnocentrism|ethnocentrist]] group of Spanish people who, beginning with the arrival and establishment of the [[conquistador]]s to then be supplemented with clerics, workers, academics etc. immigrated to what today is Mexico. The [[criollo people|criollos]] (as people born in the colonies to Spanish parents were called until the beginning of the 20th century)<ref name="lizcano" /> would favor for marriage other Spanish immigrants even if they were of a less privileged economic class than them, as to preserve the Spanish lineage and customs was seen as the top priority. Once Mexico achieved its independence and immigration from European countries other than Spain became accepted, the criollos did the same, and sought to assimilate the new European immigrants into the overwhelmingly Spanish-origin white Mexican population, as the yearly immigration rate of Europeans to Mexico never exceeded 2% in relation to the country's total population, assimilation of the new immigrants was easy and Mexican hyphenated identities never appeared.<ref name="buchenau" /> |
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[[File:Dell'Acqua Ernennung Maximilians zum Kaiser Mexikos.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Maximilian receiving a Mexican delegation at [[Miramare Castle]] in [[Trieste]]. Painting by Cesare dell'Acqua (1821-1905).]] |
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Another way on which European immigration to Mexico differed from that of other New World countries was on the profile of the needed immigrant. As New Spain's main economic activities were not related to agriculture (and the manpower for it was already supplied by the converted indigenous population)the country didn't enforce any sort of programs that would make it an attractive destination for European farmers. Much more important to the economy was mining and miners came from Europe, in particular from [[Cornwall]], U.K. and even today parts of [[Mineral del Monte]] and [[Pachuca]] maintain strong links to both their British heritage and with the [[United Kingdom]]. There was also strong demand for people with specialized skills in fields such as geology, metallurgy, commerce, law, medicine etc. As stories of professional immigrants amassing huge wealth in a pair of years were commonly heard, New Spain became very attractive only for Europeans who filled these profiles and their families, which in the end resulted on the country getting relatively less European immigration,<ref name="lmmm"/><ref name="buchenau"/> is also because of the aforementioned reasons that the majority of Spanish immigrants who arrived to the country were from the northern regions of Spain, mainly [[Cantabria]], [[Navarra]], [[Galicia Spain|Galicia]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]].<ref name="MinerosYcomerciantes">{{cite book|author1=David A. Branding|author2=Woodrow Borah|title=Mineros y comerciantes en el México borbónico (1763-1810)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYH_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT150|access-date=January 27, 2018|date=1975|publisher=Fondo de Cultura Económica|isbn=9789681613402|page=150}}</ref> After the war of independence, the country's almost completely European elite would associate civilization with European characteristics, blaming the country's indigenous heritage for its inability to keep up with the economic development of the rest of the world. This led to active efforts to encourage the arrival of additional European immigrants.<ref name="lealmart"/> |
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One of these efforts was the dispossession of large tracts of land from the Catholic Church with the aim of selling them to immigrants and others who would develop them. However, this did not have the desired effect mostly because of political instability. The [[Porfirio Díaz]] regime of the decades before the [[Mexican Revolution]] tried again, and expressly desired European immigration to promote modernization, instill [[Protestantism|Protestant]] work ethics and buttress what remained of [[Geography of Mexico|Mexico's North]] from further U.S. expansionism. Díaz also expressed a desire to "whiten" Mexico's heavily racially mixed population, although this had more to do with culture than with biological traits. However, the Díaz regime knew it had to be cautious, as previously large concentrations of Americans in [[Mexican Texas|Texas]], would eventually lead to the [[Texas Revolution|secession]] of that territory.<ref name="lmmm"/><ref name="buchenau"/> This precautions meant that the government had more success luring investors than permanent residents, even in rural areas despite government programs. No more than forty foreign farming colonies were ever formed during this time and of these only a few Italian and German ones survived.<ref name="buchenau"/> |
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By the mid-19th century, between Europeans and ethnically European Americans and Canadians, there were only 30,000 to 40,000 European immigrants in Mexico, compared to an overall population of over eight million, but their impact was strongly felt as they came to dominate the textile industry and various areas of commerce and industry, incentivating the industrialization of the country. Many of these immigrants were not really immigrants at all, but rather "trade conquistadors" who remained in Mexico only long enough to make their fortunes to return to their home countries to retire. This led Diaz to nationalize industries dominated by foreigners such as trains, which would cause many trade conquistadors to leave.<ref name="buchenau"/> In January 1883, the Government signed a law to promote the Irish, German and French immigration to Mexico, this time there were less restrictions, resulting in the arrival of relatively more conventional immigrants and their families.<ref name=Irish-German-French-promotion>{{cite book|title=Guía e inventario del archivo Manuel González: acervos históricos|year=1993|publisher=Universidad Iberoamericana|location=México, D. F.|page=39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZK4X6NcQWqEC&q=inmigracion+francesa+en+Jalisco&pg=PA39|author=Georgette Emilia José Valenzuela|access-date=5 January 2014|language=es|isbn=9789688591109}}</ref> Up to 1914, 10,000 French settled in Mexico,<ref name=French-migration>{{cite web|title=Jean Meyer|url=http://etzakutarakua.colmich.edu.mx/relaciones/002/pdf/JeanMeyer.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106032808/http://etzakutarakua.colmich.edu.mx/relaciones/002/pdf/JeanMeyer.pdf|archive-date=2014-01-06|access-date=5 January 2014|pages=16–17|language=es}}</ref> alongside other 100,000 Europeans.<ref name=French-migration/> Despite being the most violent conflict in Mexico's history, the [[Mexican Revolution]] did not discourage European immigration nor scared away white Mexicans, who, for concentrating in urban areas were largely unaffected by it and thought of it as a conflict pertinent only to rural people.<ref name="buchenau"/> Later on, bellic conflicts in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s such as the [[Spanish Civil War]] and the [[World War II|Second World War]] caused additional waves of European immigration to the country.<ref>[http://sipse.com/milenio/el-origen-del-mexico-refugio-en-el-siglo-xx-opinion-merida-yucatan-268964.html "El origen del México refugio en el siglo XX"], ''Milenio'', September 17, 2016. Retrieved on October 11, 2017.</ref> |
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[[File:Inmigrantesitalianosamexico.jpg|thumb|right|A photo of Italian immigrants in [[Monterrey]] in 1905.]] |
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By the end of the Second World War, Americans, British, French, Germans and Spanish were the most conspicuous Europeans in Mexico but their presence was limited to urban areas, especially Mexico City, living in enclaves and involved in business. These European immigrants would quickly adapt to the Mexican attitude that "whiter was better" and keep themselves separate from the non-European population of the host country. This and their status as foreigners offered them considerable social and economic advantages, blunting any inclination to assimilate. There was little incentive to integrate with the general Mexican population and when they did, it was limited to the criollo upper class, failing to produce the "whitening" effect desired. For this reason, one can find non–Spanish surnames among Mexico's elite, especially in Mexico City.<ref name="lmmm"/><ref name="buchenau"/> |
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However, even in the cases when generalized mixing did occur, such as with the Cornish miners in Hidalgo state around Pachuca and Real de Monte, their cultural influence remains strong. In these areas, English style houses can be found, the signature dish is the "paste" a variation of the Cornish pasty<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thisiscornwall.co.uk/news/Ex-West-Briton-writer-helps-tell-tale-Mexico-s-Cornish-miners/article-2982225-detail/article.html|title=Ex-West Briton writer helps tell tale of Mexico's Cornish miners|publisher=Thisiscornwall.co.uk|date=December 9, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503105209/http://www.thisiscornwall.co.uk/Ex-West-Briton-writer-helps-tell-tale-Mexico-s-Cornish-miners/story-11411931-detail/story.html|archive-date=May 3, 2012}}</ref> and they ended up introducing [[Association football|football]] (soccer) to Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cornish-mexico.org.uk/|title=The Cornish Mexican Cultural Society: Building on Cornwall's International Heritage|publisher=[[Cornish Mexican Cultural Society]]|work=cornish-mexico.org.uk|access-date=January 13, 2016}}</ref> In the early 20th century, a group of about 100 Russian immigrants, mostly Pryguny and some Molokane and [[Cossacks]] came to live in area near [[Ensenada, Baja California]]. The main colony is in the Valle de Guadalupe and locally known as the Colonia Rusa near the town of Francisco Zarco. Other smaller colonies include San Antonio, Mision del Orno and Punta Banda. There are an estimated 1,000 descendants of these immigrants in Mexico, nearly all of whom have intermarried. The original settlements are now under the preservation of the Mexican government and have become tourist attractions.<ref name="pryguny">{{cite web |url= http://www.molokane.org/places/Mexico/ |title= Pryguny in Baja California, Mexico |date=January 21, 2011 |access-date=July 19, 2011}}</ref> |
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Legal vestiges of attempts to "whiten" the population ended with the 1947 "Ley General de Población" along with the blurring of the lines between most of Mexico immigrant colonies and the general population. This blurring was hastened by the rise of a Mexican middle class, who enrolled their children in schools for foreigners and foreign organizations such as the German Club having a majority of Mexican members. However, this assimilation still has been mostly limited to Mexico's white peoples. Mass culture promoted the Spanish language and most other European languages have declined and almost disappeared. Restrictive immigration policies since the 1970s have further pushed the assimilation process. Despite all of the aforementioned pressure, as of 2013 Mexico is the country with most international immigrants in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://criteriohidalgo.com/notas.asp?id=164446|title=México, primer lugar en migrantes internacionales|trans-title=Mexico, primary spot for international migrants|language=es|publisher=criteriohidalgo.com|work=United Nations|date=April 23, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227135423/http://criteriohidalgo.com/notas.asp?id=164446|archive-date=December 27, 2014}}</ref> Since 2000, Mexico's economic growth has increased international migration to the country, including people of European descent who leave their countries (particularly France and Spain) in the search of better work opportunities. People from the United States have moved too, now making up more than three-quarters of Mexico's roughly one million documented foreigners, up from around two-thirds in 2000. Nowadays, more people originally from United States have been added to the population of Mexico than Mexicans have been added to the population of the United States, according to government data in both nations.<ref>{{cite news|last=Cave|first=Damien|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/22/world/americas/for-migrants-new-land-of-opportunity-is-mexico.html?_r=0|title=For Migrants, New Land of Opportunity Is Mexico|work=New York Times|date=September 21, 2013|access-date=January 13, 2016}}</ref> |
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==Examples of White ethnic groups in Mexico== |
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[[File:Niña menonita en Cuauhtémoc.jpg|thumb|right|160px|A Mennonite girl in [[Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua]]]] |
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European immigration to Mexico is not uncommon with many European or European derived ethnic groups responsible for shaping modern Mexican culture. Besides colonial Iberian influences, many other European and/or white communities thrived in Mexico's history such as the [[Northern Spain|Spanish]], [[Poles|Polish]] and [[French people|French]], with the [[German Mexicans|German Mexican]] community especially dominant on modern culture, once named as “la tercera raza” or “the third race”.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mexico {{!}} History, Geography, Facts, & Points of Interest|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico|access-date=2020-12-30|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> Mexico's northwest-pacific region (particularly [[Sinaloa]], [[Sonora]], and the [[Baja California Peninsula]]) experienced major surges of Northern Spanish immigration in the late 19th and early 20th century, specifically from [[Asturias]] and [[Galicia (Spain)]]. Most of Latin America's colonial and industrial era Spanish immigration originates from Southern Spain and the Canary Islands, thus this regional enclave of Northern Spaniards is exceptional and remains the biggest diaspora of Asturias and Galicians by heritage in the Americas.<ref name=":2" /> This region also experienced concentrated waves of modern European immigration during the 20th century such as Italian and French, and the culture of the region reflects its lack of indigenous admixture. European rooted holidays like [[Saints days]], [[Carnival]] as well as gastronomy such as bread, cheese, and wine production remain unique to the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bonnett|first=Alastair|date=November 1998|title=Who was white? The disappearance of non-European white identities and the formation of European racial whiteness|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419879808565651|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=21|issue=6|pages=1029–1055|doi=10.1080/01419879808565651|issn=0141-9870}}</ref> |
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One of the few Porfirian-era European settlements to survive to this day is centered on the small town of [[Chipilo]] in the state of [[Puebla]]. They are the descendants of about 500 Venetian refugee immigrants which came over in the 1880s, keeping their [[Venice|Venetian]]-derived dialect and distinct ethnic identity, even though many have intermarried with other Mexicans. Many still farm and raise livestock but economic changes have pushed many into industry.<ref name="montagner">{{cite journal |last= Montagner Anguiano |first= Eduardo |title= El dialecto véneto de Chipilo |trans-title= The Venician dialect of Chipilo |journal= Orbis Latinus |language= es |access-date= July 19, 2011 |url= http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Venetan/Dialects/Chipilo.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110606110821/http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Venetan/Dialects/Chipilo.html |archive-date= June 6, 2011 |url-status= dead }}</ref> During the Mexican Revolution, [[Álvaro Obregón]] invited a group of German-speaking [[Mennonite]]s in [[Canada]] to resettle in [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] state. By the late 1920s, almost 10,000 had arrived from both Canada and [[Europe]].<ref name="buchenau"/><ref name="insular">{{cite news |title= Mexico's insular Mennonites under siege, overlooked: The Tribune's Oscar Avila reports on Mexico's insular and targeted sect |first=Oscar |last=Avila |newspaper=McClatche-Tribune Business News |location=Washington |date=November 22, 2008 |page=8 }}</ref> Today, Mexico accounts for about 42% of all Mennonites in Latin America with 115,000 practicing Mennonites accounted for.<ref name="lizcano"/> Mennonites in the country especially stand out within their rural surroundings because of their traditional clothing, Plautdietsch language, light skin, hair and eyes. They own their own businesses in various communities in Chihuahua, and account for about half of the state's farm economy, standing out in [[Cheeses of Mexico|cheese production]].<ref name="insular"/> |
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Immigration was restricted by governments after Diaz's but never stopped entirely during the 20th century. Between 1937 and 1948, more than 18,000 [[Spanish Republican]]s arrived as refugees from the [[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Nationalists]] and [[Francoist Spain]]. Their reception by the Mexican criollo elite was mixed but they manage to experience success as most of these newcomers were educated as scholars and artists. This group founded the [[Colegio de Mexico]], one of the country's top academic institutions. Despite attempts to assimilate these immigrant groups, especially the country's already existing German population during [[World War II]], they remain mostly separate to this day.<ref name="buchenau"/> |
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[[File:Santiago_Creel.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Santiago Creel]] descendant of the [[Creel-Terrazas family]], son of René Creel Luján, one of the founders of the [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]].]] |
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Due to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the resulting economic decline and high unemployment in Spain, many Spaniards have been emigrating to Mexico to seek new opportunities.<ref>{{cite web |author=Louis E.V. Nevaer |url=http://newamericamedia.org/2013/02/as-spains-economy-worsens-young-adults-flock-to-mexico-for-jobs.php |title=As Spain's Economy Worsens, Young Adults Flock to Mexico for Jobs |publisher=New America Media |date=February 2, 2013 |access-date=January 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203052506/http://newamericamedia.org/2013/02/as-spains-economy-worsens-young-adults-flock-to-mexico-for-jobs.php |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> For example, during the last quarter of 2012, a number of 7,630 work permits were granted to Spaniards.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=Nathaniel Parish Flannery |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/nathanielparishflannery/2013/04/30/as-spain-falters-spaniards-look-to-latin-america/#2715e4857a0b7e36506e3846 |title=As Spain Falters, Spaniards Look to Latin America |magazine=Forbes.com |date=April 30, 2013 |access-date=January 13, 2016}}</ref> Other Southern Europeans joined the Spaniards in the 2010s by finding better work opportunities in Mexico with thousands of Italians, Portuguese, French and Greeks finding professional opportunities along with the Spaniards in Mexico. |
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Sixty-seven percent of Latin America's English-speaking population lives in Mexico.<ref name="lizcano"/> Most of these are American nationals, with an influx of people from the U.S. coming to live in Mexico since the 1930s, becoming the largest group of foreigners in the country since then. However, most Americans in Mexico are not immigrants in the traditional sense, as they are there living as retirees or otherwise do not consider themselves permanent residents.<ref name="buchenau"/><ref name="palmamora">{{cite journal|last=Palma Mora|first=Mónica|url=http://www.colef.mx/migracionesinternacionales/revistas/MI09/n09-029-057.pdf|title=Asociaciones de inmigrantes extranjeros en la ciudad de México. Una mirada a fines del siglo XX|trans-title=Immigrant Associations in Mexico City. A Look at the end of the 20th century|language=es|journal=Migraciones Internacionales|date=July–December 2005|volume=3|issue=2|pages=29–57|issn=1665-8906|access-date=July 19, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203034823/http://www.colef.mx/migracionesinternacionales/revistas/MI09/n09-029-057.pdf|archive-date=December 3, 2013}}</ref> |
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==Official censuses== |
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Historically, population studies and censuses have never been up to the standards that a population as diverse and numerous such as Mexico's require: the first racial census was made in 1793, being also Mexico's (then known as [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|New Spain]]) first ever nationwide population census, of it, only part of the original datasets survive, thus most of what is known of it comes from essays made by researchers who back in the day used the census' findings as reference for their own works. More than a century would pass until the Mexican government conducted a new racial census in 1921 (some sources assert that the census of 1895 included a comprehensive racial classification,<ref name="fnavarrete"/> however according to the historic archives of [[National Institute of Statistics and Geography (Mexico)|Mexico's National Institute of Statistics]] that was not the case).<ref>[http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/proyectos/ccpv/1895 "censo General de la Republica Mexicana 1895"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810035109/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/proyectos/ccpv/1895/ |date=August 10, 2017 }}, "[[INEGI]]", Mexico, Retrieved on 24 July 2017.</ref> While the 1921 census was the last time the Mexican government conducted a census that included a comprehensive racial classification, in recent time it has conducted nationwide surveys to quantify most of the ethnic groups who inhabit the country as well as the social dynamics and inequalities between them. |
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===1793 census=== |
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[[File:Mapa del Virreinato de la Nueva España (1819).svg|thumb|left|250px|New Spain in 1819 with the boundaries established at the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]]]] |
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Also known as the "Revillagigedo census" due to its creation being ordered by the Count of the same name, this census was Mexico's (then known as the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain]]) first ever nationwide population census. Most of its original datasets have reportedly been lost; thus most of what is known about it nowadays comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had access to the census data and used it as reference for their works such as Prussian geographer [[Alexander von Humboldt]]. Each author gives different estimations for each racial group in the country, although they don't vary much, with Europeans ranging from 18% to 22% of New Spain's population, Mestizos ranging from 21% to 25%, Indians ranging from 51% to 61% and Africans being between 6,000 and 10,000, The estimations given for the total population range from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354. It is concluded then, that across nearly three centuries of colonization, the population growth trends of whites and mestizos were even, while the total percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13%-17% per century. The authors assert that rather than whites and mestizos having higher birthrates, the reason for the indigenous population's numbers decreasing lies on them suffering of higher mortality rates, due living in remote locations rather than on cities and towns founded by the Spanish colonists or being at war with them. It is also for these reasons that the number of Indigenous Mexicans presents the greater variation range between publications, as in cases their numbers in a given location were estimated rather than counted, leading to possible overestimations in some provinces and possible underestimations in others.<ref name="Lerner1968"/> |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:center; text-align:center;" |
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|- |
|||
!Intendecy/territory |
|||
!European population (%) |
|||
!Indigenous population (%) |
|||
!Mestizo population (%) |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[State of Mexico|Mexico]] |
|||
| 16.9% |
|||
| 66.1% |
|||
| 16.7% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Puebla]] |
|||
| 10.1% |
|||
| 74.3% |
|||
| 15.3% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Oaxaca]] |
|||
| 06.3% |
|||
| 88.2% |
|||
| 05.2% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Guanajuato]] |
|||
| 25.8% |
|||
| 44.0% |
|||
| 29.9% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[San Luis Potosi]] |
|||
| 13.0% |
|||
| 51.2% |
|||
| 35.7% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Zacatecas]] |
|||
| 15.8% |
|||
| 29.0% |
|||
| 55.1% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Durango]] |
|||
| 20.2% |
|||
| 36.0% |
|||
| 43.5% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Sonora]] |
|||
| 28.5% |
|||
| 44.9% |
|||
| 26.4% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Yucatan]] |
|||
| 14.8% |
|||
| 72.6% |
|||
| 12.3% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Guadalajara]] |
|||
| 31.7% |
|||
| 33.3% |
|||
| 34.7% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Veracruz]] |
|||
| 10.4% |
|||
| 74.0% |
|||
| 15.2% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Michoacan|Valladolid]] |
|||
| 27.6% |
|||
| 42.5% |
|||
| 29.6% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[New Mexico|Nuevo Mexico]] |
|||
| ~ |
|||
| 30.8% |
|||
| 69.0% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Baja California|Vieja California]] |
|||
| ~ |
|||
| 51.7% |
|||
| 47.9% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Alta California|Nueva California]] |
|||
| ~ |
|||
| 89.9% |
|||
| 09.8% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Coahuila]] |
|||
| 30.9% |
|||
| 28.9% |
|||
| 40.0% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Nuevo Leon]] |
|||
| 62.6% |
|||
| 05.5% |
|||
| 31.6% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Nuevo Santander]] |
|||
| 25.8% |
|||
| 23.3% |
|||
| 50.8% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Texas]] |
|||
| 39.7% |
|||
| 27.3% |
|||
| 32.4% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Tlaxcala]] |
|||
| 13.6% |
|||
| 72.4% |
|||
| 13.8% |
|||
|- |
|||
|} |
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~<small>Europeans are included within the Mestizo category.</small> |
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Regardless of the possible imprecisions related to the counting of Indigenous peoples living outside of the colonized areas, the effort that New Spain's authorities put on considering them as subjects is worth mentioning, as censuses made by other colonial or post-colonial countries did not consider American Indians to be citizens/subjects, as example the censuses made by the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] would only count the inhabitants of the colonized settlements.<ref name=scarecrow>''Historical Dictionary of Argentina''. London: Scarecrow Press, 1978. pp. 239–40.</ref> Other example would be the censuses made by the [[United States]], that did not include Indigenous peoples living among the general population until 1860, and indigenous peoples as a whole until 1900.<ref>[https://www.archives.gov/research/census/native-americans/1790-1930.html "American Indians in the Federal Decennial Census"], Retrieved on 25 July 2017.</ref> |
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===1921 census=== |
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[[File:Enrique Creel Cuilty.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Enrique Creel]] was a businessman and politician.]] |
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Made right after the consummation of the Mexican revolution, the social context on which this census was made makes it particularly unique, as the government of the time was in the process of rebuilding the country and was looking forward to unite all Mexicans under a single national identity. The 1921 census' final results in regards to race, which assert that 59.3% of the Mexican population self-identified as Mestizo, 29.1% as Indigenous and only 9.8% as White were then essential to cement the "mestizaje" ideology (that asserts that the Mexican population as a whole is product of the admixture of all races) which shaped Mexican identity and culture through the 20th century and remain prominent nowadays, with extraofficial international publications such as ''[[The World Factbook]]'' and [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition up to this day.<ref name=CIA-Factbook/><ref name=Britannica/> |
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Nonetheless, in recent time the census' results have been subjected to scrutiny by historians, academics and social activists alike, who assert that such drastic alterations on demographic trends with respect to the 1793 census are not possible and cite, among other statistics the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries in colonial and early independent Mexico.<ref name="El mestizaje"/><ref name="MexicoRacista1"/> It is claimed that the "mestizaje" process sponsored by the state was more "cultural than biological" which resulted on the numbers of the Mestizo Mexican group being inflated at the expense of the identity of other races.<ref name="PlaBrugat2011"/> Controversies aside, this census constituted the last time the [[Mexican Government]] conducted a comprehensive racial census with the breakdown by states being the following (foreigners and people who answered "other" not included):<ref>[http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_Serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/1921/EUM/RCGH21I.pdf DEPARTAMENTO DE LA ESTADISTICA NACIONAL] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060335/http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_Serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/censos/poblacion/1921/EUM/RCGH21I.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }} CENSO GENERAL DE HABITANTES 1921 Census (Page: 62)</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:center; text-align:center;" |
|||
|- |
|||
!Federative Units |
|||
!Mestizo Population (%) |
|||
!Amerindian Population (%) |
|||
!White Population (%) |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Aguascalientes]] |
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| 66.12% |
|||
| 16.70% |
|||
| 16.77% |
|||
|- |
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|align="left"| [[Baja California Norte|Baja California<br />(Distrito Norte)]] |
|||
| 72.50% |
|||
| 07.72% |
|||
| 00.35% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Baja California Sur|Baja California<br />(Distrito Sur)]] |
|||
| 59.61% |
|||
| 06.06% |
|||
| 33.40% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Campeche]] |
|||
| 41.45% |
|||
| 43.41% |
|||
| 14.17% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Coahuila]] |
|||
| 77.88% |
|||
| 11.38% |
|||
| 10.13% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Colima]] |
|||
| 68.54% |
|||
| 26.00% |
|||
| 04.50% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Chiapas]] |
|||
| 36.27% |
|||
| 47.64% |
|||
| 11.82% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] |
|||
| 50.09% |
|||
| 12.76% |
|||
| 36.33% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Durango]] |
|||
| 89.85% |
|||
| 09.99% |
|||
| 00.01% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Guanajuato]] |
|||
| 96.33% |
|||
| 02.96% |
|||
| 00.54% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Guerrero]] |
|||
| 54.05% |
|||
| 43.84% |
|||
| 02.07% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]] |
|||
| 51.47% |
|||
| 39.49% |
|||
| 08.83% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Jalisco]] |
|||
| 75.83% |
|||
| 16.76% |
|||
| 07.31% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Mexico City]] |
|||
| 54.78% |
|||
| 18.75% |
|||
| 22.79% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[State of Mexico]] |
|||
| 47.71% |
|||
| 42.13% |
|||
| 10.02% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Michoacan]] |
|||
| 70.95% |
|||
| 21.04% |
|||
| 06.94% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Morelos]] |
|||
| 61.24% |
|||
| 34.93% |
|||
| 03.59% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Nayarit]] |
|||
| 73.45% |
|||
| 20.38% |
|||
| 05.83% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Nuevo Leon]] |
|||
| 75.47% |
|||
| 05.14% |
|||
| 19.23% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Oaxaca]] |
|||
| 28.15% |
|||
| 69.17% |
|||
| 01.43% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Puebla]] |
|||
| 39.34% |
|||
| 54.73% |
|||
| 05.66% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Querétaro]] |
|||
| 80.15% |
|||
| 19.40% |
|||
| 00.30% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Quintana Roo]] |
|||
| 42.35% |
|||
| 20.59% |
|||
| 15.16% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[San Luis Potosí]] |
|||
| 61.88% |
|||
| 30.60% |
|||
| 05.41% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Sinaloa]] |
|||
| 98.30% |
|||
| 00.93% |
|||
| 00.19% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Sonora]] |
|||
| 41.04% |
|||
| 14.00% |
|||
| 42.54% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Tabasco]] |
|||
| 53.67% |
|||
| 18.50% |
|||
| 27.56% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Tamaulipas]] |
|||
| 69.77% |
|||
| 13.89% |
|||
| 13.62% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Tlaxcala]] |
|||
| 42.44% |
|||
| 54.70% |
|||
| 02.53% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Veracruz]] |
|||
| 50.09% |
|||
| 36.60% |
|||
| 10.28% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Yucatán]] |
|||
| 33.83% |
|||
| 43.31% |
|||
| 21.85% |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Zacatecas]] |
|||
| 86.10% |
|||
| 08.54% |
|||
| 05.26% |
|||
|- |
|||
|} |
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When the 1921 census's results are compared with the results of Mexico's recent censuses<ref name="Encuesta Intercensal 2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/intercensal/2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf|title=Principales resultados de la Encuesta Intercensal 2015|trans-title=Principal results of the Intercensal Survey 2015|language=es|publisher=[[INEGI]]|location=Mexico|date=December 2015|access-date=August 23, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422033628/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/intercensal/2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf|archive-date=April 22, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as with modern genetic research,<ref name=":2">[http://www.investigacionyciencia.es/revistas/investigacion-y-ciencia/matemticas-del-planeta-tierra-585/el-impacto-del-mestizaje-en-mxico-11442 "El impacto del mestizaje en México"], "Investigación y Ciencia", Spain, October 2013. Retrieved on 01 June 2017.</ref> high consistence is found in regards to the distribution of Indigenous Mexicans across the country, with states located in south and south-eastern Mexico having both, the highest percentages of population that self-identifies as Indigenous and the highest percentages of Amerindian genetic ancestry. However this is not the case when it comes to European Mexicans, as there are instances on which states that have been shown to have a considerably high European ancestry per scientific research are reported to have very small white populations in the 1921 census, with the most extreme case being that of the state of Durango, where the aforementioned census asserts that only 0.01% of the state's population (33 persons) self-identified as "white" while modern scientific research shows that the population of Durango has similar genetic frequencies to those found on [[Ethnic groups of Europe|European peoples]] (with the state's Indigenous population showing almost no foreign admixture either).<ref name=pmid16638736/> Various authors theorize that the reason for these inconsistencies may lie in the Mestizo identity promoted by the Mexican government, which reportedly led to people who are not biologically Mestizos to identify as such.<ref name="Lizcano Fernández 2005"/><ref>[http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html El mestizaje y las culturas regionales] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823015618/http://www.nacionmulticultural.unam.mx/Portal/Izquierdo/BANCO/Mxmulticultural/Elmestizajeylasculturas-elmestizaje.html |date=23 August 2013 }}.</ref> |
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===Present day=== |
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[[File:MarianaBayon3.jpg|thumb|right|160px|[[Mariana Bayón]] Mexican model, best known for winning the first cycle of [[Mexico's Next Top Model]].]] |
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The following table is a compilation of (when possible) official nationwide surveys conducted by the Mexican government who have attempted to quantify different Mexican ethnic groups. Given that for the most part each ethnic group was estimated by different surveys, with different methodologies and years apart rather than on a single comprehensive racial census, some groups could overlap with others and be overestimated or underestimated. |
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{| class="wikitable" style="float:center; text-align:center;" |
|||
|- |
|||
!Race or ethnicity |
|||
!Population (est.) |
|||
!Percentage (est.) |
|||
!Year |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Indigenous Mexicans|Indigenous]] |
|||
| 26,000,000 |
|||
| 21.5% |
|||
|2015<ref name="Encuesta Intercensal 2015"/> |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Afro-Mexicans|Black]] |
|||
| 2,576,213 |
|||
| 02.4% |
|||
|2020<ref name="2020 Census">{{cite web |title=Censo Población y Vivienda 2020 |url=https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/ccpv/2020/ |website=www.inegi.org.mx |publisher=INEGI |access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref> |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| White |
|||
| 56,000,000 |
|||
| 47.0% |
|||
|2010<ref name="conapred21Marzo"/><ref name="conapredEncuesta"/><ref name="DISC-RACIAL 2011"/> |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Immigration in Mexico|Foreigners residing in Mexico]] (of any race) |
|||
| 1,010,000 |
|||
| <1.0% |
|||
|2015<ref>{{cite web|title=Principales resultados de la Encuesta Intercensal 2015 Estados Unidos Mexicanos |url=http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf |publisher=[[INEGI]] |access-date=9 December 2015 |pages=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210212235/http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/encuestas/hogares/especiales/ei2015/doc/eic2015_resultados.pdf |archive-date=10 December 2015 }}</ref> |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Asian Mexicans|East Asian]] |
|||
| 1,000,000 |
|||
| <1.0% |
|||
|2010<ref name=Guerrero>{{cite web|title=La Música de Guerrero (Del atabal a la flauta, el son y el zapateado).|url=http://guerrero.gob.mx/articulos/la-musica-de-guerrero-del-atabal-a-la-flauta-el-son-y-el-zapateado/|publisher=Gobierno del Estado de Guerrero|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref> |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Arab Mexicans|Middle Eastern]] |
|||
| 400,000 |
|||
| <1.0% |
|||
|2010<ref>{{Page needed|date=July 2010}}{{cite web|url=http://confines.mty.itesm.mx/articulos2/GarciaRE.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2010-04-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327124211/https://confines.mty.itesm.mx/articulos2/GarciaRE.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-27 }}</ref> |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Judaism in Mexico|Jewish]] |
|||
| 58,876 |
|||
| <1.0% |
|||
| 2020<ref name="2020 Census"/> |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| [[Islam in Mexico|Muslim]] |
|||
| 7,982 |
|||
| <1.0% |
|||
| 2020<ref name="2020 Census"/> |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| Unclassified (most likely [[Mestizos in Mexico|Mestizos]]) |
|||
| 37,300,000 |
|||
| 30.0% |
|||
| - |
|||
|- |
|||
|align="left"| Total |
|||
| 126,014,024 |
|||
| 100% |
|||
| 2020<ref name="2020 Census"/> |
|||
|} |
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Of all the ethnic groups that have been surveyed, Mestizos are notably absent, which is likely due to the label's fluid and subjective definition, which complicates its precise quantification. However, it can be safely assumed that Mestizos make up at least the remaining 30% unassessed percentage of Mexico's population with possibilities of increasing if the methodologies of the extant surveys are considered. As example the 2015 intercensal survey considered as Indigenous Mexicans and Afro-Mexicans altogether individuals who self-identified as "part Indigenous" or "part African" thus, said people technically would be Mestizos. Similarly, White Mexicans were quantified based on physical traits/appearance, thus technically a Mestizo with a percentage of Indigenous ancestry that was low enough to not affect his/her primarily European phenotype was considered to be white. Finally the remaining ethnicities, for being of a rather low number or being faiths have more permissive classification criteria, therefore a Mestizo could claim to belong to one of them by practicing the faith, or by having an ancestor who belonged to said ethnicities. |
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Nonetheless, contemporary sociologists and historians agree that, given that the concept of "race" has a psychological foundation rather than a biological one and to society's eyes a Mestizo with a high percentage of European ancestry is considered "white" and a Mestizo with a high percentage of Indigenous ancestry is considered "Indian," a person who identifies with a given ethnic group should be allowed to, even if biologically doesn't completely belong to that group.<ref name="Navarrete"/> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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*[[White people]] |
*[[White people]] |
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*[[White Latin Americans]] |
*[[White Latin Americans]] |
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*[[White |
*[[White Latino Americans]] |
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*[[White Colombians]] |
*[[White Colombians]] |
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*[[White Brazilians]] |
*[[White Brazilians]] |
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*[[Castizo]] |
*[[Castizo]] |
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*[[Gringo]] |
*[[Gringo]] |
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*[[Spaniards in Mexico]] |
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*[[Racism in Mexico]] |
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[[Category:Ethnic groups in Mexico]] |
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Mexico]] |
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[[Category:White North Americans|Mexican]] |
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[[Category:European Mexican| ]] |
Latest revision as of 08:00, 21 December 2024
This article's lead section may be too long. (April 2024) |
Mexicanos blancos (Spanish) | |
---|---|
Total population | |
Mexico 52 million[1][2][3][4] 40% of the Mexican population (weighted average of available sources)[3][2] United States 16,794,111 (2010)[5] White Mexican groups: (Spaniards, Arabs, Italians, Germans, French, etc.) | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Mainly in Northern Mexico and in the Bajío, to a lesser extent in Mexico City | |
Languages | |
Majority: Spanish (Mexican Spanish) Minority: German (Plautdietsch)[6] Venetian (Chipilo Venetian) | |
Religion | |
Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholicism and minority Protestantism · Mormonism) | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Spaniards · Arabs · Italians · Germans[7] · Mestizo · Other White Latin Americans |
White Mexicans (Spanish: Mexicanos blancos) are individuals in Mexico who identify as white, often due to their physical appearance or their recognition of European or West Asian ancestry.[8] The Mexican government conducts ethnic censuses that allow individuals to identify as "White,"[9] but the specific results of these censuses are not made public. Instead, the government releases data on the percentage of "light-skinned Mexicans" in the country, with nationwide surveys conducted by the Mexico's National Institute of Statistics and the National Council to Prevent Discrimination reporting results that range from 27%[10][11] to 47%.[3][12] The term "Light-skinned Mexican" is preferred by both the government and media to describe individuals in Mexico who possess European physical traits when discussing ethno-racial dynamics.[13] However, "White Mexican" is still used at times.[14][15][16][17][18][19]
Estimates of Mexico's White population vary significantly due to the different methodologies used. Unofficial sources such as the World Factbook or Latinobarómetro, suggest a white population of just 10%.[20][21] A 2005 study by a professor of the National Autonomous University of Mexico estimated said group at 15% using as base the results of the 1921 census which is admitted, may be inaccurate.[22][23] Other historians have also questioned the accuracy of the 1921 census' results,[24] with independent research in 2008 and 2010 also suggesting that Mexicans may not identify in the way the 1921 census indicate.[25][26] Other sources suggest higher percentages: Encyclopædia Britannica estimates them at around 30% of the population,[2] field surveys that use the presence of blond hair as a reference to classify a Mexican as White found that 23% of the Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico population could be classified as such,[27] the American Sociological Association obtained a nationwide percentage of 18.8% using the same method.[28] Another study conducted by the University College London in collaboration with National Institute of Anthropology and History found that 18% of Mexicans had blond hair and 28% had light eyes.[29]
The presence of Europeans in Mexico dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and during the colonial period, most European immigration was Spanish. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries, significant waves of European and European-derived populations from North and South America immigrated to Mexico. This intermixing between European immigrants and Indigenous peoples resulted in the emergence of the Mestizo group, which became the majority of Mexico's population by the time of the Mexican Revolution.[8] Some scholars challenge this narrative, citing church and census records that indicate interracial unions in Mexico were rare among all groups.[30][31] These records also dispute other academic narratives, such as the idea that European immigrants were predominantly male or that "pure Spanish" individuals formed a small elite. In fact, Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in colonial cities[32][33] and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of full Spanish origin.[31]
While genetic evidence suggests that most European immigrants to Mexico were male, and that the modern population of Mexico was primarily formed through the mixing of Spanish males and Native American females,[34][35][36][37] how pronounced said gender asymmetry was varies considerably depending on the study. The Native American maternal contribution figures range from 90% to 59%,[38] while research on the X chromosome shows less variation, with the reported Native American female contribution oscillating between 50%[39] and 54%.[40] Present day Mestizos have varying degrees of European and Indigenous ancestry, with some having European genetic ancestry exceeding 90%,[39] albeit after the Mexican Revolution the government began defining ethnicity on cultural standards (mainly the language spoken) rather than racial or phenotypic ones, which led to a large number of White persons to be classified as Mestizos.[41]
History
Establishment of Europeans in Mexico
The presence of Europeans in what is nowadays known as Mexico dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century[42][43] by Hernán Cortés, his troops and a number of indigenous city-states who were tributaries and rivals of the Aztecs, such as the Totonacs, the Tlaxcaltecas and Texcocanos among others. After years of war, the coalition led by Cortés finally managed to conquer the Aztec Empire which would result in the foundation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and while this new state granted a series of privileges to the members of the allied indigenous tribes such as nobiliary titles and swathes of land, the Spanish held the most political and economic power.[44][42][45] The small number of Spaniards who inhabited the new kingdom would soon be complemented by a steady migration flow of Spanish people,[45] as it was the interest of the Spanish crown to Hispanicize and Christianize the region given that Indigenous peoples and their customs were considered uncivilized, thus the Spanish language and culture were imposed and indigenous ones suppressed.[42][46]
The Mexican experience mirrors much of that of the rest of Latin America, as attitudes towards race, including identification, were set by the conquistadors and Spanish who came soon after.[45] Through the colonial period, the Spanish and their descendants, called "criollos" remained outnumbered by the indigenous and "mestizos" or those of mixed Spanish and indigenous parents[42][46] (albeit a person of 7/8 Spanish ancestry and 1/8 or less indigenous ancestry could be considered to be "criollo").[47] To keep power, the Spanish enforced a hierarchical class system in New Spain's society, with those born in Spain (known as Peninsulares) being the most privileged, followed by criollos, then Mestizos, then the indigenous and finally the Africans. Nonetheless, the system was not completely rigid and elements such as social class, social relations and who a person descended from did figure into it. However, the notion of "Spanishness" would remain at the top and "Indianness" would be at the bottom, with those mixed being somewhere in the middle. This idea remained officially in force through the rest of the colonial period.[42]
Mexico's European heritage is strongly associated with Spanish settlement during the colonial period, Mexico not having witnessed the same scale of mass recent-immigration as other New World countries such as the United States, Brazil, and Argentina.[43] However, this ruling is less blanket fact and more of a consequence due to Mexico's enormous population. Regardless, Mexico ranks 3rd behind Brazil and Argentina for European immigration in Latin America with its culture owing a great deal to the significant German, Italian, Irish, British, Polish, and French populations. White Mexicans rather, descend of a considerably ethnocentrist group of Spanish people who, beginning with the arrival and establishment of the conquistadors to then be supplemented with clerics, workers, academics etc. immigrated to what today is Mexico. The criollos (as people born in the colonies to Spanish parents were called until the beginning of the 20th century)[45] would favor for marriage other Spanish immigrants even if they were of a less privileged economic class than them, as to preserve the Spanish lineage and customs was seen as the top priority. Once Mexico achieved its independence and immigration from European countries other than Spain became accepted, the criollos did the same, and sought to assimilate the new European immigrants into the overwhelmingly Spanish-origin white Mexican population, as the yearly immigration rate of Europeans to Mexico never exceeded 2% in relation to the country's total population, assimilation of the new immigrants was easy and Mexican hyphenated identities never appeared.[48]
Another way on which European immigration to Mexico differed from that of other New World countries was on the profile of the needed immigrant. As New Spain's main economic activities were not related to agriculture (and the manpower for it was already supplied by the converted indigenous population)the country didn't enforce any sort of programs that would make it an attractive destination for European farmers. Much more important to the economy was mining and miners came from Europe, in particular from Cornwall, U.K. and even today parts of Mineral del Monte and Pachuca maintain strong links to both their British heritage and with the United Kingdom. There was also strong demand for people with specialized skills in fields such as geology, metallurgy, commerce, law, medicine etc. As stories of professional immigrants amassing huge wealth in a pair of years were commonly heard, New Spain became very attractive only for Europeans who filled these profiles and their families, which in the end resulted on the country getting relatively less European immigration,[46][48] is also because of the aforementioned reasons that the majority of Spanish immigrants who arrived to the country were from the northern regions of Spain, mainly Cantabria, Navarra, Asturias, Galicia and the Basque Country.[49]
Criollo resentment of the privileges afforded to the Peninsulares was the main reason behind the Mexican War of Independence. When the war ended in 1821, the new Mexican government expelled the peninsulares (approximately 10,000 – 20,000 people) in the 1820s and 1830s which, to a degree, kept the European ethnicity from growing as a percentage;[46] this expulsion, however, did not lead to any permanent ban on European immigrants, even from Spain.[43] Independence did not end the economic and social privilege based on race, as the Criollos took over from those of Spanish birth. A division between "Spanish" and "indigenous" remained, with Criollos distinguishing themselves from the rest of society as the guardians of Spanish culture as well as the Catholic religion.[48] However, due to the abolition of the caste system, the division became more about money and social class and less about biological differences, which increased the possibilities of social mobility for Mestizo and Indigenous Mexicans. For this reason, many of the political and cultural struggles of the latter 19th and early 20th centuries would be between the Criollos and the Mestizos.[46]
According to Mexico's first ever racial census published in 1793, the Euro-descendant population was between 18%-22% of the population (with Mestizos being 21%-25% and Amerindians being 51%-61%);[50] but by 1921, when the second nationwide census that considered a person's race took place, 59% of the population self-identified as being of European descent, with 59% being Mestizo and 29% being Amerindian.[8] While for a long time the 1921 census' results were taken as fact, with international, although unofficial publications such as The World Factbook using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition up to this day,[20] more recently, Mexican academics have subjected them to scrutiny, claiming that such a drastic alteration of demographic trends is not possible and cite, among other statistics, the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries.[51][24]
Official censuses
Historically, population studies and censuses have never been up to the standards that a population as diverse and numerous such as Mexico's require: the first racial census was made in 1793, being also Mexico's (then known as New Spain) first ever nationwide population census, of it, only part of the original datasets survive, thus most of what is known of it comes from essays made by researchers who back in the day used the census' findings as reference for their own works. More than a century would pass until the Mexican government conducted a new racial census in 1921 (some sources assert that the census of 1895 included a comprehensive racial classification,[8] however according to the historic archives of Mexico's National Institute of Statistics that was not the case).[52] While the 1921 census was the last time the Mexican government conducted a census that included a comprehensive racial classification, in recent time it has conducted nationwide surveys to quantify most of the ethnic groups who inhabit the country as well as the social dynamics and inequalities between them.
1793 census
Also known as the "Revillagigedo census" due to its creation being ordered by the Count of the same name, this census was Mexico's (then known as the Viceroyalty of New Spain) first ever nationwide population census. Most of its original datasets have reportedly been lost; thus most of what is known about it nowadays comes from essays and field investigations made by academics who had access to the census data and used it as reference for their works such as Prussian geographer Alexander von Humboldt. Each author gives different estimations for each racial group in the country, although they don't vary much, with Europeans ranging from 18% to 22% of New Spain's population, Mestizos ranging from 21% to 25%, Indians ranging from 51% to 61% and Africans being between 6,000 and 10,000, The estimations given for the total population range from 3,799,561 to 6,122,354. It is concluded then, that across nearly three centuries of colonization, the population growth trends of whites and mestizos were even, while the total percentage of the indigenous population decreased at a rate of 13%-17% per century. The authors assert that rather than whites and mestizos having higher birthrates, the reason for the indigenous population's numbers decreasing lies on them suffering of higher mortality rates, due living in remote locations rather than on cities and towns founded by the Spanish colonists or being at war with them. It is also for these reasons that the number of Indigenous Mexicans presents the greater variation range between publications, as in cases their numbers in a given location were estimated rather than counted, leading to possible overestimations in some provinces and possible underestimations in others.[50]
Intendecy/territory | European population (%) | Indigenous population (%) | Mestizo population (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Mexico | 16.9% | 66.1% | 16.7% |
Puebla | 10.1% | 74.3% | 15.3% |
Oaxaca | 06.3% | 88.2% | 05.2% |
Guanajuato | 25.8% | 44.0% | 29.9% |
San Luis Potosi | 13.0% | 51.2% | 35.7% |
Zacatecas | 15.8% | 29.0% | 55.1% |
Durango | 20.2% | 36.0% | 43.5% |
Sonora | 28.5% | 44.9% | 26.4% |
Yucatan | 14.8% | 72.6% | 12.3% |
Guadalajara | 31.7% | 33.3% | 34.7% |
Veracruz | 10.4% | 74.0% | 15.2% |
Valladolid | 27.6% | 42.5% | 29.6% |
Nuevo Mexico | ~ | 30.8% | 69.0% |
Vieja California | ~ | 51.7% | 47.9% |
Nueva California | ~ | 89.9% | 09.8% |
Coahuila | 30.9% | 28.9% | 40.0% |
Nuevo Leon | 62.6% | 05.5% | 31.6% |
Nuevo Santander | 25.8% | 23.3% | 50.8% |
Texas | 39.7% | 27.3% | 32.4% |
Tlaxcala | 13.6% | 72.4% | 13.8% |
~Europeans are included within the Mestizo category.
Regardless of the possible imprecisions related to the counting of Indigenous peoples living outside of the colonized areas, the effort that New Spain's authorities put on considering them as subjects is worth mentioning, as censuses made by other colonial or post-colonial countries did not consider American Indians to be citizens/subjects, as example the censuses made by the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata would only count the inhabitants of the colonized settlements.[53] Other example would be the censuses made by the United States, that did not include Indigenous peoples living among the general population until 1860, and indigenous peoples as a whole until 1900.[54]
1921 census
Made right after the consummation of the Mexican revolution, the social context on which this census was made makes it particularly unique, as the government of the time was in the process of rebuilding the country and was looking forward to unite all Mexicans under a single national identity. The 1921 census' final results in regards to race, which assert that 59.3% of the Mexican population self-identified as Mestizo, 29.1% as Indigenous and only 9.8% as White were then essential to cement the "mestizaje" ideology (that asserts that the Mexican population as a whole is product of the admixture of all races) which shaped Mexican identity and culture through the 20th century and remain prominent nowadays, with extraofficial international publications such as The World Factbook using them as a reference to estimate Mexico's racial composition up to this day.[20]
Nonetheless, in recent times the census' results have been subjected to scrutiny by historians, academics, and social activists alike, who assert that such drastic alterations in demographics for the 1793 census are not possible and cite, among other statistics the relatively low frequency of marriages between people of different continental ancestries in colonial and early independent Mexico.[51][24] It is claimed that the "mestizaje" process sponsored by the state was more "cultural than biological" which resulted in the numbers of the Mestizo Mexican group being inflated at the expense of the identity of other races.[55] Controversies aside, this census constituted the last time the Mexican Government conducted a comprehensive racial census with the breakdown by states being the following (foreigners and people who answered "other" not included):[56]
Federative Units | Mestizo Population (%) | Amerindian Population (%) | White Population (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Aguascalientes | 66.12% | 16.70% | 16.77% |
Baja California (Distrito Norte) |
72.50% | 07.72% | 00.35% |
Baja California (Distrito Sur) |
59.61% | 06.06% | 33.40% |
Campeche | 41.45% | 43.41% | 14.17% |
Coahuila | 77.88% | 11.38% | 10.13% |
Colima | 68.54% | 26.00% | 04.50% |
Chiapas | 36.27% | 47.64% | 11.82% |
Chihuahua | 50.09% | 12.76% | 36.33% |
Durango | 89.85% | 09.99% | 00.01% |
Guanajuato | 96.33% | 02.96% | 00.54% |
Guerrero | 54.05% | 43.84% | 02.07% |
Hidalgo | 51.47% | 39.49% | 08.83% |
Jalisco | 75.83% | 16.76% | 07.31% |
Mexico City | 54.78% | 18.75% | 22.79% |
State of Mexico | 47.71% | 42.13% | 10.02% |
Michoacan | 70.95% | 21.04% | 06.94% |
Morelos | 61.24% | 34.93% | 03.59% |
Nayarit | 73.45% | 20.38% | 05.83% |
Nuevo Leon | 75.47% | 05.14% | 19.23% |
Oaxaca | 28.15% | 69.17% | 01.43% |
Puebla | 39.34% | 54.73% | 05.66% |
Querétaro | 80.15% | 19.40% | 00.30% |
Quintana Roo | 42.35% | 20.59% | 15.16% |
San Luis Potosí | 61.88% | 30.60% | 05.41% |
Sinaloa | 98.30% | 00.93% | 00.19% |
Sonora | 41.04% | 14.00% | 42.54% |
Tabasco | 53.67% | 18.50% | 27.56% |
Tamaulipas | 69.77% | 13.89% | 13.62% |
Tlaxcala | 42.44% | 54.70% | 02.53% |
Veracruz | 50.09% | 36.60% | 10.28% |
Yucatán | 33.83% | 43.31% | 21.85% |
Zacatecas | 86.10% | 08.54% | 05.26% |
When the 1921 census's results are compared with the results of Mexico's recent censuses[57] as well as with modern genetic research,[58] high consistence is found in regards to the distribution of Indigenous Mexicans across the country, with states located in south and south-eastern Mexico having both, the highest percentages of population that self-identifies as Indigenous and the highest percentages of Amerindian genetic ancestry. However this is not the case when it comes to European Mexicans, as there are instances on which states that have been shown to have a considerably high European ancestry per scientific research are reported to have very small white populations in the 1921 census, with the most extreme case being that of the state of Durango, where the aforementioned census asserts that only 0.01% of the state's population (33 persons) self-identified as "white" while modern scientific research shows that the population of Durango has similar genetic frequencies to those found on European peoples (with the state's Indigenous population showing almost no foreign admixture either).[59] Various authors theorize that the reason for these inconsistencies may lie in the Mestizo identity promoted by the Mexican government, which reportedly led to people who are not biologically Mestizos to identify as such.[41][60]
Present day
Since the end of the Mexican Revolution, the official identity promoted by the government for non-indigenous Mexicans has been the Mestizo one (a mix of European and indigenous culture and heritage).[8] Established with the original intent of eliminating divisions and creating a unified identity that would allow Mexico to modernize and integrate with the international community,[43] this policy has not been able to achieve its goal. It is speculated that this is due to the identity's own internal contradictions,[8] as it includes in the same theoretical race people who, in daily interactions, do not consider each other to be of the same race and have little in common biologically,[61] with some of them being entirely Indigenous, others entirely European, and including also Africans and Asians.[41] Today, there is no definitive census that quantifies Mexico's white population, with estimates from the Mexican government raging from 27%[10] to 47%,[3][4] with this figure being based on phenotypical traits instead of self-identification of ancestry. The lack of a clear dividing line between white and mixed race Mexicans has made the concept of race relatively fluid, with descent being more of a determining factor than biological traits.[8][43] Even though there is a large variation in phenotypes among Mexicans, European looks are still strongly preferred in Mexican society, with lighter skin receiving more positive attention, as it is associated with higher social class, power, money, and modernity.[43][45] In contrast, Indigenous ancestry is often associated with having an inferior social class, as well as lower levels of education.[8][42] These distinctions are strongest in Mexico City, where the most powerful of the country's elite are located.[43]
Even though the Mexican government didn't use racial terms related to European or white people officially for almost a century (resuming using such terms after 2010), the concepts of "white people" (known as güeros or blancos in Mexican Spanish) and of "being white" didn't disappear [62] and are still present in everyday Mexican culture: different idioms of race are used in Mexico's society that serve as mediating terms between racial groups. It is not strange to see street vendors calling a potential customer Güero or güerito, sometimes even when the person is not light-skinned. In this instance it is used to initiate a kind of familiarity, but in cases where social/racial tensions are relatively high, it can have the opposite effect.[43] However contemporary sociologists and historians agree that, given that the concept of "race" has a psychological foundation rather than a biological one and to society's eyes a Mestizo with a high percentage of European ancestry is considered "white" and a Mestizo with a high percentage of Indigenous ancestry is considered "Indian," a person who identifies with a given ethnic group should be allowed to, even if biologically doesn't completely belong to that group.[61]
Distribution and estimations
Contrary to popular belief, Mexico's government does conduct ethnic censuses on which a Mexican has the choice of identifying as "White".[9] The results, however, remain unpublished. Instead, the Mexican government publishes results regarding the frequencies of different phenotypical traits in Mexicans, such as skin color. In discourses and investigations regarding problematics such as racism, it has opted for splitting Mexicans into "light-skinned Mexicans" and "dark-skinned Mexicans" rather than "White Mexicans" and "Mestizo Mexicans" albeit it must be considered that in Mexican society, the terms "Light complexion/skin" and "White complexion/skin" are synonyms[63] and tend to be used interchangeably.[64] Other studies made by independent institutions often use the presence of light hair colors (particularly blond) to calculate Mexico's white population; however, to use such features to delineate said ethnic group results in an underestimation of its numbers as not all of Europe's native populations have those traits. Similarly, not only people with those phenotypical features are considered to be white by the majority of Mexican society.[17][18]
Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of white population, with the majority of the people not having native admixture or being of predominantly European ancestry.[65] In the north and west of Mexico the indigenous tribes were substantially smaller and unlike those found in central and southern Mexico they were mostly nomadic, therefore remaining isolated from colonial population centers, with hostilities between them and Mexican colonists often taking place.[66] This eventually led the northeast region of the country to become the region with the highest proportion of whites during the Spanish colonial period albeit recent migration waves have been changing its demographic trends.[67]
In 2010, CONAPRED (Mexico's National Council for the Prevention of Discrimination) conducted the ENADIS 2010 (National Survey About Discrimination)[4] with the purpose of addressing the problems of racism that Mexicans of mainly Indigenous or African ancestry suffer in the hands of a society that favors light-skinned, European-looking Mexicans.[13] In the press release of said report, CONAPRED stated that 47% of Mexicans (54% of women and 40% of men) identified with the lightest skin colors used in the census questionnaire. The council makes the supposition that the high difference reported between males and females is due to the "frequently racist publicity in media and due to racial prejudices in Mexico's society which shuns dark skin in favor of light skin, thus making women think that white is beautiful," stating that men are more likely to recognize their real skin color.[3] A subsequent question in the same survey asks Mexicans to evaluate, from 0 to 10, how comfortable they are with their skin color, with the average score being 9.4 out of 10.[68] Furthermore, there is scientific research proving that human females tend to have lighter skin than their male counterparts.[69][70]
Besides the visual identification of skin color, the same survey asked Mexicans how they would refer to their skin color. The press report by CONAPRED remarks that six out of ten people considered themselves to be "moreno" (dark-skinned) and only one out of ten considered their skin to be "blanco" (white).[72] The questionnaire included as choices other words that are colloquially used to refer to white people in Mexico such as "güero" (informal for white), "claro" (clear), "aperlado" (pearly) and other words that may or may not refer to a white person depending on the case, such as "quemadito" (burnt), "bronceado" (tanned), "apiñonado" (spiced), "amarillo" (yellow) and "canela" (cinnamon). Further complicating the situation, several words used specifically for brown skin also appear as choices such as "café" (brown), "negro" (black), "chocolate", "oscuro" (dark), "prieto" (also dark) and "trigueño" (another word for brown).[68] The word "moreno" itself has a very wide definition in Spanish and has no specific racial connotations, being used equally to define light-skinned people with dark hair as to define people of African ancestry.[73]
Skin Type | Percentage (inegi 2017) |
---|---|
A | 0.2% |
B | 0.5% |
C | 1.0% |
D | 3.0% |
E | 2.7% |
F | 13.0% |
G | 30.0% |
H | 37.4% |
I | 5.2% |
J | 4.9% |
K | 2.1% |
In 2017, Mexico's National Institute of Statistics and Geography published the Intergenerational Social Mobility Module (MMSI),[9] composed of a series of nationwide surveys focused on education, generational economic mobility and ethnicity. It is particularly notorious for giving Mexicans the possibility to identify with a race (the available choices being "Indigenous", "Mestizo", "White", “Black” or "Other"). While the results of questions directly related to race were published, the percentage of Mexicans who identified with each race was not. Also included in the survey was a color palette (the same as the one used in the PERLA project: composed of 11 different tones with "A" being the darkest and "K" being the lightest) so a person could choose what color the skin of his/her face was. The percentage of Mexicans that identified with each skin color was not included in the main MMSI document but unlike racial composition it was made public through other official publications.[12] The study's results received significant media coverage, which led to discussions about concepts including systemic racism, white privilege and colonialism.[14][74] The study concluded that Mexicans with medium ("F" tone) and darker skin tones have in average lower profile occupations than Mexicans with lighter skin tones. Also stated is that Mexicans with lighter skin tones (lighter than "F") have higher levels of academic achievement.[9] The study also points out that out of the 4 racial categories used in the study, that of Indigenous Mexicans is the one that shows the highest percentage of positive social mobility (meaning that a person is better off than his/her parents were) while White Mexicans are the ones who have the lowest positive social mobility.[9]
In 2018, the new edition of the ENADIS was published, this time being a joint effort by the CONAPRED and the INEGI with collaboration of the UNAM, the CONACyT and the CNDH.[10] Like its 2010 antecessor, it surveyed Mexican citizens about topics related to discrimination and collected data related to phenotype and ethnic self-identification. It concluded that Mexico is still a fairly conservative country regarding minority groups such as religious minorities, ethnic minorities, foreigners and members of the LGBT community. Albeit there's pronounced regional differences, with states in the south-center regions of Mexico having in general notoriously higher discrimination rates towards the aforementioned social groups than the ones states in the western-north regions have.[10] For the collecting of data related to skin color the palette used was again the PERLA one. This time 11% of Mexicans were reported to have "dark skin tones (A-E)" 59% to have "medium skin tones (F-G)" and 28% to have "light skin tones (H-K)".[10] The reason for the huge difference regarding the reported percentages of Mexicans with light skin (around 18% lower) and medium skin (around 16% higher) in the relation to previous nationwide surveys lies in the fact that the ENADIS 2017 prioritized the surveying of Mexicans from "vulnerable groups" which among other measures meant that states with known high numbers of people from said groups surveyed more people.[75] In 2023, the 2022 edition of the ENADIS by the INEGI was published, this time 29.2% of Mexicans were reported to belong to the group of the "lightest skin tones (H-K)" 49.7% were reported to belong to "medium skin tones (F-G)" and 21.1% reported to belong to "Dark skin tones (A-E)."[76] On a similar manner to its predecessor, the survey was conducted with special attention on disadvantaged social groups, meaning that states with a known higher presence of such groups conducted more surveys proportionally.[77]
Independent field studies have been made in attempt to quantify the number of European Mexicans living in modern Mexico, using blond hair as reference to classify a Mexican as white, the Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico calculated their percentage at 23%, the study explicitly states that red-haired people were not classified as white but as "other."[27] A study made by the University College London which included multiple Latin American countries and was made with collaboration of each country's anthropology and genetics institutes reported that the frequency of blond hair and light eyes in Mexicans was of 18.5% and 28.5% respectively,[29] making Mexico the country with the second-highest frequency of blond hair in the study. Despite this, the European ancestry estimated for Mexicans is also the second-lowest of all countries included, the reason behind such discrepancy may lie in the fact that the samples used in Mexico's case were highly disproportional, as the northern and western regions of Mexico contain 45% of Mexico's population, but no more than 10% of the samples used in the study came from the states located in these regions. For the most part, the rest of the samples hailed from Mexico City and southern Mexican states.[78]
In 2010 a study published by the American Sociological Association explored social inequalities between Mexicans of different skin colors. The field research consisted of three waves of interviews on different Mexican states during the timespan of a year, people surveyed where split on 3 different groups: "White," "Light brown" and "Dark brown," with the classification being up to the criteria of the interviewers who is claimed, were trained for the task. It is stated that, in order to obtain stable results and prevent inconsistencies regarding who belongs to a given category, additional phenotypic traits besides the respondents' skin color were considered, such as the presence of blond hair in the case of individuals that were to be classified in the "White" category, because "unlike skin color, hair color does not darken with exposure to sunlight." It is indeed claimed within the study that out of the three color categories used, the percentages obtained for the "White" one through the three waves of interviews were the most consistent. According to the results of the study, the average percentage of Mexicans who were classified as "White" per the presence of blond hair was 18.8%, with the Northeast and Northwest regions having the highest frequencies at 23.9% and 22.3% respectively, followed by the Center region with 21.3%, the Center-West region with 18.4% and finally the South region with 11.9%. The study makes the clarification that Mexico City (Center region) as well as rural areas of the states of Oaxaca, Chiapas (both from the south region) and Jalisco (Center-West region) were oversampled.[28]
A study performed in hospitals of Mexico City suggests that socioeconomic factors influence the frequency of Mongolian spots among newborns, as evidenced by the higher prevalence of 85% in newborns from a public institution, typically associated with lower socioeconomic status, compared to a 33% prevalence in newborns from private hospitals, which generally cater to families with higher socioeconomic status.[79] The Mongolian spot appears with a very high frequency (85-95%) in Asian, Native American and African children.[80] The skin lesion reportedly almost always appears on South American[81] and Mexican children who are racially Mestizos[82] while having a very low frequency (5-10%) in Caucasian children.[83] According to Ana Rosa Alvarado, a dermatologist who works for the IMSS Jalisco division, around half of the babies born have the Mongolian spot.[84]
According to the 2010 US Census, 52.8% of Mexican Americans (approximately 16,794,111 people) self-identified as being White.[85]
The following tables (the first from a study published in 2002[86] and the second from a study published in 2018[87]) show the frequencies of different blood types in various Mexican cities and states, as Mexico's Amerindian/Indigenous population exclusively exhibits the "O" blood type, the presence of other blood groups can give an approximate idea of the amount of foreign influence there is in each state that has been analyzed. The results of this studies however, shouldn't be taken as exact, literal estimations for the percentages of different ethnic groups that there may be in Mexico (I.E. A+B blood groups = percentage of White Mexicans) for reasons such as the fact that a Mestizo Mexican can have "A", "B" etc. blood types or the fact that the "O" blood type does exist in Europe, with it having a frequency of 44% in Spain for example.[88]
City | State | O (%) | A (%) | B (%) | AB (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
La Paz | Baja California Sur | 58.49% | 31.4% | 8.40% | 1.71% |
Guadalajara | Jalisco | 57.2% | 31.2% | 9.7% | 1.9% |
Gómez Palacio | Durango | 57.99% | 29.17% | 10.76% | 2.08% |
Ciudad Victoria | Tamaulipas | 63.6% | 27.3% | 7.4% | 1.7% |
Monterrey | Nuevo Leon | 63.1% | 26.5% | 9% | 1.4% |
Veracruz | Veracruz | 64.2% | 25.7% | 8.1% | 2.0% |
Saltillo | Coahuila | 64.2% | 24.9% | 9.7% | 1.2% |
Saladero | Veracruz | 60.5% | 28.6% | 10.9% | 0.0% |
Torreón | Coahuila | 66.35% | 24.47% | 8.3% | 0.88% |
Mexico City | Mexico City | 67.7% | 23.4% | 7.2% | 1.7% |
Durango | Durango | 55.1% | 38.6% | 6.3% | 0.0% |
Ciudad del Carmen | Campeche | 69.7% | 22.0% | 6.4% | 1.8% |
Mérida | Yucatan | 67.5% | 21.1% | 10.5% | 0.9% |
Leon | Guanajuato | 65.3% | 24.7% | 6.0% | 4.0% |
Zacatecas | Zacatecas | 61.9% | 22.2% | 13.5% | 2.4% |
Tlaxcala | Tlaxcala | 71.7% | 19.6% | 6.5% | 2.2% |
Puebla | Puebla | 72.3% | 19.5% | 7.4% | 0.8% |
Oaxaca | Oaxaca | 71.8% | 20.5% | 7.7% | 0.0% |
Paraiso | Tabasco | 75.8% | 14.9% | 9.3% | 0.0% |
Total | ~~ | 65.0% | 25.0% | 8.6% | 1.4% |
State | O (%) | A (%) | B (%) | AB (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Baja California | 60.25% | 28.79% | 9.03% | 1.92% |
Sonora | 58.58% | 30.48% | 9.11% | 1.84% |
Sinaloa | 56.46% | 32.93% | 8.56% | 2.05% |
Durango | 59.29% | 26.89% | 11.33% | 2.50% |
Coahuila | 66.17% | 23.49% | 9.01% | 1.33% |
Nuevo Leon | 62.43% | 25.62% | 10.10% | 1.85% |
Nayarit | 59.20% | 29.62% | 9.32% | 1.85% |
Jalisco | 57.85% | 29.95% | 9.78% | 2.42% |
Michoacan | 60.25% | 29.51% | 9.04% | 2.44% |
Puebla | 74.36% | 18.73% | 6.05% | 0.87% |
Veracruz | 67.82% | 21.90% | 8.94% | 1.34% |
San Luis Potosi | 67.47% | 24.27% | 7.28% | 0.97% |
Aguascalientes | 61.42% | 26.25% | 10.28% | 2.05% |
Guanajuato | 61.98% | 26.83% | 9.33% | 1.85% |
Queretaro | 65.71% | 23.60% | 9.40% | 1.29% |
State of Mexico | 70.68% | 21.11% | 7.18% | 1.04% |
Mexico City | 66.72% | 23.70% | 8.04% | 1.54% |
Total | 61.82% | 27.43% | 8.93% | 1.81% |
Both studies find similar trends regarding the distribution of different blood groups, with foreign blood groups being more common in the North and Western regions of Mexico, which is congruent with the findings of genetic studies that have been made in the country through the years and could be attributed to different factors like migrations, nonrandom mating, and infectious diseases among others. The study published in 2018 found no significant difference in blood groups by age and only a slight difference by gender, which could be attributed to the sampling method used.
Europeans in Independent Mexico
After the war of independence, the country's almost completely European elite would associate civilization with European characteristics, blaming the country's indigenous heritage for its inability to keep up with the economic development of the rest of the world. This led to active efforts to encourage the arrival of additional European immigrants.[43] One of these efforts was the dispossession of large tracts of land from the Catholic Church with the aim of selling them to immigrants and others who would develop them. However, this did not have the desired effect mostly because of political instability. The Porfirio Díaz regime of the decades before the Mexican Revolution tried again, and expressly desired European immigration to promote modernization, instill Protestant work ethics and buttress what remained of Mexico's North from further U.S. expansionism. Díaz also expressed a desire to "whiten" Mexico's heavily racially mixed population, although this had more to do with culture than with biological traits. However, the Díaz regime knew it had to be cautious, as previously large concentrations of Americans in Texas, would eventually lead to the secession of that territory.[46][48] This precautions meant that the government had more success luring investors than permanent residents, even in rural areas despite government programs. No more than forty foreign farming colonies were ever formed during this time and of these only a few Italian and German ones survived.[48] Mexico's northwest-pacific region (particularly Sinaloa, Sonora, and the Baja California Peninsula) experienced major surges of Northern Spanish immigration in the late 19th and early 20th century, specifically from Asturias and Galicia (Spain). Most of Latin America's colonial and industrial era Spanish immigration originates from Southern Spain and the Canary Islands, thus this regional enclave of Northern Spaniards is exceptional and remains the biggest diaspora of Asturias and Galicians by heritage in the Americas.[58]
By the mid-19th century, between Europeans and ethnically European Americans and Canadians, there were only 30,000 to 40,000 European immigrants in Mexico, compared to an overall population of over eight million, but their impact was strongly felt as they came to dominate the textile industry and various areas of commerce and industry. Many were not immigrants, but rather "trade conquistadors" who remained in Mexico only long enough to make their fortunes to return to their home countries to retire. This led Diaz to nationalize industries dominated by foreigners such as trains, which caused many trade conquistadors to leave.[48] In January 1883, the government signed a law to promote the Irish, German and French immigration to Mexico, this time with fewer restrictions, resulting in the arrival of relatively more conventional immigrants and their families.[89] Up to 1914, 10,000 French settled in Mexico,[90] alongside other 100,000 Europeans.[90] Despite being the most violent conflict in Mexico's history, the Mexican Revolution did not discourage European immigration nor scared away white Mexicans, who, for concentrating in urban areas were largely unaffected by it and thought of it as a conflict pertinent only to rural people.[48] Later on, bellic conflicts in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s such as the Spanish Civil War and the Second World War caused additional waves of European immigration to the country.[91]
By the end of the Second World War, Americans, British, French, Germans and Spanish were the most conspicuous Europeans in Mexico but their presence was limited to urban areas, especially Mexico City, living in enclaves and involved in business. These European immigrants would quickly adapt to the Mexican attitude that "whiter was better" and keep themselves separate from the non-European population of the host country. This and their status as foreigners offered them considerable social and economic advantages, blunting any inclination to assimilate. There was little incentive to integrate with the general Mexican population and when they did, it was limited to the criollo and mestizo upper class, failing to produce the "whitening" effect desired. For this reason, one can find non–Spanish surnames, especially in Mexico City and Guadalajara.[46][48] Even in the cases when generalized mixing did occur, such as with the Cornish miners in Hidalgo state around Pachuca and Real de Monte, their cultural influence remains strong. In these areas, English style houses can be found, the signature dish is the "paste" a variation of the Cornish pasty[92] and they ended up introducing football (soccer) to Mexico.[93] In the early 20th century, a group of about 100 Russian immigrants, mostly Pryguny and some Molokane and Cossacks came to live in area near Ensenada, Baja California. The main colony is in the Valle de Guadalupe and locally known as the Colonia Rusa near the town of Francisco Zarco. Other smaller colonies include San Antonio, Misión del Orno and Punta Banda. There are an estimated 1,000 descendants of these immigrants in Mexico, nearly all of whom have intermarried. The original settlements are now under the preservation of the Mexican government and have become tourist attractions.[94] This region also experienced concentrated waves of modern European immigration during the 20th century such as Italian and French, and the culture of the region reflects its lack of indigenous admixture. European rooted holidays like Saints days, Carnival as well as gastronomy such as bread, cheese, and wine production remain unique to the region.[95]
One of the few Porfirian-era European settlements to survive to this day is centered on the small town of Chipilo in the state of Puebla.[96] They are the descendants of about 500 Venetian refugee immigrants which came over in the 1880s, keeping their Venetian-derived dialect and distinct ethnic identity, even though many have intermarried with other Mexicans. Many still farm and raise livestock but economic changes have pushed many into industry.[97] During the Mexican Revolution, Álvaro Obregón invited a group of German-speaking Mennonites in Canada to resettle in Chihuahua state. By the late 1920s, almost 10,000 had arrived from both Canada and Europe.[48][98] Today, Mexico accounts for about 42% of all Mennonites in Latin America with 115,000 practicing Mennonites accounted for.[45] Mennonites in the country especially stand out within their rural surroundings because of their traditional clothing, Plautdietsch language, light skin, hair and eyes. They own their own businesses in various communities in Chihuahua, and account for about half of the state's farm economy, standing out in cheese production.[98] Legal vestiges of attempts to "whiten" the population ended with the 1947 "Ley General de Población" along with the blurring of the lines between most of Mexico immigrant colonies and the general population. This blurring was hastened by the rise of a Mexican middle class, who enrolled their children in schools for foreigners and foreign organizations such as the German Club having a majority of Mexican members. However, this assimilation still has been mostly limited to Mexico's white peoples. Mass culture promoted the Spanish language and most other European languages have declined and almost disappeared. Restrictive immigration policies since the 1970s have further pushed the assimilation process. Despite all of the aforementioned pressure, as of 2013 Mexico is the country with most international immigrants in the world.[99]
This widespread preference that Mexicans, even those who are of predominant indigenous ancestry, have for European cultures and values, over Indigenous ones, has come to be known as malinchismo, which means to identify or favor a North American or European culture over the native one. It derives from La Malinche, the native interpreter who served with Hernán Cortés during the Conquest, whose story still is a Mexican fable. Examples of practices considered as malinchismo in modern Mexico include Mexican parents choosing English given names for their kids, due to the desire to be associated with the United States.[42] Due to the 2008 Financial Crisis and the resulting economic decline and high unemployment in Spain, many Spaniards have been emigrating to Mexico to seek new opportunities.[100] For example, during the last quarter of 2012, a number of 7,630 work permits were granted to Spaniards.[101] Other Southern Europeans joined the Spaniards in the 2010s by finding better work opportunities in Mexico with thousands of Italians, Portuguese, French and Greeks finding professional opportunities along with the Spaniards in Mexico.
Since 2000, Mexico's economic growth has increased international migration to the country, including people of European descent who leave their countries (particularly France and Spain) in the search of better work opportunities. People from the United States have moved too, now making up more than three-quarters of Mexico's roughly one million documented foreigners, up from around two-thirds in 2000. Nowadays, more people originally from United States have been added to the population of Mexico than Mexicans have been added to the population of the United States, according to government data in both nations.[102] Immigration was restricted by governments after Diaz's but never stopped entirely during the 20th century. Between 1937 and 1948, more than 18,000 Spanish Republicans arrived as refugees from the Nationalists and Francoist Spain. Their reception by the Mexican criollo elite was mixed but they manage to experience success as most of these newcomers were educated as scholars and artists. This group founded the Colegio de Mexico, one of the country's top academic institutions. Sixty-seven percent of Latin America's English-speaking population lives in Mexico.[45] Most of these are American nationals, with an influx of people from the U.S. coming to live in Mexico since the 1930s, becoming the largest group of foreigners in the country since then. However, most Americans in Mexico are not immigrants in the traditional sense, as they are there living as retirees or otherwise do not consider themselves permanent residents.[48][103]
Genetic research
The numerous studies of the genetic makeup Mexican population have yielded a myriad of different results; it is not unusual that different genetic studies done in the same location vary greatly. Clear examples of such variations are seen in the city of Monterrey, in the state of Nuevo León, which, depending on the study, presents an average European ancestry ranging from 38%[104] to 78%,[105] and in Mexico City, whose European admixture ranges from as little as 21%[106] to as high as 70%.[107] The reasons behind such variation may include the socioeconomic background of the analyzed samples,[107] as well as the criteria for recruiting volunteers: some studies only analyze Mexicans who self-identify as Mestizos,[108] others may classify the entire Mexican population as "mestizo",[109] other studies may do both, such as the 2009 genetic study published by the INMEGEN (Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine), which states that 93% of the Mexican population is Mestizo with the remaining population being Amerindian, this particular statement having received considerable media exposure through the years[110][111] to the dismay of scientists from the aforementioned institute, who have complained about the study being misinterpreted by the press as it wasn't meant to represent Mexico's population as a whole.[26] According to the methodology of the aforementioned study, the institute only recruited people who explicitly self-identified as Mestizos.[112]
The Mestizaje ideology, which has blurred the lines of race at an institutional level has also had a significant influence in genetic studies done in Mexico.[26] As the criteria used in studies to determine if a Mexican is Mestizo or indigenous often lies in cultural traits such as the language spoken instead of racial self-identification or a phenotype-based selection there are studies on which populations who are considered to be Indigenous per virtue of the language spoken show a higher degree of European genetic admixture than the one populations considered to be Mestizo report in other studies.[113] The opposite also happens, as there instances on which populations considered to be Mestizo show genetic frequencies very similar to continental European peoples in the case of Mestizos from the state of Durango[59] or to European derived Americans in the case of Mestizos from the state of Jalisco.[114]
Regardless of the criteria used, all the autosomal DNA studies made coincide on there being a significant genetic variation depending on the region analyzed, with southern Mexico having prevalent Amerindian and small but higher than average African genetic contributions, the central region of Mexico shows a balance between Amerindian and European components,[115] with the later gradually increasing as one travels northwards and westwards, where European ancestry becomes the majority of the genetic contribution[116] up until cities located in the Mexico–United States border, where studies suggest there is a significant resurgence of Amerindian and African admixture.[117]
A 2006 nationwide autosomal study, the first ever conducted by Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN), which included the states of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Yucatan, Zacatecas and Sonora reported that self-identified Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 35.05% Amerindian, and 5.03% Other.[108]
A 2014 publication summarizing population genetics research in Mexico, including three nationwide surveys and several region-specific surveys, found that in the studies done to date, counting only studies that looked at the ancestry of both parents (autosomal ancestry): "Amerindian ancestry is most prevalent (51% to 56%) in the three general estimates (initially published by the INMEGEN in 2009), followed by European ancestry (40% to 45%); the African share represents only 2% to 5%. In Mexico City, the European contribution was estimated as 21% to 32% in six of the seven reports, with the anomalous value of 57% obtained in a single sample of 19 subjects, albeit said percentage can't really be called anomalous, as autosomal studies that obtain percentages of European ancestry of 51%,[118] 52%,[119] 70%[107] and 52%,[120] exists, (with the last one being for Mexico's central region as a whole) but were not included on this publication for unspecified reasons. According to the studies that were included, European ancestry is most prevalent in the north (Chihuahua, 50%; Sonora, 62%; Nuevo León, 55%), but in a recent sample from Nuevo León and elsewhere in the country, Amerindian ancestry is dominant."[121]
A 2007 study that included Mexicans from Mexico City reported that the autosomal ancestry of Mexicans was 52% European, while the Native American ancestry was 44%. However, the authors noted that Native American ancestry on the X chromosome was 54%. The authors stated that this is consistent with the genetic formation of Latinos, a process which involved primarily European males and Native American females.[40]
See also
- Europeans
- White people
- White Latin Americans
- White Latino Americans
- White Colombians
- White Brazilians
- White Americans
- Indigenous Mexicans
- Afro-Mexicans
- Asian Mexicans
- Criollo people
- Castizo
- Gringo
- Spaniards in Mexico
- Racism in Mexico
References
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- ^ a b c Ethnic composition (2010): Approximately two fifths"Mexico: Ethnic groups". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 6, 2022.
- ^ a b c d e "21 de Marzo: Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" [March 21: International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination] (PDF) (in Spanish). Mexico: CONAPRED. 2017. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved August 23, 2017. In the page 7 of the press release, the council reported that 53.5% of Mexican women and 39.4% of Mexican men identified with the lightest skin colors used in the census questionary, CONAPRED, Mexico, March 21. Retrieved on April 28, 2017.
- ^ a b c "Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico 2010" [National Survey on Discrimination in Mexico 2010] (PDF) (in Spanish). Mexico: CONAPRED. June 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 8, 2012. Retrieved August 24, 2017.
- ^ Ennis, Sharon R.; Rios-Vargas, Merarys; ALbert, Nora G. (May 2011). 2010 Census (PDF) (Report). U.S. Census Bureau. p. 14 (Table 6). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 27, 2018. Retrieved July 11, 2011.
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- ^ Includes Poles: Wojciech Tyciński, Krzysztof Sawicki, Departament Współpracy z Polonią MSZ (Warsaw, 2009). "Raport o sytuacji Polonii i Polaków za granicą (The official report on the situation of Poles and Polonia abroad)" (PDF file, direct download 1.44 MB). Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland), pp. 1–466. Retrieved June 14, 2013 (Internet Archive).
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- ^ a b "Por estas razones el color de piel determina las oportunidades de los mexicanos" Archived June 22, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, Huffington post, July 26, 2017, Retrieved on April 30, 2018.
- ^ "Ser Blanco" Archived June 19, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, El Universal, July 6, 2017, Retrieved on June 19, 2018.
- ^ "Comprobado con datos: en México te va mejor si eres blanco" Archived November 5, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, forbes, August 7, 2018, Retrieved on November 4, 2018.
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other 10% (mostly European)
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- ^ a b Ortiz-Hernández, Luis; Compeán-Dardón, Sandra; Verde-Flota, Elizabeth; Flores-Martínez, Maricela Nanet (April 2011). "Racism and mental health among university students in Mexico City". Salud Pública de México. 53 (2): 125–133. doi:10.1590/s0036-36342011000200005. ISSN 0036-3634. PMID 21537803.
- ^ a b Villarreal, Andrés (2010). "Stratification by Skin Color in Contemporary Mexico". American Sociological Review. 75 (5): 652–678. doi:10.1177/0003122410378232. JSTOR 20799484. S2CID 145295212.
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- ^ Federico Navarrete 2016, pp. 109–110: "To make matters worse, the few Germans, Italians and other Europeans who did reach our shores also did not mix in large numbers with the Mexican population, and even less so with the indigenous people, whom they were supposed to make disappear with the superior powers of Mexico: its race. In fact, they founded regional enclaves where they married preferentially among themselves, as the Creoles and the indigenous had traditionally done. The historian Moisés González Navarro studied the population censuses of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which allow us to know more accurately the behavior of the population than in previous periods. Contrary to what the mestizaje legend would have us believe, he found that informal marriages and unions between white men and indigenous women, or any other combination, hardly existed.2"
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- ^ Wheelwright, Jeff (January 16, 2012). The Wandering Gene and the Indian Princess: Race, Religion, and DNA. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-393-08342-2. "The Hispanos generally resemble other Hispanic and Mexican-American groups while having a somewhat higher proportion of European blood than the rest. Genetics research has also confirmed the harshly one-sided nature of the admixture. By paying special attention to the Y-chromosome and the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), scientists proved that the genetic exchange in the early years of New Mexico was almost entirely between Spanish males and Indian females." [...] "The Y chromosome of Hispano men is hardly Native American at all, while their mtDNA is about 85 percent Indian. Again, the former represents fatherhood, the latter motherhood. The skew between the two means that mating happened in one direction. It means that Indian men and Spanish women were largely on the sidelines when the admixture between Spanish men and Indian women occurred."
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{{cite web}}
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