President for life: Difference between revisions

Content deleted Content added

Inline

Latest revision as of 14:45, 4 December 2024

Mansu Hill Grand Monument in Pyongyang, depicting "eternal leaders" of North Korea, President Kim Il Sung and General Secretary Kim Jong Il.

President for life is a title assumed by or granted to some presidents to extend their tenure up until their death. The title sometimes confers on the holder the right to nominate or appoint a successor. The usage of the title of "president for life" rather than a traditionally autocratic title implies the subversion of liberal democracy by the titleholder (although republics need not be democratic per se). Indeed, sometimes a president for life can proceed to establish a self-proclaimed monarchy, such as Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe in Haiti.

Autocracy

A president for life may be regarded as a de facto autocrat.^[1]^[2]

Many leaders who proclaimed themselves president for life have not in fact successfully gone on to serve a life term. Most were deposed before they died, and others achieved a lifetime presidency by being assassinated while in office. However, some have managed to rule until their natural deaths, including José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia of Paraguay, Alexandre Pétion and François Duvalier of Haiti, Rafael Carrera of Guatemala, Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, and Saparmurat Niyazov of Turkmenistan. Others made unsuccessful attempts to have themselves named president for life, such as Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire in 1972.^[3]

Some long-serving autocratic presidents are mistakenly described as presidents for life. They were never officially granted life terms and, in fact, stood periodically for reelection. However, in most cases, these were sham elections which guaranteed them re-election.^[4]^[5]^[6]

List of leaders who became president for life

Note: The first date listed in each entry is the date of proclamation of the status as President for Life.

Name (Birth–Death)	Country	Title	Took office	Left office	Notes
Toussaint Louverture (1743–1803)	French Saint-Domingue	Governor for Life of Saint-Domingue	1801	1802	Deposed 1802, died in exile in France 1803.
Henri Christophe (1767–1820)	Haiti	President for Life of Haiti (Northern)	1807	1811	Became King 1811, committed suicide while reigning 1820.
José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (1766–1840)	Paraguay	Perpetual Supreme Dictator of Paraguay	1816	1840	Died in office 1840.
Alexandre Pétion (1770–1818)	Haiti	President for Life of Haiti (Southern)	1816	1818	Died in office 1818.
Jean-Pierre Boyer (1776–1850)	Haiti	President for Life of Haiti	1818	1843	Became President for Life immediately upon assuming the office because Alexandre Pétion's constitution provided for a life presidency for all his successors, deposed 1843, died 1850.
Antonio López de Santa Anna (1794–1876)	Mexico (Second Federal Republic)	President for Life of Mexico	1853	1855	Resigned 1855, died 1876.
Rafael Carrera (1814–1865)	Guatemala	President for Life of Guatemala	1854	1865	Died in office 1865.
Adolf Hitler (1889–1945)	Germany (Third Reich)	Chancellor and Führer for life	1934	1945	Committed suicide in office 1945.
Tupua Tamasese Meaʻole (1905–1963)	Samoa	O le Ao o le Malo for Life of Samoa	1962	1963	Died in office 1963, elected to serve alongside Tanumafili II (see below). The position of O le Ao o le Malo (head of state) is ceremonial; executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister, and Samoa is a parliamentary democracy.^[7]
Malietoa Tanumafili II (1913–2007)	Samoa	O le Ao o le Malo for Life of Samoa	1962	2007	Died in office 2007, elected to serve alongside Meaʻole (see above).^[7]
Sukarno (1901–1970)	Indonesia (Guided Democracy era)	Supreme Commander, Great Leader of Revolution, Mandate Holder of the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly, and President for Life of Indonesia	1963	1966	Designated as President for Life according to the Ketetapan MPRS No. III/MPRS/1963,^[8] life term removed 1966, deposed 1967, died under house arrest 1970.
Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972)	Ghana	President for Life of Ghana	1964	1966	Ousted in 1966, died in exile in Romania 1972.
François "Papa Doc" Duvalier (1907–1971)	Haiti	President for Life of Haiti	1964	1971	Died in office 1971, named his son as his successor (see below).^[9]
Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier (1951–2014)	Haiti	President for Life of Haiti	1971	1986	Named by his father as successor (see above), deposed 1986, died 2014.
Hastings Banda (1898–1997)	Malawi	President for Life of Malawi	1971	1993	Life term removed 1993, voted out of office 1994, died 1997.
Jean-Bédel Bokassa (1921–1996)	Central African Republic	President for Life of the Central African Republic	1972	1976	Became Emperor 1976 (crowned 1977), deposed 1979, died 1996.
Francisco Macías Nguema (1924–1979)	Equatorial Guinea	President for Life of Equatorial Guinea	1972	1979	Deposed and executed 1979.
Ferdinand Marcos (1917–1989)	Philippines (Martial law regime)	President for Life of the Philippines^{[Note 1]}	1973	1981	Life term removed 1981, deposed 1986, died in exile 1989.
Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980)	Yugoslavia	President for Life of Yugoslavia	1974	1980	Appointed as President for Life according to the 1974 Constitution, died in office 1980.
Habib Bourguiba (1903–2000)	Tunisia	President for Life of Tunisia	1975	1987	Deposed 1987, died under house arrest 2000.
Idi Amin (1925–2003)	Uganda (Second Republic)	President for Life of Uganda	1976	1979	Deposed 1979, died in exile in Saudi Arabia 2003.
Lennox Sebe (1926–1994)	South Africa ( Ciskei)	President for Life of Ciskei	1983	1990	Deposed 1990, died 1994.
Saparmurat Niyazov (1940–2006)	Turkmenistan	President for Life of Turkmenistan	1999	2006	Died in office 2006.

Notes

^ Although he never formally claimed the title of President For Life, Marcos used a declaration of martial law (Proclamation No. 1081) to extend his mandate indefinitely beyond the term limits set by the Philippine Constitution of 1935. This was formally done through promulgating a new Constitution in 1973, whose transitional provisions gave Marcos an interim presidential term that would only end when "he calls upon the Interim National Assembly to elect the interim President [who would succeed him]". By the time Marcos made use of this provision in 1981, the constitution was amended to re-establish direct presidential elections. In the ensuing 1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum, Marcos was re-elected for a term of six years.

References

^ Phillips, Tom (26 February 2018). "'Dictator for life': Xi Jinping's power grab condemned as step towards tyranny". The Guardian.
^ "Xi Jinping Reveals Himself as an Autocrat". The Atlantic. 26 February 2018.
^ Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, p. 211
^ Snyder, Timothy (3 April 2018). The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America. Crown. p. 43. ISBN 9780525574460.
^ Chivers, C.J. (February 8, 2008). "European Group Cancels Mission to Observe Russian Election, Citing Restrictions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 31, 2019. Retrieved January 31, 2019.
^ Kara-Murza, Vladimir Vladimirovich. "As the Kremlin Tightens the Screws, It Invites Popular Revolt". Spotlight on Russia. World Affairs Journal. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ ^a ^b "Constitution of the Independent State of Western Samoa 1960". University of the South Pacific. Archived from the original on 8 July 2007. Retrieved 28 December 2007.
^ "Ketetapan MPRS No. III/MPRS/1963". hukumonline.com.
^ The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought: Abol-impe. Oxford University Press. 2010-01-01. p. 328. ISBN 9780195334739.

External links

The List: Presidents for Life Archived 2014-09-07 at the Wayback Machine // Foreign Policy, November 5, 2007

[a-10] Although he never formally claimed the title of President For Life, Marcos used a declaration of martial law (Proclamation No. 1081) to extend his mandate indefinitely beyond the term limits set by the Philippine Constitution of 1935. This was formally done through promulgating a new Constitution in 1973, whose transitional provisions gave Marcos an interim presidential term that would only end when "he calls upon the Interim National Assembly to elect the interim President [who would succeed him]". By the time Marcos made use of this provision in 1981, the constitution was amended to re-establish direct presidential elections. In the ensuing 1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum, Marcos was re-elected for a term of six years.

[1] Phillips, Tom (26 February 2018). "'Dictator for life': Xi Jinping's power grab condemned as step towards tyranny". The Guardian.

[2] "Xi Jinping Reveals Himself as an Autocrat". The Atlantic. 26 February 2018.

[3] Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, p. 211

[4] Snyder, Timothy (3 April 2018). The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America. Crown. p. 43. ISBN 9780525574460.

[5] Chivers, C.J. (February 8, 2008). "European Group Cancels Mission to Observe Russian Election, Citing Restrictions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 31, 2019. Retrieved January 31, 2019.

[6] Kara-Murza, Vladimir Vladimirovich. "As the Kremlin Tightens the Screws, It Invites Popular Revolt". Spotlight on Russia. World Affairs Journal. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. Retrieved July 24, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)

[Samoa-7] "Constitution of the Independent State of Western Samoa 1960". University of the South Pacific. Archived from the original on 8 July 2007. Retrieved 28 December 2007.

[8] "Ketetapan MPRS No. III/MPRS/1963". hukumonline.com.

[9] The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought: Abol-impe. Oxford University Press. 2010-01-01. p. 328. ISBN 9780195334739.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[Note 1]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Title assumed by leaders to retain power}}
 {{more citations needed|date=January 2020}}
-[[File:Mansudae-Monument-Bow-2014.jpg|350px|thumb|[[Mansudae Grand Monument]] in [[Pyongyang]], depicting "[[Eternal leaders of North Korea|eternal leaders]]" of [[North Korea]], President [[Kim Il-sung]] and General Secretary [[Kim Jong-il]].]]
+[[File:Mansudae-Monument-Bow-2014.jpg|350px|thumb|[[Mansu Hill Grand Monument]] in [[Pyongyang]], depicting "[[Eternal leaders of North Korea|eternal leaders]]" of [[North Korea]], President [[Kim Il Sung]] and General Secretary [[Kim Jong Il]].]]
-'''President for life''' is a [[title]] assumed by or granted to some leaders to remove their [[term limit]] irrevocably as a way of removing future challenges to their [[authority]] and [[Legitimacy (political science)|legitimacy]]. The title sometimes confers on the holder the right to nominate or appoint a successor. The usage of the title of "president for life" rather than a traditionally [[autocratic]] title, such as that of a [[monarch]], implies the [[subversion]] of [[liberal democracy]] by the titleholder (although [[republic]]s need not be democratic ''[[per se (Latin)|per se]]''). Indeed, sometimes a president for life can proceed to establish a [[self-proclaimed monarchy]], such as [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]] and [[Henry Christophe]] in [[Haiti]].
+'''President for life''' is a [[title]] assumed by or granted to some presidents to extend their tenure up until their death. The title sometimes confers on the holder the right to nominate or appoint a successor. The usage of the title of "[[President (government title)|president]] for life" rather than a traditionally [[autocratic]] title implies the [[subversion]] of [[liberal democracy]] by the titleholder (although [[republic]]s need not be democratic ''[[per se (Latin)|per se]]''). Indeed, sometimes a president for life can proceed to establish a [[self-proclaimed monarchy]], such as [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]] and [[Henry Christophe]] in [[Haiti]].
-==Similarity to a monarch==
-A president for life may be regarded as a ''de facto'' [[monarch]]. In fact, other than the title, political scientists often face difficulties in differentiating a state ruled by a president for life (especially one who inherits the job from a [[family dictatorship]]) and a [[monarchy]] &ndash; indeed, [[Samoa]]'s long-serving President for life, [[Malietoa Tanumafili II]], was frequently and mistakenly referred to as King. In his proposed plan for government at the United States Constitutional Convention [[Alexander Hamilton]] proposed that the chief executive be a governor elected to serve for good behavior, acknowledging that such an arrangement might be seen as an elective monarchy.  It was for that very reason that the proposal was rejected. A notable difference between a monarch and a president-for-life, is based on the fact that the successor of the president do not necessarily possess a for-life term, like in [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Samoa]].
+==Autocracy==
-Most leaders who have proclaimed themselves president for life have not in fact successfully gone on to serve a life term. Most have been deposed long before their death while others truly fulfill their title by being [[assassination|assassinated]] while in office. However, some have managed to rule until their (natural) deaths, including [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]] of [[Paraguay]], [[Alexandre Pétion]] of [[Haiti]], [[Rafael Carrera]] of [[Guatemala]], [[François Duvalier]] of [[Haiti]], [[Josip Broz Tito]] of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], and [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] of [[Turkmenistan]]. Others made unsuccessful attempts to have themselves named president for life, such as [[Zaire]]'s [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] in 1972.<ref>Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, ''The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State'', p. 211</ref>
+A president for life may be regarded as a ''de facto'' [[autocrat]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/26/xi-jinping-china-presidential-limit-scrap-dictator-for-life | title='Dictator for life': Xi Jinping's power grab condemned as step towards tyranny | newspaper=The Guardian | date=26 February 2018 | last1=Phillips | first1=Tom }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theatlantic.com/membership/archive/2018/02/xi-jinping-reveals-himself-as-an-autocrat/554342/ | title=Xi Jinping Reveals Himself as an Autocrat | website=[[The Atlantic]] | date=26 February 2018 }}</ref>
+Many leaders who proclaimed themselves president for life have not in fact successfully gone on to serve a life term. Most were deposed before they died, and others achieved a lifetime presidency by being assassinated while in office. However, some have managed to rule until their natural deaths, including [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]] of [[Paraguay]], [[Alexandre Pétion]] and [[François Duvalier]] of [[Haiti]], [[Rafael Carrera]] of [[Guatemala]], [[Josip Broz Tito]] of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], and [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] of [[Turkmenistan]]. Others made unsuccessful attempts to have themselves named president for life, such as [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] of [[Zaire]] in 1972.<ref>Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, ''The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State'', p. 211</ref>
-People frequently cited as being examples of Presidents for Life include very long-serving authoritarian or totalitarian presidents such as [[Zaire]]'s [[Mobutu]], [[North Korea]]'s [[Kim Il-sung]], [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]'s  [[Todor Zhivkov]], [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]]'s [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]], [[Syria]]'s [[Hafez al-Assad]], [[Indonesia]]'s [[Suharto]], [[Kuomintang|Nationalist China]]'s [[Chiang Kai-shek]], [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]]'s [[Saddam Hussein]], [[Russia]]'s [[Vladimir Putin]], the [[PRC]]'s [[Xi Jinping]], [[Belarus]]'s [[Alexander Lukashenko]] and [[Vietnam]]'s [[Hồ Chí Minh]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Editorial: BELARUS DEMOCRACY ACT |url=https://editorials.voa.gov/a/a-41-a-2004-10-27-1-1-83101427/1478859.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508041021/https://editorials.voa.gov/a/a-41-a-2004-10-27-1-1-83101427/1478859.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 8, 2020 |access-date=May 8, 2020|work=Voice of America |date=October 26, 2004|quote=Lukashenko will become president for life.|language=en}}</ref> However, they were never officially granted life terms and, in fact, underwent periodic renewals of mandate that were usually [[show election|sham election]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.amazon.com/Road-Unfreedom-Russia-Europe-America/dp/0525574468|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412213623/https://www.amazon.com/Road-Unfreedom-Russia-Europe-America/dp/0525574468|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 12, 2018|title=The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America|first=Timothy|page=43|last=Snyder|author-link=Timothy Snyder|isbn=9780525574460|access-date=April 12, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/08/world/europe/08russia.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190131150147/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/08/world/europe/08russia.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 31, 2019|title=European Group Cancels Mission to Observe Russian Election, Citing Restrictions|first=C.J.|last=Chivers|work=The New York Times|access-date=January 31, 2019|date=February 8, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/vladimir-kara-murza/kremlin-tightens-screws-it-invites-popular-revolt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724000156/http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/vladimir-kara-murza/kremlin-tightens-screws-it-invites-popular-revolt|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 24, 2017|title=As the Kremlin Tightens the Screws, It Invites Popular Revolt|work=Spotlight on Russia|publisher=World Affairs Journal|access-date=July 24, 2017|first=Vladimir Vladimirovich|author-link=Vladimir Vladimirovich Kara-Murza|last=Kara-Murza}}</ref> Official results showed these presidents receiving implausibly high levels of support (in some cases, unanimous support).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2020|title=Russia|work=Freedom in the World 2020|publisher=Freedom House|quote=Kremlin is able to manipulate elections and suppress genuine dissent.|date=2020|access-date=May 9, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/belarus/freedom-world/2020|title=Belarus|work=Freedom in the World 2020|publisher=Freedom House|quote=Belarus is an authoritarian police state in which elections are openly rigged and civil liberties are curtailed. [...] Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) monitors noted that longstanding deficiencies in Belarusian elections were unaddressed, including a restrictive legal framework, media coverage that fails to help voters make informed choices, irregularities in vote counting, and restrictions on free expression and assembly during the campaign period. The group concluded that the elections fell considerably short of democratic standards.|date=2020|access-date=May 9, 2019}}</ref>
+Some long-serving autocratic presidents are mistakenly described as presidents for life. They were never officially granted life terms and, in fact, stood periodically for reelection. However, in most cases, these were [[Show election|sham election]]s which guaranteed them re-election.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America|first=Timothy|page=43|last=Snyder|date=3 April 2018 |publisher=Crown |author-link=Timothy Snyder|isbn=9780525574460}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/08/world/europe/08russia.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190131150147/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/08/world/europe/08russia.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 31, 2019|title=European Group Cancels Mission to Observe Russian Election, Citing Restrictions|first=C.J.|last=Chivers|work=The New York Times|access-date=January 31, 2019|date=February 8, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/vladimir-kara-murza/kremlin-tightens-screws-it-invites-popular-revolt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724000156/http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/blog/vladimir-kara-murza/kremlin-tightens-screws-it-invites-popular-revolt|url-status=usurped|archive-date=July 24, 2017|title=As the Kremlin Tightens the Screws, It Invites Popular Revolt|work=Spotlight on Russia|publisher=World Affairs Journal|access-date=July 24, 2017|first=Vladimir Vladimirovich|author-link=Vladimir Vladimirovich Kara-Murza|last=Kara-Murza}}</ref>
-==In popular culture==
-In the film ''[[Escape from LA]]'', the President played by [[Cliff Robertson]] is given a life term by a [[constitutional amendment]] after an earthquake ravages Los Angeles and leads to the President's shocking electoral victory. At the end of the film, Snake played by [[Kurt Russell]] puts an end to his regime when he uses an [[Electromagnetic pulse|EMP]] aiming device remote ending all governments including that of his [[dictatorship]].
+==List of leaders who became president for life==
-==Most notable==
+Note: The first date listed in each entry is the date of proclamation of the status as President for Life.
-===Julius Caesar===
-One of the most well-known incidents of a republican leader extending his term indefinitely was [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] dictator [[Julius Caesar]], who made himself "Perpetual Dictator" in 45 BC. Traditionally, the [[Roman dictator|office of dictator]] could only be held for six months, and although he was not the first Roman dictator to be given the office with no term limit, it was Caesar's dictatorship that inspired the string of [[Roman emperor]]s who ruled after [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|his assassination]].
-===Napoleon Bonaparte===
-Caesar's actions would later be copied by the French [[French Consulate|Consul]] [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]], who was appointed "First Consul for life" in 1802 before elevating himself to the rank of [[Emperor of the French|Emperor]] two years later. Since then, many dictators have adopted similar titles, either on their own authority or having it granted to them by [[rubber stamp (politics)|rubber stamp]] legislatures.
-===Adolf Hitler===
-[[Adolf Hitler]] was appointed [[Chancellor of Germany]] by President [[Paul von Hindenburg]] in January 1933. On Hindenburg's death in August 1934, the German Reichstag voted to (unconstitutionally) merge the offices of President and Chancellor, giving Hitler the title of [[Führer]]. Later the [[Reichstag (Nazi Germany)|Reichstag]] voted to allow Hitler to hold the positions of Chancellor and Führer for life.
-===North Korea===
-{{See|Kim dynasty (North Korea)}}
-After [[Kim Il-sung]]'s [[Death and state funeral of Kim Il-sung|death]] in 1994, the North Korean government wrote the presidential office out of [[Constitution of North Korea|the constitution]], declaring him "[[Eternal President of the Republic|Eternal President]]" in 1998 in order to honor his memory forever. Since there can be no succession in a system where the President reigns over a nation beyond death, the powers of the president are nominally split between the [[Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly|Chairman]] of the [[Supreme People's Assembly]], the [[Premier of North Korea|premier]], and the chairman of the [[National Defence Commission]] (as [[State Affairs Commission of North Korea|State Affairs Commission]] since 2016). However, Kim Il-sung's son and grandson have been in control of the country since his death ([[Kim Jong-il]] from 1994 until his [[Death and state funeral of Kim Jong-il|death]] in 2011, and [[Kim Jong-un]] since 2011) as the [[General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea|leaders]] of the ruling [[Workers' Party of Korea]].
-===China===
-{{See|Xi Jinping Administration}}
-In March 2018, [[China]]'s party-controlled [[National People's Congress]] passed a set of constitutional amendments including removal of term limits for the [[President of the People's Republic of China|president]] and [[Vice President of the People's Republic of China|vice president]], the creation of a [[National Supervisory Commission]], as well as enhancing the central role of the [[Chinese Communist Party]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2134791/end-term-limits-top-may-be-start-global-backlash-china|title=End to term limits at top 'may be start of global backlash for China'|last=Shi|first=Jiangtao|date=26 February 2018|work=[[South China Morning Post]]|access-date=28 February 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227155138/http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2134791/end-term-limits-top-may-be-start-global-backlash-china|archive-date=27 February 2018|last2=Huang|first2=Kristin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/04/xi-jinping-from-president-to-china-new-dictator|title=Xi Jinping's power play: from president to China's new dictator?|last=Phillips|first=Tom|date=4 March 2018|website=[[The Guardian]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304005848/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/04/xi-jinping-from-president-to-china-new-dictator|archive-date=4 March 2018|access-date=4 March 2018}}</ref> On 17 March 2018, the Chinese legislature reappointed Xi as president, now without term limits; [[Wang Qishan]] was appointed vice president.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-xi/chinas-parliament-re-elects-xi-jinping-as-president-idUSKCN1GT03C|title=China's parliament re-elects Xi Jinping as president|last=Wen|first=Philip|date=17 March 2018|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=17 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317042406/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-parliament-xi/chinas-parliament-re-elects-xi-jinping-as-president-idUSKCN1GT03C|archive-date=17 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://apnews.com/78ea5b0646564a6eb98d9d20d5fbcbb6|title=Xi reappointed as China's president with no term limits|last1=Bodeen|first1=Christopher|date=17 March 2018|newspaper=[[Associated Press]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317190611/https://apnews.com/78ea5b0646564a6eb98d9d20d5fbcbb6|archive-date=17 March 2018|access-date=17 March 2018}}</ref> The following day, [[Li Keqiang]] was reappointed [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|premier]] and longtime allies of Xi, [[Xu Qiliang]] and [[Zhang Youxia]], were voted in as [[Vice Chairman of the Central Military Commission|vice-chairmen of the state military commission]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/2137707/li-keqiang-endorsed-chinas-premier-while-military-commission|title=Li Keqiang endorsed as China's premier; military leaders confirmed|last1=Zhou|first1=Xin|date=18 March 2018|newspaper=[[South China Morning Post]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827155325/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/2137707/li-keqiang-endorsed-chinas-premier-while-military-commission|archive-date=27 August 2019|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> Foreign minister [[Wang Yi (politician)|Wang Yi]] was promoted to [[State councillor (China)|state councillor]] and General [[Wei Fenghe]] was named [[Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China|defence minister]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2137769/china-promotes-foreign-minister-wang-yi-state|title=China's foreign minister gains power in new post as state councillor|last1=Ng|first1=Teddy|date=19 March 2018|newspaper=[[South China Morning Post]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305121632/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2137769/china-promotes-foreign-minister-wang-yi-state|archive-date=5 March 2019|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref>
-According to the ''[[Financial Times]]'', Xi expressed his views of constitutional amendment at meetings with Chinese officials and foreign dignitaries. Xi explained the decision in terms of needing to align two more powerful posts—[[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]] and [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission]] (CMC)—which have no term limits. However, Xi did not say whether he intended to serve as party general secretary, CMC chairman and state president, for three or more terms.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/2b449400-413a-11e8-803a-295c97e6fd0b|title=China's Xi Jinping says he is opposed to life-long rule|last1=Mitchell|first1=Tom|date=7 September 2019|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=17 April 2018|quote=President insists term extension is necessary to align government and party posts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417192157/https://www.ft.com/content/2b449400-413a-11e8-803a-295c97e6fd0b|archive-date=17 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
-==List of leaders who became president for life==
-Note: The first date listed in each entry is the date of proclamation of his status as President for Life.
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; border-collapse: collapse"
 |- style="background:#cccccc"
 ! Portrait
+! Name<br />{{small|(Birth–Death)}}
-! Name
-!Country
+! Country
 ! Title
 ! Took office
@@ Line 45: / Line 25: @@
 ! Notes
 |-
-| [[File:Général Toussaint Louverture.jpg|100px]] || [[Toussaint Louverture]]
+| [[File:Général Toussaint Louverture.jpg|100px]] || [[Toussaint Louverture]]<br />{{small|(1743–1803)}} || {{Flagicon image|Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1958).svg}} [[Saint-Domingue|French Saint-Domingue]] || Governor for Life of Saint-Domingue || 1801 || 1802 || [[Toussaint Louverture#Arrest, imprisonment, and death: 1802–1803|Deposed]] 1802, died in exile in France 1803.
-|{{Flagicon image|Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1958).svg}} [[Saint-Domingue|French Saint-Domingue]]|| Governor for Life of [[Saint-Domingue]] || 1801 || 1802 || [[Toussaint Louverture#Arrest and imprisonment|Deposed]] 1802, died in exile in France 1803.
 |-
-| [[File:Henri Christophe.jpg|100px]] || [[Henri Christophe]]
+| [[File:Henri Christophe.jpg|100px]] || [[Henri Christophe]]<br />{{small|(1767–1820)}} || {{Flagcountry|State of Haiti|Haiti}} || President for Life of Haiti (Northern) || 1807 || 1811 || Became [[Kingdom of Haiti|King]] 1811, [[Henri Christophe#End of reign|committed suicide while reigning]] 1820.
-|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Haiti (1806–1811).svg}} [[State of Haiti|Haiti]]
-| President for Life of the [[State of Haiti]] (Northern) || 1807 || 1811 || Became [[Kingdom of Haiti|King]] 1811, [[Henri Christophe#End of reign|committed suicide in office]] 1820.
 |-
-| [[File:Dr francia.JPG|100px]] || [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]]
+| [[File:Dr francia.JPG|100px]] || [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]]<br />{{small|(1766–1840)}} || {{Flag|Paraguay|1812}} || Perpetual Supreme Dictator of Paraguay || 1816 || 1840 || Died in office 1840.
-|{{Flag|Paraguay|1812}}|| Perpetual Supreme Dictator of [[Paraguay]] || 1816 || 1840 || Died in office 1840.
 |-
-|[[File:Portrait du président Alexandre Pétion (cropped).jpg|100px]]
+| [[File:Portrait du président Alexandre Pétion (cropped).jpg|100px]] || [[Alexandre Pétion]]<br />{{small|(1770–1818)}} || rowspan=2| {{Flag|Haiti|1859}} || President for Life of Haiti (Southern) || 1816 || 1818 || Died in office 1818.
-|| [[Alexandre Pétion]]
-| rowspan="2" |{{Flagicon image|Flag of Haiti (1859–1964).svg}} [[Republic of Haiti (1820–1849)|Haiti]]|| President for Life of [[Haiti]] (Southern) || 1816 || 1818 || Died in office 1818.
 |-
-| [[File:Président Jean-Pierre Boyer.jpg|100px]] || [[Jean-Pierre Boyer]] || President for Life of Haiti || 1818 || 1843 || Became President for Life immediately upon assuming the office because Alexandre Pétion's constitution provided for a life presidency for all his successors, deposed 1843, died 1850.
+| [[File:Président Jean-Pierre Boyer.jpg|100px]] || [[Jean-Pierre Boyer]]<br />{{small|(1776–1850)}} || President for Life of Haiti || 1818 || 1843 || Became President for Life immediately upon assuming the office because Alexandre Pétion's constitution provided for a life presidency for all his successors, deposed 1843, died 1850.
 |-
-| [[File:Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna.jpg|100px]] || [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]]
+| [[File:Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna.jpg|100px]] || [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]]<br />{{small|(1794–1876)}} || {{Flag|Mexico|1823}} ([[Second Federal Republic of Mexico|Second Federal Republic]]) || President for Life of Mexico || 1853 || 1855 || Resigned 1855, died 1876.
-|{{Flag|Mexico|1823}}|| President for Life of [[Mexico]] || 1853 || 1855 || Resigned 1855, died 1876.
 |-
-| [[File:Carrerap02.jpg|100px]] || [[Rafael Carrera]]
+| [[File:Carrerap02.jpg|100px]] || [[Rafael Carrera]]<br />{{small|(1814–1865)}} || {{Flagicon image|Flag of Guatemala (1851-1858).svg}} [[Guatemala]] || President for Life of Guatemala || 1854 || 1865 || Died in office 1865.
-|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Guatemala (1851-1858).svg}} [[Guatemala]]|| President for Life of [[Guatemala]] || 1854 || 1865 || Died in office 1865.
 |-
+| [[File:Hitler portrait crop.jpg|100px]] || [[Adolf Hitler]]<br/>{{small|(1889–1945)}} || {{Flag|Germany|1935}} ([[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]]) || Chancellor and Führer for life || 1934 || 1945 || [[Death of Adolf Hitler|Committed suicide in office]] 1945.
-| [[File:Tupua Tamasese Meaʻole.jpg|100px]] || [[Tupua Tamasese Meaʻole]]
-| rowspan="2" |{{Flag|Samoa}}||[[O le Ao o le Malo]] for Life of Samoa || rowspan="2" | 1962 || 1963 || Died in office 1963, elected to serve alongside Tanumafili II (see below). The position of ''O le Ao o le Malo'' (head of state) is ceremonial; executive power is exercised by the [[Prime Minister of Samoa|Prime Minister]], and Samoa is a [[parliamentary democracy]].<ref name="Samoa">{{cite web |url=http://www.paclii.org/ws/legis/consol_act/cotisows1960535/ |title=Constitution of the Independent State of Western Samoa 1960 |access-date=28 December 2007 |publisher=University of the South Pacific |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708171858/http://www.paclii.org/ws/legis/consol_act/cotisows1960535/ |archive-date=8 July 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
 |-
+| [[File:Tupua Tamasese Meaʻole 1962 (cropped).jpg|100px]] || [[Tupua Tamasese Meaʻole]]<br />{{small|(1905–1963)}} || rowspan=2| {{Flag|Samoa}} || rowspan=2|[[O le Ao o le Malo]] for Life of Samoa || rowspan=2| 1962 || 1963 || Died in office 1963, elected to serve alongside Tanumafili II (see below). The position of ''O le Ao o le Malo'' (head of state) is ceremonial; executive power is exercised by the [[Prime Minister of Samoa|Prime Minister]], and Samoa is a [[parliamentary democracy]].<ref name="Samoa">{{cite web |url=http://www.paclii.org/ws/legis/consol_act/cotisows1960535/ |title=Constitution of the Independent State of Western Samoa 1960 |access-date=28 December 2007 |publisher=University of the South Pacific |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708171858/http://www.paclii.org/ws/legis/consol_act/cotisows1960535/ |archive-date=8 July 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
-|  || [[Malietoa Tanumafili II]] || O le Ao o le Malo for Life of Samoa || 2007 || Died in office 2007, elected to serve alongside Meaʻole (see above).<ref name="Samoa" />
 |-
+| [[File:Malietoa Tanumafili II (cropped).jpg|100px]] || [[Malietoa Tanumafili II]]<br />{{small|(1913–2007)}} || 2007 || [[Malietoa Tanumafili II#Death|Died in office]] 2007, elected to serve alongside Meaʻole (see above).<ref name="Samoa" />
-| [[File:Presiden Sukarno.jpg|100px]] || [[Sukarno]]
-|{{Flag|Indonesia}}|| Supreme Commander, Great Leader of Revolution, Mandate Holder of the [[People's Consultative Assembly|Provisional People's Consultative Assembly]], and President for Life of [[Indonesia]] || 1963 || 1966 || Designated as President for Life according to the Ketetapan MPRS No. III/MPRS/1963,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hukumonline.com/pusatdata/download/lt50597f7040c85/node/lt50597ef399756 |title=Ketetapan MPRS No. III/MPRS/1963 |website=hukumonline.com}}</ref> life term removed 1966, [[Transition to the New Order|deposed]] 1967, died under house arrest 1970.
 |-
+| [[File:Presiden Sukarno.jpg|100px]] || [[Sukarno]]<br />{{small|(1901–1970)}} || {{Flag|Indonesia}} ([[Guided Democracy in Indonesia|Guided Democracy era]]) || Supreme Commander, Great Leader of Revolution, Mandate Holder of the [[People's Consultative Assembly|Provisional People's Consultative Assembly]], and President for Life of Indonesia || 1963 || 1966 || Designated as President for Life according to the Ketetapan MPRS No. III/MPRS/1963,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hukumonline.com/pusatdata/download/lt50597f7040c85/node/lt50597ef399756 |title=Ketetapan MPRS No. III/MPRS/1963 |website=hukumonline.com}}</ref> life term removed 1966, [[Transition to the New Order|deposed]] 1967, [[Sukarno#House arrest and death|died under house arrest]] 1970.
-| [[File:Kwame Nkrumah (JFKWHP-AR6409-A).jpg|100px]] || [[Kwame Nkrumah]]
-|{{Flag|Ghana|1964}}|| President for Life of Ghana || 1964 || 1966 || Deposed 1966, died in exile in Romania 1972.
 |-
+| [[File:Kwame Nkrumah (JFKWHP-AR6409-A).jpg|100px]] || [[Kwame Nkrumah]]<br />{{small|(1909–1972)}} || {{Flag|Ghana|1964}} || President for Life of Ghana || 1964 || 1966 || [[Kwame Nkrumah#1966 coup d'état|Ousted]] in 1966, [[Death and state funeral of Kwame Nkrumah|died in exile]] in [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]] 1972.
-| [[File:Duvalier (cropped).jpg|100px]] || [[François Duvalier|François "Papa Doc" Duvalier]]
-| rowspan="2" |{{Flag|Haiti|1964}}|| rowspan="2" | President for Life of Haiti || 1964 || 1971 || [[François Duvalier#Death and succession|Died in office]] 1971, named his son as his successor (see below).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hF_xjFL6_NEC|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought: Abol-impe|date=2010-01-01|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195334739|pages=328|language=en}}</ref>
 |-
+| [[File:Duvalier (cropped).jpg|100px]] || [[François Duvalier|François "Papa Doc" Duvalier]]<br />{{small|(1907–1971)}} || rowspan=2| {{Flag|Haiti|1964}} || rowspan=2| President for Life of Haiti || 1964 || 1971 || [[François Duvalier#Death and succession|Died in office]] 1971, named his son as his successor (see below).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hF_xjFL6_NEC|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought: Abol-impe|date=2010-01-01|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195334739|pages=328|language=en}}</ref>
-| [[File:Baby Doc (centrée).jpg|100px]] || [[Jean-Claude Duvalier|Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier]] || 1971 || 1986 || Named by his father as successor (see above), [[Anti-Duvalier protest movement|deposed]] 1986, died 2014.
 |-
+| [[File:Baby Doc (centrée).jpg|100px]] || [[Jean-Claude Duvalier|Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier]]<br />{{small|(1951–2014)}} || 1971 || 1986 || Named by his father as successor (see above), [[Anti-Duvalier protest movement|deposed]] 1986, [[Jean-Claude Duvalier#Return and death|died]] 2014.
-| [[File:Dr HK Banda, first president of Malawi.jpg|100px]] || [[Hastings Banda]]
-|{{Flag|Malawi}}|| President for Life of [[Malawi]] || 1971 || 1993 || [[Malawian democracy referendum, 1993|Life term removed]] 1993, [[Malawian general election, 1994|voted out of office]] 1994, died 1997.
 |-
+| [[File:Dr HK Banda, first president of Malawi.jpg|100px]] || [[Hastings Banda]]<br />{{small|(1898–1997)}} || {{Flag|Malawi}} || President for Life of Malawi || 1971 || 1993 || [[1993 Malawian democracy referendum|Life term removed]] 1993, [[1994 Malawian general election|voted out of office]] 1994, [[Death and state funeral of Hastings Banda|died]] 1997.
-| [[File:Bokassa colored.png|100px]] || [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]]
-|{{Flag|Central African Republic}}|| President for Life of the [[Central African Republic]] || 1972 || 1976 || Became [[Emperor of Central Africa|Emperor]] 1976, [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa#Overthrow|deposed]] 1979, died 1996.
 |-
+| [[File:Bokassa colored.png|100px]] || [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]]<br />{{small|(1921–1996)}} || {{Flag|Central African Republic}} || President for Life of the Central African Republic || 1972 || 1976 || [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa#Proclamation of the Empire|Became]] [[Emperor of Central Africa|Emperor]] 1976 ([[Coronation of Bokassa I and Catherine|crowned]] 1977), [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa#Overthrow|deposed]] 1979, [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa#Imprisonment, release and death|died]] 1996.
-| [[File:Don Francisco Macias.jpg|100px]] || [[Francisco Macías Nguema]]
-|{{Flag|Equatorial Guinea|1973}}|| President for Life of [[Equatorial Guinea]] || 1972 || 1979 || [[1979 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état|Deposed]] and [[Francisco Macías Nguema#Trial and execution|executed]] 1979.
 |-
+| [[File:Don Francisco Macias.jpg|100px]] || [[Francisco Macías Nguema]]<br />{{small|(1924–1979)}} || {{Flag|Equatorial Guinea|1973}} || President for Life of Equatorial Guinea || 1972 || 1979 || [[1979 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état|Deposed]] and [[Francisco Macías Nguema#Trial and execution|executed]] 1979.
-| [[File:Josip Broz Tito uniform portrait.jpg|100px]] || [[Josip Broz Tito]]
-|{{Flag|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|name=Yugoslavia}}
-| President for Life of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] || 1974 || 1980 || Appointed as President for Life according to the [[1974 Yugoslav Constitution|1974 Constitution]], [[Death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito|died in office]] 1980.
 |-
+| [[File:Ferdinand Marcos.JPEG|100px]] || [[Ferdinand Marcos]]<br />{{small|(1917–1989)}} || {{Flag|Philippines|1936}} ([[History of the Philippines (1965–1986)|Martial law regime]]) || President for Life of the Philippines<ref name="a" group="Note" /> || 1973 || 1981 || [[1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum|Life term removed]] 1981, [[People Power Revolution|deposed]] 1986, [[Ferdinand Marcos#Death and burial|died in exile]] 1989.
-| [[File:Portrait officiel de Habib Bourguiba.png|100px]] || [[Habib Bourguiba]]
-|{{Flagicon image|Flag of Tunisia (1959–1999).svg}} [[Tunisia]]|| President for Life of [[Tunisia]] || 1975 || 1987 || [[1987 Tunisian coup d'état|Deposed]] 1987, died under house arrest 2000.
 |-
+| [[File:Josip Broz Tito uniform portrait.jpg|100px]] || [[Josip Broz Tito]]<br />{{small|(1892–1980)}} || {{Flag|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|name=Yugoslavia}} || President for Life of Yugoslavia || 1974 || 1980 || Appointed as President for Life according to the [[1974 Yugoslav Constitution|1974 Constitution]], [[Death and state funeral of Josip Broz Tito|died in office]] 1980.
-| [[File:Idi Amin -Archives New Zealand AAWV 23583, KIRK1, 5(B), R23930288.jpg|100px]] || [[Idi Amin]]
-|{{Flag|Uganda}}|| President for Life of [[Uganda]] || 1976 || 1979 || [[Uganda–Tanzania War|Deposed]] 1979, died in exile in Saudi Arabia 2003.
 |-
+| [[File:Portrait officiel de Habib Bourguiba.png|100px]] || [[Habib Bourguiba]]<br />{{small|(1903–2000)}} || {{Flag|Tunisia|1959}} || President for Life of Tunisia || 1975 || 1987 || [[1987 Tunisian coup d'état|Deposed]] 1987, [[Habib Bourguiba#1987–2000: Later life|died under house arrest]] 2000.
-| || [[Lennox Sebe]]
-|{{Flag|Ciskei}}|| President for Life of [[Ciskei]] || 1983 || 1990 || Deposed 1990, died 1994.
 |-
+| [[File:Idi Amin at UN (United Nations, New York) gtfy.00132 (cropped).jpg|100px]] || [[Idi Amin]]<br />{{small|(1925–2003)}} || {{Flag|Uganda}} ([[Second Republic of Uganda|Second Republic]]) || President for Life of Uganda || 1976 || 1979 || [[Uganda–Tanzania War|Deposed]] 1979, died in exile in [[Saudi Arabia]] 2003.
-| [[File:Saparmurat Niyazov in 2002.jpg|100px]] || [[Saparmurat Niyazov]]
-|{{Flag|Turkmenistan}}|| President for Life of [[Turkmenistan]]  || 1999 || 2006 || [[Saparmurat Niyazov#Death|Died in office]] 2006.
 |-
+| [[File:LENNOX SEBE PRESIDENT.jpg|100px]] || [[Lennox Sebe]]<br />{{small|(1926–1994)}} || {{Flagicon|South Africa|1928}} [[Apartheid|South Africa]]<br>({{Flag|Ciskei}}) || President for Life of Ciskei || 1983 || 1990 || [[1990 Ciskei coup d'état|Deposed]] 1990, died 1994.
+|-
+| [[File:Saparmurat Niyazov in 2002.jpg|100px]] || [[Saparmurat Niyazov]]<br />{{small|(1940–2006)}} || {{Flag|Turkmenistan}} || President for Life of Turkmenistan || 1999 || 2006 || [[Saparmurat Niyazov#Death|Died in office]] 2006.
 |}
+== Notes ==
+{{reflist|group=Note|refs=<ref name=a>Although he never formally claimed the title of President For Life, Marcos used a declaration of martial law ([[Proclamation No. 1081]]) to extend his mandate indefinitely beyond the term limits set by the Philippine Constitution of 1935. This was formally done through promulgating [[1973 Constitution of the Philippines|a new Constitution in 1973]], whose transitional provisions gave Marcos an interim presidential term that would only end when "he calls upon the Interim National Assembly to elect the interim President [who would succeed him]". By the time Marcos made use of this provision in 1981, the constitution was amended to re-establish direct presidential elections. In the ensuing [[1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum]], Marcos was re-elected for a term of six years.</ref>}}{{Notelist}}
 == References ==
@@ Line 114: / Line 79: @@
 == Further reading ==
-* {{cite book |title = The President for Life Pandemic: Kenya, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Zambia and Malawi |first = Bhekithemba Richard |last = Mngomezulu |publisher = Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. |year = 2013 |ISBN = 9781909112315 }}
+* {{cite book |title = The President for Life Pandemic: Kenya, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Zambia and Malawi |first = Bhekithemba Richard |last = Mngomezulu |publisher = Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. |year = 2013 |isbn = 9781909112315 }}
 ==External links==
-* [https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2007/11/04/the_list_presidents_for_life The List: Presidents for Life] // Foreign Policy, November 5, 2007
+* [https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2007/11/04/the_list_presidents_for_life The List: Presidents for Life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140907132232/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2007/11/04/the_list_presidents_for_life |date=2014-09-07 }} // Foreign Policy, November 5, 2007
 [[Category:Heads of state]]
 [[Category:Presidents for life| ]]
-[[Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership]]
 [[Category:Term limits]]
+[[Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership]]