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{{Short description|Kairiru–Manam language}}
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name=Manam
|name=Manam
Line 46: Line 48:


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
!
!
! colspan=2|[[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! colspan=2|[[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
Line 90: Line 92:
The Manam syllable is (C)(V<sub>1</sub>)V(V<sub>1</sub>)(C<sub>1</sub>), the only exception is a syllabic {{IPA|[m̩]}}.
The Manam syllable is (C)(V<sub>1</sub>)V(V<sub>1</sub>)(C<sub>1</sub>), the only exception is a syllabic {{IPA|[m̩]}}.


There are some phonotactic restrictions on the prevalent syllable structure. E.g. V<sub>1</sub> cannot be {{IPA|[a]}}, whereas V ''must'' be {{IPA|[a]}} as long as it's not the syllable's sole vowel. C can be any consonant, whereas C<sub>1</sub> must be a nasal consonant.
There are some phonotactic restrictions on the prevalent syllable structure. E.g. V<sub>1</sub> cannot be {{IPA|[a]}}, whereas V ''must'' be {{IPA|[a]}} as long as it is not the syllable's sole vowel. C can be any consonant, whereas C<sub>1</sub> must be a nasal consonant.


===Stress===
===Stress===
Line 100: Line 102:


=== Word order ===
=== Word order ===
The basic, unmarked word order in Manam is SOV:
The basic, unmarked word order in Manam is [[Subject–object–verb word order|SOV]]:


{{interlinear|
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|tamoata boro i-un-i
|-
|man pig 3SG.SUB-hit-3SG.OBJ
|''tamoata''||''boro''||''i-un-i''
|'The man hit the pig.'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|man||pig||{{sc|3sg.[[subject (grammar)|sub]]}}-hit-{{sc|3sg.[[object (grammar)|obj]]}}
|}
:"The man hit the pig."


=== Predicator ===
=== Predicator ===
Lichtenberk defines the predicator as the primary element within a clause.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|92}} The predicator of a Manam clause can be realised in a variety of different ways, such as verb phrases Ex. (1), noun phrases Ex. (2), postpositional phrases Ex. (3), numbers Ex. (4), etc.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|93}}
Lichtenberk defines the predicator as the primary element within a clause.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|92}} The predicator of a Manam clause can be realised in a variety of different ways, such as verb phrases Ex. (1), noun phrases Ex. (2), postpositional phrases Ex. (3), numbers Ex. (4), etc.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|93}}


Ex. (1): verb phrase predicator<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|94}}
Ex. (1): verb phrase predicator<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|94}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(1)
|number=(1)
|natu '''masa''' '''ŋa-eno'''
|''natu''
|child INIR 3SG.IRR-sleep
|'''''masa'''''
|'the child will sleep'
|'''''ŋa-eno'''''
|lang=mva}}
|-

|
Ex. (2): noun phrase predicator<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|94}}
|child
{{interlinear
|INIR
|number=(2)
|3SG.IRR-sleep
|aine ene i-tui<nowiki>=</nowiki>tui '''tina-gu'''
|-
|woman over 3SG.IRR-stand-RPL mother-1SG.AD
|
|'the woman who is standing over there is my mother'
| colspan="3" |‘the child will sleep’
|lang=mva}}
|}

Ex. (2): noun phrase predicator<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|94}}
Ex. (3): postpositional phrase predicator<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|94}}
{|
{{interlinear
|(2)
|number=(3)
|''aine''
|tamoata ŋe-ø paŋana-ø '''patu''' '''boʔana'''
|''ene''
|man this-3SG.AD head-3SG.AD stone SIM
|''i-tui=tui''
|'this man's head is like a stone' i.e. 'this man is stubborn as a mule'
|'''''tina-gu'''''
|lang=mva}}
|-

|
Ex. (4): numeral predicator<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|94}}
|woman
{{interlinear
|over
|number=(4)
|3SG.IRR-stand-RPL
|boro ne-gu '''wati'''
|mother-1SG.AD
|pig POSS-1SG.AD four
|-
|'I have four pigs' ({{lit|my pigs are four}})
|
|lang=mva}}
| colspan="4" |‘the woman who is standing over there is my mother’
|}
Ex. (3): postpositional phrase predicator<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|94}}
{|
|(3)
|''tamoata''
|''ŋe-ø''
|''paŋana-ø''
|'''''patu'''''
|'''''boʔana'''''
|-
|
|man
|this-3SG.AD
|head-3SG.AD
|stone
|SIM
|-
|
| colspan="5" |‘this man’s head is like a stone’ i.e. this man is stubborn as a mule
|}
Ex. (4): numeral predicator<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|94}}
{|
|(4)
|''boro''
|''ne-gu''
|'''''wati'''''
|-
|
|pig
|POSS-1SG.AD
|four
|-
|
| colspan="3" |‘I have four pigs’ (lit. my pigs are four)
|}


=== Negation ===
=== Negation ===
Negation in Manam is primarily expressed using one of two negative markers: ''moaʔi'' and ''tago''. ''moaʔi'' is used exclusively in direct speech prohibitions; whilst ''tago'' is used for all other cases.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|384}}
Negation in Manam is primarily expressed using one of two negative markers: {{lang|mva|moaʔi}} and {{lang|mva|tago}}. {{lang|mva|moaʔi}} is used exclusively in direct speech prohibitions; whilst {{lang|mva|tago}} is used for all other cases.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|384}}


==== Scope of negation ====
==== Scope of negation ====
The use of ''tago'' is primarily categorised by its scope of negation, which further indicates the focus of the clause. The spectrum of scope runs from negating one or more elements within a single clause, to negating an entire clause. The concept of scope of negation can be demonstrated in English: ‘''I did not go to the party''’ is an example of a broad scope of negation, i.e. the verb phrase (VP) is negated, therefore act of going to the party is negated; ‘''not one person went to the party''’ is an example of a narrow scope of negation, i.e. the subject is negated, not the act of going to the party.
The use of {{lang|mva|tago}} is primarily categorised by its scope of negation, which further indicates the focus of the clause. The spectrum of scope runs from negating one or more elements within a single clause, to negating an entire clause. The concept of scope of negation can be demonstrated in English: <nowiki>'</nowiki>''I did not go to the party''<nowiki>'</nowiki> is an example of a broad scope of negation, i.e. the verb phrase (VP) is negated; therefore, the act of going to the party is negated; <nowiki>'</nowiki>''not one person went to the party''<nowiki>'</nowiki> is an example of a narrow scope of negation, i.e. the subject is negated, not the act of going to the party.


==== Broad scope ====
==== Broad scope ====
A broad scope of negation is expressed in Manam by negating the predicator—this is done so by placing the negative marker ''tago'' before the predicator,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|385}} as demonstrated in the following examples:
A broad scope of negation is expressed in Manam by negating the predicator—this is done so by placing the negative marker {{lang|mva|tago}} before the predicator,<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|385}} as demonstrated in the following examples:


Ex. (5): broad scope negation–1 element<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|385}}
Ex. (5): broad scope negation–1 element<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|385}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(5)
|number=(5)
|'''''tago'''''
|'''tago''' u-loŋo
|NEG 1SG.REAL-hear
|''u-loŋo''
|'I did not hear'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|
|NEG
|1SG.REAL-hear
|-
|
| colspan="2" |‘I did not hear’
|}
Ex. (6): broad scope negation–2 elements<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|385}}
{|
|(6)
|''tamoata''
|'''''tago'''''
|''ŋa-te-a''
|-
|
|man
|NEG
|3SG.IRR-see-1SG.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="3" |‘the man will not see me’
|}
Ex. (7): broad scope negation–3 elements<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|385}}
{|
|(7)
|''baʔaraʔa''
|''nora''
|'''''tago'''''
|''ʔu-pura?''
|-
|
|why
|yesterday
|NEG
|2SG.REAL-come
|-
|
| colspan="4" |‘why didn't you come yesterday?’
|}
Additionally, the negative marker ''tago'' can also function as a predicator of existential and possessive clauses.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|387}} Compare the following examples:


Ex. (8): negative existential sentence<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|387}}
Ex. (6): broad scope negation–2 elements<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|385}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(8)
|number=(6)
|tamoata '''tago''' ŋa-te-a
|''ewa''
|man NEG 3SG.IRR-see-1SG.OBJ
|'''''tago'''''
|'the man will not see me'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|

|fire
Ex. (7): broad scope negation–3 elements<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|385}}
|NEG
{{interlinear
|-
|number=(7)
|
|baʔaraʔa nora tago ʔu-pura?
| colspan="2" |‘there is no fire’
|why yesterday NEG 2SG.REAL-come
|}
|'why didn't you come yesterday?'
Ex. (9): negative possessive sentence<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|387}}
|lang=mva}}
{|

|(9)
Additionally, the negative marker {{lang|mva|tago}} can also function as a predicator of existential and possessive clauses.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|387}} Compare the following examples:
|''mone''

|''ne-gu''
Ex. (8): negative existential sentence<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|387}}
|'''''tago'''''
{{interlinear
|-
|number=(8)
|
|ewa '''tago'''
|money
|fire NEG
|POSS-1SG
|'there is no fire'
|NEG
|lang=mva}}
|-

|
Ex. (9): negative possessive sentence<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|387}}
| colspan="3" |‘I have no money’
{{interlinear
|}
|number=(9)
|mone ne-gu '''tago'''
|money POSS-1SG NEG
|'I have no money'
|lang=mva}}


==== Narrow scope ====
==== Narrow scope ====
As a general rule, Manam primarily expresses narrow scope negation by placing ''tago'' before the element which is being negated i.e. the object of focused negation within the clause.
As a general rule, Manam primarily expresses narrow scope negation by placing {{lang|mva|tago}} before the element which is being negated i.e. the object of focused negation within the clause.


Ex. (10): narrow scope negation<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|387}}
Ex. (10): narrow scope negation<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|387}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(10)
|number=(10)
|ŋai '''tago''' '''toʔa-ø''' di-pura-budu-ru
|''ŋai''
|3SG.IP NEG older.brother-3SG.AD 3PL.REAL-come-together-DL
|'''''tago'''''
|'he came without his brother'
|'''''toʔa-ø'''''
|lang=mva}}
|''di-pura-budu-ru''

|-
In example (10), it is not the act of coming that is being negated; rather the negation is narrowly focused in negating the presence of the brother.
|

|3SG.IP
Ex. (11): narrow scope negation<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|387}}
|NEG
{{interlinear
|older.brother-3SG.AD
|number=(11)
|3PL.REAL-come-together-DL
|'''tago''' ara-ø-n-oti i-ʔila-i
|-
|NEG name-3SG.AD-BF-INSTR 3SG.REAL-call-3SG.OBJ
|
|'he did not call him by his name' (i.e. he called him not by his name but by some other name)
| colspan="4" |‘he came without his brother’
|lang=mva}}
|}
In example (10), it is not the act of coming that is being negated, rather the negation is narrowly focused in negating the presence of the brother.


Ex. (11): narrow scope negation<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|387}}
{|
|(11)
|'''''tago'''''
|''ara-ø-n-oti''
|''i-ʔila-i''
|-
|
|NEG
|name-3SG.AD-BF-INSTR
|3SG.REAL-call-3SG.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="3" |‘he did not call him by his name’ (i.e. he called him not by his name but by some other name)
|}
Similarly, in example (11), it is not the act of calling one's name that is being negated, rather the negation focuses the fact that someone was called, but by some other name that was not their own.
Similarly, in example (11), it is not the act of calling one's name that is being negated, rather the negation focuses the fact that someone was called, but by some other name that was not their own.


==== Negative quantifiers ====
==== Negative quantifiers ====
Additionally, the negative marker ''tago'' can be used in conjunction with the quantifiers ''teʔe'' ‘one’ and ''alu'' ‘some’ to produce the negative expressions, ''tago teʔe'' ‘no; not any’ and ''tago alu'' ‘no; not any’.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|386}} These expressions function as attributes within the noun phrases that they modify, as seen in the following examples (NP are enclosed within brackets):
Additionally, the negative marker {{lang|mva|tago}} can be used in conjunction with the quantifiers {{lang|mva|teʔe}} 'one' and {{lang|mva|alu}} 'some' to produce the negative expressions, {{lang|mva|tago teʔe}} 'no, not any' and {{lang|mva|tago alu}} 'no, not any'.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|386}} These expressions function as attributes within the noun phrases that they modify, as seen in the following examples (NP are enclosed within brackets):


Ex. (12): negation using ''tago teʔe''<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|386}}
Ex. (12): negation using {{lang|mva|tago teʔe}}<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|386}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(12)
|number=(12)
|ŋau [ʔana '''tago''' '''teʔe-ø'''] u-te-ø
|''ŋau''
|1SG.IP thing NEG one-3SG.AD 1SG.REAL-see-3SG.OBJ
|''[ʔana''
|'I did not see anything' ({{lit|I saw not one thing}})
|'''''tago'''''
|lang=mva}}
|'''''teʔe-ø''']''
|''u-te-ø''
|-
|
|1SG.IP
|thing
|NEG
|one-3SG.AD
|1SG.REAL-see-3SG.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="5" |‘I did not see anything’ (lit. I saw not one thing)
|}
Ex. (13): negation using ''tago teʔe<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|386}}''
{|
|(13)
|''[tamoata''
|'''''tago'''''
|'''''teʔe-ø''']''
|''taun-lo''
|''i-laʔo''
|-
|
|person
|NEG
|one-3SG.AD
|town-to
|3SG.REAL-go
|-
|
| colspan="5" |‘no one went to town’ (lit. not one person went to town)
|}
More specifically, ''tago alu'' is used to modify noun phrases whose head are mass nouns; ''tago teʔe''comparatively modifies count nouns.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|386}} Compare the following two examples:


Ex. (14): negative quantifier mass noun''<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|386}}''
Ex. (13): negation using {{lang|mva|tago teʔe}}<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|386}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(14)
|number=(13)
|[tamoata '''tago''' '''teʔe-ø'''] taun-lo i-laʔo
|''[daŋ''
|person NEG one-3SG.AD town-to 3SG.REAL-go
|'''''tago'''''
|'no one went to town' ({{lit|not one person went to town}})
|'''''alu-ø''']''
|lang=mva}}
|''di-eno''

|-
More specifically, {{lang|mva|tago alu}} is used to modify noun phrases whose head are mass nouns; {{lang|mva|tago teʔe}} comparatively modifies count nouns.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|386}} Compare the following two examples:
|

|water
Ex. (14): negative quantifier mass noun<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|386}}
|NEG
{{interlinear
|one-3SG.AD
|number=(14)
|3PL.REAL-exist
|[daŋ '''tago''' '''alu-ø'''] di-eno
|-
|water NEG one-3SG.AD 3PL.REAL-exist
|
| colspan="4" |‘there is no water’ (lit. not some water exists)
|'there is no water' ({{lit|not some water exists}})
|lang=mva}}
|}

Ex. (15): negative quantifier count noun<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|386}}
Ex. (15): negative quantifier count noun<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|386}}
{|
{{interlinear
|(15)
|number=(15)
|''[daŋ''
|'''''tago'''''
|[daŋ '''tago''' '''teʔe-ø'''] di-eno
|water NEG some-3SG.AD 3PL.REAL-exist
|'''''teʔe-ø''']''
|'there is no (containerful) of water'
|''di-eno''
|lang=mva}}
|-
|
|water
|NEG
|some-3SG.AD
|3PL.REAL-exist
|-
|
| colspan="4" |‘there is no (containerful) of water’
|}


==== Intensified negation ====
==== Intensified negation ====
Negation in Manam can be intensified by appending the buffer element ''–na'' and the intensifier suffix ''–tina'' to ''tago'',<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|388}} as seen in the following example:
Negation in Manam can be intensified by appending the buffer element ''–na'' and the intensifier suffix {{lang|mva|–tina}} to {{lang|mva|tago}},<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|388}} as seen in the following example:


Ex. (16): intensifier suffix<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|389}}
Ex. (16): intensifier suffix<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|389}}
{{interlinear|
{|
|(16)
|number=(16)
|ŋai tago-ø-'''na-tina''' i-pile<nowiki>=</nowiki>pile
|''ŋai''
|3SG.IP NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT 3SG.REAL-speak-RPL
|''tago-ø-'''na-tina'''''
|'he does not speak at all'
|''i-pile=pile''
|lang=mva}}
|-
|
|3SG.IP
|NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT
|3SG.REAL-speak-RPL
|-
|
| colspan="3" |‘he does not speak at all’
|}
The buffer element ''–na'', however, is not included when ''tago'' acts as the predicator of a clause,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|388}} as seen in the following example:


The buffer element {{lang|mva|–na}}, however, is not included when {{lang|mva|tago}} acts as the predicator of a clause,<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|388}} as seen in the following example:
Ex. (17): intensified predicator<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|389}}
{|
|(17)
|''ŋau''
|''bua''
|''tago-'''tina'''''
|-
|
|1SG.IP
|betelnut
|NEG-INT
|-
|
| colspan="3" |‘I have no betelnuts at all’
|}
Additionally, negation in Manam can be intensified using ''sesu'' ‘little’,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|389}} as seen in the following example:


Ex. (18): intensifier ''sesu<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|389}}''
Ex. (17): intensified predicator<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|389}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(18)
|number=(17)
|ŋau bua tago-'''tina'''
|''tamoata-ŋe''
|1SG.IP betelnut NEG-INT
|''tago''
|'I have no betelnuts at all'
|'''''sesu'''''
|lang=mva}}
|''u-tea=te-ø''
|-
|
|man-this
|NEG
|little
|1SG.REAL-RPL-see-3SG.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="4" |‘I don't visit (see) this man at all’
|}
Moreover, ''sesu'' ‘little’ can be used in conjunction with ''–tina'' within the same clause, as seen in the following example:<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|388}}


Additionally, negation in Manam can be intensified using {{lang|mva|sesu}} 'little',<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|389}} as seen in the following example:
Ex. (19): intensifier ''sesu'' + suffix ''–tina<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|389}}''
{|
|(19)
|''tago-ø-na-'''tina'''''
|'''''sesu'''''
|''di-ra=raŋ-aʔ-idi''
|-
|
|NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT
|little
|3PL.REAL-talk about-RPL-TRANS-3PL.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="3" |‘they do not talk about themselves at all’
|}
Furthermore, the suffix ''–tina'' may be appended to the prohibitive marker ''moaʔi'' (with the presence of the buffer ''–na''),<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|419}} as seen in the following example:


Ex. (20): suffix ''–tina'' + prohibitive marker ''moaʔi''<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|340}}
Ex. (18): intensifier {{lang|mva|sesu}}<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|389}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(20)
|number=(18)
|tamoata-ŋe tago '''sesu''' u-tea<nowiki>=</nowiki>te-ø
|'''''moaʔi-ø-na-tina'''''
|man-this NEG little 1SG.REAL-RPL-see-3SG.OBJ
|''niu-be''
|'I don't visit (see) this man at all'
|''ʔulu''
|lang=mva}}
|''ʔu-buiriʔapotaʔ-i''

|-
Moreover, {{lang|mva|sesu}} 'little' can be used in conjunction with {{lang|mva|–tina}} within the same clause, as seen in the following example:<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|388}}
|

|PROH-3SG.AD-BF-INT
Ex. (19): intensifier {{lang|mva|sesu}} + suffix {{lang|mva|–tina}}<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|389}}
|coconut-and
{{interlinear
|breadfruit
|number=(19)
|2SG.REAL-mix-3PL.OBJ
|tago-ø-na-'''tina''' '''sesu''' di-ra<nowiki>=</nowiki>raŋ-aʔ-idi
|-
|NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT little 3PL.REAL-talk.about-RPL-TRANS-3PL.OBJ
|
|'they do not talk about themselves at all'
| colspan="4" |‘don't mix the coconuts and the breadfruit’
|lang=mva}}
|}

Furthermore, the suffix {{lang|mva|–tina}} may be appended to the prohibitive marker {{lang|mva|moaʔi}} (with the presence of the buffer {{lang|mva|–na}}),<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|419}} as seen in the following example:

Ex. (20): suffix {{lang|mva|–tina}} + prohibitive marker {{lang|mva|moaʔi}}<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|340}}
{{interlinear
|number=(20)
|'''moaʔi-ø-na-tina''' niu-be ʔulu ʔu-buiriʔapotaʔ-i
|PROH-3SG.AD-BF-INT coconut-and breadfruit 2SG.REAL-mix-3PL.OBJ
|'don't mix the coconuts and the breadfruit'
|lang=mva}}


=== Prohibitions ===
=== Prohibitions ===
Manam expresses prohibitions in two basic ways: using finite verbs—defined as verb (phrase) forms that can occur on their own in a main clause;<ref>{{Cite book|title=A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics|last=Crystal|first=David|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|year=2008|location=Hoboken}}</ref>{{Rp|183}} using gerunds and verbal nouns. Lichtenberk defines gerunds as verb nuclei used to indicate ‘non-specific’ events, whereas verbal nouns are used to indicate ‘specific’ events.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|243–244}} Compare the following examples:
Manam expresses prohibitions in two basic ways: using finite verbs—defined as verb (phrase) forms that can occur on their own in a main clause;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2008 |location=Hoboken, NJ}}</ref>{{Rp|183}} using gerunds and verbal nouns. Lichtenberk defines gerunds as verb nuclei used to indicate 'non-specific' events, whereas verbal nouns are used to indicate ‘specific’ events.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|243–244}} Compare the following examples:


Ex. (21): gerund<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|244}}
Ex. (21): gerund<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|244}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(21)
|number=(21)
|udi '''tano-ø''' tago u-ʔawa
|''udi''
|banana plant-3PL.OBJ NEG 1SG.REAL-know
|'''''tano-ø'''''
|'I don't know how to plant bananas' (in general)
|''tago''
|lang=mva}}
|''u-ʔawa''

|-
Ex. (22): verbal noun<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|244}}
|
{{interlinear
|banana
|number=(22)
|plant-3PL.OBJ
|udi '''tanom-a-di''' tago u-ʔawa
|NEG
|1SG.REAL-know
|banana plant-NOM-3PL.AD NEG 1SG.REAL-know
|'I don't know to plant the bananas' (specific bananas)
|-
|lang=mva}}
|
| colspan="4" |‘I don't know how to plant bananas’ (in general)
|}
Ex. (22): verbal noun<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|244}}
{|
|(22)
|''udi''
|'''''tanom-a-di'''''
|''tago''
|''u-ʔawa''
|-
|
|banana
|plant-NOM-3PL.AD
|NEG
|1SG.REAL-know
|-
|
| colspan="4" |‘I don't know to plant the bananas’ (specific bananas)
|}


==== Prohibitive constructions with finite verbs ====
==== Prohibitive constructions with finite verbs ====
The basic structure of prohibitive constructions using finite verbs is ''moaʔi'' followed by a verb with a realis subject/mood prefix,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|438}} as seen in the following examples:
The basic structure of prohibitive constructions using finite verbs is {{lang|mva|moaʔi}} followed by a verb with a realis subject/mood prefix,<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|438}} as seen in the following examples:


Ex. (23): prohibitive construction finite verb<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|418}}
Ex. (23): prohibitive construction finite verb<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|418}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(23)
|number=(23)
|'''''moaʔi'''''
|'''moaʔi''' ʔu-pereʔ-i
|PROH 2SG.REAL-lose-3SG.OBJ
|''ʔu-pereʔ-i''
|'don't lose it'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|
|PROH
|2SG.REAL-lose-3SG.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="2" |‘don't lose it’
|}
Ex. (24): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ subject NP<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|419}}
{|
|(24)
|''ŋai''
|'''''moaʔi'''''
|''i-raʔe-i''
|-
|
|3SG.IP
|PROH
|3SG.REAL-put up-3SG.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="3" |‘he should not boast’ (lit. he should not put himself up)
|}
Ex. (25): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ direct object NP<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|419}}
{|
|(25)
|''botolo''
|''moapesa-di''
|'''''moaʔi'''''
|''ʔu-roʔaʔ-i-ramo''
|-
|
|bottle
|broken-3PL.AD
|PROH
|2SG.REAL-throw-3PL.OBJ-all
|-
|
| colspan="4" |‘don't throw broken bottles around!’
|}
Sometimes, however—the subject or direct object NP may occur between ''moaʔi'' and the verb,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|419}} as in the following example:


Ex. (26): prohibitive construction finite verb<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|419}}
Ex. (24): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ subject NP<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|419}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(26)
|number=(24)
|'''''moaʔi'''''
|ŋai '''moaʔi''' i-raʔe-i
|3SG.IP PROH 3SG.REAL-put.up-3SG.OBJ
|''taburi-miŋ''
|'he should not boast' ({{lit|he should not put himself up}})
|''di-raya''
|lang=mva}}
|-

|
Ex. (25): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ direct object NP<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|419}}
|PROH
{{interlinear
|fear-2PL.AD
|number=(25)
|3PL.REAL-be bad
|botolo moapesa-di '''moaʔi''' ʔu-roʔaʔ-i-ramo
|-
|bottle broken-3PL.AD PROH 2SG.REAL-throw-3PL.OBJ-all
|
|'don't throw broken bottles around!'
| colspan="3" |‘don't be afraid!’ (lit. your fear should not be bad)
|lang=mva}}
|}

Sometimes, however—the subject or direct object NP may occur between {{lang|mva|moaʔi}} and the verb,<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|419}} as in the following example:

Ex. (26): prohibitive construction finite verb<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|419}}
{{interlinear
|number=(26)
|'''moaʔi''' taburi-miŋ di-raya
|PROH fear-2PL.AD 3PL.REAL-be.bad
|'don't be afraid!' ({{lit|your fear should not be bad}})
|lang=mva}}


==== Prohibitive constructions with gerunds and verbal nouns ====
==== Prohibitive constructions with gerunds and verbal nouns ====
Prohibitive constructions using gerunds or verbal nouns are formed by placing the prohibitive/negative marker ''moaʔi'' after the gerund or verbal noun,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|420}} demonstrated in the following example:
Prohibitive constructions using gerunds or verbal nouns are formed by placing the prohibitive/negative marker {{lang|mva|moaʔi}} after the gerund or verbal noun,<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|420}} demonstrated in the following example:


Ex. (27): prohibitive construction using gerund/verbal noun<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|421}}
Ex. (27): prohibitive construction using gerund/verbal noun<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|421}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(27)
|number=(27)
|''taŋ''
|taŋ '''moaʔi'''
|cry PROH
|'''''moaʔi'''''
|'don't cry' / 'we/they/... should not cry'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|
|cry
|PROH
|-
|
| colspan="2" |‘don't cry’ / ‘we/they/... should not cry’
|}
{{Rp|412}}The distinction between using a gerund or a verbal noun is determined by whether the source verb is transitive (verbal noun) or intransitive (gerund).<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|420}}


{{Rp|412}}The distinction between using a gerund or a verbal noun is determined by whether the source verb is transitive (verbal noun) or intransitive (gerund).<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|420}}
Additionally, the form ''raʔania'' ‘never mind’ may also be used in forming prohibitive constructions using gerunds and verbal nouns. The location of ''raʔania'' within the clause is more dynamic than the prohibitive/negative marker ''moaʔi'', as ''raʔania'' may occur both following or preceding the verbal noun or gerund.{{Rp|420}}<ref name=":0" /> Compare the following two examples:


Additionally, the form {{lang|mva|raʔania}} 'never mind' may also be used in forming prohibitive constructions using gerunds and verbal nouns. The location of {{lang|mva|raʔania}} within the clause is more dynamic than the prohibitive/negative marker {{lang|mva|moaʔi}}, as {{lang|mva|raʔania}} may occur both following or preceding the verbal noun or gerund.{{Rp|420}}<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" /> Compare the following two examples:
Ex. (28): prohibitive construction using ''raʔania'' (following)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|412}}

{|
Ex. (28): prohibitive construction using {{lang|mva|raʔania}} (following)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|412}}
|(28)
{{interlinear
|''misaʔa''
|number=(28)
|'''''raʔania'''''
|misaʔa '''raʔania'''
|-
|smack.lips never.mind
|
|smack lips
|'stop smacking your lips!'
|lang=mva}}
|never mind

|-
Ex. (29): prohibitive construction using {{lang|mva|raʔania}} (preceding)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />
|
{{interlinear
| colspan="2" |‘stop smacking your lips!’
|number=(29)
|}
|'''raʔania''' soaʔi-baya
Ex. (29): prohibitive construction using ''raʔania'' (preceding)<ref name=":0" />
|never.mind sit-LIM
{|
|'you/we/... should not be just sitting doing nothing'
|(29)
|lang=mva}}
|'''''raʔania'''''
|''soaʔi-baya''
|-
|
|never mind
|sit-LIM
|-
|
| colspan="2" |‘you/we/... should not be just sitting doing nothing’
|}


==== Indirect prohibitive constructions ====
==== Indirect prohibitive constructions ====
The negative marker ''tago'' is used when expressing prohibitions in indirect speech<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|422}}—its behaviour is identical as in its regular usage: ''tago'' is placed before the element which is being negated, as seen in the following example:
The negative marker {{lang|mva|tago}} is used when expressing prohibitions in indirect speech<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|422}}—its behaviour is identical as in its regular usage: {{lang|mva|tago}} is placed before the element which is being negated, as seen in the following example:


Ex. (30): indirect prohibitive construction<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|422}}
Ex. (30): indirect prohibitive construction<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|422}}
{{interlinear
{|
|(30)
|number=(30)
|di '''tago''' ga-taga-di ʔana di-ra-ʔama
|''di''
|3PL.RP NEG EXC.IRR-follow-3PL.OBJ PROSP 3PL.REAL-talk.to-EXC.OBJ
|'''''tago'''''
|'they told us not to follow them' ({{lit|we were/are not going to follow them; they told us}})
|''ga-taga-di''
|lang=mva}}
|''ʔana''
|''di-ra-ʔama''
|-
|
|3PL.RP
|NEG
|EXC.IRR-follow-3PL.OBJ
|PROSP
|3PL.REAL-talk to-EXC.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="5" |‘they told us not to follow them’ (lit. we were/are not going to follow them; they told us)
|}


==Morphology==
==Morphology==


===Number===
===Number===
Manam has an unusual, though regionally common, four-way distinction between singular, dual, trial, and plural number. Singular and plural are marked on the verb and sometimes on the adjective, but not on the noun.
Manam has an unusual, though regionally common, four-way distinction between singular, dual, paucal, and plural number. Singular and plural are marked on the verb and sometimes on the adjective, but not on the noun.


====Pronouns====
====Pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left";
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left"
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|[[Grammatical person|Person]]
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|[[Grammatical person|Person]]
!colspan="4"| [[Grammatical number|Number]]
!colspan="4"| [[Grammatical number|Number]]
Line 659: Line 417:
![[Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[Trial grammatical number#Trial number|Trial]]
![[Paucal number|Paucal]]
![[Plural]]
![[Plural]]
|-
|-
Line 665: Line 423:
!<small>Inclusive</small>
!<small>Inclusive</small>
|style="background-color: #bbbbbb"|
|style="background-color: #bbbbbb"|
| kitaru
| {{lang|mva|kitaru}}
| kitato
| {{lang|mva|kitato}}
| kita
| {{lang|mva|kita}}
|-
|-
!<small>Exclusive</small>
!<small>Exclusive</small>
| ngau<br/>nga
| {{lang|mva|ngau}}<br/>{{lang|mva|nga}}
| keru
| {{lang|mva|keru}}
| keto
| {{lang|mva|keto}}
| keka
| {{lang|mva|keka}}
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|2nd
!colspan="2"|2nd
| kaiko<br/>kai
| {{lang|mva|kaiko}}<br/>{{lang|mva|kai}}
|kamru
| {{lang|mva|kamru}}
| kamto
| {{lang|mva|kamto}}
| kam<br/>kakaming
| {{lang|mva|kam}}<br/>{{lang|mva|kakaming}}
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|3rd
!colspan="2"|3rd
| ngai
| {{lang|mva|ngai}}
| diaru
| {{lang|mva|diaru}}
| diato
| {{lang|mva|diato}}
| di
| {{lang|mva|di}}
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Reduplication===
===Reduplication===
[[Reduplication]] can be either leftward ('''''sa-'''salaga'') or rightward (''salaga'''-laga'''''). There is no point in distinguishing 'partial' and 'total' reduplication, since at most two syllables are reduplicated.
[[Reduplication]] can be either leftward ({{lang|mva|'''sa-'''salaga}}) or rightward ({{lang|mva|salaga'''-laga'''}}). There is no point in distinguishing 'partial' and 'total' reduplication, since at most two syllables are reduplicated.


====Nouns====
====Nouns====
Rightwards reduplicated nouns can either take on a meaning related to the original word, or function as an [[Agent noun|agentive]] marker:
Rightwards reduplicated nouns can either take on a meaning related to the original word, or function as an [[Agent noun|agentive]] marker:


:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
:{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|-
|''moata''||snake
|{{lang|mva|moata}}||snake
|-
|-
|''moata-moata''||worm
|{{lang|mva|moata-moata}}||worm
|-
|-
|colspan="3"|
|colspan="3"|
|-
|-
|''malipi''||the work
|{{lang|mva|malipi}}||the work
|-
|-
|''malipi-lipi''||worker
|{{lang|mva|malipi-lipi}}||worker
|}
|}


Line 712: Line 470:


'''Rightward reduplication (singular)'''
'''Rightward reduplication (singular)'''
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
:{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|-
|''udi noka-noka''||ripe banana
|{{lang|mva|udi noka-noka}}||ripe banana
|-
|-
|''tamoata bia-bia''||the big man
|{{lang|mva|tamoata bia-bia}}||the big man
|}
|}


'''Leftward reduplication (plural)'''
'''Leftward reduplication (plural)'''
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
:{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|-
|''udi no-noka''||ripe bananas
|{{lang|mva|udi no-noka}}||ripe bananas
|-
|-
|''tamoata bi-bia''||the big men
|{{lang|mva|tamoata bi-bia}}||the big men
|}
|}


Line 730: Line 488:


===The verb===
===The verb===
The verb always marks the subject and the mood; these are fused together. Optional suffixes includes such things as object, direction, aspectual markers, benefactive and various kinds of intensifiers and quantifiers.
The verb always marks the subject and the mood; these are fused together. Optional suffixes include such things as object, direction, aspectual markers, benefactive and various kinds of intensifiers and quantifiers.
Here's a schematical overview of the Manam verb:
Here is a schematical overview of the Manam verb:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
Line 743: Line 501:
|-
|-
|Subject/mood marking
|Subject/mood marking
|Manner prefix<br/>''aka-'' transitive
|Manner prefix<br/>{{lang|mva|aka-}} transitive
|Verb root
|Verb root
|''-ak-'' transitive
|{{lang|mva|-ak-}} transitive
|Object marking<br/>Optional suffixes
|Object marking<br/>Optional suffixes
|}
|}
Line 768: Line 526:
|-
|-
!<small>[[clusivity|Exclusive]]</small>
!<small>[[clusivity|Exclusive]]</small>
|{{lang|mva|u-}}
|u-
|{{lang|mva|m-}}
|m-
|ki-
|{{lang|mva|ki-}}
|ga-
|{{lang|mva|ga-}}
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|2nd
!colspan="2"|2nd
|ku-
|{{lang|mva|ku-}}
|go-
|{{lang|mva|go-}}
|ka-
|{{lang|mva|ka-}}
|kama-
|{{lang|mva|kama-}}
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|3rd
!colspan="2"|3rd
|{{lang|mva|i-}}
|i-
|nga-
|{{lang|mva|nga-}}
|di-
|{{lang|mva|di-}}
|da-
|{{lang|mva|da-}}
|}
|}


Line 789: Line 547:
The realis mood ({{sc|real}}) is used for actual events of the past or present, i.e. things that are certain to have happened, things that are "real". Accordingly, the irrealis ({{sc|irr}}) mood describes anticipated events in the future, or events that the speaker ''wishes'' were real.
The realis mood ({{sc|real}}) is used for actual events of the past or present, i.e. things that are certain to have happened, things that are "real". Accordingly, the irrealis ({{sc|irr}}) mood describes anticipated events in the future, or events that the speaker ''wishes'' were real.


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|ura nga-pura
|-
|rain 3SG.IRR-come
|''ura''||''nga-pura''
|'it will rain'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|rain||{{sc|3sg.irr}}-come
|}
:"it will rain"


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|u-noku
|1SG.REAL-jump
|''u-noku''
|'I jumped'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|{{sc|1sg.real}}-jump
|}
:"I jumped"


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|nga-pile i-bebe
|-
|3SG.IRR-say 3SG.REAL-unable
|''nga-pile''||''i-bebe''
|'he will say that he is unable' (he still hasn't said anything, but when he does, his inability will be stated as actual)
|-
|lang=mva}}
|{{sc|3sg.irr}}-say||{{sc|3sg.real}}-unable
|}
:"he will say that he is unable" (he still hasn’t said anything, but when he does, his inability will be stated as actual)


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|tama-gu i-rere zama go-pura
|-
|father-1SG.POSS 3SG.REAL-want tomorrow 2SG.IRR-come
|''tama-gu''||''i-rere''||''zama''||''go-pura''
|'my father wants you to come tomorrow' (the father's wanting is real, whereas the anticipated coming is still unreal)
|-
|lang=mva}}
|father-{{sc|1sg.[[possessive|poss]]}}||{{sc|3sg.real}}-want||tomorrow||{{sc|2sg.irr}}-come
|}
:"my father wants you to come tomorrow" (the father’s wanting is real, whereas the anticipated coming is still unreal)


====Manner prefixes====
====Manner prefixes====
Manner prefixes are found between the subject/mood marker and the verb root. The manner prefixes describe in what manner the verb action was done, such as 'biting', 'cutting', 'throwing' etc.
Manner prefixes are found between the subject/mood marker and the verb root. The manner prefixes describe in what manner the verb action was done, such as 'biting', 'cutting', 'throwing' etc.
{{interlinear

|boro u-'''tara'''-paka-i
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|pig 1SG.REAL-spearing-miss-3SG.OBJ
|-
|'I speared at the pig but missed it'
|''boro''||''u-'''tara'''-paka-i''
|lang=mva}}
|-
|pig||{{sc|1sg.real}}-'''spearing'''-miss-{{sc|3sg.obj}}
|}
:"I speared at the pig but missed it"


====Object marking====
====Object marking====
Line 842: Line 589:
!<small>Inclusive</small>
!<small>Inclusive</small>
|style="background-color: #bbbbbb"|
|style="background-color: #bbbbbb"|
| -kita
| {{lang|mva|-kita}}
|-
|-
!<small>Exclusive</small>
!<small>Exclusive</small>
| -a
| {{lang|mva|-a}}
| -kama
| {{lang|mva|-kama}}
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|2nd
!colspan="2"|2nd
| -(i)ko
| {{lang|mva|-(i)ko}}
| -kaming
| {{lang|mva|-kaming}}
|-
|-
!colspan="2" rowspan="2"|3rd
!colspan="2" rowspan="2"|3rd
| -i
| {{lang|mva|-i}}
| -di
| {{lang|mva|-di}}
|-
|-
|colspan="2"|-Ø
|colspan="2"|-Ø
|}
|}


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|mi-ang-ko
|-
|1SG.IRR-give-2SG.OBJ
|''mi-ang-ko''
|'I will give (it) to you'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|{{sc|1sg.irr}}-give-{{sc|2sg.obj}}
|}
:"I will give (it) to you"


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|niu u-sing-Ø
|-
|coconut 1SG.REAL-drink-3SG.OBJ
|''niu''||''u-sing-Ø''
|'I drank a coconut'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|coconut||{{sc|1sg.real}}-drink-{{sc|3sg.obj}}
|}
:"I drank a coconut"


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|go-ang-kama
|-
|2SG.IRR-give-EXCL
|''go-ang-kama''
|'give it to us'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|{{sc|2sg.irr}}-give-{{sc|[[clusivity|excl]]}}
|}
:"give it to us"


====Transitivization====
====Transitivization====
There are three different morphologically overt methods for turning [[intransitive]] verbs into [[transitive verb|transitive]] ones:
There are three different morphologically overt methods for turning [[intransitive]] verbs into [[transitive verb|transitive]] ones:
* The preffix ''-aka-'' can occur between the person/mood marker and the verb root.
* The prefix {{lang|mva|-aka-}} can occur between the person/mood marker and the verb root.
* The suffix ''-ka-'' can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.
* The suffix {{lang|mva|-ka-}} can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.
* The so-called "transitive consonant" (TC) can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.
* The so-called "transitive consonant" (TC) can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.


These methods can be combined.
These methods can be combined.


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|dang i-'''aka'''-gita-i
|-
|water 3SG.REAL-TRANS-be.hot-3SG.OBJ
|''dang''||''i-'''aka'''-gita-i''
|'he heated the water'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|water||{{sc|3sg.real}}-{{sc|'''[[transitivity (grammatical category)|trans]]'''}}-be_hot-{{sc|3sg.obj}}
|}
:"he heated the water"


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|'''aka'''-tukura'''--ng-ak'''-i
|-
|TRANS-be.short-TC-TRANS-3SG.OBJ
|'''''aka'''-tukura-'''-ng'''-'''ak'''-i''
|'to shorten it'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|{{sc|'''trans'''}}-be_short-'''TC'''-{{sc|'''trans'''}}-{{sc|3sg.obj}}
|}
:"to shorten it"


====Optional suffixes====
====Optional suffixes====
Line 911: Line 648:


'''Direction'''
'''Direction'''
{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|go-dok-a-'''mai'''
|-
|2SG.IRR-bring-3SG.OBJ-hither
|''go-dok-a-'''mai'''''
|'bring it here'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|{{sc|2sg.irr}}-bring-{{sc|3sg.obj}}-hither
|}
:"bring it here"


'''Spreading'''
'''Spreading'''
{{interlinear
{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|pipia i-rokaki-'''ramoi'''
|-
|''pipia''||''i-rokaki-'''ramoi'''''
|rubbish 3SG.REAL-throw_away-'''all_over'''
|'he throws rubbish all over the place'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|rubbish||{{sc|3sg.real}}-throw_away-'''all_over'''
|}
:"he throws rubbish all over the place"


'''Intensifying'''
'''Intensifying'''
{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|u-rere-'''tina'''
|-
|1SG.REAL-like-very
|''u-rere-'''tina'''''
|'I like it very much'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|{{sc|1sg.real}}-like-very
|}
:"I like it very much"


'''Benefactive'''
'''Benefactive'''
{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|go-moasi-'''n'''-a
|-
|2SG.IRR-sing-BEN-1SG.OBJ
|''go-moasi-'''n'''-a''
|'sing for me'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|{{sc|2sg.irr}}-sing-{{sc|[[benefactive|ben]]}}-{{sc|1sg.obj}}
|}
:"sing for me"


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives are derived by reduplication from a verb or a noun. As seen above, some reduplicated adjectives have a number distinction, but some others don't, e.g. ''siki-siki'' 'small' (singular and plural). Some adjectives use the possessive pronouns to mark person and number, e.g. ''kapisa-Ø'' 'selfish' (singular) and ''kapisa-di'' 'selfish' (plural).
Most adjectives are derived by reduplication from a verb or a noun. As seen above, some reduplicated adjectives have a number distinction, but some others do not, e.g. {{lang|mva|siki-siki}} 'small' (singular and plural). Some adjectives use the possessive pronouns to mark person and number, e.g. {{lang|mva|kapisa-Ø}} 'selfish' (singular) and {{lang|mva|kapisa-di}} 'selfish' (plural).


===Possession===
===Possession===
As in many other Austronesian languages, Manam expresses different degrees of [[possession (linguistics)|possession]]. In addition to the most common differentitation between [[alienable and inalienable possession]], Manam uses a particular morphological processes to describe belongings that are ''edible'' or associated with eating.
As in many other [[Austronesian languages]] Manam expresses different degrees of [[possession (linguistics)|possession]]. In addition to the most common differentiation between [[alienable and inalienable possession]], Manam uses a particular morphological processes to describe belongings that are ''edible'' or associated with eating.


====Possessive pronouns====
====Possessive pronouns====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|[[Grammatical person|Person]]
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|[[Grammatical person|Person]]
!colspan="4"| [[Grammatical number|Number]]
!colspan="4"| [[Grammatical number|Number]]
Line 959: Line 688:
![[Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[Grammatical number|Singular]]
![[Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]
![[Trial grammatical number#Trial number|Trial]]
![[Paucal number|Paucal]]
![[Plural]]
![[Plural]]
|-
|-
Line 965: Line 694:
!<small>Inclusive</small>
!<small>Inclusive</small>
|style="background-color: #bbbbbb"|
|style="background-color: #bbbbbb"|
| -da-ru
| {{lang|mva|-da-ru}}
| -da-to
| {{lang|mva|-da-to}}
| -da
| {{lang|mva|-da}}
|-
|-
!<small>Exclusive</small>
!<small>Exclusive</small>
| -gu
| {{lang|mva|-gu}}
| -ma-i-ru
| {{lang|mva|-ma-i-ru}}
| -ma-i-to
| {{lang|mva|-ma-i-to}}
| -ma
| {{lang|mva|-ma}}
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|2nd
!colspan="2"|2nd
| -m / -ng
| {{lang|mva|-m / -ng}}
| -ming-ru
| {{lang|mva|-ming-ru}}
| -ming-to
| {{lang|mva|-ming-to}}
| -ming
| {{lang|mva|-ming}}
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|3rd
!colspan="2"|3rd
| -Ø
| -Ø
| -di-a-ru
| {{lang|mva|-di-a-ru}}
| -di-a-to
| {{lang|mva|-di-a-to}}
| -di
| {{lang|mva|-di}}
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Inalienable possession====
====Inalienable possession====
In this class, we find 'belongings' that are involuntary, such as body parts, family members and different kinds of necessary 'parts of a whole'. This class is characterized by simply a possessive suffix attached to the word in question:
In this class are 'belongings' that are involuntary, such as body parts, family members and different kinds of necessary 'parts of a whole'. This class is characterized by simply a possessive suffix attached to the word in question:
{{interlinear
|mata-gu
|eye-1SG.POSS
|'my eye'
|lang=mva}}


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|niu labu-di
|-
|coconut base-3PL.POSS
|''mata-gu''
|'the bases of the coconut trees'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|eye-{{sc|1sg.poss}}
|}
:"my eye"

:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|''niu''||''labu-di''
|-
| coconut||base-{{sc|3pl.poss}}
|}
:"the bases of the coconut trees"


====Edible possession====
====Edible possession====
In this class, we find things that are edible and 'used to obtain, prepare or store food'. This class is characterized by the word ''kana'', which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:
In this class are things that are edible and 'used to obtain, prepare or store food'. This class is characterized by the word {{lang|mva|kana}}, which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|udi kana-gu
|-
|banana FOOD-1SG.POSS
|''udi''||''kana-gu''
|'my banana'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|banana||{{sc|food}}-{{sc|1sg.poss}}
|}
:"my banana"


====Alienable possession====
====Alienable possession====
In this class, we find belongings that are voluntary; things that we can cease to own, unlike body parts or family. This class is characterized by the word ''ne'', which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:
In this class are belongings that are voluntary; things that one can cease to own, unlike body parts or family. This class is characterized by the word {{lang|mva|ne}}, which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|kati ne-gu
|-
|canoe ALIEN-1SG.POSS
|''kati''||''ne-gu''
|'my canoe'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|canoe||{{sc|[[alienable possession|alien]]}}-{{sc|1sg.poss}}
|}
:"my canoe"


{{interlinear
:{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|natu keu ne-di
|-
|child dog ALIEN-3PL.POSS
|''natu''||''keu''||''ne-di''
|'the children's dogs'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|child||dog||{{sc|alien}}-{{sc|3pl.poss}}
|}
:"the children’s dogs"


====Cross-class possession====
====Cross-class possession====
One fascinating thing is that the same word can occur in all three possession classes, and then of course its meaning will differ. Here are two examples:
One notable aspect is that the same word can occur in all three possession classes, and then of course its meaning will differ. Here are two examples:


{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|-
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||''boro-gu''||my pig (as part of one's wealth)
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||{{lang|mva|boro-gu}}||'my pig' (as part of one's wealth)
|-
|-
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||''boro kana-gu''||my pork (which I am going to eat)
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||{{lang|mva|boro kana-gu}}||'my pork' (which I am going to eat)
|-
|-
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||''boro ne-gu''||my pig (which I may or may not eat later)
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||{{lang|mva|boro ne-gu}}||'my pig' (which I may or may not eat later)
|}
|}


{|border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|-
|-
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||''dang-i-gu''||my water (or rather 'body fluids')
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||{{lang|mva|dang-i-gu}}||'my water' (or rather 'body fluids')
|-
|-
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||''dang kana-gu''||my water (to drink)
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||{{lang|mva|dang kana-gu}}||'my water' (to drink)
|-
|-
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||''dang ne-gu''||my water (to wash with)
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;||{{lang|mva|dang ne-gu}}||'my water' (to wash with)
|}
|}


=== Demonstratives ===
=== Demonstratives ===
Manam has two kinds of [[demonstrative]]s.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|331}} This two-way system distinguishes between [[proximal demonstrative]]s, which indicate proximity to a speaker, and [[distal demonstrative]]s, which indicate distance from a speaker. Both demonstratives occur after the noun phrase. They are formed from the demonstrative marker ''ŋa'', followed by either the proximal suffix ''-e'' or the distal marker ''-ra'', followed by either the 3rd person singular marker ''-ø'' or the 3rd person plural marker ''-di'' as shown in the table<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|331}} below:
Manam has two kinds of [[demonstrative]]s.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|331}} This two-way system distinguishes between [[proximal demonstrative]]s, which indicate proximity to a speaker, and [[distal demonstrative]]s, which indicate distance from a speaker. Both demonstratives occur after the noun phrase. They are formed from the demonstrative marker {{lang|mva|ŋa}}, followed by either the proximal suffix {{lang|mva|-e}} or the distal marker {{lang|mva|-ra}}, followed by either the third-person singular marker ''-∅'' or the third-person plural marker {{lang|mva|-di}} as shown in the table<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|331}} below:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
Line 1,067: Line 785:
|-
|-
!'''Singular'''
!'''Singular'''
|{{interlinear
|ŋa-e-ø
|ŋa-e-∅
DEM-PROX-3SG.AD
|DEM-PROX-3SG.AD

|'this'
‘this’
|lang=mva}}
|ŋa-ra-ø
|{{interlinear
DEM-DIST-3SG.AD
|ŋa-ra-∅

|DEM-DIST-3SG.AD
‘that’
|'that'
|lang=mva}}
|-
|-
!'''Plural'''
!'''Plural'''
|{{interlinear
|ŋa-e-di
|ŋa-e-di
DEM-PROX-3PL.AD
|DEM-PROX-3PL.AD
|'these'

|lang=mva}}
‘these’
|{{interlinear
|ŋa-ra-di
|ŋa-ra-di
DEM-DIST-3PL.AD
|DEM-DIST-3PL.AD
|'those'

|lang=mva}}
‘those’
|}
|}
Data from [[World Atlas of Language Structures|WALS]] suggests that both the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Papuan languages]] which are geographically close to the Manam language community show an approximately even distribution of two-way and three-way distinction systems for demonstratives.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=WALS Online - Feature 88A: Order of Demonstrative and Noun|url=https://wals.info/feature/88A#2/16.3/152.8|access-date=2021-03-30|website=wals.info}}</ref> In fact, despite Ross's observation that "[[Schouten languages|Schouten]] family members are … much more closely related to each other than to any other members of the [North New Guinea] Linkage",<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Lynch|first=John|title=The Oceanic Languages|last2=Ross|first2=Malcolm|last3=Terry|first3=Crowley|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|year=2001|isbn=9781136749858|pages=i-924}}</ref>{{Rp|106}} [[Kairiru language|Kairiru]], which like Manam is a member of the Schouten family, shows a three-way distinction in its demonstratives. Interestingly, the reconstructed proto language [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]] (POc), from which the Schouten family is descended, was determined to have a three-way distinction system.<ref name=":1" /> POc's system is believed to have included an additional demonstrative compared to Manam, the [[Demonstrative|medial demonstrative]] which indicates an intermediate distance, or proximity to the listener rather than the speaker.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|72}} However, Manam does show the same noun-demonstrative word order which was reconstructed for POc.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|72}}
Data from [[World Atlas of Language Structures|WALS]] suggests that both the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Papuan languages]], which are geographically close to the Manam language community, show an approximately even distribution of two-way and three-way distinction systems for demonstratives.<ref name="WALSOnline_2021">{{Cite web |title=Feature 88A: Order of Demonstrative and Noun |url=https://wals.info/feature/88A#2/16.3/152.8 |access-date=2021-03-30 |website=WALS Online}}</ref> In fact, despite Ross's observation that "[[Schouten languages|Schouten]] family members are … much more closely related to each other than to any other members of the [North New Guinea] Linkage",<ref name="Lynch_2001">{{Cite book |last=Lynch |first=John |title=The Oceanic Languages |last2=Ross |first2=Malcolm |last3=Crowley |first3=Terry |publisher=Taylor & Francis Group |year=2001 |isbn=9781136749858}}</ref>{{Rp|106}} [[Kairiru language|Kairiru]], which like Manam is a member of the Schouten family, shows a three-way distinction in its demonstratives. The reconstructed proto language [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]] (POc), from which the Schouten family is descended, was determined to have a three-way distinction system.<ref name="WALSOnline_2021" /> POc's system is believed to have included an additional demonstrative compared to Manam, the [[Demonstrative|medial demonstrative]] which indicates an intermediate distance, or proximity to the listener rather than the speaker.<ref name="Lynch_2001" />{{Rp|72}} However, Manam does show the same noun-demonstrative word order which was reconstructed for POc.<ref name="Lynch_2001" />{{Rp|72}}

In Manam, the proximal form is often contracted from {{lang|mva|ŋa-e-}} to {{lang|mva|ŋe-}}.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|332}} It can also be [[clitic]]ised to a proceeding word when it is not followed by a suffix. Because the 3sg [[Adnominal|adnominal suffix]] has a zero form, {{lang|mva|ŋe-}} can be cliticised for this construction. This means that Examples (1), (2), and (3) are all acceptable ways to construct 'this woman', while example (4) but not Example (5) is an acceptable construction of 'these women'.
{{interlinear
|number=(1)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|332}}
|áine ŋa-e-∅
|woman DEM-PROX-3SG.AD
|'this woman'
|lang=mva}}

{{interlinear
|number=(2)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|332}}
|áine ŋe-∅
|woman DEMPROX-3SG.AD
|'this woman'
|lang=mva}}


{{interlinear
In Manam, the proximal form is often contracted from ''ŋa-e-'' to ''ŋe''-.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|332}} It can also be [[clitic]]ised to a proceeding word when it is not followed by a suffix. Because the 3sg [[Adnominal|adnominal suffix]] has a zero form, ''ŋe-'' can be cliticised for this construction. This means that Examples (1), (2), and (3) are all acceptable ways to construct ‘''this woman''’, while example (4) but not Example (5) is an acceptable construction of ‘''these women''’.
|number=(3)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|332}}
{|
|(1)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|332}}
|áine
|ŋa-e-ø
|-
|
|woman
|DEM-PROX-3SG.AD
|-
|
| colspan="2" |‘this woman’
|}
{|
|(2)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|332}}
|áine
|ŋe-ø
|-
|
|woman
|DEMPROX-3SG.AD
|-
|
| colspan="2" |‘this woman’
|}
{|
|(3)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|332}}
|áine-ŋe
|áine-ŋe
|-
|
|woman-DEMPROX
|woman-DEMPROX
|'this woman'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|

|‘this woman’
{{interlinear
|}
|number=(4)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|332}}
{|
|áine ŋe-di
|(4)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|332}}
|áine
|ŋe-di
|-
|
|woman
|DEMPROX-3PL.AD
|-
|
| colspan="2" |‘these woman’
|}
{|
|(5)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|332}}
|*áine-ŋe-di
|-
|
|woman DEMPROX-3PL.AD
|woman DEMPROX-3PL.AD
|'these woman'
|-
|lang=mva}}
|

|‘*these woman’
{{interlinear
|}
|number=(5)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|332}}
It is also acceptable to remove the [[head noun]], for instance in the [[comparative]] construction in Example (6).<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|334}}
|*áine-ŋe-di
{|
|woman-DEMPROX-3PL.AD
|(6)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|334}}
|'*these woman'
|bé?e      
|lang=mva}}
|nára-ø  

|tágo
It is also acceptable to remove the [[head noun]], for instance in the [[comparative]] construction in Example (6).<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|334}}
|i-moatúbu
{{interlinear
|ŋa-e-ø
|number=(6)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|334}}
|i-moatubu-tína
|bé?e nára-∅ tágo i-moatúbu ŋa-e-∅ i-moatubu-tína
|-
|bag that-3SG.AD NEG 3SG.AD-be.heavy DEM-PROX-3SG.AD 3SG.RL-be.heavy-INT
|
|'This bag is heavier than that one' ({{lit|that bag is not heavy, this one is very heavy}})
|bag
|lang=mva}}
|that-3SG.AD
|NEG
|3SG.AD-be heavy
|DEM-PROX-3SG.AD
|3SG.RL-be heavy-INT
|-
|
| colspan="6" |‘This bag is heavier than that one’ (lit.: that bag is not heavy, this one is very heavy)
|}


==== Selective forms of proximal demonstratives ====
==== Selective forms of proximal demonstratives ====
A selective form can be derived from the proximal demonstrative (but not the distal demonstrative).<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|334}} It is formed by adding the suffix ''-ni'' after the proximal marker and before the adnominal suffix, as per Example (7) below, and indicates selection out of a set or group of options.
A selective form can be derived from the proximal demonstrative (but not the distal demonstrative).<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|334}} It is formed by adding the suffix {{lang|mva|-ni}} after the proximal marker and before the adnominal suffix, as per Example (7) below, and indicates selection out of a set or group of options.
{{interlinear
{|
|(7)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|334}}
|number=(7)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|334}}
|tabìra  
|tabìra ŋá-e-ni-∅ gó-do?-i
|dish DEM-PROX-SEL-3SG.AD 2SG.IR-take-3SG.OBJ
|ŋá-e-ni-ø
|'take this dish (from among several)'
|gó-do?-i
|lang=mva}}
|-

|
The selective suffix is optional and is used when it is necessary to express selection explicitly. If not, the basic demonstrative can be used.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|335}}
|dish
|DEM-PROX-SEL-3SG.AD
|2SG.IR-take-3SG.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="3" |‘take this dish (from among several)’
|}
The selective suffix is optional and is used when it is necessary to express selection explicitly. If not, the basic demonstrative can be used.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|335}}


==== Anaphoric usage ====
==== Anaphoric usage ====
Previous examples of the use of the demonstrative in Manam have been [[Exophora|exophoric]], referring to the world outside of the text. However, they can also be used [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphorically]], to reference something previously brought up by a speaker.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|335}} Although Example (8) below demonstrates that both the proximal and the distal demonstrative can be used anaphorically, the proximal demonstrative is used much more commonly than the distal in this manner.
Previous examples of the use of the demonstrative in Manam have been [[Exophora|exophoric]], referring to the world outside of the text. However, they can also be used [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphorically]], to reference something previously brought up by a speaker.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|335}} Although Example (8) below demonstrates that both the proximal and the distal demonstrative can be used anaphorically, the proximal demonstrative is used much more commonly than the distal in this manner.
{{interlinear
{|
|(8)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|336}}
|number=(8)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|336}}
|móare ŋe-∅ bó?ai di-alále ... ?ána ŋa-ra-∅ ?ába di-zalaóno-ø-di
|móare  
|Flower DEMPROX-3SG.AD thus 3PL.IR-go thing DEM-DIST-3SG.AD again 3PL-RL-block path-BEN-3PL.OBJ
|ŋe-ø
|'those flowers (mentioned earlier) floated like that... those things (i.e. the flowers) again blocked their way' ({{lit|blocked path on them}})
|bó?ai
|lang=mva}}
|di-alále
|...
|?ána
|ŋa-ra-ø
|?ába
|di-zalaóno-ø-di
|-
|
|Flower
|DEMPROX-3SG.AD
|thus
|3PL.IR-go
|
|thing
|DEM-DIST-3SG.AD
|again
|3PL-RL-block path-BEN-3PL.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="9" |‘those flowers (mentioned earlier) floated like that... those things (i.e. the flowers) again blocked their way (lit. blocked path on them)'
|}


===== Usage of the proximal demonstrative as a resumptive pro-form =====
===== Usage of the proximal demonstrative as a resumptive pro-form =====
A second anaphoric use of the proximal demonstrative in Manam is as a [[Resumptive pronoun|resumptive pro-form]].<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|452}} In this situation, the proximal demonstrative is used to sum up or resume discussing a topic that has already been spoken about. It can be used in reference to a topic discussed within the same sentence, or in an earlier sentence.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|453}} When it is used to reference a topic within one sentence, the resumptive pro-form will immediately follow it's [[Antecedent (grammar)|antecedent]] as in Example (9).
A second anaphoric use of the proximal demonstrative in Manam is as a [[Resumptive pronoun|resumptive pro-form]].<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|452}} In this situation, the proximal demonstrative is used to sum up or resume discussing a topic that has already been spoken about. It can be used in reference to a topic discussed within the same sentence, or in an earlier sentence.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|453}} When it is used to reference a topic within one sentence, the resumptive pro-form will immediately follow its [[Antecedent (grammar)|antecedent]] as in Example (9).
{{interlinear
{|
|(9)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|456}}
|number=(9)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|456}}
|péra ŋa-ra-∅-na-lo ŋe-∅ tamóata tágo té?e-∅ i-so?óa?i
|péra
|House DEM-DIST-3SG.AD-BF-in RESPRO-3SG.AD person NEG one-3SG.AD 3SG.IR-live
|ŋa-ra-ø-na-lo
|'nobody lives in that house' or 'as for that house, nobody lives in it'
|ŋe-ø
|lang=mva}}
|tamóata
|tágo
|té?e-ø
|i-so?óa?i
|-
|
|House
|DEM-DIST-3SG.AD-BF-in
|RESPRO-3SG.AD
|person
|NEG
|one-3SG.AD
|3SG.IR-live
|-
|
| colspan="7" |‘nobody lives in that house’ or ‘as for that house, nobody lives in it’
|}
When the proximal demonstrative is acting as a resumptive pro-form, it usually takes the from ''ŋe'' or ''-ŋe'' rather than ''ŋa-e''.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|454}} The singular form is also more common than the plural form. This can be seen in Example (10) where the singular form is used despite the pro-from referring to a group of items.
{|
|(10)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|454}}
|?àna
|moarúŋa
|?úsi
|silíŋgisi
|sakét
|tràusis
|páipo
|móita
|ási
|ŋe-ø
|?u-tóa?-i
|-
|
|thing
|all
|loincloth
|t-shirt
|jacket
|pants
|pipe
|knife
|bush knife
|RESPRO-3SG.AD
|2SG.RL-imitate-3SG.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="11" |‘(in) everything, loincloths t-shirts, jackets, pants, pipes, knives, bush knives, (in all) this it's her that you imitated’
|}
The resumptive pro-form can be used to reference a [[clause]] in order to indicate the time of a second clause, demonstrated by Example (11).<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|457}} It is also commonly used when a noun phrase is modified by a [[relative clause]], as can be seen in Example (12).
{|
|(11)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|460}}
|u-múle-ŋe
|píta
|ábe
|i-alále
|-
|
|1SG.RL-return-RESPRO
|P.
|already
|3SG.RL-go
|-
|
| colspan="4" |'when i came back, Pita had already left' i.e. ‘I came back; at this time Pita had already left’
|}
{|
|(12)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|460}}
|tamóata
|áine
|i-ra=ra-í-ŋe
|píta
|tágo
|i-?awát-a?-i
|-
|
|man
|woman
|3SG.RL-talk to-RPL-3SG.OBJ-RESPRO
|P.
|NEG
|3SG.IR-know-TRANS-3SG.OBJ
|-
|
| colspan="6" |‘Pita does not know the man who is talking to the woman’ i.e. 'As for the man who is talking to the woman, Pita does not know him'
|}
It is also often used when a sentence is [[Theme (linguistics)|thematised]], and can function similarly to a theme-marker even though it does not meet the requirements to be considered a thematiser.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|459}} In Example (13) below, '<nowiki/>''ziràpu n-m''<nowiki/>' ('''your mattress''<nowiki/>') is the theme.
{|
|(13)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|460}}
|zirápu
|n-m
|ŋe-ø
|fred
|òno
|i-en=èno
|-
|
|mattress
|POSS-2SG.AD
|RESPRO-3SG.AD
|F.
|OBL.PRO
|3SG.RL-RPL-sleep
|-
|
| colspan="6" |'As for your mattress, Fred sleeps on it.'
|}


When the proximal demonstrative is acting as a resumptive pro-form, it usually takes the from {{lang|mva|ŋe}} or {{lang|mva|-ŋe}} rather than {{lang|mva|ŋa-e}}.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|454}} The singular form is also more common than the plural form. This can be seen in Example (10) where the singular form is used despite the pro-from referring to a group of items.
== Directional System and Spatial Deixis ==
{{interlinear
Manam, like most Oceanic languages, primarily uses an absolute reference directional system, even on a local scale, (as opposed to many European languages which primarily use relative reference systems). This system is oriented on a land-sea axis.<ref>François, A. 2004. Reconstructing the geocentric system of Proto-Oceanic. ''Oceanic linguistics'', ''43''(1), 1-31.
|number=(10)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|454}}
</ref> However, Manam's system is unique because it has taken on a circular nature, becoming intrinsically linked to the geography of the island which is almost perfectly circular. Below are the directional terms associated in Manam:<ref name=":0">Lichtenberk, F. 1983. A grammar of Manam. ''Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications'', (18), i-647.</ref>
|?àna moarúŋa ?úsi silíŋgisi sakét tràusis páipo móita ási ŋe-∅ ?u-tóa?-i
{|
|thing all loincloth t-shirt jacket pants pipe knife bush.knife RESPRO-3SG.AD 2SG.RL-imitate-3SG.OBJ
|''Ilau''
|'(in) everything, loincloths t-shirts, jackets, pants, pipes, knives, bush knives, (in all) this it's her that you imitated'
|toward the sea
|lang=mva}}
|-

|''Auta''
The resumptive pro-form can be used to reference a [[clause]] in order to indicate the time of a second clause, demonstrated by Example (11).<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|457}} It is also commonly used when a noun phrase is modified by a [[relative clause]], as can be seen in Example (12).
|toward the land
{{interlinear
|-
|number=(11)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|460}}
|''Ata''
|u-múle-ŋe píta ábe i-alále
|to one's right when one is facing the sea
|1SG.RL-return-RESPRO P. already 3SG.RL-go
|-
|'when i came back, Pita had already left' i.e. 'I came back; at this time Pita had already left'
|''Awa''
|lang=mva}}
|to one's left when one is facing the sea

|}
{{interlinear
This directional system has only been attested in three languages: Manam, Boumaa Fijian,<ref>Dixon, R. M. W. 1988. ''A grammar of Boumaa Fijian''. University of Chicago Press.</ref> and Makian Taba.<ref>Bowden, J. 1997. The meaning of directionals in Taba. In Referring to space. Studies in Austronesian and Papuan languages, ed. by Gunter Senft, 251-268. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>
|number=(12)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|460}}
|tamóata áine i-ra{{=}}ra-í-ŋe píta tágo i-?awát-a?-i
|man woman 3SG.RL-talk.to-RPL-3SG.OBJ-RESPRO P. NEG 3SG.IR-know-TRANS-3SG.OBJ
|'Pita does not know the man who is talking to the woman' i.e. 'As for the man who is talking to the woman, Pita does not know him'
|lang=mva}}


It is also often used when a sentence is [[Theme (linguistics)|thematised]], and can function similarly to a theme-marker even though it does not meet the requirements to be considered a thematiser.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|459}} In Example (13) below, {{lang|mva|ziràpu n-m}} ('your mattress') is the theme.
The suffix -lo can be added to any of these terms to indicate movement towards that direction, as in Example (3).<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|460}} No suffix is needed to indicate movement away from a direction – this is inferred from the context of the sentence (contrast Examples (1) and (2) with Example (3)).
{{interlinear
|number=(13)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|460}}
|zirápu n-m ŋe-∅ fred òno i-en{{=}}èno
|mattress POSS-2SG.AD RESPRO-3SG.AD F. OBL.PRO 3SG.RL-RPL-sleep
|'As for your mattress, Fred sleeps on it.'
|lang=mva}}

== Directional system and spatial deixis ==
Manam, like most Oceanic languages, primarily uses an absolute reference directional system, even on a local scale, (as opposed to many European languages which primarily use relative reference systems). This system is oriented on a land-sea axis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=François |first=A. |year=2004 |title=Reconstructing the geocentric system of Proto-Oceanic |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00526846/file/AlexFrancois_GeocentricPOc_OL2004_Preprint.pdf |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1353/ol.2004.0009}}</ref> However, Manam's system is unique because it has taken on a circular nature, becoming intrinsically linked to the geography of the island which is almost perfectly circular. Below are the directional terms associated in Manam:<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983">{{Cite book |last=Lichtenberk |first=Frantisek |url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofmanam0000lich/page/n3/mode/2up |title=A grammar of Manam |publisher=University of Hawaii |year=1983 |isbn=0-8248-0764-2 |series=Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications |volume=18 |location=Honolulu |url-access=registration}}</ref>
{|
{|
|{{lang|mva|Ilau}}
|(1)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|593}}
|'toward the sea'
|áta
|i-sòa?i
|-
|-
|{{lang|mva|Auta}}
|
|'toward the land'
|ata
|3SG.RL-be located
|-
|-
|{{lang|mva|Ata}}
|
| colspan="2" |'He is in the ata direction'
|'to one's right when one is facing the sea'
|}
{|
|(2)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|593}}
|áwa
|1.     i-rà?e
|-
|-
|{{lang|mva|Awa}}
|
|'to one's left when one is facing the sea'
|awa
|3SG.RL-go up
|-
|
| colspan="2" |'He went from awa direction'
|}
{|
|(3)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|593}}
|aúta-lo
|i-òro
|-
|
|auta-in
|3SG.RL-go inland
|-
|
| colspan="2" |'He went in auta direction'
|}
|}
This directional system has only been attested in four languages: Manam, [[Boumaa Fijian]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dixon |first=R. M. W. |title=A grammar of Boumaa Fijian |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1988 |isbn=9780226154299}}</ref> [[Taba language|Taba]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowden |first=John |title=Referring to space: Studies in Austronesian and Papuan languages |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780198236474 |editor-last=Senft |editor-first=Gunter |series=Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics |location=Oxford |pages=251–268 |chapter=The meaning of directionals in Taba |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198236474.003.0011}}</ref> and [[Savosavo language|Savosavo]].<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Wegener |first=Claudia |title=A Grammar of Savosavo, a Papuan Language of the Solomon Islands |degree=PhD |publisher=Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen |year=2008}}</ref>

The suffix {{lang|mva|-lo}} can be added to any of these terms to indicate movement towards that direction, as in Example (3).<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|460}} No suffix is needed to indicate movement away from a direction – this is inferred from the context of the sentence (contrast Examples (1) and (2) with Example (3)).
{{interlinear
|number=(1)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|593}}
|áta i-sòa?i
|ata 3SG.RL-be.located
|'He is in the {{lang|mva|ata}} direction'
|lang=mva}}

{{interlinear
|number=(2)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|593}}
|áwa i-rà?e
|awa 3SG.RL-go.up
|'He went from {{lang|mva|awa}} direction'
|lang=mva}}

{{interlinear
|number=(3)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|593}}
|aúta-lo i-òro
|auta-in 3SG.RL-go.inland
|'He went in {{lang|mva|auta}} direction'
|lang=mva}}

=== Spatial deixis ===
[[Spatial deixis]] describes how speakers can 'point out' the location of an object in relationship to their own position.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cairns |first=Barbara |date=2009-12-10 |title=Spatial Deixis - The Use of Spatial Co-ordinates in Spoken Language |url=https://journals.lub.lu.se/LWPL/article/view/2568 |journal=Working Papers, Lund University, Department of Linguistics and Phonetics |volume=38 |pages=19–28}}</ref> Manam has two main spatial deictical terms.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|573}}  These are {{lang|mva|ma?a}} ('here') and {{lang|mva|ma?a-ra}} ('there'). {{lang|mva|Ma?a-ra}} is constructed by suffixing the distal marker {{lang|mva|-ra}} to {{lang|mva|ma?a}}. These two terms are used regardless of which direction the speaker is indicating.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|573}} If it is necessary to specify direction, this can be done by adding the directional term after the deictical term,<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|576}} as is done in Example (4).
{{interlinear
|number=(4)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|593}}
|nátu má?ara iláu i-sóa?i
|Child there ilau 3SG.RL-be.located
|'the child is there (in {{lang|mva|ilau}} direction)'
|lang=mva}}


Manam has three additional spatial deixis, which are used to specify spatial relationships in a specific direction.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|574}} These terms refer to the land-sea directional system described above, and are listed below:<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|573}}
=== Spacial Deixis ===
[[Spatial deixis]] describes how speakers can ‘point out’ the location of an object in relationship to their own position<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cairns|first=Barbara|date=2009-12-10|title=Spatial Deixis - The Use of Spatial Co-ordinates in Spoken Language|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277828012_Spatial_Deixis_-_The_Use_of_Spatial_Co-ordinates_in_Spoken_Language|journal=Lund University, Dept. of Linguistics; Working Papers|volume=38|pages=19–28|via=ResearchGate}}</ref>''.'' Manam has two main spatial deictical terms.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|573}}  These are ''ma?a'' (‘''here''’) and ''ma?a-ra'' (‘''there''’). ''Ma?a-ra'' is constructed by suffixing the distal marker ''-ra'' to ''ma?a''. These two terms are used regardless of which direction the speaker is indicating.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|573}} If it is necessary to specify direction, this can be done by adding the directional term after the deictical term,<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|576}} as is done in Example (4).
{|
{|
|{{lang|mva|Elau}}
|(4)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|593}}
|'over there in {{lang|mva|ilau}} direction'
|nátu
|má?ara
|iláu
|i-sóa?i
|-
|-
|{{lang|mva|Eta}}
|
|'over there in {{lang|mva|auta}} direction'
|Child
|there
|ilau
|3SG.RL-be located
|-
|
| colspan="4" |‘the child is there (in ilau direction)'
|}
Manam has three additional spatial deixis, which are used to specify spatial relationships in a specific direction.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|574}} These terms refer to the land-sea directional system described above, and are listed below:<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|573}}
{|
!Elau
|''‘over there in ilau direction’''
|-
!Eta
|‘over there in auta direction’
|-
|-
|{{lang|mva|Ene}}
!Ene
|‘over there in ata or awa direction’
|'over there in {{lang|mva|ata}} or {{lang|mva|awa}} direction'
|}
|}
Interestingly, unlike Manam’s two-way distinction for demonstratives, these directional spatial deictical terms show the same three-way distinction that was reconstructed for Proto-Oceanic (POc).<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|72}}  To indicate an intermediate distance, the distal suffix ''-ra'' can be added to each directional spacial deictic. If the object described is so far away as to be out of sight, the spatial diectical term can be combined with a directional term to indicate extreme distance.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|574}} This is illustrated in the table below:<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|575}}
Interestingly, unlike Manam's two-way distinction for demonstratives, these directional spatial deictical terms show the same three-way distinction that was reconstructed for Proto-Oceanic (POc).<ref name="Lynch_2001" />{{Rp|72}}  To indicate an intermediate distance, the distal suffix {{lang|mva|-ra}} can be added to each directional spatial deictic. If the object described is so far away as to be out of sight, the spatial dialectical term can be combined with a directional term to indicate extreme distance.<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|574}} This is illustrated in the table below:<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|575}}
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
Line 1,420: Line 980:
!Greatest distance
!Greatest distance
|-
|-
!Ilau direction
!{{lang|mva|Ilau}} direction
|Elau
|{{lang|mva|Elau}}
|Elaura
|{{lang|mva|Elaura}}
|Elau + Ilau = Elelau
|{{lang|mva|Elau}} + {{lang|mva|Ilau}} = {{lang|mva|Elelau}}
|-
|-
!Auta direction
!{{lang|mva|Auta}} direction
|Eta
|{{lang|mva|Eta}}
|Etara
|{{lang|mva|Etara}}
|Eta + Auta = Etauta
|{{lang|mva|Eta}} + {{lang|mva|Auta}} = {{lang|mva|Etauta}}
|-
|-
!Ata direction
!{{lang|mva|Ata}} direction
|Ene
|{{lang|mva|Ene}}
|Enera
|{{lang|mva|Enera}}
|Ene + Ata = Enata
|{{lang|mva|Ene}} + {{lang|mva|Ata}} = {{lang|mva|Enata}}
|-
|-
!Awa direction
!{{lang|mva|Awa}} direction
|Ene
|{{lang|mva|Ene}}
|Enera
|{{lang|mva|Enera}}
|Ene + Awa = Enawa
|{{lang|mva|Ene}} + {{lang|mva|Awa}} = {{lang|mva|Enawa}}
|}
Similar to directional terms, to indicate movement towards the most distant directional spatial diectical terms, the suffix -lo is added as in Example (5). For the less distant terms, no affix is needed, illustrated by Example (6).
{|
|(5)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|576}}
|ene-tu?a-tína
|i-sóa?i
|-
|
|over there-INT-INT
|3SG.RL-be located
|-
|
| colspan="2" |‘he is way over there (in ata or awa direction)'
|}
{|
|(6)<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|576}}
|i-alále
|enáwa-lo
|?ába
|i-múle
|enáta-lo
|-
|
|3SG.RL-go
|far over there-to
|again
|3SG.RL-return
|far over there-to
|-
|
| colspan="5" |'he went long way over there (in awa direction) then (again) went back long way over there (in ata direction)'
|}
|}
Similar to directional terms, to indicate movement towards the most distant directional spatial dialectical terms, the suffix {{lang|mva|-lo}} is added as in Example (5). For the less distant terms, no affix is needed, illustrated by Example (6).
{{interlinear
|number=(5)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|576}}
|ene-tu?a-tína i-sóa?i
|over.there-INT-INT 3SG.RL-be.located
|'he is way over there (in {{lang|mva|ata}} or {{lang|mva|awa}} direction)'
|lang=mva}}

{{interlinear
|number=(6)<ref name="Lichtenberk_1983" />{{Rp|576}}
|i-alále enáwa-lo ?ába i-múle enáta-lo
|3SG.RL-go far.over.there-to again 3SG.RL-return far.over.there-to
|'he went long way over there (in {{lang|mva|awa}} direction) then (again) went back long way over there (in {{lang|mva|ata}} direction)'
|lang=mva}}


== Abbreviations ==
== Abbreviations ==
<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
AD:adnominal
BF:buffer
DEMPROX:proximal demonstrative
DL:dual
EXC:exclusive
FOOD:edible
INIR:indefinite irrealis
IP:independent pronoun
IR:irregular
LIM:limiter
PROX:proximte
RESPRO:resumptive pro-form
RP:reflexive-possessive
RL:realis
RPL:reduplication
SEL:selective
SIM:simulative
TC:transitive consonant
TRANS:transitiviser
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|AD
|AD
Line 1,549: Line 1,114:


{{North New Guinea languages}}
{{North New Guinea languages}}
{{Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages}}
{{Languages of Papua New Guinea}}
{{Languages of Papua New Guinea}}


Latest revision as of 11:10, 17 December 2024

Manam
RegionNorthern New Guinea
Native speakers
8,000 (2003)[1]
Language codes
ISO 639-3mva
Glottologmana1295
ELPManam
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Manam is a Kairiru–Manam language spoken mainly on the volcanic Manam Island, northeast of New Guinea.

Phonology

[edit]

Vowels

[edit]
Front Central Back
High i u
Mid e o
Low a

Consonants

[edit]
Bilabial Alveolar Velar
Stop p b t d k ~ ʔ ~ q ɡ
Nasal m n ŋ
Fricative (t)s (d)z
Lateral l
Flap ɾ ~ r

Allophony

[edit]

Some vowels become glides in diphthongs, e.g. /u/, /o/ > [w] and /i/, /e/ > [j]. /i/ and /u/ are 'weaker' than /e/ and /o/, so that the syllable /kuo/ becomes [kwo] and not *[kuw]

According to Turner, /k/ is more and more often realized as [ʔ], while some older speakers have [q].

Syllable structure

[edit]

The Manam syllable is (C)(V1)V(V1)(C1), the only exception is a syllabic [m̩].

There are some phonotactic restrictions on the prevalent syllable structure. E.g. V1 cannot be [a], whereas V must be [a] as long as it is not the syllable's sole vowel. C can be any consonant, whereas C1 must be a nasal consonant.

Stress

[edit]

Stress is phonemic: /ˈsara/ 'palm tree', /saˈra/ 'seagull'. The stress falls on one of the three last syllables of a word, and stressing the penult syllable is the most common: /ˈnatu/ 'child', /maˈlipi/ 'work'. If the last syllable ends in a nasal consonant, it will be stressed instead: /naˈtum/ 'your child'. Some inflections and affixes do not alter the stress of the root word: /iˈto/ 'he learned' (i- is a 3rd person prefix), /siˈŋabalo/ 'in the bush' (-lo is a locative suffix).

In the orthography, stressed vowels can be underlined in order to avoid ambiguities. Ie. /ˈsara/ ⟨sara⟩ 'palm tree', /saˈra/ ⟨sara⟩ 'seagull'.

Syntax

[edit]

Word order

[edit]

The basic, unmarked word order in Manam is SOV:

tamoata

man

boro

pig

i-un-i

3SG.SUB-hit-3SG.OBJ

tamoata boro i-un-i

man pig 3SG.SUB-hit-3SG.OBJ

'The man hit the pig.'

Predicator

[edit]

Lichtenberk defines the predicator as the primary element within a clause.[2]: 92  The predicator of a Manam clause can be realised in a variety of different ways, such as verb phrases Ex. (1), noun phrases Ex. (2), postpositional phrases Ex. (3), numbers Ex. (4), etc.[2]: 93 

Ex. (1): verb phrase predicator[2]: 94 

(1)

natu

child

masa

INIR

ŋa-eno

3SG.IRR-sleep

natu masa ŋa-eno

child INIR 3SG.IRR-sleep

'the child will sleep'

Ex. (2): noun phrase predicator[2]: 94 

(2)

aine

woman

ene

over

i-tui=tui

3SG.IRR-stand-RPL

tina-gu

mother-1SG.AD

aine ene i-tui=tui tina-gu

woman over 3SG.IRR-stand-RPL mother-1SG.AD

'the woman who is standing over there is my mother'

Ex. (3): postpositional phrase predicator[2]: 94 

(3)

tamoata

man

ŋe-ø

this-3SG.AD

paŋana-ø

head-3SG.AD

patu

stone

boʔana

SIM

tamoata ŋe-ø paŋana-ø patu boʔana

man this-3SG.AD head-3SG.AD stone SIM

'this man's head is like a stone' i.e. 'this man is stubborn as a mule'

Ex. (4): numeral predicator[2]: 94 

(4)

boro

pig

ne-gu

POSS-1SG.AD

wati

four

boro ne-gu wati

pig POSS-1SG.AD four

'I have four pigs' (lit. 'my pigs are four')

Negation

[edit]

Negation in Manam is primarily expressed using one of two negative markers: moaʔi and tago. moaʔi is used exclusively in direct speech prohibitions; whilst tago is used for all other cases.[2]: 384 

Scope of negation

[edit]

The use of tago is primarily categorised by its scope of negation, which further indicates the focus of the clause. The spectrum of scope runs from negating one or more elements within a single clause, to negating an entire clause. The concept of scope of negation can be demonstrated in English: 'I did not go to the party' is an example of a broad scope of negation, i.e. the verb phrase (VP) is negated; therefore, the act of going to the party is negated; 'not one person went to the party' is an example of a narrow scope of negation, i.e. the subject is negated, not the act of going to the party.

Broad scope

[edit]

A broad scope of negation is expressed in Manam by negating the predicator—this is done so by placing the negative marker tago before the predicator,[2]: 385  as demonstrated in the following examples:

Ex. (5): broad scope negation–1 element[2]: 385 

(5)

tago

NEG

u-loŋo

1SG.REAL-hear

tago u-loŋo

NEG 1SG.REAL-hear

'I did not hear'

Ex. (6): broad scope negation–2 elements[2]: 385 

(6)

tamoata

man

tago

NEG

ŋa-te-a

3SG.IRR-see-1SG.OBJ

tamoata tago ŋa-te-a

man NEG 3SG.IRR-see-1SG.OBJ

'the man will not see me'

Ex. (7): broad scope negation–3 elements[2]: 385 

(7)

baʔaraʔa

why

nora

yesterday

tago

NEG

ʔu-pura?

2SG.REAL-come

baʔaraʔa nora tago ʔu-pura?

why yesterday NEG 2SG.REAL-come

'why didn't you come yesterday?'

Additionally, the negative marker tago can also function as a predicator of existential and possessive clauses.[2]: 387  Compare the following examples:

Ex. (8): negative existential sentence[2]: 387 

(8)

ewa

fire

tago

NEG

ewa tago

fire NEG

'there is no fire'

Ex. (9): negative possessive sentence[2]: 387 

(9)

mone

money

ne-gu

POSS-1SG

tago

NEG

mone ne-gu tago

money POSS-1SG NEG

'I have no money'

Narrow scope

[edit]

As a general rule, Manam primarily expresses narrow scope negation by placing tago before the element which is being negated i.e. the object of focused negation within the clause.

Ex. (10): narrow scope negation[2]: 387 

(10)

ŋai

3SG.IP

tago

NEG

toʔa-ø

older.brother-3SG.AD

di-pura-budu-ru

3PL.REAL-come-together-DL

ŋai tago toʔa-ø di-pura-budu-ru

3SG.IP NEG older.brother-3SG.AD 3PL.REAL-come-together-DL

'he came without his brother'

In example (10), it is not the act of coming that is being negated; rather the negation is narrowly focused in negating the presence of the brother.

Ex. (11): narrow scope negation[2]: 387 

(11)

tago

NEG

ara-ø-n-oti

name-3SG.AD-BF-INSTR

i-ʔila-i

3SG.REAL-call-3SG.OBJ

tago ara-ø-n-oti i-ʔila-i

NEG name-3SG.AD-BF-INSTR 3SG.REAL-call-3SG.OBJ

'he did not call him by his name' (i.e. he called him not by his name but by some other name)

Similarly, in example (11), it is not the act of calling one's name that is being negated, rather the negation focuses the fact that someone was called, but by some other name that was not their own.

Negative quantifiers

[edit]

Additionally, the negative marker tago can be used in conjunction with the quantifiers teʔe 'one' and alu 'some' to produce the negative expressions, tago teʔe 'no, not any' and tago alu 'no, not any'.[2]: 386  These expressions function as attributes within the noun phrases that they modify, as seen in the following examples (NP are enclosed within brackets):

Ex. (12): negation using tago teʔe[2]: 386 

(12)

ŋau

1SG.IP

[ʔana

thing

tago

NEG

teʔe-ø]

one-3SG.AD

u-te-ø

1SG.REAL-see-3SG.OBJ

ŋau [ʔana tago teʔe-ø] u-te-ø

1SG.IP thing NEG one-3SG.AD 1SG.REAL-see-3SG.OBJ

'I did not see anything' (lit. 'I saw not one thing')

Ex. (13): negation using tago teʔe[2]: 386 

(13)

[tamoata

person

tago

NEG

teʔe-ø]

one-3SG.AD

taun-lo

town-to

i-laʔo

3SG.REAL-go

[tamoata tago teʔe-ø] taun-lo i-laʔo

person NEG one-3SG.AD town-to 3SG.REAL-go

'no one went to town' (lit. 'not one person went to town')

More specifically, tago alu is used to modify noun phrases whose head are mass nouns; tago teʔe comparatively modifies count nouns.[2]: 386  Compare the following two examples:

Ex. (14): negative quantifier mass noun[2]: 386 

(14)

[daŋ

water

tago

NEG

alu-ø]

one-3SG.AD

di-eno

3PL.REAL-exist

[daŋ tago alu-ø] di-eno

water NEG one-3SG.AD 3PL.REAL-exist

'there is no water' (lit. 'not some water exists')

Ex. (15): negative quantifier count noun[2]: 386 

(15)

[daŋ

water

tago

NEG

teʔe-ø]

some-3SG.AD

di-eno

3PL.REAL-exist

[daŋ tago teʔe-ø] di-eno

water NEG some-3SG.AD 3PL.REAL-exist

'there is no (containerful) of water'

Intensified negation

[edit]

Negation in Manam can be intensified by appending the buffer element –na and the intensifier suffix –tina to tago,[2]: 388  as seen in the following example:

Ex. (16): intensifier suffix[2]: 389 

(16)

ŋai

3SG.IP

tago-ø-na-tina

NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT

i-pile=pile

3SG.REAL-speak-RPL

ŋai tago-ø-na-tina i-pile=pile

3SG.IP NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT 3SG.REAL-speak-RPL

'he does not speak at all'

The buffer element –na, however, is not included when tago acts as the predicator of a clause,[2]: 388  as seen in the following example:

Ex. (17): intensified predicator[2]: 389 

(17)

ŋau

1SG.IP

bua

betelnut

tago-tina

NEG-INT

ŋau bua tago-tina

1SG.IP betelnut NEG-INT

'I have no betelnuts at all'

Additionally, negation in Manam can be intensified using sesu 'little',[2]: 389  as seen in the following example:

Ex. (18): intensifier sesu[2]: 389 

(18)

tamoata-ŋe

man-this

tago

NEG

sesu

little

u-tea=te-ø

1SG.REAL-RPL-see-3SG.OBJ

tamoata-ŋe tago sesu u-tea=te-ø

man-this NEG little 1SG.REAL-RPL-see-3SG.OBJ

'I don't visit (see) this man at all'

Moreover, sesu 'little' can be used in conjunction with –tina within the same clause, as seen in the following example:[2]: 388 

Ex. (19): intensifier sesu + suffix –tina[2]: 389 

(19)

tago-ø-na-tina

NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT

sesu

little

di-ra=raŋ-aʔ-idi

3PL.REAL-talk.about-RPL-TRANS-3PL.OBJ

tago-ø-na-tina sesu di-ra=raŋ-aʔ-idi

NEG-3SG.AD-BF-INT little 3PL.REAL-talk.about-RPL-TRANS-3PL.OBJ

'they do not talk about themselves at all'

Furthermore, the suffix –tina may be appended to the prohibitive marker moaʔi (with the presence of the buffer –na),[2]: 419  as seen in the following example:

Ex. (20): suffix –tina + prohibitive marker moaʔi[2]: 340 

(20)

moaʔi-ø-na-tina

PROH-3SG.AD-BF-INT

niu-be

coconut-and

ʔulu

breadfruit

ʔu-buiriʔapotaʔ-i

2SG.REAL-mix-3PL.OBJ

moaʔi-ø-na-tina niu-be ʔulu ʔu-buiriʔapotaʔ-i

PROH-3SG.AD-BF-INT coconut-and breadfruit 2SG.REAL-mix-3PL.OBJ

'don't mix the coconuts and the breadfruit'

Prohibitions

[edit]

Manam expresses prohibitions in two basic ways: using finite verbs—defined as verb (phrase) forms that can occur on their own in a main clause;[3]: 183  using gerunds and verbal nouns. Lichtenberk defines gerunds as verb nuclei used to indicate 'non-specific' events, whereas verbal nouns are used to indicate ‘specific’ events.[2]: 243–244  Compare the following examples:

Ex. (21): gerund[2]: 244 

(21)

udi

banana

tano-ø

plant-3PL.OBJ

tago

NEG

u-ʔawa

1SG.REAL-know

udi tano-ø tago u-ʔawa

banana plant-3PL.OBJ NEG 1SG.REAL-know

'I don't know how to plant bananas' (in general)

Ex. (22): verbal noun[2]: 244 

(22)

udi

banana

tanom-a-di

plant-NOM-3PL.AD

tago

NEG

u-ʔawa

1SG.REAL-know

udi tanom-a-di tago u-ʔawa

banana plant-NOM-3PL.AD NEG 1SG.REAL-know

'I don't know to plant the bananas' (specific bananas)

Prohibitive constructions with finite verbs

[edit]

The basic structure of prohibitive constructions using finite verbs is moaʔi followed by a verb with a realis subject/mood prefix,[2]: 438  as seen in the following examples:

Ex. (23): prohibitive construction finite verb[2]: 418 

(23)

moaʔi

PROH

ʔu-pereʔ-i

2SG.REAL-lose-3SG.OBJ

moaʔi ʔu-pereʔ-i

PROH 2SG.REAL-lose-3SG.OBJ

'don't lose it'

Ex. (24): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ subject NP[2]: 419 

(24)

ŋai

3SG.IP

moaʔi

PROH

i-raʔe-i

3SG.REAL-put.up-3SG.OBJ

ŋai moaʔi i-raʔe-i

3SG.IP PROH 3SG.REAL-put.up-3SG.OBJ

'he should not boast' (lit. 'he should not put himself up')

Ex. (25): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ direct object NP[2]: 419 

(25)

botolo

bottle

moapesa-di

broken-3PL.AD

moaʔi

PROH

ʔu-roʔaʔ-i-ramo

2SG.REAL-throw-3PL.OBJ-all

botolo moapesa-di moaʔi ʔu-roʔaʔ-i-ramo

bottle broken-3PL.AD PROH 2SG.REAL-throw-3PL.OBJ-all

'don't throw broken bottles around!'

Sometimes, however—the subject or direct object NP may occur between moaʔi and the verb,[2]: 419  as in the following example:

Ex. (26): prohibitive construction finite verb[2]: 419 

(26)

moaʔi

PROH

taburi-miŋ

fear-2PL.AD

di-raya

3PL.REAL-be.bad

moaʔi taburi-miŋ di-raya

PROH fear-2PL.AD 3PL.REAL-be.bad

'don't be afraid!' (lit. 'your fear should not be bad')

Prohibitive constructions with gerunds and verbal nouns

[edit]

Prohibitive constructions using gerunds or verbal nouns are formed by placing the prohibitive/negative marker moaʔi after the gerund or verbal noun,[2]: 420  demonstrated in the following example:

Ex. (27): prohibitive construction using gerund/verbal noun[2]: 421 

(27)

taŋ

cry

moaʔi

PROH

taŋ moaʔi

cry PROH

'don't cry' / 'we/they/... should not cry'

: 412 The distinction between using a gerund or a verbal noun is determined by whether the source verb is transitive (verbal noun) or intransitive (gerund).[2]: 420 

Additionally, the form raʔania 'never mind' may also be used in forming prohibitive constructions using gerunds and verbal nouns. The location of raʔania within the clause is more dynamic than the prohibitive/negative marker moaʔi, as raʔania may occur both following or preceding the verbal noun or gerund.: 420 [2] Compare the following two examples:

Ex. (28): prohibitive construction using raʔania (following)[2]: 412 

(28)

misaʔa

smack.lips

raʔania

never.mind

misaʔa raʔania

smack.lips never.mind

'stop smacking your lips!'

Ex. (29): prohibitive construction using raʔania (preceding)[2]

(29)

raʔania

never.mind

soaʔi-baya

sit-LIM

raʔania soaʔi-baya

never.mind sit-LIM

'you/we/... should not be just sitting doing nothing'

Indirect prohibitive constructions

[edit]

The negative marker tago is used when expressing prohibitions in indirect speech[2]: 422 —its behaviour is identical as in its regular usage: tago is placed before the element which is being negated, as seen in the following example:

Ex. (30): indirect prohibitive construction[2]: 422 

(30)

di

3PL.RP

tago

NEG

ga-taga-di

EXC.IRR-follow-3PL.OBJ

ʔana

PROSP

di-ra-ʔama

3PL.REAL-talk.to-EXC.OBJ

di tago ga-taga-di ʔana di-ra-ʔama

3PL.RP NEG EXC.IRR-follow-3PL.OBJ PROSP 3PL.REAL-talk.to-EXC.OBJ

'they told us not to follow them' (lit. 'we were/are not going to follow them; they told us')

Morphology

[edit]

Number

[edit]

Manam has an unusual, though regionally common, four-way distinction between singular, dual, paucal, and plural number. Singular and plural are marked on the verb and sometimes on the adjective, but not on the noun.

Pronouns

[edit]
Person Number
Singular Dual Paucal Plural
1st Inclusive kitaru kitato kita
Exclusive ngau
nga 		keru keto keka
2nd kaiko
kai 		kamru kamto kam
kakaming
3rd ngai diaru diato di

Reduplication

[edit]

Reduplication can be either leftward (sa-salaga) or rightward (salaga-laga). There is no point in distinguishing 'partial' and 'total' reduplication, since at most two syllables are reduplicated.

Nouns

[edit]

Rightwards reduplicated nouns can either take on a meaning related to the original word, or function as an agentive marker:

moata snake
moata-moata worm
malipi the work
malipi-lipi worker

Adjectives

[edit]

Here are two examples of how number can be marked on the adjective through the different kinds of reduplication:

Rightward reduplication (singular)

udi noka-noka ripe banana
tamoata bia-bia the big man

Leftward reduplication (plural)

udi no-noka ripe bananas
tamoata bi-bia the big men

Verb aspects

[edit]

The verb

[edit]

The verb always marks the subject and the mood; these are fused together. Optional suffixes include such things as object, direction, aspectual markers, benefactive and various kinds of intensifiers and quantifiers. Here is a schematical overview of the Manam verb:

Outer prefixes Verb nucleus Outer suffixes
Inner prefixes Root Inner suffixes
Subject/mood marking Manner prefix
aka- transitive 		Verb root -ak- transitive Object marking
Optional suffixes

Subject marking

[edit]

The marking of subject is obligatory. In addition to expressing number and person, the pronouns have fused with the mood markers (see below) called realis and irrealis.

Person Singular Plural
Real Irr Real Irr
1st Inclusive ta-
Exclusive u- m- ki- ga-
2nd ku- go- ka- kama-
3rd i- nga- di- da-

Mood

[edit]

The realis mood (REAL) is used for actual events of the past or present, i.e. things that are certain to have happened, things that are "real". Accordingly, the irrealis (IRR) mood describes anticipated events in the future, or events that the speaker wishes were real.

ura

rain

nga-pura

3SG.IRR-come

ura nga-pura

rain 3SG.IRR-come

'it will rain'

u-noku

1SG.REAL-jump

u-noku

1SG.REAL-jump

'I jumped'

nga-pile

3SG.IRR-say

i-bebe

3SG.REAL-unable

nga-pile i-bebe

3SG.IRR-say 3SG.REAL-unable

'he will say that he is unable' (he still hasn't said anything, but when he does, his inability will be stated as actual)

tama-gu

father-1SG.POSS

i-rere

3SG.REAL-want

zama

tomorrow

go-pura

2SG.IRR-come

tama-gu i-rere zama go-pura

father-1SG.POSS 3SG.REAL-want tomorrow 2SG.IRR-come

'my father wants you to come tomorrow' (the father's wanting is real, whereas the anticipated coming is still unreal)

Manner prefixes

[edit]

Manner prefixes are found between the subject/mood marker and the verb root. The manner prefixes describe in what manner the verb action was done, such as 'biting', 'cutting', 'throwing' etc.

boro

pig

u-tara-paka-i

1SG.REAL-spearing-miss-3SG.OBJ

boro u-tara-paka-i

pig 1SG.REAL-spearing-miss-3SG.OBJ

'I speared at the pig but missed it'

Object marking

[edit]
Person Singular Plural
1st Inclusive -kita
Exclusive -a -kama
2nd -(i)ko -kaming
3rd -i -di
-Ø

mi-ang-ko

1SG.IRR-give-2SG.OBJ

mi-ang-ko

1SG.IRR-give-2SG.OBJ

'I will give (it) to you'

niu

coconut

u-sing-Ø

1SG.REAL-drink-3SG.OBJ

niu u-sing-Ø

coconut 1SG.REAL-drink-3SG.OBJ

'I drank a coconut'

go-ang-kama

2SG.IRR-give-EXCL

go-ang-kama

2SG.IRR-give-EXCL

'give it to us'

Transitivization

[edit]

There are three different morphologically overt methods for turning intransitive verbs into transitive ones:

  • The prefix -aka- can occur between the person/mood marker and the verb root.
  • The suffix -ka- can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.
  • The so-called "transitive consonant" (TC) can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.

These methods can be combined.

dang

water

i-aka-gita-i

3SG.REAL-TRANS-be.hot-3SG.OBJ

dang i-aka-gita-i

water 3SG.REAL-TRANS-be.hot-3SG.OBJ

'he heated the water'

aka-tukura--ng-ak-i

TRANS-be.short-TC-TRANS-3SG.OBJ

aka-tukura--ng-ak-i

TRANS-be.short-TC-TRANS-3SG.OBJ

'to shorten it'

Optional suffixes

[edit]

The object suffixes are also optional, but rather common. Here are a few examples of some of the more unusual suffix types:

Direction

go-dok-a-mai

2SG.IRR-bring-3SG.OBJ-hither

go-dok-a-mai

2SG.IRR-bring-3SG.OBJ-hither

'bring it here'

Spreading

pipia

rubbish

i-rokaki-ramoi

3SG.REAL-throw_away-all_over

pipia i-rokaki-ramoi

rubbish 3SG.REAL-throw_away-all_over

'he throws rubbish all over the place'

Intensifying

u-rere-tina

1SG.REAL-like-very

u-rere-tina

1SG.REAL-like-very

'I like it very much'

Benefactive

go-moasi-n-a

2SG.IRR-sing-BEN-1SG.OBJ

go-moasi-n-a

2SG.IRR-sing-BEN-1SG.OBJ

'sing for me'

Adjectives

[edit]

Most adjectives are derived by reduplication from a verb or a noun. As seen above, some reduplicated adjectives have a number distinction, but some others do not, e.g. siki-siki 'small' (singular and plural). Some adjectives use the possessive pronouns to mark person and number, e.g. kapisa-Ø 'selfish' (singular) and kapisa-di 'selfish' (plural).

Possession

[edit]

As in many other Austronesian languages Manam expresses different degrees of possession. In addition to the most common differentiation between alienable and inalienable possession, Manam uses a particular morphological processes to describe belongings that are edible or associated with eating.

Possessive pronouns

[edit]
Person Number
Singular Dual Paucal Plural
1st Inclusive -da-ru -da-to -da
Exclusive -gu -ma-i-ru -ma-i-to -ma
2nd -m / -ng -ming-ru -ming-to -ming
3rd -Ø -di-a-ru -di-a-to -di

Inalienable possession

[edit]

In this class are 'belongings' that are involuntary, such as body parts, family members and different kinds of necessary 'parts of a whole'. This class is characterized by simply a possessive suffix attached to the word in question:

mata-gu

eye-1SG.POSS

mata-gu

eye-1SG.POSS

'my eye'

niu

coconut

labu-di

base-3PL.POSS

niu labu-di

coconut base-3PL.POSS

'the bases of the coconut trees'

Edible possession

[edit]

In this class are things that are edible and 'used to obtain, prepare or store food'. This class is characterized by the word kana, which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:

udi

banana

kana-gu

FOOD-1SG.POSS

udi kana-gu

banana FOOD-1SG.POSS

'my banana'

Alienable possession

[edit]

In this class are belongings that are voluntary; things that one can cease to own, unlike body parts or family. This class is characterized by the word ne, which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:

kati

canoe

ne-gu

ALIEN-1SG.POSS

kati ne-gu

canoe ALIEN-1SG.POSS

'my canoe'

natu

child

keu

dog

ne-di

ALIEN-3PL.POSS

natu keu ne-di

child dog ALIEN-3PL.POSS

'the children's dogs'

Cross-class possession

[edit]

One notable aspect is that the same word can occur in all three possession classes, and then of course its meaning will differ. Here are two examples:

    boro-gu 'my pig' (as part of one's wealth)
    boro kana-gu 'my pork' (which I am going to eat)
    boro ne-gu 'my pig' (which I may or may not eat later)
    dang-i-gu 'my water' (or rather 'body fluids')
    dang kana-gu 'my water' (to drink)
    dang ne-gu 'my water' (to wash with)

Demonstratives

[edit]

Manam has two kinds of demonstratives.[2]: 331  This two-way system distinguishes between proximal demonstratives, which indicate proximity to a speaker, and distal demonstratives, which indicate distance from a speaker. Both demonstratives occur after the noun phrase. They are formed from the demonstrative marker ŋa, followed by either the proximal suffix -e or the distal marker -ra, followed by either the third-person singular marker -∅ or the third-person plural marker -di as shown in the table[2]: 331  below:

Proximal Distal
Singular

ŋa-e-∅

DEM-PROX-3SG.AD

ŋa-e-∅

DEM-PROX-3SG.AD

'this'

ŋa-ra-∅

DEM-DIST-3SG.AD

ŋa-ra-∅

DEM-DIST-3SG.AD

'that'

Plural

ŋa-e-di

DEM-PROX-3PL.AD

ŋa-e-di

DEM-PROX-3PL.AD

'these'

ŋa-ra-di

DEM-DIST-3PL.AD

ŋa-ra-di

DEM-DIST-3PL.AD

'those'

Data from WALS suggests that both the Austronesian and Papuan languages, which are geographically close to the Manam language community, show an approximately even distribution of two-way and three-way distinction systems for demonstratives.[4] In fact, despite Ross's observation that "Schouten family members are … much more closely related to each other than to any other members of the [North New Guinea] Linkage",[5]: 106  Kairiru, which like Manam is a member of the Schouten family, shows a three-way distinction in its demonstratives. The reconstructed proto language Proto-Oceanic (POc), from which the Schouten family is descended, was determined to have a three-way distinction system.[4] POc's system is believed to have included an additional demonstrative compared to Manam, the medial demonstrative which indicates an intermediate distance, or proximity to the listener rather than the speaker.[5]: 72  However, Manam does show the same noun-demonstrative word order which was reconstructed for POc.[5]: 72 

In Manam, the proximal form is often contracted from ŋa-e- to ŋe-.[2]: 332  It can also be cliticised to a proceeding word when it is not followed by a suffix. Because the 3sg adnominal suffix has a zero form, ŋe- can be cliticised for this construction. This means that Examples (1), (2), and (3) are all acceptable ways to construct 'this woman', while example (4) but not Example (5) is an acceptable construction of 'these women'.

(1)[2]: 332 

áine

woman

ŋa-e-∅

DEM-PROX-3SG.AD

áine ŋa-e-∅

woman DEM-PROX-3SG.AD

'this woman'

(2)[2]: 332 

áine

woman

ŋe-∅

DEMPROX-3SG.AD

áine ŋe-∅

woman DEMPROX-3SG.AD

'this woman'

(3)[2]: 332 

áine-ŋe

woman-DEMPROX

áine-ŋe

woman-DEMPROX

'this woman'

(4)[2]: 332 

áine

woman

ŋe-di

DEMPROX-3PL.AD

áine ŋe-di

woman DEMPROX-3PL.AD

'these woman'

(5)[2]: 332 

*áine-ŋe-di

woman-DEMPROX-3PL.AD

*áine-ŋe-di

woman-DEMPROX-3PL.AD

'*these woman'

It is also acceptable to remove the head noun, for instance in the comparative construction in Example (6).[2]: 334 

(6)[2]: 334 

bé?e

bag

nára-∅

that-3SG.AD

tágo

NEG

i-moatúbu

3SG.AD-be.heavy

ŋa-e-∅

DEM-PROX-3SG.AD

i-moatubu-tína

3SG.RL-be.heavy-INT

bé?e nára-∅ tágo i-moatúbu ŋa-e-∅ i-moatubu-tína

bag that-3SG.AD NEG 3SG.AD-be.heavy DEM-PROX-3SG.AD 3SG.RL-be.heavy-INT

'This bag is heavier than that one' (lit. 'that bag is not heavy, this one is very heavy')

Selective forms of proximal demonstratives

[edit]

A selective form can be derived from the proximal demonstrative (but not the distal demonstrative).[2]: 334  It is formed by adding the suffix -ni after the proximal marker and before the adnominal suffix, as per Example (7) below, and indicates selection out of a set or group of options.

(7)[2]: 334 

tabìra

dish

ŋá-e-ni-∅

DEM-PROX-SEL-3SG.AD

gó-do?-i

2SG.IR-take-3SG.OBJ

tabìra ŋá-e-ni-∅ gó-do?-i

dish DEM-PROX-SEL-3SG.AD 2SG.IR-take-3SG.OBJ

'take this dish (from among several)'

The selective suffix is optional and is used when it is necessary to express selection explicitly. If not, the basic demonstrative can be used.[2]: 335 

Anaphoric usage

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Previous examples of the use of the demonstrative in Manam have been exophoric, referring to the world outside of the text. However, they can also be used anaphorically, to reference something previously brought up by a speaker.[2]: 335  Although Example (8) below demonstrates that both the proximal and the distal demonstrative can be used anaphorically, the proximal demonstrative is used much more commonly than the distal in this manner.

(8)[2]: 336 

móare

Flower

ŋe-∅

DEMPROX-3SG.AD

bó?ai

thus

di-alále

3PL.IR-go

...

thing

?ána

DEM-DIST-3SG.AD

ŋa-ra-∅

again

?ába

3PL-RL-block

di-zalaóno-ø-di

path-BEN-3PL.OBJ

móare ŋe-∅ bó?ai di-alále ... ?ána ŋa-ra-∅ ?ába di-zalaóno-ø-di

Flower DEMPROX-3SG.AD thus 3PL.IR-go thing DEM-DIST-3SG.AD again 3PL-RL-block path-BEN-3PL.OBJ

'those flowers (mentioned earlier) floated like that... those things (i.e. the flowers) again blocked their way' (lit. 'blocked path on them')

Usage of the proximal demonstrative as a resumptive pro-form
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A second anaphoric use of the proximal demonstrative in Manam is as a resumptive pro-form.[2]: 452  In this situation, the proximal demonstrative is used to sum up or resume discussing a topic that has already been spoken about. It can be used in reference to a topic discussed within the same sentence, or in an earlier sentence.[2]: 453  When it is used to reference a topic within one sentence, the resumptive pro-form will immediately follow its antecedent as in Example (9).

(9)[2]: 456 

péra

House

ŋa-ra-∅-na-lo

DEM-DIST-3SG.AD-BF-in

ŋe-∅

RESPRO-3SG.AD

tamóata

person

tágo

NEG

té?e-∅

one-3SG.AD

i-so?óa?i

3SG.IR-live

péra ŋa-ra-∅-na-lo ŋe-∅ tamóata tágo té?e-∅ i-so?óa?i

House DEM-DIST-3SG.AD-BF-in RESPRO-3SG.AD person NEG one-3SG.AD 3SG.IR-live

'nobody lives in that house' or 'as for that house, nobody lives in it'

When the proximal demonstrative is acting as a resumptive pro-form, it usually takes the from ŋe or -ŋe rather than ŋa-e.[2]: 454  The singular form is also more common than the plural form. This can be seen in Example (10) where the singular form is used despite the pro-from referring to a group of items.

(10)[2]: 454 

?àna

thing

moarúŋa

all

?úsi

loincloth

silíŋgisi

t-shirt

sakét

jacket

tràusis

pants

páipo

pipe

móita

knife

ási

bush.knife

ŋe-∅

RESPRO-3SG.AD

?u-tóa?-i

2SG.RL-imitate-3SG.OBJ

?àna moarúŋa ?úsi silíŋgisi sakét tràusis páipo móita ási ŋe-∅ ?u-tóa?-i

thing all loincloth t-shirt jacket pants pipe knife bush.knife RESPRO-3SG.AD 2SG.RL-imitate-3SG.OBJ

'(in) everything, loincloths t-shirts, jackets, pants, pipes, knives, bush knives, (in all) this it's her that you imitated'

The resumptive pro-form can be used to reference a clause in order to indicate the time of a second clause, demonstrated by Example (11).[2]: 457  It is also commonly used when a noun phrase is modified by a relative clause, as can be seen in Example (12).

(11)[2]: 460 

u-múle-ŋe

1SG.RL-return-RESPRO

píta

P.

ábe

already

i-alále

3SG.RL-go

u-múle-ŋe píta ábe i-alále

1SG.RL-return-RESPRO P. already 3SG.RL-go

'when i came back, Pita had already left' i.e. 'I came back; at this time Pita had already left'

(12)[2]: 460 

tamóata

man

áine

woman

i-ra=ra-í-ŋe

3SG.RL-talk.to-RPL-3SG.OBJ-RESPRO

píta

P.

tágo

NEG

i-?awát-a?-i

3SG.IR-know-TRANS-3SG.OBJ

tamóata áine i-ra=ra-í-ŋe píta tágo i-?awát-a?-i

man woman 3SG.RL-talk.to-RPL-3SG.OBJ-RESPRO P. NEG 3SG.IR-know-TRANS-3SG.OBJ

'Pita does not know the man who is talking to the woman' i.e. 'As for the man who is talking to the woman, Pita does not know him'

It is also often used when a sentence is thematised, and can function similarly to a theme-marker even though it does not meet the requirements to be considered a thematiser.[2]: 459  In Example (13) below, ziràpu n-m ('your mattress') is the theme.

(13)[2]: 460 

zirápu

mattress

n-m

POSS-2SG.AD

ŋe-∅

RESPRO-3SG.AD

fred

F.

òno

OBL.PRO

i-en=èno

3SG.RL-RPL-sleep

zirápu n-m ŋe-∅ fred òno i-en=èno

mattress POSS-2SG.AD RESPRO-3SG.AD F. OBL.PRO 3SG.RL-RPL-sleep

'As for your mattress, Fred sleeps on it.'

Directional system and spatial deixis

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Manam, like most Oceanic languages, primarily uses an absolute reference directional system, even on a local scale, (as opposed to many European languages which primarily use relative reference systems). This system is oriented on a land-sea axis.[6] However, Manam's system is unique because it has taken on a circular nature, becoming intrinsically linked to the geography of the island which is almost perfectly circular. Below are the directional terms associated in Manam:[2]

Ilau 'toward the sea'
Auta 'toward the land'
Ata 'to one's right when one is facing the sea'
Awa 'to one's left when one is facing the sea'

This directional system has only been attested in four languages: Manam, Boumaa Fijian,[7] Taba,[8] and Savosavo.[9]

The suffix -lo can be added to any of these terms to indicate movement towards that direction, as in Example (3).[2]: 460  No suffix is needed to indicate movement away from a direction – this is inferred from the context of the sentence (contrast Examples (1) and (2) with Example (3)).

(1)[2]: 593 

áta

ata

i-sòa?i

3SG.RL-be.located

áta i-sòa?i

ata 3SG.RL-be.located

'He is in the ata direction'

(2)[2]: 593 

áwa

awa

i-rà?e

3SG.RL-go.up

áwa i-rà?e

awa 3SG.RL-go.up

'He went from awa direction'

(3)[2]: 593 

aúta-lo

auta-in

i-òro

3SG.RL-go.inland

aúta-lo i-òro

auta-in 3SG.RL-go.inland

'He went in auta direction'

Spatial deixis

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Spatial deixis describes how speakers can 'point out' the location of an object in relationship to their own position.[10] Manam has two main spatial deictical terms.[2]: 573   These are ma?a ('here') and ma?a-ra ('there'). Ma?a-ra is constructed by suffixing the distal marker -ra to ma?a. These two terms are used regardless of which direction the speaker is indicating.[2]: 573  If it is necessary to specify direction, this can be done by adding the directional term after the deictical term,[2]: 576  as is done in Example (4).

(4)[2]: 593 

nátu

Child

má?ara

there

iláu

ilau

i-sóa?i

3SG.RL-be.located

nátu má?ara iláu i-sóa?i

Child there ilau 3SG.RL-be.located

'the child is there (in ilau direction)'

Manam has three additional spatial deixis, which are used to specify spatial relationships in a specific direction.[2]: 574  These terms refer to the land-sea directional system described above, and are listed below:[2]: 573 

Elau 'over there in ilau direction'
Eta 'over there in auta direction'
Ene 'over there in ata or awa direction'

Interestingly, unlike Manam's two-way distinction for demonstratives, these directional spatial deictical terms show the same three-way distinction that was reconstructed for Proto-Oceanic (POc).[5]: 72   To indicate an intermediate distance, the distal suffix -ra can be added to each directional spatial deictic. If the object described is so far away as to be out of sight, the spatial dialectical term can be combined with a directional term to indicate extreme distance.[2]: 574  This is illustrated in the table below:[2]: 575 

Least distance Middle distance Greatest distance
Ilau direction Elau Elaura Elau + Ilau = Elelau
Auta direction Eta Etara Eta + Auta = Etauta
Ata direction Ene Enera Ene + Ata = Enata
Awa direction Ene Enera Ene + Awa = Enawa

Similar to directional terms, to indicate movement towards the most distant directional spatial dialectical terms, the suffix -lo is added as in Example (5). For the less distant terms, no affix is needed, illustrated by Example (6).

(5)[2]: 576 

ene-tu?a-tína

over.there-INT-INT

i-sóa?i

3SG.RL-be.located

ene-tu?a-tína i-sóa?i

over.there-INT-INT 3SG.RL-be.located

'he is way over there (in ata or awa direction)'

(6)[2]: 576 

i-alále

3SG.RL-go

enáwa-lo

far.over.there-to

?ába

again

i-múle

3SG.RL-return

enáta-lo

far.over.there-to

i-alále enáwa-lo ?ába i-múle enáta-lo

3SG.RL-go far.over.there-to again 3SG.RL-return far.over.there-to

'he went long way over there (in awa direction) then (again) went back long way over there (in ata direction)'

Abbreviations

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AD:adnominal BF:buffer DEMPROX:proximal demonstrative DL:dual EXC:exclusive FOOD:edible INIR:indefinite irrealis IP:independent pronoun IR:irregular LIM:limiter PROX:proximte RESPRO:resumptive pro-form RP:reflexive-possessive RL:realis RPL:reduplication SEL:selective SIM:simulative TC:transitive consonant TRANS:transitiviser

AD adnominal
BF buffer
DL dual
EXC exclusive
INIR indefinite irrealis
INSTR instrumental
INT intensifier
IP independent pronoun
IRR irrealis
LIM limiter
NEG negator
NOM nominaliser
OBJ object
PL plural
POSS possessive
PROH prohibitive
REAL realis
RPL reduplication
SG singular
SIM simulative
TRANS transitiviser

Resources

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References

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  1. ^ Manam at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck Lichtenberk, Frantisek (1983). A grammar of Manam. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. Vol. 18. Honolulu: University of Hawaii. ISBN 0-8248-0764-2.
  3. ^ Crystal, David (2008). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
  4. ^ a b "Feature 88A: Order of Demonstrative and Noun". WALS Online. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  5. ^ a b c d Lynch, John; Ross, Malcolm; Crowley, Terry (2001). The Oceanic Languages. Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 9781136749858.
  6. ^ François, A. (2004). "Reconstructing the geocentric system of Proto-Oceanic" (PDF). Oceanic Linguistics. 43 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1353/ol.2004.0009.
  7. ^ Dixon, R. M. W. (1988). A grammar of Boumaa Fijian. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226154299.
  8. ^ Bowden, John (1997). "The meaning of directionals in Taba". In Senft, Gunter (ed.). Referring to space: Studies in Austronesian and Papuan languages. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 251–268. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198236474.003.0011. ISBN 9780198236474.
  9. ^ Wegener, Claudia (2008). A Grammar of Savosavo, a Papuan Language of the Solomon Islands (PhD thesis). Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen.
  10. ^ Cairns, Barbara (10 December 2009). "Spatial Deixis - The Use of Spatial Co-ordinates in Spoken Language". Working Papers, Lund University, Department of Linguistics and Phonetics. 38: 19–28.
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