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{{Short description|Citizens and nationals of Tunisia}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Tunisian
| group = Tunisians
| native_name = توانسة (''Tawānisa'', dialectal ''Twensa'')<br />تونسيون (Tūnisiyyūn)
| native_name = توانسة (''Tawānisa'', dialectal ''Tweensa'')<br />تونسيون (Tūnisiyyūn)
| native_name_lang = ar
| native_name_lang = ar
| flag =
| flag =
| flag_caption =
| flag_caption =
| image =
| image = File:Map of the Tunisian Diaspora in the World in 2024.svg
| pop = '''{{Circa|13.8 million}}'''{{ref label|en|a}}
| pop = '''{{Circa|14.2 million}}'''{{ref label|en|a}}
| popplace = {{flagcountry|Tunisia}}{{nbsp|5}}
| popplace = '''{{flagu|Tunisia}}'''{{nbsp|5}}
~12,000,000<br />(2016 census)<ref name="ins">{{cite web |url=http://www.ins.tn/fr/themes/population#417 |title=National Institute of Statistics-Tunisia |publisher=National Institute of Statistics-Tunisia |date=12 September 2016 |access-date=1 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610170957/http://www.ins.tn/fr/themes/population#417 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
~12,400,000<br />(2014 census)<ref name="ins">{{cite web |url=http://www.ins.tn/fr/themes/population#417 |title=National Institute of Statistics-Tunisia |publisher=National Institute of Statistics-Tunisia |date=12 September 2016 |access-date=1 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610170957/http://www.ins.tn/fr/themes/population#417 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| region1 = {{flagcountry|France}}
| region1 = {{flagu|Italy}}
| pop1 = {{formatnum:
| pop1 = 319,000 (includes ancestry)
| ref1 = <ref name="ote"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Communauté tunisienne à l'étranger |url=http://www.ote.nat.tn/fileadmin/user_upload/doc/Repartition_de_la_communaute_tunisienne_a_l_etranger__2012.pdf |website=www.ote.nat.tn |language=French}}</ref>
600,000 (includes ancestry)}}
| region2 = {{flagu|France}}
| ref1 = <ref name="ote">{{cite web |title=Communauté tunisienne à l'étranger |url=http://www.ote.nat.tn/fileadmin/user_upload/doc/Repartition_de_la_communaute_tunisienne_a_l_etranger__2012.pdf |website=www.ote.nat.tn |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=OTE>{{cite book |title=Répartition de la Communauté tunisienne à l’étranger en 2012 OTE |url=http://www.ote.nat.tn/fileadmin/user_upload/doc/Repartition_de_la_communaute_tunisienne_a_l_etranger__2012.pdf|access-date=7 August 2014 |year=2012 |publisher=OTE |location=Tunis }}</ref>
| pop2 = 283,000<ref name="INSEE">{{cite web|url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4510549?sommaire=4510556#titre-bloc-6 |title=Répartition des immigrés par pays de naissance détaillé d'Europe|website=INSEE.fr|access-date=31 March 2022}}</ref><ref name=OTE>{{cite book |title=Répartition de la Communauté tunisienne à l'étranger en 2012 OTE |url=http://www.ote.nat.tn/fileadmin/user_upload/doc/Repartition_de_la_communaute_tunisienne_a_l_etranger__2012.pdf|access-date=7 August 2014 |year=2012 |publisher=OTE |location=Tunis }}</ref>
<ref>http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=etrangersnat</ref>
<ref name="insee.fr">{{Cite web|url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=etrangersnat|title = Résultats de la recherche &#124; Insee}}</ref>
| region2 = {{flagcountry|Italia}}
| ref2 = <ref name=OTE>{{cite book |title=Répartition de la Communauté tunisienne à l'étranger en 2012 OTE |url=http://www.ote.nat.tn/fileadmin/user_upload/doc/Repartition_de_la_communaute_tunisienne_a_l_etranger__2012.pdf|access-date=7 August 2014 |year=2012 |publisher=OTE |location=Tunis }}</ref><ref name="ote">{{cite web |title=Communauté tunisienne à l'étranger |url=http://www.ote.nat.tn/fileadmin/user_upload/doc/Repartition_de_la_communaute_tunisienne_a_l_etranger__2012.pdf |website=www.ote.nat.tn |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="insee.fr">{{Cite web|url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=etrangersnat|title = Résultats de la recherche &#124; Insee}}</ref>
| pop2 = 200,000 (includes ancestry)
| region3 = {{flagu|Germany}}
| ref2 = <ref name="ote"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Communauté tunisienne à l'étranger |url=http://www.ote.nat.tn/fileadmin/user_upload/doc/Repartition_de_la_communaute_tunisienne_a_l_etranger__2012.pdf |website=www.ote.nat.tn |language=French}}</ref>
| region3 = {{flagcountry|Israel}}
| pop3 = 195,000
| pop3 = 120,700
| ref3 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region4 = {{flagu|United States}}
| ref3 = <ref name=ispop>{{cite web|title=Statistical Abstract of Israel 2009 - No. 60 Subject 2 - Table NO.24|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_24x&CYear=2009|publisher=Israeli government|access-date=18 February 2018}}</ref>
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop4 = 175,685
| ref4 = <ref>{{cite book |title=International Migrant Stock 2020 |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/undesa_pd_2020_ims_stock_by_sex_destination_and_origin.xlsx|access-date=11 January 2021 |year=2021 |publisher=UN |location=USA }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=International Migrant Stock 2020 |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/content/international-migrant-stock |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>
| pop4 = 130,000
| ref4 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region5 = {{flagu|Israel}}
| region5 = {{flagcountry|Libya}}
| pop5 = 120,700 (includes ancestry)
| ref5 = <ref name="CBS_2008_jews_origin">{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/DocLib/2009/2.Shnaton%20Population/st02_24x.pdf|title=Table 2.24 – Jews, by country of origin and age |access-date=11 March 2019|first=CBS |last=Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009 |author-link=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics }}</ref>
| pop5 = 68,952
| ref5 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region6 = {{flagu|Libya}}
| pop6 = 68,952
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Belgium}} and {{flagcountry|Luxembourg}}
| pop6 = {{formatnum:24810}}
| ref6 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref6 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region7 = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| region7 = {{flagu|Canada}}
| pop7 = 25,650
| pop7 = 25,650
| ref7 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref7 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region8 = {{flagcountry|United Arab Emirates}}
| region8 = {{flagu|Belgium}} and {{flagu|Luxembourg}}
| pop8 = 19,361
| pop8 = {{formatnum:24810}}
| ref8 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref8 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Algeria}}
| region9 = {{flagu|Turkey}}
| pop9 = 18,796
| pop9 = 20,000
| ref9 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region10 = {{flagu|United Arab Emirates}}
| region10 = {{flagcountry|Saudi Arabia}}
| pop10 = 19,361
| pop10 = 16,774
| ref10 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref10 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region11 = {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
| region11 = {{flagu|Algeria}}
| pop11 = 16,667
| pop11 = 18,796
| ref11 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref11 = <ref name="ote"/>{{,}}<ref>[https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/statistiques/population/migration-integration/nationalite-etrangere.assetdetail.80450.html Population résidante permanente étrangère selon la nationalité (Office fédéral de la statistique)]</ref>
| region12 = {{flagcountry|United States}}
| region12 = {{flagu|Saudi Arabia}}
| pop12 = 18,000
| pop12 = 16,774
| ref12 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref12 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region13 = {{flagcountry|Holland}}
| region13 = {{flagu|Switzerland}}
| pop13 = 8,776
| pop13 = 16,667
| ref13 = <ref name="ote"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/statistiques/population/migration-integration/nationalite-etrangere.assetdetail.80450.html|title=Population résidante permanente étrangère selon la nationalité – 1980–2015 &#124; Tableau|first=Office fédéral de la|last=statistique|date=26 August 2016|website=Office fédéral de la statistique}}</ref>
| ref13 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region14 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| region14 = {{flagu|Netherlands}}
| pop14 = 8,704
| pop14 = 8,776
| ref14 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref14 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Qatar}}
| region15 = {{flagu|Sweden}}
| pop15 = 7,827
| pop15 = 8,704
| ref15 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref15 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region16 = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}} and {{flagcountry|Ireland}}
| region16 = {{flagu|Qatar}}
| pop16 = 7,797
| pop16 = 31,540
| ref16 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref16 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Austria}}
| region17 = {{flagu|United Kingdom}} and {{flagu|Ireland}}
| pop17 = 7,083
| pop17 = 10,797
| ref17 = <ref name="ote"/>
| ref17 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region18 = {{flagcountry|Norway}}
| region18 = {{flagu|Austria}}, {{flagu|Croatia}}, {{flagu|Slovakia}}, and {{flagu|Slovenia}}
| pop18 = 1,540
| pop18 = 7,921
| ref18 =
| ref18 = <ref name="ote"/>
| region19 = {{flagcountry|Romania}}
| region19 = {{flagu|Oman}}
| pop19 = 1,352
| pop19 = 5,693
| region20 = {{flagu|Morocco}}
| languages = [[Tunisian Arabic]], [[Judeo-Tunisian Arabic]],<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/aeb Arabic, Tunisian Spoken]. Ethnologue (19 February 1999). Retrieved on 5 September 2015.</ref> [[Berber languages|Berber]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://global.britannica.com/topic/Tamazight-language|title=Tamazight language|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nawaat.org/portail/2012/02/27/interview-avec-association-tunisienne-de-culture-amazigh/|title=Nawaat – Interview avec l' Association Tunisienne de Culture Amazighe|work=Nawaat}}</ref><ref>{{cite document|url=http://researchdirect.uws.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:573|title=An outline of the Shilha (Berber) vernacular of Douiret (Southern Tunisia)|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tunisia-live.net/2011/10/13/tunisian-amazigh-and-the-fight-for-recognition/|title=Tunisian Amazigh and the Fight for Recognition – Tunisialive|work=Tunisialive|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018153728/http://www.tunisia-live.net/2011/10/13/tunisian-amazigh-and-the-fight-for-recognition/|archive-date=2011-10-18}}</ref> [[French language|French]]
| pop20 = 4,570
| religions = Mainly [[Islam in Tunisia|Islam]] ([[Maliki|Sunni Maliki]]; also [[Ibadi]]) Minority: [[History of the Jews in Tunisia|Judaism]] and [[Irreligion]] and [[Christianity]]
| region21 = {{flagu|Spain}}
| related = [[Arabs]], [[Berbers|Berber]], [[European Tunisians]], [[Sicilians]] [[Italian Tunisians]], [[Turco-Tunisians]], [[Maghrebis]] and other [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] peoples
| pop21 = 3,722
| region22 = {{flagu|Kuwait}}
| pop22 = 3,500
| region23 = {{flagu|Egypt}}
| pop23 = 3,413
| region24 = {{flagu|Bahrain}}
| pop24 = 1,605
| region25 = {{flagu|Norway}}
| pop25 = 1,540
| region26 = {{flagu|Romania}}
| pop26 = 1,352
| region27 = {{flagu|Poland}}
| pop27 = 1,340
| region28 = {{flagu|Lebanon}}
| pop28 = 1,323
| region29 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
| pop29 = 1,253<ref>[https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/ Immigrants in Brazil (2024, in Portuguese)]</ref>
| region30 = {{flagu|Greece}}
| pop30 = 981
| region31 = {{flagu|Jordan}}
| pop31 = 950
| region32 = {{flagu|Japan}}
| pop32 = 757<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.e-stat.go.jp/stat-search/files?page=1&layout=datalist&toukei=00250012&tstat=000001018034&cycle=1&tclass1=000001060399&tclass2val=0&metadata=1&data=1|title=在留外国人統計|language=ja|date=15 December 2023|access-date=29 April 2024}}</ref>
| region33 = {{flagu|Australia}}
| pop33 = 514
| region34 = {{flagu|Indonesia}}, {{flagu|Malaysia}}, {{flagu|Singapore}}, {{flagu|Thailand}}, {{flagu|Philippines}}, and {{flagu|Vietnam}}
| pop34 = 497
| region35 = {{flagu|South Africa}}
| pop35 = 349
| languages = Majority: [[Arabic]] ([[Tunisian Arabic]]), [[French language|French]]<br>Historically:<br>[[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], [[Punic language|Punic]], [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]], [[Latin]], [[African Romance]] <br>Minority: [[Judeo-Tunisian Arabic]],<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/language/aeb Arabic, Tunisian Spoken]. Ethnologue (19 February 1999). Retrieved on 5 September 2015.</ref> and [[Berber languages|Berber]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://global.britannica.com/topic/Tamazight-language|title=Tamazight language|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nawaat.org/portail/2012/02/27/interview-avec-association-tunisienne-de-culture-amazigh/|title=Nawaat – Interview avec l' Association Tunisienne de Culture Amazighe|work=Nawaat|date=27 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last=Gabsi |first=Zouhir |type=PhD |publisher=University of Western Sydney|url=http://researchdirect.uws.edu.au/islandora/object/uws:573|title=An outline of the Shilha (Berber) vernacular of Douiret (Southern Tunisia)|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tunisia-live.net/2011/10/13/tunisian-amazigh-and-the-fight-for-recognition/|title=Tunisian Amazigh and the Fight for Recognition – Tunisialive|work=Tunisialive|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018153728/http://www.tunisia-live.net/2011/10/13/tunisian-amazigh-and-the-fight-for-recognition/|archive-date=2011-10-18}}</ref>
| religions = Predominantly [[Islam in Tunisia|Islam]] ([[Maliki|Sunni Maliki]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tunisia|title=Tunisia &#124; History, Map, Flag, Population, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref><br /> Minority: [[Religion_in_Tunisia#Judaism|Judaism]]<ref>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/23/tunisia-last-jewish-community-djerba-israel</ref><ref>https://www.rferl.org/a/the-last-jews-of-tunisia/27809506.html</ref><ref>https://globalnews.ca/news/8838207/jewish-community-tunisia-djerba-antisemitism/</ref>
| related = [[Arabs]], [[Berbers|Berber]], [[European Tunisians]], [[Punic people|Carthaginians]], [[Roman Africans]], [[Italian Tunisians]], [[Turco-Tunisians]], [[Maghrebis]] and other [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] peoples
| footnotes = {{note label|en|a}} The total figure is merely an estimation; sum of all the referenced populations.
| footnotes = {{note label|en|a}} The total figure is merely an estimation; sum of all the referenced populations.
}}
}}


'''Tunisian people''', or '''Tunisians''' ({{lang-ar|تونسيون}} ''Tūnisiyyūn'', {{lang-aeb|توانسة}} ''Twensa''), are a [[Maghrebis|Maghrebi]] [[ethnic group]] and [[nation]] native to Northern Africa, who speak [[Tunisian language|Tunisian]] (Derja) and share a common [[Tunisian culture|Tunisian culture and identity]]. In addition, a [[Tunisian diaspora]] has been established with modern migration, particularly in [[Western Europe]], namely [[Tunisians in France|France]], [[Tunisians in Italy|Italy]] and Germany. The overwhelming majority of Tunisians are of Berber descent.
'''Tunisians''' ({{langx|ar|تونسيون}} ''Tūnisiyyūn'', {{langx|aeb|توانسة}} {{transl|aeb|Twènsa}} {{IPA-all|ˈtwɛːnsæ|}}) are the citizens and nationals of Tunisia in North Africa, who speak [[Languages of Tunisia|Tunisian Arabic]] and share a common [[Tunisian culture|Tunisian culture and identity]]. In addition to the approximately 12 million residents in Tunisia, a [[Tunisian diaspora]] has been established with modern migration, particularly in Western Europe, namely [[Tunisians in France|France]], [[Tunisians in Italy|Italy]] and Germany. The vast majority of Tunisians identify as [[Arabs]] who adhere to [[Sunni Islam]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 December 2022 |title=Tunisia – the World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/tunisia/}}</ref>

Prior to the modern era, Tunisians were known as ''Afāriqah'',<ref>''The muslim conquest and settlement of North Africa and Spain'', Abdulwahid Thanun Taha, Routledge Library Edition: Muslim Spain p21</ref> from the ancient name of Tunisia, [[Ifriqiya]] or [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] in the antiquity, which gave the present-day name of the continent Africa.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/autre-region/Ifriqiya/124749 Article « Ifriqiya » (Larousse.fr)].</ref>

Today, the ethnic identity of Tunisians is the product of a centuries-long historical trajectory, with the Tunisian nation today being a junction of the Amazigh and Punic substratum, as well as Roman, Sicilian, Arab, Andalusian, Turkish, and French cultural and linguistic input.


== History ==
== History ==
[[File:Dosso Dossi 041.jpg|thumb|[[Dido]]]]
[[File:Dosso Dossi 041.jpg|thumb|[[Dido]]]]
{{See also|History of Tunisia}}
{{See also|History of Tunisia}}
Numerous civilizations and peoples have invaded, migrated to, or have been assimilated into the population over the millennia, with influences of population from [[Phoenicians]]/[[Carthaginians]], [[Roman Republic|Roman]]s, [[Vandal]]s, [[Greeks]], [[Arabs]], [[Italo-Norman|Normans]], [[Italians]], [[Spaniard]]s, [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]]/[[Janissaries]] and [[French people|French]].


=== Africa and Ifriqiya ===
=== Africa and Ifriqiya ===
{{Main|History of early Tunisia|History of Carthage|History of Roman-era Tunisia|Roman Africans|History of early Islamic Tunisia|History of medieval Tunisia}}
{{Main|History of early Tunisia|History of Carthage|History of Roman-era Tunisia|Roman Africans|History of early Islamic Tunisia|History of medieval Tunisia}}
The first people known to history in what is now Tunisia were [[Berber people]] of the [[Capsian culture]] related to the [[Numidia]]ns. [[Phoenicians]] settled Tunisia during the 12th to the 2nd century BC, founded [[ancient Carthage]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Moscati|first=Sabatino|author-link=Sabatino Moscati|title=The Phoenicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EEtmT9Tbj4C&pg=PA17|year=2001|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-533-4}}</ref> The migrants brought with them their culture [[Punic language|and language]] that progressively spread from Tunisia's coastal areas to the rest of the coastal areas of [[Northwest Africa]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the Mediterranean islands.<ref name="Aubet, Maria Eugenia 2001">Aubet, M. E. (2001). The Phoenicians and the West: politics, colonies and trade. Cambridge University Press.</ref> From the eighth century BC, most of Tunisians were [[Punics]].<ref name="epig" /> When Carthage fell in 146 BC to the [[Roman Republic|Roman]]s<ref>[[Appian of Alexandria]] (162). ''[https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_punic_00.html The Punic Wars]. Roman History''</ref><ref>[[Appian of Alexandria]] (162). "[https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_punic_19.html#%A793 The Third Punic War]. Roman History"</ref> the coastal population was mainly Punic, but that influence decreased away from the coast.<ref name="epig">Jongeling, K., & Kerr, R.M. (2005). Late Punic epigraphy: an introduction to the study of Neo-Punic and Latino- Punic inscriptions. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, pp. 114, {{ISBN|3-16-148728-1}}.</ref> From the [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman period]] until the Islamic conquest, [[Italic peoples|Latins]], [[Greeks]] and Numidian people further influenced the Tunisians, which were called [[Afariqa]]: (Roman) Africans.
The [[Phoenicians]], a [[Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|Semitic people]], [[Phoenician settlement of North Africa|migrated and settled]] in the region of present-day Tunisia from the 12th to the 2nd century BC, establishing numerous settlements on the coast, including [[ancient Carthage]] which emerged as the most powerful by the 7th century BC.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moscati|first=Sabatino|author-link=Sabatino Moscati|title=The Phoenicians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EEtmT9Tbj4C&pg=PA17|year=2001|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-85043-533-4}}</ref> The migrants brought with them their culture [[Phoenician language|and language]] that progressively spread from Tunisia's coastal areas to the rest of the coastal areas of [[Maghreb|Northwest Africa]], as well as parts of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the Mediterranean islands.<ref name="Aubet, Maria Eugenia 2001">Aubet, M. E. (2001). The Phoenicians and the West: politics, colonies and trade. Cambridge University Press.</ref> The descendants of the Phoenician settlers came to be known as the [[Punic people]]. From the 8th century BC, most Tunisians were [[Punic people|Punic]].<ref name="epig" /> Evidence from [[Sicily]] shows that some western Phoenicians (Punic people) used the term "Phoinix,"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jenkins |first=G. Kenneth |year=1974 |title=Coins of Punic Sicily, Part II |journal=Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau |volume=53 |pages=27–29}}</ref> although it is not clear what term they self-identified with, as they may have self-identified themselves as 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍𐤌 ({{lang|xpu|knʿnm}}, "[[Canaan]]ites").<ref>{{cite book |last=MacDonald |first=Eve |title=Hannibal: A Hellenistic life |year=2015 |isbn=9780300210156 |location=New Haven |page=240 n. 8 |author-link=Eve MacDonald}}</ref> A passage from [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s writings has frequently been understood as suggesting that they called themselves [[Canaan]]ites ({{transliteration|pnh|Chanani|italic=yes}} in [[Latin]]).<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Augustine]] |title=Unfinished Commentary on Paul's Letter to the Romans |at=13}} (see in [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Epistolae_ad_Romanos_inchoata_Expositio the Latin source]: Unde interrogati rustici nostri, quid sint, punice respondentes: chanani, corrupta scilicet sicut in talibus solet una littera, quid aliud respondent quam: chananaei?)</ref> The [[Punic language]], a variety of the [[Phoenician language]], seems to have survived well past written use. Arab geographer [[al-Bakri]] described a people who lived in [[Sirte]] who spoke a language which was not [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Latin]], or [[Coptic language|Coptic]], well after the [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb]]. Punic culture survived the [[Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)|destruction of Carthage]] in 146 BC.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hasselbach-Andee |first=Rebecca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFbPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA297 |title=A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages |date=31 March 2020 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-119-19329-6 |pages=297 |language=en}}</ref>

When Carthage fell in 146 BC to the [[Roman Republic|Roman]]s,<ref>[[Appian of Alexandria]] (162). ''[https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_punic_00.html The Punic Wars]. Roman History''</ref><ref>[[Appian of Alexandria]] (162). "[https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_punic_19.html#%A793 The Third Punic War]. Roman History"</ref> the coastal population was mainly Punic, but that influence decreased away from the coast.<ref name="epig">Jongeling, K., & Kerr, R.M. (2005). Late Punic epigraphy: an introduction to the study of Neo-Punic and Latino- Punic inscriptions. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, pp. 114, {{ISBN|3-16-148728-1}}.</ref> From the [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman period]] until the Islamic conquest, [[Italic peoples|Latins]], [[Greeks]] and [[Numidia]]ns further influenced the Tunisians, which prior to the modern era, Tunisians were known as ''Afāriqah'',<ref>''The Muslim conquest and settlement of North Africa and Spain'', Abdulwahid Thanun Taha, Routledge Library Edition: Muslim Spain p21</ref> from the ancient name of Tunisia, [[Ifriqiya]] or [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] in the antiquity, which gave the present-day name of the continent Africa.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/autre-region/Ifriqiya/124749 Article « Ifriqiya » (Larousse.fr)].</ref>


From the [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb]] in 673, a small number of Arabs, Persians and other Middle-Eastern populations settled in Tunisia which was called [[Ifriqiya]], from its ancient name the [[Roman province of Africa]].<ref>Holt, P. M., Lambton, A. K., & Lewis, B. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam (Vol. 2). Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref name="history69">Chejne, A. G. (1969). The Arabic language: Its role in history. U of Minnesota Press.</ref> In the early-11th century, [[Normans]] from the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] took over Ifriqiya and founded the [[Kingdom of Africa]], which lasted from 1135 to 1160.<ref>All the Arabic sources can be found in Michele Amari, ''Biblioteca arabo-sicula'' (Rome and Turin: 1880).</ref><ref>Abulafia, "The Norman Kingdom of Africa", 26.</ref> Muslim refugees from Sicily and Malta were encouraged by the Normans to settle in Tunisia during this period.<ref>Lynn White, Jr.: "The Byzantinization of Sicily", ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 42, No. 1 (1936), pp. 1–21</ref>
From the [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb]] in 673, many Arabs settled with Arab tribes in Tunisia which was called [[Ifriqiya]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Bishai |first=Wilson B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiBCAAAAIAAJ |title=Islamic History of the Middle East: Backgrounds, Development, and Fall of the Arab Empire |date=1968 |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |pages=187 |language=en |quote=Many Arabs settled in Qayrawan, which soon became one of several purely Arab settlements in the Arab Empire.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Theotokis |first=Georgios |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fgo7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |title=Warfare in the Norman Mediterranean |date=2020 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-78327-521-2 |pages=89 |language=en}}</ref> in places like [[Kairouan]] which soon became one of the purely Arab settlements in the [[Umayyad Caliphate]].<ref name=":0" /> This accelerated in the 11th century with the large migrations of the Arab tribes of [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] to Ifriqiya and the rest of the [[Maghreb]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baldauf |first1=Richard B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sabe8l9hox0C&pg=PA260 |title=Language Planning and Policy in Africa |last2=Kaplan |first2=Robert B. |date=1 January 2007 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-84769-011-1 |pages=260 |language=en}}</ref> Some Persians and other Middle-Eastern populations also settled in Ifriqiya, which had its name from the ancient name, the [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman province of Africa]].<ref>Holt, P. M., Lambton, A. K., & Lewis, B. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam (Vol. 2). Cambridge University Press.{{page needed|date=November 2021}}</ref><ref name="history69">{{cite book|last=Chejne|first=Anwar G.|year=1969|title=The Arabic language: Its role in history|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=1452912238}}{{page needed|date=November 2021}}</ref> In the early-11th century, [[Normans]] from the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] took over Ifriqiya and founded the [[Kingdom of Africa]], which lasted from 1135 to 1160.<ref>All the Arabic sources can be found in Michele Amari, ''Biblioteca arabo-sicula'' (Rome and Turin: 1880).</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Abulafia |first1=David |chapter=The Norman kingdom of Africa and the Norman expeditions to Majorca and the Muslim Mediterranean |pages=26–49 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lje4QgAACAAJ&pg=PA26 |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=Reginald Allen |title=Anglo-Norman Studies VII: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1984 |date=1985 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-0-85115-416-9 }}</ref> Muslim refugees from Sicily and Malta were encouraged by the Normans to settle in Tunisia during this period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=Lynn |title=The Byzantinization of Sicily |journal=The American Historical Review |date=1936 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1086/ahr/42.1.1 |jstor=1840262 }}</ref>


After the [[Reconquista]] and expulsion of non-Christians and [[Morisco]]s from Spain, many Spanish [[Muslims]] and Jews also arrived. According to Matthew Carr, "As many as eighty thousand Moriscos settled in Tunisia, most of them in and around the capital, Tunis, which still contains a quarter known as Zuqaq al-Andalus, or Andalusia Alley."<ref>{{Cite book | last = Carr | first = Matthew | title = Blood and faith: the purging of Muslim Spain | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=netlOtzI6R8C&pg=PA290 | publisher = The New Press | year = 2009 | page = 290 | isbn = 978-1-59558-361-1 }}</ref>
After the [[Reconquista]] and expulsion of non-Christians and [[Morisco]]s from Spain, many Spanish [[Muslims]] and Jews also arrived. According to Matthew Carr, "As many as eighty thousand Moriscos settled in Tunisia, most of them in and around the capital, Tunis, which still contains a quarter known as Zuqaq al-Andalus, or Andalusia Alley."<ref>{{Cite book | last = Carr | first = Matthew | title = Blood and faith: the purging of Muslim Spain | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=netlOtzI6R8C&pg=PA290 | publisher = The New Press | year = 2009 | page = 290 | isbn = 978-1-59558-361-1 }}</ref>
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=== Tunisians ===
=== Tunisians ===
{{See also|Ottoman Tunisia}}
{{See also|Ottoman Tunisia}}
By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completely [[Arabization|Arabized]], establishing [[Arabs]] as the demographic majority of the population.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holes |first=Clive |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pzRtDwAAQBAJ |title=Arabic Historical Dialectology: Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Approaches |date=30 August 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-100506-0 |pages=42 |language=en}}</ref>
During the 17th to the 19th centuries, Ifriqiya came under [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]], then [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule and hosted [[Expulsion of the Moriscos|Morisco]] then [[Italian diaspora|Italian]] immigrants from 1609.<ref name="quit">{{in lang|fr}} Quitout, M. (2002). Parlons l'arabe tunisien: langue & culture. Editions L'Harmattan.</ref><ref name="curr">{{cite journal | last1 = Sayahi | first1 = L | year = 2011 | title = Introduction. Current perspectives on Tunisian sociolinguistics | journal = International Journal of the Sociology of Language | volume = 2011 | issue = 211| pages = 1–8 | doi=10.1515/ijsl.2011.035| s2cid = 147401179 }}</ref> Tunis was officially integrated into the [[Ottoman Empire]] as the '''Eyalet of Tunis''' (province), eventually including all of the [[Maghreb]] except [[Morocco]].


During the 17th to the 19th centuries, Ifriqiya came under [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]], then [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule and hosted [[Expulsion of the Moriscos|Morisco]] then [[Italian diaspora|Italian]] immigrants from 1609.<ref name="quit">{{in lang|fr}} Quitout, M. (2002). Parlons l'arabe tunisien: langue & culture. Editions L'Harmattan.</ref><ref name="curr">{{cite journal | last1 = Sayahi | first1 = L | year = 2011 | title = Introduction. Current perspectives on Tunisian sociolinguistics | journal = International Journal of the Sociology of Language | volume = 2011 | issue = 211| pages = 1–8 | doi=10.1515/ijsl.2011.035| s2cid = 147401179 }}</ref> Tunis was officially integrated into the [[Ottoman Empire]] as the [[Ottoman Tunisia|Eyalet of Tunis]] (province), eventually including all of the [[Maghreb]] except Morocco.
Under the Ottoman Empire, the boundaries of the territory inhabited by Tunisians contracted; Ifriqiya lost territory to the west ([[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]]) and to the east ([[Tripoli]]). In the 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and social [[Tanzimat|reform in the Ottoman capital]]. The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy. Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces to [[History of French-era Tunisia|establish a Protectorate]] in 1881.

Under the Ottoman Empire, the boundaries of the territory inhabited by Tunisians contracted; Ifriqiya lost territory to the west ([[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]]) and to the east ([[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]]). In the 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and social [[Tanzimat|reform in the Ottoman capital]]. The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy. Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces to [[History of French-era Tunisia|establish a Protectorate]] in 1881.


A remnant of the centuries of Turkish rule is the presence of [[Turks in Tunisia|a population of Turkish origin]], historically the male descendants were referred to as the ''[[Kouloughlis]]''.
A remnant of the centuries of Turkish rule is the presence of [[Turks in Tunisia|a population of Turkish origin]], historically the male descendants were referred to as the ''[[Kouloughlis]]''.


=== French protectorate ===
=== French colonization ===
{{See also|History of French-era Tunisia|French protectorate of Tunisia|}}
{{See also|History of French-era Tunisia|French protectorate of Tunisia|}}


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{{See also|History of modern Tunisia|Tunisian Revolution}}
{{See also|History of modern Tunisia|Tunisian Revolution}}


Independence from [[France]] was achieved on March 20, 1956. The State was established as a [[constitutional monarchy]] with the [[Bey of Tunis]], [[Muhammad VIII al-Amin]] Bey, as the king of [[Tunisia]]. In 1957, the Prime Minister [[Habib Bourguiba]] abolished the monarchy and firmly established his [[Neo Destour]] (New Constitution) party. In the 1970s the economy of Tunisia expanded at a very healthy rate. Oil was discovered and tourism continued. City and countryside populations drew roughly equal in number. Yet agricultural problems and urban unemployment led to increased migration to Europe.
Independence from France was achieved on 20 March 1956. The State was established as a [[constitutional monarchy]] with the [[Bey of Tunis]], [[Muhammad VIII al-Amin]] Bey, as the king of Tunisia. In 1957, the Prime Minister [[Habib Bourguiba]] abolished the monarchy and firmly established his [[Neo Destour]] (New Constitution) party. In the 1970s the economy of Tunisia expanded at a very healthy rate. Oil was discovered and tourism continued. City and countryside populations drew roughly equal in number. Yet agricultural problems and urban unemployment led to increased migration to Europe.


The 84-year-old President Bourguiba was overthrown and replaced by [[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali|Ben Ali]] his Prime Minister on November 7, 1987.<ref>John P. Entelis, "Tunisia" pp. 532–533 in ''The Americana Annual 1988'' (New York: Grolier). Ben Ali's background was said to be pro-Western, trained in military affairs by France and the U.S.A.; he had previously clamped down on both left and right opponents, especially Islamic fundamentalists. Entelis (1987) pp. 532–533.</ref> However, the Ben Ali regime came to an end 23 years later on January 14, 2011, in the events of the [[Tunisian Revolution]], following nationwide demonstrations precipitated by high [[unemployment]], food [[inflation]], [[corruption]],<ref>{{cite web|title=A Snapshot of Corruption in Tunisia|url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/tunisia/snapshot.aspx|publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal|access-date=7 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807082724/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/tunisia/snapshot.aspx|archive-date=7 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Spencer |first=Richard |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/8258077/Tunisia-riots-US-warns-Middle-East-to-reform-or-be-overthrown.html |title=Tunisia riots: Reform or be overthrown, US tells Arab states amid fresh riots |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=13 January 2011|access-date=14 January 2011 |location=London}}</ref> a lack of [[political freedom]]s like [[freedom of speech]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Ryan|first=Yasmine |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/01/20111614145839362.html |title=Tunisia's bitter cyberwar |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref> and poor [[living conditions]].
The 84-year-old President Bourguiba was overthrown and replaced by [[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali|Ben Ali]] his Prime Minister on 7 November 1987.<ref>{{cite book |first1=John P. |last1=Entelis |chapter=Tunisia |pages=532–533 |title=The Americana Annual 1988 |year=1988 |publisher=Grolier |isbn=978-0-7172-0219-5 |oclc=17702338 |url=https://archive.org/details/americanaannual00danb }}</ref> However, the Ben Ali regime came to an end 23 years later on 14 January 2011, in the events of the [[Tunisian Revolution]], following nationwide demonstrations precipitated by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,<ref>{{cite web|title=A Snapshot of Corruption in Tunisia|url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/tunisia/snapshot.aspx|publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal|access-date=7 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807082724/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/tunisia/snapshot.aspx|archive-date=7 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Spencer |first=Richard |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/8258077/Tunisia-riots-US-warns-Middle-East-to-reform-or-be-overthrown.html |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010045358/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/8258077/Tunisia-riots-Reform-or-be-overthrown-US-tells-Arab-states-amid-fresh-riots.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 October 2017 |title=Tunisia riots: Reform or be overthrown, US tells Arab states amid fresh riots |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=13 January 2011|access-date=14 January 2011 |location=London}}</ref> a lack of [[political freedom]]s like [[freedom of speech]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Ryan|first=Yasmine |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2011/01/20111614145839362.html |title=Tunisia's bitter cyberwar |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref> and poor [[living conditions]].


Following the overthrow of Ben Ali, Tunisians elected a [[Constituent Assembly of Tunisia|Constituent Assembly]] to draft a new constitution and an interim government known as the [[Troika (Tunisia)|Troika]] because it was a coalition of three parties; the Islamist [[Ennahda Movement]] in the lead, with the centre-left [[Congress for the Republic]] and the left-leaning [[Ettakatol]] as minority partners.<ref name=ao17Jan>{{Citation|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/31906/World/Region/Tunisia-opposition-fear-Ennahda-power-grab-.aspx|title=Tunisia opposition fear Ennahda power grab|publisher=Ahram Online|date=17 January 2012|access-date=10 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/20121023195656868113.html|title=Tunisian politicians struggle to deliver|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=23 October 2012|access-date=10 January 2014}}</ref> Widespread discontent remained however, leading to the [[2013–14 Tunisian political crisis]].<ref name="Crisis Talks">{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/10/23/uk-tunisia-crisis-idUKBRE99M0ML20131023|title=Thousands protest before Tunisia crisis talks|date=23 October 2013|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-25908340|title=Tunisia assembly passes new constitution|date=January 27, 2014|publisher=BBC}}</ref> As a result of the efforts made by the [[Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet]], the Constituent Assembly completed its work, the interim government resigned, and [[Tunisian parliamentary election, 2014|new elections]] were held in 2014, completing the transition to a democratic state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAWEB20140625141745/ |title=Tunisie : les législatives fixées au 26 octobre et la présidentielle au 23 novembre |newspaper=Jeune Afrique |date=25 June 2014}}</ref> The [[Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet]] was awarded the [[2015 Nobel Peace Prize]] for "its decisive contribution to the building of a pluralistic democracy in Tunisia in the wake of the Tunisian Revolution of 2011".<ref name=PressRelease>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2015 - Press Release|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2015/press-release/|website=Nobelprize.org|publisher=Nobel Media AB 2014|access-date=9 October 2015}}</ref>
Following the overthrow of Ben Ali, Tunisians elected a [[Constituent Assembly of Tunisia|Constituent Assembly]] to draft a new constitution and an interim government known as the [[Troika (Tunisia)|Troika]] because it was a coalition of three parties; the Islamist [[Ennahda Movement]] in the lead, with the centre-left [[Congress for the Republic]] and the left-leaning [[Ettakatol]] as minority partners.<ref name=ao17Jan>{{Citation|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/31906/World/Region/Tunisia-opposition-fear-Ennahda-power-grab-.aspx|title=Tunisia opposition fear Ennahda power grab|publisher=Ahram Online|date=17 January 2012|access-date=10 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/10/20121023195656868113.html|title=Tunisian politicians struggle to deliver|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=23 October 2012|access-date=10 January 2014}}</ref> Widespread discontent remained however, leading to the [[2013–14 Tunisian political crisis]].<ref name="Crisis Talks">{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-tunisia-crisis-idUKBRE99M0ML20131023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201090644/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-tunisia-crisis-idUKBRE99M0ML20131023|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 February 2016|title=Thousands protest before Tunisia crisis talks|date=23 October 2013|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-25908340|title=Tunisia assembly passes new constitution|date=27 January 2014|publisher=BBC}}</ref> As a result of the efforts made by the [[Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet]], the Constituent Assembly completed its work, the interim government resigned, and [[Tunisian parliamentary election, 2014|new elections]] were held in 2014, completing the transition to a democratic state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAWEB20140625141745/ |title=Tunisie : les législatives fixées au 26 octobre et la présidentielle au 23 novembre |newspaper=Jeune Afrique |date=25 June 2014}}</ref> The [[Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet]] was awarded the [[2015 Nobel Peace Prize]] for "its decisive contribution to the building of a pluralistic democracy in Tunisia in the wake of the Tunisian Revolution of 2011".<ref name=PressRelease>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2015 Press Release|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2015/press-release/|website=Nobelprize.org|publisher=Nobel Media AB 2014|access-date=9 October 2015}}</ref>


Beyond the political changes, which lead to Tunisia becoming a recognised democracy in 2014,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://infographics.economist.com/2017/DemocracyIndex/ |title = EIU Democracy Index 2016}}</ref> those events also brought important changes to the [[art and politics in post-2011 Tunisia|post-2011 Tunisian culture]].
Beyond the political changes, which lead to Tunisia becoming a recognised democracy in 2014,<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://infographics.economist.com/2017/DemocracyIndex/ |title = EIU Democracy Index 2016}}</ref> those events also brought important changes to the [[art and politics in post-2011 Tunisia|post-2011 Tunisian culture]].
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== Population ==
== Population ==
{{Main|Demographics of Tunisia}}
{{Main|Demographics of Tunisia}}
Tunisians are primarily of [[Berbers|Berber]] ancestral origin (>60%).<ref name="Bhatia">{{cite book |author=Tej K. Bhatia |author2=William C. Ritchie|title=The Handbook of Bilingualism|date=2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0631227359|page=860|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=pNqVaUk4dM0C|access-date=15 August 2017}}</ref> Whilst the Ottoman influence has been particularly significant in forming the [[Turks in Tunisia|Turco-Tunisian]] community, other peoples have also migrated to Tunisia during different periods of time, including Sub-Saharan Africans, [[Greeks]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Phoenicians]] ([[Punic]]s), [[Jews]], and French settlers.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tunisia/Land#toc46604|title=Tunisia – Land {{!}} history – geography|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2017-07-07|language=en}}</ref> Nonetheless, by 1870 the distinction between the Tunisian Arabic-speaking mass and the Turkish elite had blurred.<ref>{{citation|last=Green|first=Arnold H.|year=1978|title=The Tunisian Ulama 1873–1915: Social Structure and Response to Ideological Currents|publisher=BRILL|page=69|isbn=978-90-04-05687-9}}</ref> There is also a small purely Berber (1% at most)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3509799.stm |title=Q&A: The Berbers |work=BBC News |date=12 March 2004 |access-date=19 January 2013}}</ref> population located in some villages in the south east, with little community under 5000 peoples


=== Ethnic groups ===
From the late 19th century to after World War II, Tunisia was home to large populations of [[French people|French]] and [[Italian Tunisians|Italians]] (255,000 [[European Tunisians|Europeans]] in 1956),<ref>{{cite book|author=Angus Maddison|title=Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD:Essays in Macro-Economic History: Essays in Macro-Economic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EeWy7a6nAHcC&pg=PA214|access-date=26 January 2013|date=20 September 2007|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-922721-1|page=214}}</ref> although nearly all of them, along with the Jewish population, left after Tunisia became independent. The [[history of the Jews in Tunisia]] goes back some 2,600 years. In 1948 the Jewish population was an estimated 105,000, but by 2013 only about 900 remained.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/tunisjews.html |title=The Jews of Tunisia |encyclopedia=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=11 July 2014}}</ref>
The country's population is predominantly composed of [[Arabs]] 98%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tunisia (TN) {{!}} cmecx |url=https://cmec.org.uk/explore-region/north-africa/tunisia-tn |access-date=2022-10-01 |website=cmec.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tunisia {{!}} History, Map, Flag, Population, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tunisia |access-date=2022-08-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Other ethnic groups include 1% [[European Tunisians|European]] who settled in the country and 1% of other ethnic groups, including mainly [[Berbers]]<ref name=":1" /> and sub-Saharan migrants. While Ottoman influence was particularly important in the formation of a [[Turks in Tunisia|Turkish-Tunisian]] community among the country's elites, other peoples also migrated to Tunisia over different periods of time, including but not limited to, sub-Saharans, Greeks, Romans, Phoenicians (Punics), Jews and French settlers.<ref>"Tunisia – Land | history – geography". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 7 July 2017.</ref> Nevertheless, from 1870, the distinction between the Tunisian masses and the Turkish elite became blurred.<ref>Green, Arnold H. (1978), The Tunisian Ulama 1873–1915: Social Structure and Response to Ideological Currents, BRILL, p. 69, ISBN 978-90-04-05687-9</ref> There is also a minority Berber population (1%)<ref name=":1">Q&A: The Berbers". BBC News. 12 March 2004. Retrieved 19 January 2013.</ref> mainly located in the Dahar mountains.


From the late 19th century to after World War II, Tunisia was home to large populations of French and [[Italian Tunisians|Italians]] (255,000 [[European Tunisians|Europeans]] in 1956),<ref>{{cite book|author=Angus Maddison|title=Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD:Essays in Macro-Economic History: Essays in Macro-Economic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EeWy7a6nAHcC&pg=PA214|access-date=26 January 2013|date=20 September 2007|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-922721-1|page=214}}</ref> although nearly all of them, along with the Jewish population, left after Tunisia became independent. The [[history of the Jews in Tunisia]] goes back some 2,600 years. In 1948 the Jewish population was an estimated 105,000, but by 2013 only about 900 remained.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/tunisjews.html |title=The Jews of Tunisia |encyclopedia=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=11 July 2014}}</ref>
===Genetic===
{{Further|Genetic history of North Africa}}
Tunisians are predominantly genetically descended from native [[Berbers|Berber]] groups, with some [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]]/[[Punic]] and other Western European as well as Middle eastern input. Tunisians are also descended, to a lesser extent, from other North African and other European peoples. In sum, a little less than 20 percent of their overall genetic material ([[Y-chromosome]] analysis) comes from the present day [[Levant]], [[Arabia]], [[Europe]] or [[sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v74_p1023-1034.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2016-05-24 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414212524/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v74_p1023-1034.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-14 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cruciani|first=Fulvio|date=May 2004|title=Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa|url= |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=74| issue = 5|pages=1014–1022|doi=10.1086/386294|pmid=15042509|access-date=24 May 2016|display-authors=etal|pmc=1181964}}</ref>

"In fact, the Tunisian genetic distances to European samples are smaller than those to other North African groups. (...) This could be explained by the history of the Tunisian population, reflecting the influence of the ancient [[Phoenicia]]n settlers of [[Carthage]] followed, among others, by [[Roman people|Roman]], [[Byzantine]], Arab and French occupations, according to historical records. Notwithstanding, other explanations cannot be discarded, such as the relative [[heterogeneity]] within current Tunisian populations, and/or the limited [[sub-Saharan]] genetic influence in this region as compared with certain other North African areas, without excluding the possibility of the [[genetic drift]], whose effect might be particularly amplified on the X chromosome.",<ref>[http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v15/n5/abs/5201797a.html The X chromosome Alu insertions as a tool for human population genetics: data from European and African human groups], Athanasiadis et al. 2007</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Tomas C, Sanchez JJ, Barbaro A |title=X-chromosome SNP analyses in 11 human Mediterranean populations show a high overall genetic homogeneity except in North-west Africans (Moroccans) |journal=BMC Evol. Biol. |volume=8|pages=75 |year=2008 |pmid=18312628 |pmc=2315647 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-8-75 |quote=Tunisians did not show a significant level of differentiation with northern populations as mentioned by others|display-authors=etal}}</ref> This suggests a fairly significant Middle Eastern and European input to Tunisian genetics compared to other neighbouring populations.

However, later research has suggested instead that Tunisians exhibit a mostly indigenous Northwest African genetic make up similar to other Northwest African populations; characterized by a high amount of native Northwest African genes, but with higher Middle Eastern input than in Algeria or Morocco.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/4137738|title=Mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosome microstructure in Tunisia|journal=Journal of Human Genetics|volume=56|issue=10|pages=734–741|last1=Benammar-Elgaaïed|first1=Amel|last2=Larruga|first2=José M.|last3=Cabrera|first3=Vicente M.|last4=Mahmoudi|first4=Hejer Abdallah El|last5=González|first5=Ana M.|last6=Khodjet-El-Khil|first6=Houssein|last7=Fregel|first7=Rosa|last8=Ennafaa|first8=Hajer|year=2011|doi=10.1038/jhg.2011.92|pmid=21833004|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Y-Chromosome===
Listed here are the [[human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups]] in Tunisia.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bekada | first1 = A | last2 = Fregel | first2 = R | last3 = Cabrera | first3 = VM | last4 = Larruga | first4 = JM | last5 = Pestano | first5 = J |display-authors=etal | year = 2013 | title = Introducing the Algerian Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Profiles into the North African Landscape | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 2| page = e56775 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0056775 | pmid=23431392 | pmc=3576335| bibcode = 2013PLoSO...856775B }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 100%"; border="1"
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''Haplogroup'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''n'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''B'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''E1a'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''E1b1a'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''E1b1b1'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''E1b1b1a3'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''E1b1b1a4'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''E1b1b1b'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''E1b1b1c'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''F'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''G'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''I'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''J1'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''J2'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''K'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''P,R'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''R1a1'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''R1b1a'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''R1b1b'''
| align="center" style="background:#f0f0f0;"|'''T'''
|-
| Marker||||||M33||M2||M35||V22||V65||M81||M34||M89||M201||||||M172||||||||V88||M269||M70
|-
| Tunisia||601||0.17||0.5||0.67||1.66||3||3.16||62.73||1.16||2.66||0.17||0.17||16.64||2.83||0.33||0.33||0.5||1.83||0.33||1.16
|-
|}


==Culture==
==Tunisian culture==
{{Main|Culture of Tunisia}}
{{Main|Culture of Tunisia}}
Tunisian culture is a product of more than three thousand years of history and an important multi-ethnic influx. [[History of Tunisia|Ancient Tunisia]] was a major civilization crossing through history; different cultures, civilizations and multiple successive dynasties contributed to the culture of the country over centuries with a varying degrees of influence. Among these cultures were the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] – their native civilization, [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ([[Roman Africans]]), [[Vandals|Vandal]], [[Jewish]], [[Christians|Christian]], [[Arab]], [[Islamic]], [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]], and [[France|French]], in addition to native [[Berber people|Amazigh]]. This unique mixture of cultures made [[Tunisia]], with its strategic geographical location in the Mediterranean, the core of some great civilizations of [[Mare Nostrum]].

The important elements of Tunisian culture are diverse and represent a unique, mixed heritage. This heritage can be experienced first-hand in: museums such as the [[Bardo Museum]], the contrast and diversity of city architecture such as [[Sidi Bou Said]] or the [[medina of Tunis]], cuisine such as cheeses and French croissants, music reflecting Andalusian and Ottoman influences, literature, cinema, religion, the arts, and sports and other areas of Tunisian culture.

===Cultural diversity===
[[File:Head man Carthage Louvre AO3783.jpg|right|thumb|Tunisian [[amulet]]]]
In his thesis study on Tunisian Cultural Policy, Rafik Said has mused that, "this relatively small area has produced estates, overlapping of cultures, and a confrontation of morals and doctrines throughout its history.<ref>Saïd (1970), p. 11</ref> Janice Rhodes Deledalle has referred to Tunisian culture as "cosmopolitan" and has said that "Tunisia cannot be considered in the category of as other colonies", because of the diversity of cultures embedded in Tunisia's heritage throughout the ages.<ref name="protée">{{cite journal|author=Deledalle-Rhodes, Janice|url=http://www.erudit.org/revue/pr/2002/v30/n2/006732ar.html|title=L'iconographie du timbre-poste tunisien pendant et après la période coloniale|journal= Protée |date=Autumn 2002|volume= 30, n°2 |issue=2|pages=61–72|doi=10.7202/006732ar|language=fr|access-date=September 10, 2009|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Cultural symbols===
===Cultural symbols===
National identity is strong and Tunisian efforts to create a national culture have proved stronger than in the nineteenth century. National culture and heritage is constantly referred to with reference to the country's modern history, in particular, the construction of the modern state that followed the French protectorate from the 1950s. This is celebrated through national holidays, in the names of streets recalling historical figures or key dates or the subject of films or documentaries.

====Flag====
====Flag====
{{Main|Flag of Tunisia}}
{{Main|Flag of Tunisia}}

The national [[flag of Tunisia]] is predominantly red and consists of a white circle in the middle containing a red [[crescent]] around a [[five-pointed star]]. The [[Hafsid dynasty]] used a similar flag during the Middle Ages, it consisted of a white crescent pointing upwards and a white five-pointed star but instead of featuring the red color it featured the yellow color.<ref>http://www.hukam.net/family.php?fam=44</ref> The crescent and star might also recall the [[Ottoman flag]] as an indication of Tunisia's history as a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="floal">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Whitney|title=Flag Lore Of All Nations|year=2001|publisher=Millbrook Press|location=[[Brookfield, Connecticut|Brookfield]], [[Connecticut]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/flagloreofallnat00smit/page/94 94]|isbn=978-0-7613-1753-1|oclc=45330090|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/flagloreofallnat00smit/page/94}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/FR/BelgeGoster.aspx?4C64CBA40EAEACBD7A2395174CFB32E11D03BF0F1177D1C0 |title=Les Drapeaux d'Ottoman |publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey |language=fr |access-date=September 10, 2009 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712103858/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/FR/BelgeGoster.aspx?4C64CBA40EAEACBD7A2395174CFB32E11D03BF0F1177D1C0 |archive-date=July 12, 2014 }}</ref>
The national [[flag of Tunisia]] is predominantly red and consists of a white circle in the middle containing a red [[crescent]] around a [[five-pointed star]]. The [[Hafsid dynasty]] used a similar flag during the Middle Ages, it consisted of a white crescent pointing upwards and a white five-pointed star but instead of featuring the red color it featured the yellow color.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hukam.net/family.php?fam=44|title = الحفصيون/بنو حفص في تونس، بجاية وقسنطينة}}</ref> The crescent and star might also recall the [[Ottoman flag]] as an indication of Tunisia's history as a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="floal">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Whitney|title=Flag Lore Of All Nations|year=2001|publisher=Millbrook Press|location=[[Brookfield, Connecticut|Brookfield]], Connecticut|page=[https://archive.org/details/flagloreofallnat00smit/page/94 94]|isbn=978-0-7613-1753-1|oclc=45330090|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/flagloreofallnat00smit/page/94}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/FR/BelgeGoster.aspx?4C64CBA40EAEACBD7A2395174CFB32E11D03BF0F1177D1C0 |title=Les Drapeaux d'Ottoman |publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey |language=fr |access-date=10 September 2009 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712103858/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/FR/BelgeGoster.aspx?4C64CBA40EAEACBD7A2395174CFB32E11D03BF0F1177D1C0 |archive-date=12 July 2014 }}</ref>
Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state of [[Carthage]], located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries, and have become known as symbols of Islam, when in fact, they may be cultural symbols.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1355552/flag-of-Tunisia|title=Flag of Tunisia|last=Smith|first=Whitney|author-link=Whitney Smith|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=2008-07-26}}</ref> Likewise, the sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancient [[Punic religion]], especially with the [[Sign of Tanit]].<ref>''The Phoenician solar theology'' by Joseph Azize, page 177.</ref>
Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state of [[Carthage]], located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries. The sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancient [[Punic religion]], especially with the [[Sign of Tanit]].<ref>''The Phoenician solar theology'' by Joseph Azize, page 177.</ref>


====Coat of arms====
====Coat of arms====
{{Main|Coat of arms of Tunisia}}
{{Main|Coat of arms of Tunisia}}

As for the national coat of arms, they are officially adopted in 1861 and include revised versions on June 21, 1956 and May 30, 1963. The top has a Carthaginian galley sailing on the sea while the lower part is divided vertically and on the right depicts a black lion seizing a silver scimitar. A banner bears the national motto: "Liberty, Order, Justice".
As for the national coat of arms, they are officially adopted in 1861 and include revised versions on 21 June 1956, and 30 May 1963. The top has a Carthaginian galley sailing on the sea while the lower part is divided vertically and on the right depicts a black lion seizing a silver scimitar. A banner bears the national motto: "Liberty, Order, Justice".{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}


====Jasmine====
====Jasmine====
[[File:Khamsa.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Tunisia]]n hamsa]]
[[File:Khamsa.jpg|upright|thumb|Tunisian [[hamsa]]]]
Imported by the Andalusians in the sixteenth century, [[jasmine]] has become the national flower of Tunisia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Auzias, Dominique; Boschero, Laurent; Richemont, Blanche de et Calonne, Christiane|title=''Le Petit Futé Tunisie. 2007–2008''|publisher= éd. Le Petit Futé, Paris|year=2008|page=13|language=fr}}</ref> The gathering takes place at dawn and then, upon nightfall, when young boys collect small bouquets, and later sell them to passersby on the street or to motorists stopped at intersections.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/panorama_txt08.html |title=La Tunisie de A à Z, Jasmin |publisher=Saisons tunisiennes |access-date=September 10, 2009 |language=fr |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091020103320/http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/panorama_txt08.html |archive-date=October 20, 2009 }}</ref>
Imported by the Andalusians in the sixteenth century, [[jasmine]] has become the national flower of Tunisia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Auzias, Dominique; Boschero, Laurent; Richemont, Blanche de et Calonne, Christiane|title=''Le Petit Futé Tunisie. 2007–2008''|publisher= éd. Le Petit Futé, Paris|year=2008|page=13|language=fr}}</ref> The gathering takes place at dawn and then, upon nightfall, when young boys collect small bouquets, and later sell them to passersby on the street or to motorists stopped at intersections.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/panorama_txt08.html |title=La Tunisie de A à Z, Jasmin |publisher=Saisons tunisiennes |access-date=10 September 2009 |language=fr |url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091020103320/http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/panorama_txt08.html |archive-date=20 October 2009 }}</ref>


Furthermore, jasmine is the subject of a specific sign language. A man who wears jasmine on his left ear indicates that he is single and in addition, offering white jasmine is seen as a proof of love while on the contrary, offering odorless winter jasmine is a sign of insolence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aujardin.info/plantes/jasmin_hiver.php|title=Jasmin d'hiver|publisher=Au jardin|access-date=September 10, 2009|language=fr}}</ref>
Furthermore, jasmine is the subject of a specific sign language. A man who wears jasmine on his left ear indicates that he is single and in addition, offering white jasmine is seen as a proof of love while on the contrary, offering odorless winter jasmine is a sign of insolence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aujardin.info/plantes/jasmin_hiver.php|title=Jasmin d'hiver|publisher=Au jardin|access-date=10 September 2009|language=fr}}</ref>


====Hamsa====
====Hamsa====
{{Main|Hamsa}}
{{Main|Hamsa}}
The '''hamsa''' ({{lang-aeb|خمسة}}, also romanized '''khamsa''') is a palm-shaped [[amulet]] popular in [[Tunisia]] and more generally in the [[Maghreb]], and commonly used in [[jewelry]] and wall hangings.<ref name=Bernasekp12>Bernasek et al., 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=584VAQAAIAAJ&q=khamsa+%22middle+east%22+%22north+africa%22&dq=khamsa+%22middle+east%22+%22north+africa%22&hl=en&ei=_imrTe6mEMeSswbg7uSZCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBDgK p. 12].</ref><ref name=Sonbolp355>Sonbol, 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uUe8tBUvwE4C&pg=PA355&dq=%22hand+of+fatima%22+evil+eye&hl=en&ei=_NyrTaeKNsrZsgaAm9j7Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22hand%20of%20fatima%22%20evil%20eye&f=false pp. 355–359].</ref> Depicting the open right hand, an image recognized and used as a sign of protection in many times throughout history, the hamsa is believed to provide defense against the [[evil eye]]. It has been theorized that its origins lie in [[Carthage]] (modern-day Tunisia) and may have been associated with the Goddess [[Tanit]].<ref name="Cuthbert2015">{{cite book|last=Cuthbert|first=Roland|title=The Esoteric Codex: Amulets and Talismans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0eaJCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|year=2015|publisher=Lulu.com|location=Raleigh, NC|isbn=978-1-329-50204-8|page=49}}</ref>


The hamsa ({{langx|aeb|خمسة}}, also romanized khamsa) is a palm-shaped [[amulet]] popular in Tunisia and more generally in the [[Maghreb]], and commonly used in jewelry and wall hangings.<ref name="Bernasekp12">Bernasek et al., 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=584VAQAAIAAJ&q=khamsa+%22middle+east%22+%22north+africa%22 p. 12].</ref><ref name="Sonbolp355">Sonbol, 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uUe8tBUvwE4C&dq=%22hand+of+fatima%22+evil+eye&pg=PA355 pp. 355–359].</ref> Depicting the open right hand, an image recognized and used as a sign of protection in many times throughout history, the hamsa is believed to provide defense against the [[evil eye]]. It has been theorized that its origins lie in [[Carthage]] (modern-day Tunisia) and may have been associated with the Goddess [[Tanit]].<ref name="Cuthbert2015">{{cite book|last=Cuthbert|first=Roland|title=The Esoteric Codex: Amulets and Talismans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0eaJCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|year=2015|publisher=Lulu.com|location=Raleigh, NC|isbn=978-1-329-50204-8|page=49}}</ref>
====Sign of Tanit====

{{Main|Sign of Tanit}}
====Chechia====
The sign of Tanit is an [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorph]] [[symbol]] present on many archaeological remains of the [[Carthage|Punic Civilization]].<ref>Edward Lipinski [sous la dir. de], ''Dictionnaire de la civilisation phénicienne et punique'', éd. Brepols, Turnhout, 1992</ref> Both the symbol and the name of the goddess [[Tanit]], are still frequently used within Tunisian culture such as with the tradition of [[Omek Tannou]]<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Rezgui| first1 = Sadok |title = Les chants tunisiens|publisher = Maison tunisienne de l'édition, Tunis| year = 1989}}</ref> or the grand film prize of the [[Tanit d'or]].<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0094229/awards IMDb, awards]</ref> Some scholars also relate the name of the capital [[Tunis]] and by extension the one of the modern country and its people to the Phoenician goddess ''Tanith'' ('Tanit or Tanut), as many ancient cities were named after patron deities.<ref name="adrian">
{{Main|Chechia}}
{{cite book

| last = Room
The Chechia is the national headgear of Tunisia. Supple and cylindrical in shape, the chechia was imported into Tunisia in its current form from Spain, by the [[Moors]] expelled after the capture of [[Granada (Spain)|Granada]] in 1492. Finding in Tunisia a second homeland, they establish the [[craft]] of the chechia there. After the independence of Tunisia in 1956 and with the arrival of manufactured goods and [[Norm (social)|custom]]s from the Europe, the wearing of the chechia tends to be limited to holidays and religious festivals; it is often associated with the elderly.<ref name="MGB">{{cite web |url=http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/fr/features/awi/reportage/2007/03/16/reportage-01|title=Le chéchia tunisien lutte pour survivre |website=Magharebia |date=16 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010130401/http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/fr/features/awi/reportage/2007/03/16/reportage-01 |archive-date=10 October 2008 |access-date=19 July 2022}}.</ref>
| first = Adrian
| title = Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites
| publisher = McFarland
| year = 2006
| page = 385
| isbn = 978-0-7864-2248-7 }}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| last = Taylor
| first = Isaac
| title = Names and Their Histories: A Handbook of Historical Geography and Topographical Nomenclature
| publisher = BiblioBazaar, LLC
| year = 2008
| page = 281
| isbn = 978-0-559-29668-0 }}
</ref>


===Language===
===Language===
{{main|Languages of Tunisia|Tunisian Arabic|Francophonie}}
{{main|Languages of Tunisia|Tunisian Arabic|Francophonie}}
Tunisian people are homogeneous in terms of language,<ref name="Laval">{{cite web|url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/AFRIQUE/tunisie.htm|title=Aménagement linguistique en Tunisie|publisher=University of Laval|language=fr|access-date=September 10, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090602221152/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/tunisie.htm|archive-date=June 2, 2009}}</ref> since nearly all of them speak [[Tunisian Arabic|Tunisian]] as their mother-tongue in addition to mastering French and/or Arabic.<ref>{{cite web|title=La langue française dans le monde, Édition 2014.|url=https://www.francophonie.org/Langue-Francaise-2014/projet/Rapport-OIF-2014.pdf|pages=16–19<!--endif p.totales-->|access-date=2019-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924015639/http://www.francophonie.org/Langue-Francaise-2014/projet/Rapport-OIF-2014.pdf|archive-date=2015-09-24|url-status=dead}}.</ref> The Tunisian language is built upon a significant [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Latin]] ([[African Romance]])<ref name="mohand">{{in lang|fr}} Tilmatine Mohand, ''Substrat et convergences: Le berbére et l'arabe nord-africain'' (1999), in ''Estudios de dialectologia norteafricana y andalusi 4'', pp 99–119</ref><ref name="corrient">{{in lang|es}} Corriente, F. (1992). Árabe andalusí y lenguas romances. Fundación MAPFRE.</ref> and [[Punic language|Neo-Punic]]<ref name="maghribi">{{Cite journal|title =' 'Le maghribi, langue trois fois millénaire''|url = http://insaniyat.revues.org/12102|publisher = ELIMAM, Abdou (Éd. ANEP, Algiers 1997), Insaniyat|date=1998|pages=129–130|first = Abdou|last = Elimam|journal = Insaniyat / إنسانيات. Revue Algérienne d'Anthropologie et de Sciences Sociales|issue = 6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Contact, Restructuring, and Decreolization:The Case of Tunisian Arabic|url = https://www.ldc.upenn.edu/sites/www.ldc.upenn.edu/files/leddy-cecere-thesis.pdf|publisher = Linguistic Data Consortium, Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Languages and Literatures|date=2010|pages=10–12–50–77|first = Thomas|last = A. Leddy-Cecere}}</ref> [[Stratum (linguistics)#Substratum|substratum]], while its vocabulary is mostly derived from a morphological corruption of [[Arabic]], [[French language|French]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Italian language|Italian]] and the [[languages of Spain]].<ref name="cota">[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ines_Zribi2/publication/270568583_A_Conventional_Orthography_for_Tunisian_Arabic/links/54ad65b90cf2828b29fc7aea.pdf Zribi, I., Boujelbane, R., Masmoudi, A., Ellouze, M., Belguith, L., & Habash, N. (2014). A Conventional Orthography for Tunisian Arabic. In Proceedings of the Language Resources and Evaluation Conference (LREC), Reykjavik, Iceland.]</ref> [[Multilingualism]] within Tunisia and in the [[Tunisian diaspora]] makes it common for Tunisians to [[code-switching|code-switch]], mixing Tunisian with French, English or other languages in daily speech.<ref name="dig">{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/14664200108668018 | volume=2 | title=The Language Situation in Tunisia | year=2001 | journal=Current Issues in Language Planning | pages=1–52 | last1 = Daoud | first1 = Mohamed| s2cid=144429547 }}</ref>


Tunisian Arabic is a set of [[dialect]]s of [[Maghrebi Arabic]] spoken in Tunisia. In addition to mastering French.<ref>{{cite web|title=La langue française dans le monde, Édition 2014.|url=https://www.francophonie.org/Langue-Francaise-2014/projet/Rapport-OIF-2014.pdf|pages=16–19<!--endif p.totales-->|access-date=2019-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924015639/http://www.francophonie.org/Langue-Francaise-2014/projet/Rapport-OIF-2014.pdf|archive-date=2015-09-24|url-status=dead}}.</ref> In the [[Tunisian diaspora]] makes it common for Tunisians to [[code-switching|code-switch]], mixing Arabic with French, English or other languages in daily speech.<ref name="dig">{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/14664200108668018 | volume=2 | title=The Language Situation in Tunisia | year=2001 | journal=Current Issues in Language Planning | pages=1–52 | last1 = Daoud | first1 = Mohamed| s2cid=144429547 }}</ref>
Moreover, Tunisian is closely related to the [[Maltese language]],<ref>Borg and Azzopardi-Alexander ''Maltese'' (1997:xiii) "The immediate source for the Arabic vernacular spoken in Malta was Muslim Sicily, but its ultimate origin appears to have been Tunisia. In fact, Maltese displays some areal traits typical of Maghrebi Arabic although during the past 800 years of independent evolution it has drifted apart from Tunisian Arabic".</ref> that descended from Tunisian and [[Siculo-Arabic]].<ref name="maltese">Borg, Albert J.; Azzopardi-Alexander, Marie (1997). Maltese. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-02243-6}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tourismtunisia.com/the-language-in-tunisia/|title=The Language in Tunisia, Tunisia {{!}} TourismTunisia.com|website=www.tourismtunisia.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-31}}</ref>

Moreover, Tunisian Arabic is closely related to the [[Maltese language]],<ref>Borg and Azzopardi-Alexander ''Maltese'' (1997:xiii) "The immediate source for the Arabic vernacular spoken in Malta was Muslim Sicily, but its ultimate origin appears to have been Tunisia. In fact, Maltese displays some areal traits typical of Maghrebi Arabic although during the past 800 years of independent evolution it has drifted apart from Tunisian Arabic".</ref> that descended from [[Maghrebi Arabic]] and [[Siculo-Arabic]].<ref name="maltese">Borg, Albert J.; Azzopardi-Alexander, Marie (1997). Maltese. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-02243-6}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tourismtunisia.com/the-language-in-tunisia/|title=The Language in Tunisia, Tunisia {{!}} TourismTunisia.com|website=www.tourismtunisia.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-31}}</ref>


=== Gastronomy ===
=== Gastronomy ===
{{Main|Tunisian cuisine|Tunisian wine}}
{{Main|Tunisian cuisine|Tunisian wine}}

[[File:Fish couscous from Kerkenah, Tunisia, August 16th, 2007.jpg|right|thumb|[[Couscous]] with [[Kerkennah]] fish]]
[[File:Fish couscous from Kerkenah, Tunisia, August 16th, 2007.jpg|right|thumb|[[Couscous]] with [[Kerkennah]] fish]]


Tunisian cuisine is a blend of [[Mediterranean cuisine]] and traditions. Its distinctive spicy fieriness comes from neighbouring Mediterranean countries and the many civilizations who have ruled Tunisian land: [[ancient Rome|Roman]]s, [[Vandals]], [[Byzantine]]s, [[Arab]]s, [[Spain|Spanish]], [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]], [[Italy|Italians]] ([[Sicilians]]), [[France|French]], and the native [[Punics]]-[[Berber people]]. Tunisian food uses a variety of ingredients and in different ways. The main dish that is served in Tunisia is [[Couscous]], made of minuscule grains that are cooked and usually served with meat and vegetables. In cooking they also use a variety of flavors such as: [[olive oil]], [[aniseed]], [[coriander]], [[cumin]], [[caraway]], [[cinnamon]], [[saffron]], [[Mentha|mint]], [[Orange (fruit)|orange]], [[blossom]], and rose water.
Tunisian cuisine is a blend of [[Mediterranean cuisine]] and traditions. Its distinctive spicy fieriness comes from neighbouring Mediterranean countries and the many civilizations who have ruled Tunisian land: [[ancient Rome|Roman]]s, [[Vandals]], [[Byzantine]]s, [[Arab]]s, Spanish, [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]], Italians ([[Sicilians]]), French, and the native [[Punics]]-[[Berber people]]. Tunisian food uses a variety of ingredients and in different ways. The main dish that is served in Tunisia is [[Couscous]], made of minuscule grains that are cooked and usually served with meat and vegetables. In cooking they also use a variety of flavors such as: [[olive oil]], [[aniseed]], [[coriander]], [[cumin]], [[caraway]], [[cinnamon]], [[saffron]], [[Mentha|mint]], orange, [[blossom]], and rose water.


Like all Mediterranean cultures, Tunisian culture offers a "sun cuisine", based mainly on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, seafood (a wide range of fish) and meat from rearing (lamb).
Like all Mediterranean cultures, Tunisian culture offers a "sun cuisine", based mainly on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, seafood (a wide range of fish) and meat from rearing (lamb).{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}


===Architecture===
===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Tunisia}}
Tunisian architecture is traditionally expressed in various facets in Tunisia through [[Roman architecture]] and [[Islamic architecture]]. Through many buildings, [[Kairouan]] forms the epicenter of an architectural movement expressing the relationship between buildings and spirituality with the ornamental decoration of religious buildings in the holy city. In [[Djerba]], the architecture such as the fortress of [[El Kef|Kef]] reflects the military and spiritual destiny of a [[Sufi]] influence in the region.


Tunisian architecture is traditionally expressed in various facets in Tunisia through [[Roman architecture]] and [[Islamic architecture]]. Through many buildings, [[Kairouan]] forms the epicenter of an architectural movement expressing the relationship between buildings and spirituality with the ornamental decoration of religious buildings in the holy city. In [[Djerba]], the architecture such as the fortress of [[El Kef|Kef]] reflects the military and spiritual destiny of a [[Sufi]] influence in the region.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}
[[File:Kairouan barbier05.jpg|left|thumb|Mosque in [[Kairouan]]]]


The influential role of the various dynasties that ruled the country, particularly in building cities and princes of Raqqada Mahdia, illuminates the role of the geopolitical context in the architectural history of the country. Thus, many original fortresses that protected the coast from Byzantine invasions evolved into cities, like [[Monastir, Tunisia|Monastir]], [[Sousse]] or [[Lamta]].
The influential role of the various dynasties that ruled the country, particularly in building cities and princes of Raqqada Mahdia, illuminates the role of the geopolitical context in the architectural history of the country. Thus, many original fortresses that protected the coast from Byzantine invasions evolved into cities, like [[Monastir, Tunisia|Monastir]], [[Sousse]] or [[Lamta]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}


The [[medina of Tunis]], is [[World Heritage Site]] of UNESCO, and is a typical example of Islamic architecture. However, in the areas between the ports of [[Bizerte]] and [[Ghar El Melh]], settlements founded by the [[Moors]] fleeing Andalusia were reconquered by Catholic sovereigns and has more of a Christian influence.
The [[medina of Tunis]], is [[World Heritage Site]] of UNESCO, and is a typical example of Islamic architecture. However, in the areas between the ports of [[Bizerte]] and [[Ghar El Melh]], settlements founded by the [[Moors]] fleeing Andalusia were reconquered by Catholic sovereigns and has more of a Christian influence.
Given the cosmopolitan nature of cities in Tunisia, they have retained a diversity and juxtaposition of styles. Many buildings were designed by many different architects, artisans and entrepreneurs during the French protectorate. Among the most famous architects of that time were [[Victor Valensi]], [[Guy Raphael]], [[Henri Saladin]], [[Joss Ellenon]] and [[Jean-Emile Resplandy]].<ref name="Borsali">Noura Borsali, « Le mois du patrimoine. Que soit sauvegardée la richesse architecturale de nos villes », ''Réalités'', n°1062, 4 mai 2006</ref> Five distinct architectural and decorative styles are particularly popular: those of the eclectic style ([[Neoclassical architecture|neo-classical]], [[baroque]], etc..) Between 1881 and 1900 and then again until 1920 the style was neo-Mauresque, between 1925 and 1940 it was in the [[Art Deco]] style and then the modernist style between 1943 and 1947.<ref name="Borsali" />

[[File:Tozeur - Medina's entrance.jpg|thumb|right|Medina of [[Tozeur]]]]

Given the cosmopolitan nature of cities in Tunisia, they have retained a diversity and juxtaposition of styles. Many buildings were designed by many different architects, artisans and entrepreneurs during the French protectorate. Among the most famous architects of that time were [[Victor Valensi]], [[Guy Raphael]], [[Henri Saladin]], [[Joss Ellenon]] and [[Jean-Emile Resplandy]].<ref name="Borsali">Noura Borsali, « Le mois du patrimoine. Que soit sauvegardée la richesse architecturale de nos villes », ''Réalités'', n°1062, 4 mai 2006</ref> Five distinct architectural and decorative styles are particularly popular: those of the eclectic style ([[Neoclassical architecture|neo-classical]], [[baroque]], etc..) Between 1881 and 1900 and then again until 1920 the style was neo-Mauresque, between 1925 and 1940 it was in the [[Art Deco]] style and then the modernist style between 1943 and 1947.<ref name="Borsali"/>


===Music===
===Music===
{{Main|Music of Tunisia}}
{{Main|Music of Tunisia}}

[[File:Bendir.jpg|left|150px|thumb|Tunisian [[Bendir]] (frame drum) with snare]]
[[File:Bendir.jpg|left|150px|thumb|Tunisian [[Bendir]] (frame drum) with snare]]
According to [[Mohammed Abdel Wahab]], Tunisian music has been influenced by old Andalusian songs injected with Turkish, Persian and Greek influences. Of major note in Tunisian classical music is the Malouf. Deriving from the reign of the [[Aghlabids]] in the 15th century, it is a particular type of Andalusian music. In urban areas it uses stringed instruments ([[fiddle]], [[oud]] and [[Qanun (instrument)|Kanun]]) and percussion ([[darbuka]]) while in rural areas, it may also be accompanied by instruments like the [[mezoued]], [[gasba]] and the [[zurna]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/panorama_txt07.html|title=La Tunisie de A à Z, Instruments de musique|publisher=Saisons tunisiennes|language=fr|access-date=September 10, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.is/20081121025123/http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/panorama_txt07.html|archive-date=November 21, 2008}}</ref>
According to [[Mohammed Abdel Wahab]], Tunisian music has been influenced by old Andalusian songs injected with Turkish, Persian and Greek influences. Of major note in Tunisian classical music is the Malouf. Deriving from the reign of the [[Aghlabids]] in the 15th century, it is a particular type of Andalusian music. In urban areas it uses stringed instruments ([[fiddle]], [[oud]] and [[Qanun (instrument)|Kanun]]) and percussion ([[darbuka]]) while in rural areas, it may also be accompanied by instruments like the [[mezoued]], [[gasba]] and the [[zurna]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/panorama_txt07.html|title=La Tunisie de A à Z, Instruments de musique|publisher=Saisons tunisiennes|language=fr|access-date=10 September 2009|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://archive.today/20081121025123/http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/panorama_txt07.html|archive-date=21 November 2008}}</ref>


The emergence of new patterns of racial and improvised music since the late 1990s changed the musical landscape of Tunisia. At the same time, the majority of the population is attracted by the music of Levantine origin (Egyptian, Lebanese or Syrian). Popular western music has also had major success with the emergence of many groups and festivals, including [[rock music]], [[hip hop]], [[reggae]] and [[jazz]].
The emergence of new patterns of racial and improvised music since the late 1990s changed the musical landscape of Tunisia. At the same time, the majority of the population is attracted by the music of Levantine origin (Egyptian, Lebanese or Syrian). Popular western music has also had major success with the emergence of many groups and festivals, including rock music, [[hip hop]], [[reggae]] and [[jazz]].


Among the major Tunisian contemporary artists include [[Hedi Habbouba]], [[Saber Rebaï]], [[Dhafer Youssef]], [[Belgacem Bouguenna]], [[Sonia M'barek]] and [[Latifa (singer)|Latifa]]. Other notable musicians include [[Salah El Mahdi]], [[Anouar Brahem]], [[Zied Gharsa]] and [[Lotfi Bouchnak]].
Among the major Tunisian contemporary artists include [[Hedi Habbouba]], [[Saber Rebaï]], [[Dhafer Youssef]], [[Belgacem Bouguenna]], [[Sonia M'barek]] and [[Latifa (singer)|Latifa]]. Other notable musicians include [[Salah El Mahdi]], [[Anouar Brahem]], [[Zied Gharsa]] and [[Lotfi Bouchnak]].
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===Cinema===
===Cinema===
{{main|Cinema of Tunisia}}
{{main|Cinema of Tunisia}}

Tunisian cinema is today recognized as one of the most liberal, most inventive (and one of the most prize-winning) cinemas of Africa and the Middle-east. Since the 90s, Tunisia became an attractive place for filming and numerous companies emerged, serving the foreign film industry and became successful.<ref name="cff">[http://www.jccarthage.org/eng/cinema_tunisien.php History of Tunisian Cinema] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028003651/http://www.jccarthage.org/eng/cinema_tunisien.php |date=October 28, 2008 }}</ref> Tunisia also hosts the [[Carthage Film Festival]] which has been taking place since 1966. The festival gives priority to films from African and Middle-eastern countries. It is the oldest film festival on the African continent.<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Carthage_Film_Festival/ Carthage Film Festival Page on IMDB]</ref>
Tunisian cinema is today recognized as one of the most liberal, most inventive (and one of the most prize-winning) cinemas of Africa and the Middle-east. Since the 90s, Tunisia became an attractive place for filming and numerous companies emerged, serving the foreign film industry and became successful.<ref name="cff">[http://www.jccarthage.org/eng/cinema_tunisien.php History of Tunisian Cinema] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028003651/http://www.jccarthage.org/eng/cinema_tunisien.php |date=28 October 2008 }}</ref> Tunisia also hosts the [[Carthage Film Festival]] which has been taking place since 1966. The festival gives priority to films from African and Middle-eastern countries. It is the oldest film festival on the African continent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Carthage_Film_Festival/|title=Carthage Film Festival Page |website=[[IMDb]]}}</ref>


===Theatre===
===Theatre===
In over a century of existence, Tunisian theatre hosted or gave birth to big names, such as [[Sarah Bernhardt]], [[Pauline Carton]], [[Gérard Philipe]] and [[Jean Marais]] to mention a few.<ref name="théâtre municipal">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/culture.html Culture tunisienne, « Théâtre municipal de Tunis », ''Saisons tunisiennes''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528103351/http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/culture.html|date=2008-05-28}}</ref> On November 7, 1962, [[Habib Bourguiba]], whose brother is a playwright, devoted his speech to this art,<ref>Yves Lacoste et Camille Lacoste-Dujardin [sous la dir. de], ''L’état du Maghreb'', éd. La Découverte, Paris, 1991, p. 321</ref> which he considers "a powerful means of disseminating culture and a most effective means of popular education".<ref>Saïd (1970), p. 53</ref> From this date, November 7 is regarded as the Tunisian National Day of drama.<ref>Saïd (1970), p. 54</ref>
In over a century of existence, Tunisian theatre hosted or gave birth to big names, such as [[Sarah Bernhardt]], [[Pauline Carton]], [[Gérard Philipe]] and [[Jean Marais]] to mention a few.<ref name="théâtre municipal">{{Cite web|url=http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/culture.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528103351/http://www.saisonstunisiennes.com/culture.html |url-status=usurped |title=saisonstunisiennes.com|archive-date=28 May 2008|website=www.saisonstunisiennes.com}}</ref> On 7 November 1962, [[Habib Bourguiba]], whose brother is a playwright, devoted his speech to this art,<ref>Yves Lacoste et Camille Lacoste-Dujardin [sous la dir. de], ''L’état du Maghreb'', éd. La Découverte, Paris, 1991, p. 321</ref> which he considers "a powerful means of disseminating culture and a most effective means of popular education".<ref>Saïd (1970), p. 53{{full citation needed|date=November 2021}}</ref> From this date, 7 November is regarded as the Tunisian National Day of drama.<ref>Saïd (1970), p. 54{{full citation needed|date=November 2021}}</ref>


===Dance===
===Dance===
[[File:Troupe folklorique 2.jpg|thumb|Folklore Troupe of Kerkennah]]
[[File:Troupe folklorique 2.jpg|thumb|Folklore troupe of Kerkennah]]
The variety of dances performed by the Tunisians probably reflects the migration flows that have traversed the country throughout the centuries. Thus, the early [[Phoenicians]] brought with them their songs and dances, whose traces are rooted in the region of Tunis, while the Romans have left few traces of art in relation to their architectural contribution.<ref>Hosni (1996), p. 143</ref> Religious dances were influenced by [[Sufism]] but by the end of the 15th century, had progressively become Andalusian with their dances and urban music.
The variety of dances performed by the Tunisians probably reflects the migration flows that have traversed the country throughout the centuries. Thus, the early [[Phoenicians]] brought with them their songs and dances, whose traces are rooted in the region of Tunis, while the Romans have left few traces of art in relation to their architectural contribution.<ref>Hosni (1996), p. 143{{full citation needed|date=November 2021}}</ref> Religious dances were influenced by [[Sufism]] but by the end of the 15th century, had progressively become Andalusian with their dances and urban music.


Oriental dance would arrive later with the Ottomans, although some experts in the history of Northwest African art have said it was brought to Tunisia by the first Turkish corsairs in the sixteenth century while others say that the origin of this dance goes back further to the era of matriarchy in [[Mesopotamia]] and founded by the early Phoenicians.<ref>Hosni (1996), p.144</ref> This form of oriental dance usually performed in Tunisia insists on the movements of the [[human pelvis|pelvis]] in rhythm, movement highlighted by the elevation of the arms to horizontal, and feet moving in rhythm and transferring weight onto the right leg or left.<ref name="Hafsi">Bedhioufi Hafsi, « Enjeux privés et sociaux du corps », ''Unité et diversité. Les identités culturelles dans le jeu de la mondialisation'', éd. L’Harmattan, Paris, 2002, p. 321</ref>
Oriental dance would arrive later with the Ottomans, although some experts in the history of Northwest African art have said it was brought to Tunisia by the first Turkish corsairs in the sixteenth century while others say that the origin of this dance goes back further to the era of matriarchy in [[Mesopotamia]] and founded by the early Phoenicians.<ref>Hosni (1996), p.144{{full citation needed|date=November 2021}}</ref> This form of oriental dance usually performed in Tunisia insists on the movements of the [[human pelvis|pelvis]] in rhythm, movement highlighted by the elevation of the arms to horizontal, and feet moving in rhythm and transferring weight onto the right leg or left.<ref name="Hafsi">Bedhioufi Hafsi, « Enjeux privés et sociaux du corps », ''Unité et diversité. Les identités culturelles dans le jeu de la mondialisation'', éd. L’Harmattan, Paris, 2002, p. 321</ref>


The Nuba, more rooted in popular practice, is linked to the dancers and the Kerkennah Djerba to a lesser extent.<ref name=h150>Hosni (1996), p. 150</ref> Some experts say that their dress is of Greek origin. Structured into several scenes, the dance is often accompanied by acrobatic games with jars filled with water.<ref name=h150/>
The Nuba, more rooted in popular practice, is linked to the dancers and the Kerkennah Djerba to a lesser extent.<ref name="h150">Hosni (1996), p. 150{{full citation needed|date=November 2021}}</ref> Some experts say that their dress is of Greek origin. Structured into several scenes, the dance is often accompanied by acrobatic games with jars filled with water.<ref name="h150" />


===Literature===
===Literature===
{{main|Tunisian literature}}
{{main|Tunisian literature}}

[[File:Ben Mrad - Le deuil sur la femme de Haddad.jpg|thumb|left|upright|First page of a Tunisian book (1931) by [[Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad]] (1881-1979)]]
[[File:Ben Mrad - Le deuil sur la femme de Haddad.jpg|thumb|left|upright|First page of a Tunisian book (1931) by [[Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad]] (1881–1979)]]
[[File:Tozeur AQChebbi.jpg|thumb|Bust of [[Aboul-Qacem Echebbi]] in Ras El Aïn ([[Tozeur]])]]
[[File:Tozeur AQChebbi.jpg|thumb|Bust of [[Aboul-Qacem Echebbi]] in Ras El Aïn ([[Tozeur]])]]


Among the Tunisian literary figures include [[Ali Douagi]], who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays,<ref name="tangka2">{{in lang|fr}} [http://guides.tangka.com/tunisie/Chapt8Sub1.htm Fantaisie arabe et poésie (Guide Tangka)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007040510/http://guides.tangka.com/tunisie/Chapt8Sub1.htm |date=October 7, 2011 }}</ref> [[Khraief Bashir]]<ref name="tangka2"/> and others such as [[Moncef Ghachem]], [[Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad]] or [[Mahmoud Messadi]]. As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such as [[Aboul-Qacem Echebbi]]. As for literature, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism of [[Albert Memmi]], who predicted that Tunisian literature was sentenced to die young,<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://guides.tangka.com/tunisie/Chapt8Sub1.htm Littérature francophone (Guide Tangka)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007040510/http://guides.tangka.com/tunisie/Chapt8Sub1.htm |date=October 7, 2011 }}</ref> a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad including [[Abdelwahab Meddeb]], [[Bakri Tahar]], [[Mustapha Tlili]], [[Hélé Béji]] or [[Mellah Fawzi]]. The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.
Among the Tunisian literary figures include [[Ali Douagi]], who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays,<ref name="tangka2">{{in lang|fr}} [http://guides.tangka.com/tunisie/Chapt8Sub1.htm Fantaisie arabe et poésie (Guide Tangka)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007040510/http://guides.tangka.com/tunisie/Chapt8Sub1.htm |date=7 October 2011 }}</ref> [[Khraief Bashir]]<ref name="tangka2" /> and others such as [[Moncef Ghachem]], [[Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad]] or [[Mahmoud Messadi]]. As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such as [[Aboul-Qacem Echebbi]]. As for literature, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism of [[Albert Memmi]], who predicted that Tunisian literature was sentenced to die young,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://guides.tangka.com/tunisie/Chapt8Sub1.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007040510/http://guides.tangka.com/tunisie/Chapt8Sub1.htm |url-status=dead |title=Littérature francophone (Guide Tangka)|archive-date=7 October 2011}}</ref> a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad including [[Abdelwahab Meddeb]], [[Bakri Tahar]], [[Mustapha Tlili]], [[Hélé Béji]] or [[Mellah Fawzi]]. The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.


The [[national bibliography]] lists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia.<ref name="littérature">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.culture.tn/culture/HTML/pagedentree/livre.htm Littérature tunisienne (Ministère de la Culture et de la Sauvegarde du patrimoine)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051229022530/http://www.culture.tn/culture/HTML/pagedentree/livre.htm |date=2005-12-29 }}</ref> In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007.<ref name="hzreal">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.realites.com.tn/home/Realites-Lire-Article?=&a=1085258 « 2009, l’année des rendez-vous culturels importants », ''Réalités'', 18 novembre 2008] {{dead link|date=January 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Nearly a third of the books are published for children.
The [[national bibliography]] lists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia.<ref name="littérature">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.culture.tn/culture/HTML/pagedentree/livre.htm Littérature tunisienne (Ministère de la Culture et de la Sauvegarde du patrimoine)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051229022530/http://www.culture.tn/culture/HTML/pagedentree/livre.htm |date=29 December 2005 }}</ref> In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007.<ref name="hzreal">{{Cite web|url=http://www.realites.com.tn/home/Realites-Lire-Article?=&a=1085258|title=« 2009, l'année des rendez-vous culturels importants », ''Réalités'', 18 novembre 2008}}</ref> Nearly a third of the books are published for children.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}


==Tunisian Diaspora==
==Tunisian Diaspora==
{{Main|Tunisian diaspora}}
{{Main|Tunisian diaspora}}
Statistics of the Office of Tunisians Abroad show more than 128,000 Tunisian families in Europe with a concentration in France and Germany. Young Tunisians (less than 16 years of age) represent 25% of the Tunisian community abroad.<ref name="mabrouk2">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/LIN27048lestuednome0/-France-Canada-USA-expatri%C3%A9-les-tunisiens-dans-le-monde.html Sonia Mabrouk, « Les Tunisiens dans le monde », ''Jeune Afrique'', 27 avril 2008, p. 71]</ref> Thus there is currently a rejuvenation of the Tunisian diaspora which is now in its third generation. Women represent nearly 26% of the total community.<ref name="mabrouk2"/> In France, their percentage is estimated at 38.2%. The portion of the diaspora who are over 60 years old is around 7%.


Statistics of the Office of Tunisians Abroad show more than 128,000 Tunisian families in Europe with a concentration in France and Germany. Young Tunisians (less than 16 years of age) represent 25% of the Tunisian community abroad.<ref name="mabrouk2">{{cite news |last1=Mabrouk |first1=Sonia |title=Les Tunisiens dans le monde |trans-title=Tunisians in the world |language=fr |url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/64439/societe/les-tunisiens-dans-le-monde/ |work=Jeune Afrique |date=28 April 2008 }}</ref> Thus there is currently a rejuvenation of the Tunisian diaspora which is now in its third generation. Women represent nearly 26% of the total community.<ref name="mabrouk2" /> In France, their percentage is estimated at 38.2%. The portion of the diaspora who are over 60 years old is around 7%.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}
Originally, the largest part of the Tunisians in Europe worked in sectors requiring minimal qualifications. In effect the migrants of the 1960s and 70s were less educated (mostly farmers or manual labourers).<ref name="mabrouk1">Sonia Mabrouk, « Un diplôme pour visa », ''Jeune Afrique'', 27 avril 2008, pp. 71–72</ref>


Originally, the largest part of the Tunisians in Europe worked in sectors requiring minimal qualifications. In effect the migrants of the 1960s and 70s were less educated (mostly farmers or manual labourers).<ref name="mabrouk1">{{cite news |last1=Mabrouk |first1=Sonia |title=Un diplôme pour visa |trans-title=A visa diploma |language=fr |url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/64318/politique/un-dipl-me-pour-visa/ |work=Jeune Afrique |date=28 April 2008 }}</ref>
Subsequently, the majority of Tunisians settled in France have worked in the service sector (hotels, restaurants or retail) or have headed small businesses. In 2008, Tunisia became the first of the Maghreb countries to sign a management agreement concerning the flow of migrants, at the impetus of President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]]: it provides easy access for almost 9,000 Tunisian students enrolled in French institutions,<ref name="mabrouk1"/> but also almost 500 ''titres de séjour'' (residency permits) for highly qualified individuals so that they can acquire experience in France, valid for a maximum of six years.<ref name="mabrouk1"/>


Subsequently, the majority of Tunisians settled in France have worked in the service sector (hotels, restaurants or retail) or have headed small businesses. In 2008, Tunisia became the first of the Maghreb countries to sign a management agreement concerning the flow of migrants, at the impetus of President [[Nicolas Sarkozy]]: it provides easy access for almost 9,000 Tunisian students enrolled in French institutions,<ref name="mabrouk1" /> but also almost 500 ''titres de séjour'' (residency permits) for highly qualified individuals so that they can acquire experience in France, valid for a maximum of six years.<ref name="mabrouk1" />
===Notable People of Tunisian Heritage===

===People of Tunisian Heritage===
====Prominent Historical Figures====
====Prominent Historical Figures====
[[File:Tableau farhat.jpg|thumb|[[Farhat Hached]] (1914–1952) was a Tunisian labor leader and nationalist activist who played a significant role in the struggle for Tunisia's independence from French colonial rule.]]
[[Aboul-Qacem Echebbi]], [[Abu Zakariya Yahya]], [[Ahmad I ibn Mustafa]], [[Aisha Al-Manoubya]], [[Ali Douagi]], [[Ali ibn Ziyad]], [[Asad ibn al-Furat]], [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Aziza Othmana]], [[Azzedine Alaïa]], [[Bchira Ben Mrad]], [[Beji Caid Essebsi]], [[Carlos Marcello]], [[Cato the Younger]], [[Charles Nicolle]], [[Chokri Belaid]], [[Cyprian]], [[Dido of Carthage]], [[Farhat Hached]], [[Gaiseric]], [[Habib Bourguiba]], [[Hannibal]], [[Hanno the Navigator]], [[Hasdrubal Barca]], [[Hassan ibn al-Nu'man]], [[Hayreddin Pasha]], [[Ibn Abi Zayd]], [[Ibn al-Jazzar]], [[Ibn Khaldun]], [[Ibn Rachik]], [[Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya]], [[Lamine Bey]], [[Mago (agricultural writer)]], [[Mago Barca]], [[Max Azria]], [[Mohamed Bouazizi]], [[Mohamed Brahmi]], [[Moncef Bey]], [[Moufida Bourguiba]], [[Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur]], [[Olivia of Palermo]], [[Paul Sebag]], [[Pope Victor I]], [[Radhia Haddad]], [[Rodolphe d'Erlanger]], [[Roger II of Sicily]], [[Sahnun]], [[Saint Perpetua]], [[Sophonisba]], [[Terence]], [[Tertullian]], [[Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet]] (Entity winner of the 2015 nobel peace prize) and [[Victor Perez]]
[[Aboul-Qacem Echebbi]], [[Abu Zakariya Yahya]], [[Ahmad I ibn Mustafa]], [[Aisha Al-Manoubya]], [[Ali Douagi]], [[Ali ibn Ziyad]], [[Asad ibn al-Furat]], [[Aziza Othmana]], [[Azzedine Alaïa]], [[Bchira Ben Mrad]], [[Beji Caid Essebsi]], [[Carlos Marcello]], [[Chokri Belaid]], [[Farhat Hached]], [[Habib Bourguiba]], [[Hassan ibn al-Nu'man]], [[Hayreddin Pasha]], [[Ibn Abi Zayd]], [[Ibn al-Jazzar]], [[Ibn Khaldun]], [[Ibn Rachik]], [[Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya]], [[Lamine Bey]], [[Max Azria]], [[Mohamed Bouazizi]], [[Mohamed Brahmi]], [[Moncef Bey]], [[Moufida Bourguiba]], [[Tewhida Ben Sheikh]], [[Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur]], [[Radhia Haddad]], [[Sahnun]], [[Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet]] (Entity winner of the 2015 nobel peace prize) and [[Victor Perez (Tunisian boxer)|Victor Perez]]


====Modern International Figures====
====Modern International Figures====
[[Salah Mejri]] (United States), [[Bertrand Delanoë]] (France), [[Claude Bartolone]] (France), [[Dove Attia]] (France), [[M. Salah Baouendi]] (United States), [[Poorna Jagannathan]] (United States), [[Mustapha Tlili]] (United States), [[Ferrid Kheder]] (United States), [[Oussama Mellouli]] (United States), [[Leila Ben Youssef]] (United States), [[Bushido (rapper)]] (Germany),
[[Salah Mejri]] (United States), [[Bertrand Delanoë]] (France), [[Claude Bartolone]] (France), [[Dove Attia]] (France), [[M. Salah Baouendi]] (United States), [[Poorna Jagannathan]] (United States), [[Mustapha Tlili]] (United States), [[Ferrid Kheder]] (United States), [[Oussama Mellouli]] (United States), [[Leila Ben Youssef]] (United States), [[Mounir Laroussi]] (United States), [[Bushido (rapper)]] (Germany),
[[Loco Dice]] (Germany), [[Sami Allagui]] (Germany), [[Claudia Cardinale]] (Italy), [[Änis Ben-Hatira]] (Germany), [[Mounir Chaftar]] (Germany),
[[Loco Dice]] (Germany), [[Sami Allagui]] (Germany), [[Claudia Cardinale]] (Italy), [[Änis Ben-Hatira]] (Germany), [[Mounir Chaftar]] (Germany),
[[Sofian Chahed]] (Germany), [[Nejmeddin Daghfous]] (Germany), [[Marwan Kenzari]] (Netherlands), [[Rani Khedira]] (Germany), [[Sami Khedira]] (Germany), [[Ayman]] (Germany),
[[Sofian Chahed]] (Germany), [[Nejmeddin Daghfous]] (Germany), [[Marwan Kenzari]] (Netherlands), [[Rani Khedira]] (Germany), [[Sami Khedira]] (Germany), [[Ayman]] (Germany),
[[Elyas M'Barek]] (Germany), [[Adel Tawil]] (Germany), [[Amel Karboul]] (Germany), [[Michel Boujenah]] (France), [[Tarak Ben Ammar]] (France), [[Lââm]] (France), [[Nolwenn Leroy]] (France), [[Yoann Touzghar]] (France), [[Isleym]] (France),
[[Elyas M'Barek]] (Germany), [[Adel Tawil]] (Germany), [[Amel Karboul]] (Germany), [[Michel Boujenah]] (France), [[Tarak Ben Ammar]] (France), [[Lââm]] (France), [[Yoann Touzghar]] (France), [[Isleym]] (France),
[[Hatem Ben Arfa]] (France), [[Sadek (rapper)|Sadek]] (France), [[Tunisiano]] (France), [[Afef Jnifen]] (Italy), [[Sana Hassainia]] (Canada), [[Hinda Hicks]] (England), [[Mohamed Hechmi Hamdi]] (England), [[Hend Sabry]] (Egypt), [[Ghassan bin Jiddo]] (Lebanon), [[Cyril Hanouna]] (France), [[Kev Adams]] (France) and Sabrine Bentunsi (France).
[[Hatem Ben Arfa]] (France), [[Sadek (rapper)|Sadek]] (France), [[Tunisiano]] (France), [[Afef Jnifen]] (Italy), [[Sana Hassainia]] (Canada), [[Hinda Hicks]] (England), [[Mohamed Hechmi Hamdi]] (England), [[Hend Sabry]] (Egypt), [[Ghassan bin Jiddo]] (Lebanon), [[Cyril Hanouna]] (France), [[Kev Adams]] (France), Sabrine Bentunsi (France), [[Moungi Bawendi]] (United States), [[Saïd Bouziri]] (France).


=== Links with Tunisia ===
=== Links with Tunisia ===
In Tunisia, free courses of instruction in [[Tunisian Arabic]] are organised during the summer holidays for the children of Tunisian residents abroad, who are heavily influenced by the culture of the countries in which they live. Trips are also organised for them to experience Tunisian culture, history and civilisation.
In Tunisia, free courses of instruction in [[Tunisian Arabic]] are organised during the summer holidays for the children of Tunisian residents abroad, who are heavily influenced by the culture of the countries in which they live. Trips are also organised for them to experience Tunisian culture, history and civilisation.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

===Genetic===
{{Further|Genetic history of North Africa}}

Tunisians mainly carry [[Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)|E1b1 haplogroup]] (55%) and [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|J1 haplogroup]] (34.2%).<ref name="Semino et al 20042">{{cite journal |last1=Semino |first1=Ornella |last2=Magri |first2=Chiara |last3=Benuzzi |first3=Giorgia |last4=Lin |first4=Alice A. |last5=Al-Zahery |first5=Nadia |last6=Battaglia |first6=Vincenza |last7=Maccioni |first7=Liliana |last8=Triantaphyllidis |first8=Costas |last9=Shen |first9=Peidong |last10=Oefner |first10=Peter J. |last11=Zhivotovsky |first11=Lev A. |last12=King |first12=Roy |last13=Torroni |first13=Antonio |last14=Cavalli-Sforza |first14=L. Luca |last15=Underhill |first15=Peter A. |date=1 May 2004 |title=Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=1023–1034 |doi=10.1086/386295 |pmc=1181965 |pmid=15069642 |last16=Santachiara-Benerecetti |first16=A. Silvana}}</ref><ref name="Cruciani et al 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Cruciani |first1=Fulvio |last2=La Fratta |first2=Roberta |last3=Santolamazza |first3=Piero |last4=Sellitto |first4=Daniele |last5=Pascone |first5=Roberto |last6=Moral |first6=Pedro |last7=Watson |first7=Elizabeth |last8=Guida |first8=Valentina |last9=Colomb |first9=Eliane Beraud |last10=Zaharova |first10=Boriana |last11=Lavinha |first11=João |last12=Vona |first12=Giuseppe |last13=Aman |first13=Rashid |last14=Calì |first14=Francesco |last15=Akar |first15=Nejat |date=May 2004 |title=Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=74 |issue=5 |pages=1014–1022 |doi=10.1086/386294 |pmc=1181964 |pmid=15042509 |last16=Richards |first16=Martin |last17=Torroni |first17=Antonio |last18=Novelletto |first18=Andrea |last19=Scozzari |first19=Rosaria}}</ref>

Listed here are the [[human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups]] in Tunisia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bekada |first1=Asmahan |last2=Fregel |first2=Rosa |last3=Cabrera |first3=Vicente M. |last4=Larruga |first4=José M. |last5=Pestano |first5=José |last6=Benhamamouch |first6=Soraya |last7=González |first7=Ana M. |date=19 February 2013 |title=Introducing the Algerian Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Profiles into the North African Landscape |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=e56775 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...856775B |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0056775 |pmc=3576335 |pmid=23431392 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 100%;"
! Haplogroup
! n
! B
! E1a
! E1b1a
! E1b1b1
! E1b1b1a3
! E1b1b1a4
! E1b1b1b
! E1b1b1c
! F
! G
! I
! J1
! J2
! K
! P,R
! R1a1
! R1b1a
! R1b1b
! T
|-
| Marker||||||M33||M2||M35||V22||V65||M81||M34||M89||M201||||||M172||||||||V88||M269||M70
|-
| Tunisia||601||0.17||0.5||0.67||1.66||3||3.16||62.73||1.16||2.66||0.17||0.17||16.64||2.83||0.33||0.33||0.5||1.83||0.33||1.16
|-
|}

Elkamel, Sarra et al. (2021) wrote that: "Considering Tunisian populations as a whole, the majority part of their paternal haplogroups are of autochthonous Berber origin (71.67%), which co-exists with others assumedly from the Middle East (18.35%) and to a lesser extent from Sub-Saharan Africa (5.2%), Europe (3.45%) and Asia (1.33%)."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elkamel |first1=Sarra |last2=Marques |first2=Sofia L. |last3=Alvarez |first3=Luis |last4=Gomes |first4=Veronica |last5=Boussetta |first5=Sami |last6=Mourali-Chebil |first6=Soufia |last7=Khodjet-El-Khil |first7=Houssein |last8=Cherni |first8=Lotfi |last9=Benammar-Elgaaied |first9=Amel |last10=Prata |first10=Maria J. |date=December 2021 |title=Insights into the Middle Eastern paternal genetic pool in Tunisia: high prevalence of T-M70 haplogroup in an Arab population |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=15728 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-95144-x |pmc=8333252 |pmid=34344940}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
Line 304: Line 316:
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Tunisian people| ]]
[[Category:Tunisian diaspora]]
[[Category:Tunisian people by ethnic or national origin]]
[[Category:Tunisian people by descent]]
[[Category:Society of Tunisia]]
[[Category:North African people]]

Latest revision as of 04:35, 24 December 2024

Tunisians
توانسة (Tawānisa, dialectal Tweensa)
تونسيون (Tūnisiyyūn)
Total population
c. 14.2 million[a]
Regions with significant populations
 Tunisia      ~12,400,000
(2014 census)[1]
 Italy319,000 (includes ancestry)[2][3]
 France283,000[4][5] [6][5][2][6]
 Germany195,000[2]
 United States175,685[7][8]
 Israel120,700 (includes ancestry)[9]
 Libya68,952[2]
 Canada25,650[2]
 Belgium and  Luxembourg24,810[2]
 Turkey20,000
 United Arab Emirates19,361[2]
 Algeria18,796[2]
 Saudi Arabia16,774[2]
  Switzerland16,667[2][10]
 Netherlands8,776[2]
 Sweden8,704[2]
 Qatar31,540[2]
 United Kingdom and  Ireland10,797[2]
 Austria,  Croatia,  Slovakia, and  Slovenia7,921[2]
 Oman5,693
 Morocco4,570
 Spain3,722
 Kuwait3,500
 Egypt3,413
 Bahrain1,605
 Norway1,540
 Romania1,352
 Poland1,340
 Lebanon1,323
 Brazil1,253[11]
 Greece981
 Jordan950
 Japan757[12]
 Australia514
 Indonesia,  Malaysia,  Singapore,  Thailand,  Philippines, and  Vietnam497
 South Africa349
Languages
Majority: Arabic (Tunisian Arabic), French
Historically:
Phoenician, Punic, Canaanite, Latin, African Romance
Minority: Judeo-Tunisian Arabic,[13] and Berber[14][15][16][17]
Religion
Predominantly Islam (Sunni Maliki)[18]
Minority: Judaism[19][20][21]
Related ethnic groups
Arabs, Berber, European Tunisians, Carthaginians, Roman Africans, Italian Tunisians, Turco-Tunisians, Maghrebis and other Afroasiatic peoples

a The total figure is merely an estimation; sum of all the referenced populations.

Tunisians (Arabic: تونسيون Tūnisiyyūn, Tunisian Arabic: توانسة Twènsa [ˈtwɛːnsæ]) are the citizens and nationals of Tunisia in North Africa, who speak Tunisian Arabic and share a common Tunisian culture and identity. In addition to the approximately 12 million residents in Tunisia, a Tunisian diaspora has been established with modern migration, particularly in Western Europe, namely France, Italy and Germany. The vast majority of Tunisians identify as Arabs who adhere to Sunni Islam.[22]

History

Dido

Africa and Ifriqiya

The Phoenicians, a Semitic people, migrated and settled in the region of present-day Tunisia from the 12th to the 2nd century BC, establishing numerous settlements on the coast, including ancient Carthage which emerged as the most powerful by the 7th century BC.[23] The migrants brought with them their culture and language that progressively spread from Tunisia's coastal areas to the rest of the coastal areas of Northwest Africa, as well as parts of the Iberian Peninsula and the Mediterranean islands.[24] The descendants of the Phoenician settlers came to be known as the Punic people. From the 8th century BC, most Tunisians were Punic.[25] Evidence from Sicily shows that some western Phoenicians (Punic people) used the term "Phoinix,"[26] although it is not clear what term they self-identified with, as they may have self-identified themselves as 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍𐤌 (knʿnm, "Canaanites").[27] A passage from Augustine's writings has frequently been understood as suggesting that they called themselves Canaanites (Chanani in Latin).[28] The Punic language, a variety of the Phoenician language, seems to have survived well past written use. Arab geographer al-Bakri described a people who lived in Sirte who spoke a language which was not Berber, Latin, or Coptic, well after the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb. Punic culture survived the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC.[29]

When Carthage fell in 146 BC to the Romans,[30][31] the coastal population was mainly Punic, but that influence decreased away from the coast.[25] From the Roman period until the Islamic conquest, Latins, Greeks and Numidians further influenced the Tunisians, which prior to the modern era, Tunisians were known as Afāriqah,[32] from the ancient name of Tunisia, Ifriqiya or Africa in the antiquity, which gave the present-day name of the continent Africa.[33]

From the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in 673, many Arabs settled with Arab tribes in Tunisia which was called Ifriqiya,[34][35] in places like Kairouan which soon became one of the purely Arab settlements in the Umayyad Caliphate.[34] This accelerated in the 11th century with the large migrations of the Arab tribes of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym to Ifriqiya and the rest of the Maghreb.[36] Some Persians and other Middle-Eastern populations also settled in Ifriqiya, which had its name from the ancient name, the Roman province of Africa.[37][38] In the early-11th century, Normans from the Kingdom of Sicily took over Ifriqiya and founded the Kingdom of Africa, which lasted from 1135 to 1160.[39][40] Muslim refugees from Sicily and Malta were encouraged by the Normans to settle in Tunisia during this period.[41]

After the Reconquista and expulsion of non-Christians and Moriscos from Spain, many Spanish Muslims and Jews also arrived. According to Matthew Carr, "As many as eighty thousand Moriscos settled in Tunisia, most of them in and around the capital, Tunis, which still contains a quarter known as Zuqaq al-Andalus, or Andalusia Alley."[42]

Tunisians

By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completely Arabized, establishing Arabs as the demographic majority of the population.[43]

During the 17th to the 19th centuries, Ifriqiya came under Spanish, then Ottoman rule and hosted Morisco then Italian immigrants from 1609.[44][45] Tunis was officially integrated into the Ottoman Empire as the Eyalet of Tunis (province), eventually including all of the Maghreb except Morocco.

Under the Ottoman Empire, the boundaries of the territory inhabited by Tunisians contracted; Ifriqiya lost territory to the west (Constantine) and to the east (Tripoli). In the 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and social reform in the Ottoman capital. The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy. Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces to establish a Protectorate in 1881.

A remnant of the centuries of Turkish rule is the presence of a population of Turkish origin, historically the male descendants were referred to as the Kouloughlis.

French colonization

Republic and Revolution

Independence from France was achieved on 20 March 1956. The State was established as a constitutional monarchy with the Bey of Tunis, Muhammad VIII al-Amin Bey, as the king of Tunisia. In 1957, the Prime Minister Habib Bourguiba abolished the monarchy and firmly established his Neo Destour (New Constitution) party. In the 1970s the economy of Tunisia expanded at a very healthy rate. Oil was discovered and tourism continued. City and countryside populations drew roughly equal in number. Yet agricultural problems and urban unemployment led to increased migration to Europe.

The 84-year-old President Bourguiba was overthrown and replaced by Ben Ali his Prime Minister on 7 November 1987.[46] However, the Ben Ali regime came to an end 23 years later on 14 January 2011, in the events of the Tunisian Revolution, following nationwide demonstrations precipitated by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,[47][48] a lack of political freedoms like freedom of speech[49] and poor living conditions.

Following the overthrow of Ben Ali, Tunisians elected a Constituent Assembly to draft a new constitution and an interim government known as the Troika because it was a coalition of three parties; the Islamist Ennahda Movement in the lead, with the centre-left Congress for the Republic and the left-leaning Ettakatol as minority partners.[50][51] Widespread discontent remained however, leading to the 2013–14 Tunisian political crisis.[52][53] As a result of the efforts made by the Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet, the Constituent Assembly completed its work, the interim government resigned, and new elections were held in 2014, completing the transition to a democratic state.[54] The Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet was awarded the 2015 Nobel Peace Prize for "its decisive contribution to the building of a pluralistic democracy in Tunisia in the wake of the Tunisian Revolution of 2011".[55]

Beyond the political changes, which lead to Tunisia becoming a recognised democracy in 2014,[56] those events also brought important changes to the post-2011 Tunisian culture.

Population

Ethnic groups

The country's population is predominantly composed of Arabs 98%.[57][58] Other ethnic groups include 1% European who settled in the country and 1% of other ethnic groups, including mainly Berbers[59] and sub-Saharan migrants. While Ottoman influence was particularly important in the formation of a Turkish-Tunisian community among the country's elites, other peoples also migrated to Tunisia over different periods of time, including but not limited to, sub-Saharans, Greeks, Romans, Phoenicians (Punics), Jews and French settlers.[60] Nevertheless, from 1870, the distinction between the Tunisian masses and the Turkish elite became blurred.[61] There is also a minority Berber population (1%)[59] mainly located in the Dahar mountains.

From the late 19th century to after World War II, Tunisia was home to large populations of French and Italians (255,000 Europeans in 1956),[62] although nearly all of them, along with the Jewish population, left after Tunisia became independent. The history of the Jews in Tunisia goes back some 2,600 years. In 1948 the Jewish population was an estimated 105,000, but by 2013 only about 900 remained.[63]

Culture

Cultural symbols

Flag

The national flag of Tunisia is predominantly red and consists of a white circle in the middle containing a red crescent around a five-pointed star. The Hafsid dynasty used a similar flag during the Middle Ages, it consisted of a white crescent pointing upwards and a white five-pointed star but instead of featuring the red color it featured the yellow color.[64] The crescent and star might also recall the Ottoman flag as an indication of Tunisia's history as a part of the Ottoman Empire.[65][66] Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state of Carthage, located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries. The sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancient Punic religion, especially with the Sign of Tanit.[67]

Coat of arms

As for the national coat of arms, they are officially adopted in 1861 and include revised versions on 21 June 1956, and 30 May 1963. The top has a Carthaginian galley sailing on the sea while the lower part is divided vertically and on the right depicts a black lion seizing a silver scimitar. A banner bears the national motto: "Liberty, Order, Justice".[citation needed]

Jasmine

Tunisian hamsa

Imported by the Andalusians in the sixteenth century, jasmine has become the national flower of Tunisia.[68] The gathering takes place at dawn and then, upon nightfall, when young boys collect small bouquets, and later sell them to passersby on the street or to motorists stopped at intersections.[69]

Furthermore, jasmine is the subject of a specific sign language. A man who wears jasmine on his left ear indicates that he is single and in addition, offering white jasmine is seen as a proof of love while on the contrary, offering odorless winter jasmine is a sign of insolence.[70]

Hamsa

The hamsa (Tunisian Arabic: خمسة, also romanized khamsa) is a palm-shaped amulet popular in Tunisia and more generally in the Maghreb, and commonly used in jewelry and wall hangings.[71][72] Depicting the open right hand, an image recognized and used as a sign of protection in many times throughout history, the hamsa is believed to provide defense against the evil eye. It has been theorized that its origins lie in Carthage (modern-day Tunisia) and may have been associated with the Goddess Tanit.[73]

Chechia

The Chechia is the national headgear of Tunisia. Supple and cylindrical in shape, the chechia was imported into Tunisia in its current form from Spain, by the Moors expelled after the capture of Granada in 1492. Finding in Tunisia a second homeland, they establish the craft of the chechia there. After the independence of Tunisia in 1956 and with the arrival of manufactured goods and customs from the Europe, the wearing of the chechia tends to be limited to holidays and religious festivals; it is often associated with the elderly.[74]

Language

Tunisian Arabic is a set of dialects of Maghrebi Arabic spoken in Tunisia. In addition to mastering French.[75] In the Tunisian diaspora makes it common for Tunisians to code-switch, mixing Arabic with French, English or other languages in daily speech.[76]

Moreover, Tunisian Arabic is closely related to the Maltese language,[77] that descended from Maghrebi Arabic and Siculo-Arabic.[78][79]

Gastronomy

Couscous with Kerkennah fish

Tunisian cuisine is a blend of Mediterranean cuisine and traditions. Its distinctive spicy fieriness comes from neighbouring Mediterranean countries and the many civilizations who have ruled Tunisian land: Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, Spanish, Turkish, Italians (Sicilians), French, and the native Punics-Berber people. Tunisian food uses a variety of ingredients and in different ways. The main dish that is served in Tunisia is Couscous, made of minuscule grains that are cooked and usually served with meat and vegetables. In cooking they also use a variety of flavors such as: olive oil, aniseed, coriander, cumin, caraway, cinnamon, saffron, mint, orange, blossom, and rose water.

Like all Mediterranean cultures, Tunisian culture offers a "sun cuisine", based mainly on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, seafood (a wide range of fish) and meat from rearing (lamb).[citation needed]

Architecture

Tunisian architecture is traditionally expressed in various facets in Tunisia through Roman architecture and Islamic architecture. Through many buildings, Kairouan forms the epicenter of an architectural movement expressing the relationship between buildings and spirituality with the ornamental decoration of religious buildings in the holy city. In Djerba, the architecture such as the fortress of Kef reflects the military and spiritual destiny of a Sufi influence in the region.[citation needed]

The influential role of the various dynasties that ruled the country, particularly in building cities and princes of Raqqada Mahdia, illuminates the role of the geopolitical context in the architectural history of the country. Thus, many original fortresses that protected the coast from Byzantine invasions evolved into cities, like Monastir, Sousse or Lamta.[citation needed]

The medina of Tunis, is World Heritage Site of UNESCO, and is a typical example of Islamic architecture. However, in the areas between the ports of Bizerte and Ghar El Melh, settlements founded by the Moors fleeing Andalusia were reconquered by Catholic sovereigns and has more of a Christian influence. Given the cosmopolitan nature of cities in Tunisia, they have retained a diversity and juxtaposition of styles. Many buildings were designed by many different architects, artisans and entrepreneurs during the French protectorate. Among the most famous architects of that time were Victor Valensi, Guy Raphael, Henri Saladin, Joss Ellenon and Jean-Emile Resplandy.[80] Five distinct architectural and decorative styles are particularly popular: those of the eclectic style (neo-classical, baroque, etc..) Between 1881 and 1900 and then again until 1920 the style was neo-Mauresque, between 1925 and 1940 it was in the Art Deco style and then the modernist style between 1943 and 1947.[80]

Music

Tunisian Bendir (frame drum) with snare

According to Mohammed Abdel Wahab, Tunisian music has been influenced by old Andalusian songs injected with Turkish, Persian and Greek influences. Of major note in Tunisian classical music is the Malouf. Deriving from the reign of the Aghlabids in the 15th century, it is a particular type of Andalusian music. In urban areas it uses stringed instruments (fiddle, oud and Kanun) and percussion (darbuka) while in rural areas, it may also be accompanied by instruments like the mezoued, gasba and the zurna.[81]

The emergence of new patterns of racial and improvised music since the late 1990s changed the musical landscape of Tunisia. At the same time, the majority of the population is attracted by the music of Levantine origin (Egyptian, Lebanese or Syrian). Popular western music has also had major success with the emergence of many groups and festivals, including rock music, hip hop, reggae and jazz.

Among the major Tunisian contemporary artists include Hedi Habbouba, Saber Rebaï, Dhafer Youssef, Belgacem Bouguenna, Sonia M'barek and Latifa. Other notable musicians include Salah El Mahdi, Anouar Brahem, Zied Gharsa and Lotfi Bouchnak.

Cinema

Tunisian cinema is today recognized as one of the most liberal, most inventive (and one of the most prize-winning) cinemas of Africa and the Middle-east. Since the 90s, Tunisia became an attractive place for filming and numerous companies emerged, serving the foreign film industry and became successful.[82] Tunisia also hosts the Carthage Film Festival which has been taking place since 1966. The festival gives priority to films from African and Middle-eastern countries. It is the oldest film festival on the African continent.[83]

Theatre

In over a century of existence, Tunisian theatre hosted or gave birth to big names, such as Sarah Bernhardt, Pauline Carton, Gérard Philipe and Jean Marais to mention a few.[84] On 7 November 1962, Habib Bourguiba, whose brother is a playwright, devoted his speech to this art,[85] which he considers "a powerful means of disseminating culture and a most effective means of popular education".[86] From this date, 7 November is regarded as the Tunisian National Day of drama.[87]

Dance

Folklore troupe of Kerkennah

The variety of dances performed by the Tunisians probably reflects the migration flows that have traversed the country throughout the centuries. Thus, the early Phoenicians brought with them their songs and dances, whose traces are rooted in the region of Tunis, while the Romans have left few traces of art in relation to their architectural contribution.[88] Religious dances were influenced by Sufism but by the end of the 15th century, had progressively become Andalusian with their dances and urban music.

Oriental dance would arrive later with the Ottomans, although some experts in the history of Northwest African art have said it was brought to Tunisia by the first Turkish corsairs in the sixteenth century while others say that the origin of this dance goes back further to the era of matriarchy in Mesopotamia and founded by the early Phoenicians.[89] This form of oriental dance usually performed in Tunisia insists on the movements of the pelvis in rhythm, movement highlighted by the elevation of the arms to horizontal, and feet moving in rhythm and transferring weight onto the right leg or left.[90]

The Nuba, more rooted in popular practice, is linked to the dancers and the Kerkennah Djerba to a lesser extent.[91] Some experts say that their dress is of Greek origin. Structured into several scenes, the dance is often accompanied by acrobatic games with jars filled with water.[91]

Literature

First page of a Tunisian book (1931) by Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad (1881–1979)
Bust of Aboul-Qacem Echebbi in Ras El Aïn (Tozeur)

Among the Tunisian literary figures include Ali Douagi, who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays,[92] Khraief Bashir[92] and others such as Moncef Ghachem, Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad or Mahmoud Messadi. As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such as Aboul-Qacem Echebbi. As for literature, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism of Albert Memmi, who predicted that Tunisian literature was sentenced to die young,[93] a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad including Abdelwahab Meddeb, Bakri Tahar, Mustapha Tlili, Hélé Béji or Mellah Fawzi. The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.

The national bibliography lists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia.[94] In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007.[95] Nearly a third of the books are published for children.[citation needed]

Tunisian Diaspora

Statistics of the Office of Tunisians Abroad show more than 128,000 Tunisian families in Europe with a concentration in France and Germany. Young Tunisians (less than 16 years of age) represent 25% of the Tunisian community abroad.[96] Thus there is currently a rejuvenation of the Tunisian diaspora which is now in its third generation. Women represent nearly 26% of the total community.[96] In France, their percentage is estimated at 38.2%. The portion of the diaspora who are over 60 years old is around 7%.[citation needed]

Originally, the largest part of the Tunisians in Europe worked in sectors requiring minimal qualifications. In effect the migrants of the 1960s and 70s were less educated (mostly farmers or manual labourers).[97]

Subsequently, the majority of Tunisians settled in France have worked in the service sector (hotels, restaurants or retail) or have headed small businesses. In 2008, Tunisia became the first of the Maghreb countries to sign a management agreement concerning the flow of migrants, at the impetus of President Nicolas Sarkozy: it provides easy access for almost 9,000 Tunisian students enrolled in French institutions,[97] but also almost 500 titres de séjour (residency permits) for highly qualified individuals so that they can acquire experience in France, valid for a maximum of six years.[97]

People of Tunisian Heritage

Prominent Historical Figures

Farhat Hached (1914–1952) was a Tunisian labor leader and nationalist activist who played a significant role in the struggle for Tunisia's independence from French colonial rule.

Aboul-Qacem Echebbi, Abu Zakariya Yahya, Ahmad I ibn Mustafa, Aisha Al-Manoubya, Ali Douagi, Ali ibn Ziyad, Asad ibn al-Furat, Aziza Othmana, Azzedine Alaïa, Bchira Ben Mrad, Beji Caid Essebsi, Carlos Marcello, Chokri Belaid, Farhat Hached, Habib Bourguiba, Hassan ibn al-Nu'man, Hayreddin Pasha, Ibn Abi Zayd, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rachik, Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya, Lamine Bey, Max Azria, Mohamed Bouazizi, Mohamed Brahmi, Moncef Bey, Moufida Bourguiba, Tewhida Ben Sheikh, Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur, Radhia Haddad, Sahnun, Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet (Entity winner of the 2015 nobel peace prize) and Victor Perez

Modern International Figures

Salah Mejri (United States), Bertrand Delanoë (France), Claude Bartolone (France), Dove Attia (France), M. Salah Baouendi (United States), Poorna Jagannathan (United States), Mustapha Tlili (United States), Ferrid Kheder (United States), Oussama Mellouli (United States), Leila Ben Youssef (United States), Mounir Laroussi (United States), Bushido (rapper) (Germany), Loco Dice (Germany), Sami Allagui (Germany), Claudia Cardinale (Italy), Änis Ben-Hatira (Germany), Mounir Chaftar (Germany), Sofian Chahed (Germany), Nejmeddin Daghfous (Germany), Marwan Kenzari (Netherlands), Rani Khedira (Germany), Sami Khedira (Germany), Ayman (Germany), Elyas M'Barek (Germany), Adel Tawil (Germany), Amel Karboul (Germany), Michel Boujenah (France), Tarak Ben Ammar (France), Lââm (France), Yoann Touzghar (France), Isleym (France), Hatem Ben Arfa (France), Sadek (France), Tunisiano (France), Afef Jnifen (Italy), Sana Hassainia (Canada), Hinda Hicks (England), Mohamed Hechmi Hamdi (England), Hend Sabry (Egypt), Ghassan bin Jiddo (Lebanon), Cyril Hanouna (France), Kev Adams (France), Sabrine Bentunsi (France), Moungi Bawendi (United States), Saïd Bouziri (France).

In Tunisia, free courses of instruction in Tunisian Arabic are organised during the summer holidays for the children of Tunisian residents abroad, who are heavily influenced by the culture of the countries in which they live. Trips are also organised for them to experience Tunisian culture, history and civilisation.[citation needed]

Genetic

Tunisians mainly carry E1b1 haplogroup (55%) and J1 haplogroup (34.2%).[98][99]

Listed here are the human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups in Tunisia.[100]

Haplogroup n B E1a E1b1a E1b1b1 E1b1b1a3 E1b1b1a4 E1b1b1b E1b1b1c F G I J1 J2 K P,R R1a1 R1b1a R1b1b T
Marker M33 M2 M35 V22 V65 M81 M34 M89 M201 M172 V88 M269 M70
Tunisia 601 0.17 0.5 0.67 1.66 3 3.16 62.73 1.16 2.66 0.17 0.17 16.64 2.83 0.33 0.33 0.5 1.83 0.33 1.16

Elkamel, Sarra et al. (2021) wrote that: "Considering Tunisian populations as a whole, the majority part of their paternal haplogroups are of autochthonous Berber origin (71.67%), which co-exists with others assumedly from the Middle East (18.35%) and to a lesser extent from Sub-Saharan Africa (5.2%), Europe (3.45%) and Asia (1.33%)."[101]

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