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{{Short description|State that is economically, politically, or militarily subordinate to another}} |
{{Short description|State that is economically, politically, or militarily subordinate to another}} |
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{{Forms of government}} |
{{Forms of government}} |
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In the field of [[international relations]], a '''client state''', is a [[State (polity)|state]] that is economically, politically, and militarily subordinated to a more powerful '''controlling state'''.<ref>Michael Graham Fry, Erik Goldstein, Richard Langhorne. ''Guide to International Relations and Diplomacy''. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Continuum International Publishing, 2002. Pp. 9.</ref> Alternative terms{{According to whom|date=April 2024}} for a ''client state'' are [[satellite state]], [[associated state]], and [[dominion]], [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]], [[self-governing colony]], and [[Neocolonialism|neo-colony]], [[protectorate]], [[vassal state]], [[puppet state]], and [[tributary state]]. |
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==Controlling states in history== |
==Controlling states in history== |
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===Persia, Greece, Ancient China and Rome=== |
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{{see also|List of Roman client rulers|Client kingdoms in ancient Rome}} |
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===Persia, Greece, and Rome=== |
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Ancient states such as [[History of Iran|Persia]] and [[Parthia]], [[Ancient Greece|Greek city-states]], [[Ancient China]] and [[Ancient Rome]] sometimes created client states by making the leaders of that state subservient, having to provide [[tribute]] and soldiers. [[Classical Athens]], for example, forced weaker states into the [[Delian League]] and in some cases imposed democratic governments on them. Later, [[Philip II of Macedon]] similarly imposed the [[League of Corinth]]. One of the most prolific users of client states was [[Roman Republic|Republican Rome]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmmBAAAAMAAJ&q=client+king|title=Herod's Judaea|isbn=9783161497179|last1=Rocca|first1=Samuel|year=2008|publisher=Mohr Siebeck }}</ref><ref>Collected studies: Alexander and his successors in Macedonia, by Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond,1994, page 257,"to Demetrius of Pharos, whom she set up as a client king</ref> which, instead of conquering and then absorbing into an empire, chose to make client states out of those it defeated (e.g. [[Demetrius of Pharos]]), a policy which was continued up until the 1st century BCE when it became the [[Roman Empire]]. Sometimes the client was not a former enemy but a [[pretender]] whom Rome helped, [[Herod the Great]] being a well-known example. The use of client states continued through the [[Middle Ages]] as the [[Feudalism|feudal system]] began to take hold.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} |
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{{see also|List of Roman client rulers}} |
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Ancient states such as [[Persia]] and [[Parthia]], [[Ancient Greece|Greek city-states]], and [[Ancient Rome]] sometimes created client states by making the leaders of that state subservient, having to provide [[tribute]] and soldiers. [[Classical Athens]], for example, forced weaker states into the [[Delian League]] and in some cases imposed democratic government on them. Later, [[Philip II of Macedon]] similarly imposed the [[League of Corinth]]. One of the most prolific users of client states was [[Roman Republic|Republican Rome]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmmBAAAAMAAJ&q=client+king|title=Herod's Judaea|isbn=9783161497179|last1=Rocca|first1=Samuel|year=2008}}</ref><ref>Collected studies: Alexander and his successors in Macedonia, by Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond,1994,page 257,"to Demetrius of Pharos, whom she set up as a client king</ref> which, instead of conquering and then absorbing into an empire, chose to make client states out of those it defeated (e.g. [[Demetrius of Pharos]]), a policy which was continued up until the 1st century BCE when it became the [[Roman Empire]]. Sometimes the client was not a former enemy but a [[pretender]] whom Rome helped, [[Herod the Great]] being a well-known example. The use of client states continued through the [[Middle Ages]] as the [[feudal system]] began to take hold. |
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===Chinese dynasties=== |
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{{main|List of tributaries of Imperial China}} |
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===Ottoman Empire=== |
===Ottoman Empire=== |
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{{main|Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire}} |
{{main|Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire}} |
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[[File:OttomanEmpire1590.png|thumb|Vassal and tributary states of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1590]] |
[[File:OttomanEmpire1590.png|thumb|Vassal and tributary states of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1590]] |
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The number of tributary or vassal states varied over time but notable were the [[Khanate of Crimea]], [[Wallachia]], [[Moldavia]], [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Transylvania]], [[Sharifate of Mecca]] and the [[Sultanate of Aceh]]. |
The number of tributary or vassal states varied over time but most notable were the [[Crimean Khanate|Khanate of Crimea]], [[Wallachia]], [[Moldavia]], [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Transylvania]], the [[Sharifate of Mecca]], and the [[Aceh Sultanate|Sultanate of Aceh]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}} |
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==19th and 20th centuries== |
==19th and 20th centuries== |
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{{more citations needed section|date=July 2014}} |
{{more citations needed section|date=July 2014}} |
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===Russian Empire=== |
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{{main|Russia–Serbia relations}} |
{{main|Russia–Serbia relations}} |
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[[Austria-Hungary]] tried to make [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] a client state in order to form a [[Christianity|Christian]] opposition to the [[Ottoman Empire]], but after the 1903 [[May Coup (Serbia)|May Coup]], Serbia came under the influence of [[Russian Empire|Russia]], which was forming a pan-[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] opposition to the Latin Christianity represented by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1914, Russia repeatedly warned Austria-Hungary against attacking Serbia. When it did attack, Russia mobilised its army.<ref>Russian Foreign Minister [[Sergey Sazonov]] warned Austria in 1914 that Russia "Would respond militarily to any action against the client state." Christopher Clark, ''The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914'' (2012) p 481.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas F. X. Noble|display-authors=et al|title=Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries, Volume C: Since 1789|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b1PTCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA692|year=2010|publisher=Cengage|page=692|isbn=978-1424069606}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Michael J. Lyons|title=World War II: A Short History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYqTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3|year=2016|publisher=Routledge|pages=3–4|isbn=9781315509440}}</ref> Russia also wanted [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Barbara Jelavich|title=Russia and the Formation of the Romanian National State, 1821–1878|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clLtuNxa1cgC&pg=PA288|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge UP|page=288|isbn=9780521522519}}</ref> and [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Clive Ponting|title=Thirteen Days: The Road to the First World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9BmAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Chatto & Windus|page=60|isbn=9780701172930}}</ref> as client states. |
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Great Britain and Austria both considered Serbia as a client state controlled by Russia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Henry Cowper|title=World War One and Its Consequences|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l9VmAAAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Open University Press|page=209|isbn=9780335093076}}</ref |
At the time, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]] and Austria-Hungary both considered Serbia as a client state controlled by Russia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Henry Cowper|title=World War One and Its Consequences|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l9VmAAAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Open University Press|page=209|isbn=9780335093076}}</ref> |
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===First French Empire=== |
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{{main|French client |
{{main|List of French client states}} |
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[[File:Europe 1812 map en.png|thumb|[[First French Empire]] and |
[[File:Europe 1812 map en.png|thumb|The [[First French Empire]] and its satellite states in 1812]] |
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During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic |
During the [[French Revolution|Revolutionary]] and [[Napoleonic era]]s (1789–1815), France conquered most of [[western Europe]] and established several client states. |
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At first, during the [[French revolutionary wars]] these states were erected as republics (the so-called "Républiques soeurs", or "sister republics"). They were established in Italy ([[Cisalpine Republic]] in [[Northern Italy]], [[Parthenopean Republic]] in [[Southern Italy]]), Greece ([[Septinsular Republic]]), Switzerland ([[Helvetic Republic]] and [[Rhodanic Republic]]), Belgium and the Netherlands ([[Batavian Republic]]). |
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At first, during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], these states were erected as "''Républiques soeurs''" ("[[sister republic]]s"). They were established in Italy (the [[Cisalpine Republic]] in [[Northern Italy]] and the [[Parthenopean Republic]] in [[Southern Italy]]), Greece ([[French rule in the Ionian Islands (1797–1799)|''Îles Ioniennes'']]), Switzerland (the [[Helvetic Republic]] and the [[Valais Republic|Rhodanic Republic]]), and Belgium and the Netherlands ([[Batavian Republic]]). |
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During the [[First French Empire]], while [[Napoleon]] and the French army conquered [[Europe]], such states changed, and several new states were formed. The Italian republics were transformed into the [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|Kingdom of Italy]] under Napoleon's direct rule in the north, and the [[Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)|Kingdom of Naples]] in the south, first under [[Joseph Bonaparte]]'s rule and later under Marshal [[Joachim Murat]]. A third state was created in the Italian Peninsula, the [[Kingdom of Etruria]]. The Batavian Republic was replaced by the [[Kingdom of Holland]], ruled by Napoleon's third brother, [[Louis Bonaparte]]. |
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During the [[First French Empire]], while [[Napoleon|Napoleon I]] and the [[French Imperial Army (1804–1815)|French Army]] occupied much of [[Europe]], such states changed, and several new states were formed. The Italian republics were transformed into the [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|Kingdom of Italy]] under Napoleon's direct rule in the north, and the [[Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)|Kingdom of Naples]] in the south, first under [[Joseph Bonaparte]] and later under [[Marshal of the Empire|Marshal]] [[Joachim Murat]]. A third state was created in the Italian Peninsula, the [[Kingdom of Etruria]]. The Batavian Republic was replaced by the [[Kingdom of Holland]], ruled by Napoleon's third brother, [[Louis Bonaparte]]. |
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A total of 35 German states, all of them allies of France, seceded from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] to create the [[Confederation of the Rhine]], a client state created to provide a buffer between France and its two largest enemies to the east, Prussia and Austria. Two of those states were Napoleonic creations: the huge [[Kingdom of Westphalia]], which was controlled by [[Jerome Bonaparte]], the Emperor's youngest brother; and the [[Grand Duchy of Würzburg]]. |
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A total of 35 German states, all of them allies of France, seceded from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] to create the [[Confederation of the Rhine]], a client state created to provide a buffer between France and its two largest enemies to the east, [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] and [[Austrian Empire|Austria]]. Two of those states were Napoleonic creations: the [[Kingdom of Westphalia]], which was controlled by [[Jérôme Bonaparte]], the Emperor's youngest brother; and the [[Grand Duchy of Würzburg]] as was Poland, then the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]. |
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Following the [[Peninsular War|French invasion of the Iberian Peninsula]], Spain too was turned into a client [[Kingdom of Spain under Joseph Bonaparte]]; as was Poland, then the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]. |
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During the [[Peninsular War|French invasion of the Iberian Peninsula]], Napoleon attempted to subjugate Portugal and Spain into a client [[Spain under Joseph Bonaparte|Kingdom of Spain]], but the French were eventually driven out of Iberia in a costly war. |
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In the 20th century, France started to apply the concept of [[Françafrique]], its name for its [[French African colonies|former African colonies]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/specialseries/2013/08/201387113131914906.html |title=The French African Connection |access-date=September 27, 2018 |date=April 7, 2014 |publisher=Al Jazeera }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/22/opinion/global/the-return-of-francafrique.html |title=The Return of Françafrique |access-date=September 27, 2018 |last=Haski |first=Pierre |date=July 21, 2013 |work=The New York Times |location=New York }}</ref> sometimes extended to the former Belgian colonies. At present the term is used on some occasions to criticise the allegedly neocolonial relationship France has with its former colonies in Africa. |
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===France after decolonisation=== |
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The countries involved provide oil and minerals important to the French economy. In addition, French companies have commercial interests in several countries of the continent. |
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In the 20th century, France exercised a sphere of influence, or ''[[Françafrique]]'' over its [[French African colonies|former African colonies]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/specialseries/2013/08/201387113131914906.html |title=The French African Connection |access-date=September 27, 2018 |date=April 7, 2014 |publisher=Al Jazeera |archive-date=November 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112013750/https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/specialseries/2013/08/201387113131914906.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/22/opinion/global/the-return-of-francafrique.html |title=The Return of Françafrique |access-date=September 27, 2018 |last=Haski |first=Pierre |date=July 21, 2013 |work=The New York Times |location=New York }}</ref> and to some degree former Belgian colonies in Africa (which were also French-speaking). The term is sometimes used pejoratively, to characterise the relationship with France as neocolonial. The former colonies provide oil and minerals important to the [[Economy of France|French economy]], and in some, French companies have commercial interests. |
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===British Empire=== |
===British Empire=== |
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[[File:British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg|thumb|Map of |
[[File:British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg|thumb|Map of British territories in the Indian subcontinent in 1909 with [[princely state]]s in yellow]] |
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The [[Princely state|Indian princely states]] were nominally sovereign entities in the [[British Empire]] and in 1947, were given a choice to either accede to independent [[Dominion of India|India]] or [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]] or get independence (the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] did opt for independence but his kingdom was [[Annexation of Hyderabad|annexed]] by Indian forces in 1948). [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|Egyptian independence]] in 1922 ended its brief status as a British protectorate and [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]] was made a kingdom in 1932. But in both cases, the economic and military reality did not amount to full independence, but a status where the local rulers were British clients. Other instances include Africa (e.g. Northern Nigeria under [[Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard|Lord Lugard]]), and the [[Unfederated Malay States]]; the policy of ''[[indirect rule]]''. |
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===Germany=== |
===Germany=== |
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====World War I==== |
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After [[France]] was defeated in the [[Battle of France]], [[Vichy France]] was established as a client state of Nazi Germany, which remained as such until 1942 when it was reduced to a [[puppet government]] until its liberation in 1944. Germany also established, in its newly conquered Eastern territories, client states including the [[Slovak Republic (1939–45)|Slovak Republic]], the [[Independent State of Croatia|Croatian State]] and the [[German occupation of Albania|Albanian Kingdom]]. |
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{{Main article|Central Powers#German client states}} |
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* {{Flagicon|Poland}} [[Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)|Kingdom of Poland]]<ref>The Regency Kingdom has been referred to as a [[puppet state]] by Norman Davies in ''Europe: A history'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&dq=%22Kingdom+of+Poland%22+1916+puppet&pg=PA910 Google Print, p. 910]); by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki in ''A Concise History of Poland'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=HMylRh-wHWEC&pg=PA218 Google Print, p. 218]); by Piotr J. Wroblel in ''Chronology of Polish History'' and ''Nation and History'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=lzWHDEE6OqkC&pg=PA454 Google Print, p. 454]); and by Raymond Leslie Buell in ''Poland: Key to Europe'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=-KcfGbrKptoC&q=Poland+Key+to+Europe Google Print, p. 68]: "The Polish Kingdom... was merely a pawn [of Germany]").</ref> (1917–1918) |
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* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Lithuania (1918).svg}} [[Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)|Kingdom of Lithuania]] (1918) |
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* {{Flag|Ukrainian State}}<ref>Kataryna Wolczuk. The Moulding of Ukraine: The Constitutional Politics of State Formation. p. 37.</ref> (1918) |
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* [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918)|Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]]<ref>Kevin O'Connor, [https://books.google.com/books?id=b3b5nU4bnw4C&dq The History of the Baltic States], page 78, {{ISBN|0-313-32355-0}}.</ref> (1918) |
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* {{Flag|Democratic Republic of Georgia}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rayfield |first=Donald |title=Edge of empires: a history of Georgia |date=2012 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-78023-030-6 |location=London |pages=326–331}}</ref> (1918) |
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====World War II==== |
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* {{flag|Vichy France}} (1940–1944) |
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[[File:CongressBuilding SEATO.jpg|thumb|right|The leaders of some of the [[SEATO]] nations hosted by Philippine President [[Ferdinand Marcos]] on 24 October 1966]] |
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* {{flag|Independent State of Croatia}} (1941–1945) |
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The term applied has been applied to authoritarian regimes with close ties to the United States during the Cold War, also referred to as U.S. proxy states, such as [[South Vietnam]], [[New Order (Indonesia)|Indonesia (1967–1998)]] under the [[Suharto]] Regime, [[Imperial State of Iran|Iran]] until 1979, [[Khmer Republic|Cambodia]] under the regime of [[Lon Nol]] from 1970 to 1975, the [[Fourth Philippine Republic|Philippines]] under [[Ferdinand Marcos]] from 1965 to 1986,<ref>{{cite news |title=Imelda's Tears |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1998/04/20/imeldas-tears |work=The New Yorker |date=April 12, 1998}}</ref> and [[Saudi Arabia]]. U.S. - Iran relations under [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|the Shah]] (reigned 1941 to 1979) have been cited as a modern [[political science|political-science]] case-study.<ref> |
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* {{flagicon|Slovak Republic (1939–1945)}} [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]] (1939–1945) |
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{{cite book |
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* {{flagicon|Albanian Kingdom (1943–44)}} [[German occupation of Albania|Albanian Kingdom]] (1943–1944) |
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| last1 = Gasiorowski |
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| first1 = Mark J. |
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| author-link1 = Mark J. Gasiorowski |
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| title = U.S. foreign policy and the Shah: building a client state in Iran |
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| url = https://archive.org/details/usforeignpolicys00gasi |
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| url-access = registration |
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| series = Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series |
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| publisher = Cornell University Press |
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| date = 1991 |
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| isbn = 9780801424120 |
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| access-date = 2018-09-19 |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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===United States=== |
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*{{flagdeco|Chile}} [[Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990)|Chile (1973–1990)]] |
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[[File:CongressBuilding SEATO.jpg|thumb|right|The leaders of some of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization|SEATO]] nations hosted by Philippine President [[Ferdinand Marcos]] on 24 October 1966]] |
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*{{flagcountry|Republic of China (1912–1949)}} (1945–1979, on the [[island of Taiwan]] from 1949) |
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The term has also been applied to states which are extremely economically dependent on a more powerful nation. The three Pacific Ocean countries associated with the United States under the [[Compact of Free Association]] (the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], the [[Marshall Islands]], and [[Palau]]) have been called client states.<ref>{{cite book |title=Pacific Futures: Past and Present |date=2018 |editor1=Warwick Anderson |editor2=Miranda Johnson |editor3=Barbara Brookes |first=David L. |last=Hanlon |chapter=A Different Historiography for "A Handful of Chickpeas Flung Over the Sea": Approaching the Federated States of Micronesia's Deeper Past|publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |isbn=978-0-8248-7742-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Mundi |last=Chen |first=Millie |title=The Marshall Islands and U.S. Imperial Relations |url=https://tuljournals.temple.edu/index.php/mundi/article/view/374 |publisher=Temple University |date=2020 |volume=1 |number=1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rampell |first1=Ed |title=George H.W. Bush: Dirty Tricks and Regime Change in Nuclear-Free Palau |url=https://islandtimes.org/george-bush-dirty-tricks-palau/ |access-date=15 April 2023 |work=Island Times |date=8 January 2019}}</ref> |
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*{{flagcountry|Republic of Cuba (1902-1959)}} (1902–1959) |
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*{{flag|Khmer Republic}} (1970–1975) |
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*{{flag|South Vietnam}} (1955–1975) |
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*{{Flag|Canada}}<ref> |
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{{cite book |
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| last1 = Williams |
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| first1 = Glen |
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| chapter = 6: Canada in the International Political Economy |
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| editor1-last = Clement |
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| editor1-first = Wallace |
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| editor2-last = Williams |
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| editor2-first = Glen |
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| title = The New Canadian Political Economy |
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| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rORhpiTe8wwC |
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| location = Montreal |
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| publisher = McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP |
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| date = 1989 |
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| pages = 116, 130 |
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| isbn = 9780773506817 |
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| access-date = 2018-09-19 |
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| quote = The dependency school, dominant in the 1960s and early 1970s, argued that Canada is an economic colony with a client state. [...] while it might have been possible a decade ago to use a Latin American dependency model when describing Canada, because of its excessive degree of foreign ownership and 'American client state' status, both Canadian capitalists and the Canadian state have now 'come of age.' |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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* {{flagcountry|Republic of China (1912–1949)}} (1945–1949) → {{Flag|Taiwan}} (1949–1979) |
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The term has also been applied to states which are extremely economically dependent on a more powerful nation. The three Pacific Ocean countries associated with the United States under the [[Compact of Free Association]] (the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], the [[Marshall Islands]] and [[Palau]]) have been called client states. |
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* {{flag|Khmer Republic}} (1970–1975) |
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* {{flag|Philippines|1936}} ([[History of the Philippines (1965–1986)|1965–1986]]) |
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* {{flag|South Korea}} (1948–1953) |
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* {{flag|South Vietnam}} (1954–1975) |
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* {{flag|Thailand}} (1949–1976) |
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===Japan=== |
===Imperial Japan=== |
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[[File:Manchukuo map 1939.svg|thumb|Location of [[Manchukuo]] (red) within [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|Imperial Japan's sphere of influence]] in 1939]] |
[[File:Manchukuo map 1939.svg|thumb|Location of [[Manchukuo]] (red) within [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|Imperial Japan's sphere of influence]] in 1939]] |
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In the late 19th century, the [[ |
In the late 19th century, the [[Empire of Japan]] gradually reduced [[Joseon|Joseon Korea]]'s status to that of a client state. In the early 20th century, this was converted to [[Korea under Japanese rule|direct rule]]. [[Manchukuo]], in contrast, remained a [[List of World War II puppet states|puppet state]] throughout World War II. |
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*{{Flag| |
* {{Flag|Azad Hind}} (1943–1945) |
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* {{Flag|State of Burma}} (1943–1945) |
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*{{Flag|Korean Empire}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=How Japan Took Control of Korea {{!}} HISTORY|url=https://www.history.com/.amp/news/japan-colonization-korea|access-date=2021-07-02|website=www.history.com}}</ref> |
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* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Cambodia under French protection.svg}} [[Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)|Kingdom of Kampuchea]] (1945) |
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*{{Flag|Joseon}}（Post [[First Sino-Japanese War|Sino-Japanese War]]） |
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* China ([[East Hebei Autonomous Government]] and [[North Shanxi Autonomous Government]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=China grapples with preserving reminders of Japanese occupation |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/China-grapples-with-preserving-reminders-of-Japanese-occupation |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=Nikkei Asia |language=en-GB}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Qing dynasty}}（Post [[First Sino-Japanese War|Sino-Japanese War]]） |
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** {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Great Way Municipal Government of Shanghai.svg}} [[Great Way Government]] (1937–1938) |
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*{{Flag|Ryukyu}}（Current [[Okinawa Prefecture]]） |
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** {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1939–1940).svg}} [[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)|Provisional Government of the Republic of China]] (1937–1940) |
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*{{Flag|State of Burma}} |
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** {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Republic of China-Nanjing (Peace, Anti-Communism, National Construction).svg}} [[Wang Jingwei regime|Reorganised National Government of the Republic of China]] (1940–1945) |
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*{{Flag|Second Philippine Republic}} |
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* {{Flag|Joseon}} (After the [[First Sino-Japanese War]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Transimperial Genealogies of Korea as a Protectorate: The Egypt Model in Japan's Politics of Colonial Comparison {{!}} Cross-Currents |url=https://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/e-journal/issue-32/mizutani |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=cross-currents.berkeley.edu |archive-date=2022-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317192743/https://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/e-journal/issue-32/mizutani |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Kingdom of Laos}} |
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* {{Flag|Korean Empire}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=How Japan Took Control of Korea {{!}} HISTORY|url=https://www.history.com/.amp/news/japan-colonization-korea|access-date=2021-07-02|website=www.history.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Japanese Rule Over Korea - A Liberation Day Korea History - Koryo Tours |url=https://koryogroup.com/blog/japanese-rule-over-korea-a-liberation-day-korea-history |access-date=2022-06-02 |website=koryogroup.com |date=15 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref>{{Unreliable source|date=September 2024|reason=blog|certain=yes}} (1905–1910) |
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*{{Flag|Azad Hind}} |
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* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Luang_Phrabang_(1707-1893).svg}} [[Kingdom of Luang Prabang (Japanese puppet state)|Kingdom of Luang Phrabang]] (1945) |
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*{{Flag|Mengjiang}} |
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* {{Flag|Manchukuo}} (1932–1945) |
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*{{Flag|Republic of China}}（[[East Hebei Autonomous Government]], [[Great Way Government]]） |
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* {{Flag|Mengjiang}} (1939–1945) |
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**{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Republic of China-Nanjing (Peace, Anti-Communism, National Construction).svg}}[[Wang Jingwei regime]] |
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* {{Flag|Second Philippine Republic}} (1943–1945) |
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**{{Flagicon image|Flag of China (1912–1928).svg}}[[Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)|Provisional Government of the Republic of China]] |
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* {{Flagdeco|Vietnam|1945}} [[Empire of Vietnam]] (1945) |
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**{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Dadao Municipal Government of Shanghai.svg}}[[Great Way Government]] |
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*{{Flag|Cambodia}}（[[Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)|from 9 March 1945 to 16 October 1945]]） |
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*{{Flagicon image|1931 Flag of India.svg}}[[Provisional Government of Free India]] |
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*{{Flagicon image|Old Flag Of Vietnam.svg}}[[Empire of Vietnam]] |
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===Soviet Union=== |
===Soviet Union=== |
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{{see also|Soviet Empire|Satellite state}} |
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Soviet proxy or "client" states included much of the [[Warsaw Pact]] nations whose policies were heavily influenced by Soviet military power and economic aid. Other third world nations with [[Marxist-Leninist]] governments were routinely criticized as being Soviet proxies as well, among them Cuba following the [[Cuban Revolution]], the [[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]],<ref name=DPRK>{{cite magazine| url=https://theweek.com/articles/597768/why-north-korea-betting-big-nuclear-weapons |title=Why North Korea is betting big on nuclear weapons| date=8 January 2016| last=Mizokami| first=Kyle| magazine=The Week}}</ref> the [[People's Republic of Angola]], the [[People's Republic of Mozambique]], the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]], and the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] ([[North Vietnam]]). Within the [[Soviet Union]] itself, the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]] and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]], had seats at the [[United Nations]], but were actually proper Soviet territory. |
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Soviet proxy, [[Satellite state#Post-World War II|"satellite"]], or client states included much of the [[Warsaw Pact]] member states whose policies were heavily influenced by Soviet military power and economic aid. Other nations with [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] governments were routinely criticised as being Soviet proxies as well, among them [[Cuba]] following the [[Cuban Revolution]], the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]], [[North Korea]],<ref name=DPRK>{{cite magazine| url=https://theweek.com/articles/597768/why-north-korea-betting-big-nuclear-weapons |title=Why North Korea is betting big on nuclear weapons| date=8 January 2016| last=Mizokami| first=Kyle| magazine=The Week}}</ref> [[North Vietnam]], the [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]], [[South Yemen]], the [[People's Republic of Angola]], the [[People's Republic of Mozambique]], and the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]. Within the [[Soviet Union]] itself, the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]] and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]], had seats at the [[United Nations]], but were actually proper Soviet territory. |
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<!-- DO NOT ADD ANY 21st Century entries without MULTIPLE INDEPENDENT RELIABLE sources --> |
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*[[Warsaw Pact]] and [[Comecon]] states: |
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**{{flag|People's Socialist Republic of Albania|name=Albania}} (1946-1968) |
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**{{flagcountry|PRB}} |
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**{{flag|Cuba}} |
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**{{flagcountry|CSR}} |
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**{{GDR}} (1949-1990) |
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**{{flagcountry|HPR}} |
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**{{flagcountry|MPR}} |
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**{{flagcountry|PPR}} |
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**{{flagcountry|RSR}} (remained a ''de jure'' member in spite of the [[De-satellization of Communist Romania|de-satellization of Romania]]) |
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**{{flag|Vietnam}} ([[North Vietnam]] to 1976) |
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***{{flag|People's Republic of Kampuchea}} (1979–1989) |
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**{{flagcountry|Democratic Republic of Afghanistan}} (1979–92) |
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*{{flag|People's Republic of China}} (until the [[Sino-Soviet split]]) |
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*{{flag|Laos}} |
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*{{flag|North Korea}} |
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*{{flag|People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia}} (1974–1991 ([[Derg]] until 1987)) |
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*{{flag|South Yemen}} |
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*{{flag|Yugoslavia}} (until the [[Tito-Stalin split]]) |
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==21st century== |
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===Argentina=== |
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* {{flag|Haiti|Haiti}} has been described as a client state of [[Argentina]]<ref>https://www.argentina.gob.ar/2020-misiones-de-la-armada-argentina</ref> |
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===Australia=== |
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*{{flag|Nauru|Republic of Nauru}} has been regarded as a client state of [[Australia]] by some sources, as it is heavily dependent on economic support from Australia, uses Australia's currency and processes and houses unauthorised asylum seeker arrivals to Australia under the [[Pacific Solution]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/201759087/pacific-correspondent-mike-field|title=Pacific correspondent Mike Field|date=18 June 2015|work=Radio New Zealand}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thesaturdaypaper.com.au/news/politics/2015/10/31/chris-kenny-visits-nauru-borders-open-allies/14462100002570|title=Chris Kenny visits Nauru as borders open up to allies|work=The Saturday Paper|date=31 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=onAAlO6qkiIC&q=nauru+client+state&pg=PA348|title=The Lonely Planet Story|isbn=9781854584496|last1=Wheeler|first1=Tony|last2=Wheeler|first2=Maureen|year=2008}}</ref> In ''[[The Guardian]]'', Ben Doherty wrote that "Nauru is a client state in every sense, kept functioning, just, by its wealthy neighbour. But its dependence on Australian largesse makes its government entirely beholden to its benefactor’s interests, even at the expense of its own people" and described Nauru as a "tiny, impoverished client state in the middle of the Pacific".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/oct/28/this-is-abyans-story-and-it-is-australias-story|title=This is Abyan's story, and it is Australia's story|author=Ben Doherty|work=the Guardian|date=28 October 2015}}</ref> Refugee advocate David Manne labelled a plan by Nauru to sign the [[1951 Refugee Convention]] as a "cynical marketing tool" by a "client state of Australia".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crikey.com.au/2010/07/15/opportunistic-nauru-not-fit-to-sign-refugee-convention/|title='Opportunistic' Nauru not fit to sign refugee convention|date=July 15, 2010|website=Crikey}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2014/03/13/naurus-former-chief-justice-predicts-legal-break-down|title=Nauru's former chief justice predicts legal break down|work=News}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea}}, also involved in the [[Pacific Solution]], has been called to a lesser extent, a client state of Australia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.regionalsecurity.org.au/Resources/Files/SC%2010-2%20Wallis.pdf |title=Data |publisher=www.regionalsecurity.org.au |date=2010 |access-date=2020-01-13 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> |
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===People's Republic of China=== |
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*{{flag|Cambodia|Cambodia}} has sometimes been considered a client state of China.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ciorciari|first=John D.|title=China and Cambodia: Patron and Client?|url=https://www.academia.edu/18527547|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|issn=1556-5068}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Laos|Laos}} has also been considered a Chinese client state, although this is disputed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ralphjennings/2017/05/03/tiny-impoverished-laos-shows-resistance-to-being-a-client-state-of-china/|title=Impoverished Laos Shows Resistance To Becoming A Client State Of China|last=Jennings|first=Ralph|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Myanmar|Myanmar}} has been described as "a near-client state of China".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2013/01/chinas-myanmar-problem/|title=China's Myanmar Problem|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-23}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Nepal|Nepal}} has been described as a client state of China by ''Huffpost''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/is-nepal-chinas-client-st_b_750770|title=Is Nepal China's Client State?|last1=Novick|first1=Rebecca|last2=ContributorWriter|date=2010-10-05|website=HuffPost|language=en|access-date=2020-01-22|last3=Optimist|first3=Eternal}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea}} has sometimes been seen as a client state of the [[China|People's Republic of China]] since the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991,<ref name="DPRK" /> although this is sometimes disputed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thestandard.com.hk/breaking-news.php?id=95340&sid=6|title=(Commentary) North Korea is not a client state that China can control|last=Standard|first=The|website=The Standard|language=en|access-date=2019-08-02}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Zimbabwe}} has sometimes been referred to as a client state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinaafricarealstory.com/2017/11/china-and-zimbabwe-after-mugabe_22.html|title=China and Zimbabwe: After Mugabe|first=Deborah|last=Brautigam}}</ref> |
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===France=== |
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*{{flag|Cameroon}} has been described as a client state of [[France]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.therecord.com/opinion/editorials/2015/10/20/african-solution-threatened-countries-must-fight-off-boko-haram.html|title=Editorial | African solution: Threatened countries must fight off Boko Haram|date=October 20, 2015|website=therecord.com}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Gabon}} has been described as a client state of France.<ref>https://www.cairn.info/revue-cahiers-d-etudes-africaines-2019-2-page-483.html</ref> |
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*{{flag|Ivory Coast}} has been described as a client state of France.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3993265.stm|title=France's Ivorian quagmire|date=8 November 2004}}</ref> |
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=== India === |
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*{{flag|Bangladesh}} has sometimes been referred to as a client state.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh Just Became a Vassal State |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/10/bangladesh-just-became-a-vassal-state/ |work=[[The Diplomat]] |date=4 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Not Only in Ladakh, India Losing Ground in Bangladesh Too |url=http://southasiajournal.net/not-only-in-ladakh-india-losing-ground-in-bangladesh-too/ |work=South Asia Journal |date=18 June 2020}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Bhutan}} is sometimes referred to as an Indian client state.<ref>{{cite news |title=India treating Bhutan as 'protectorate', says Chinese commentary |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/india-treating-bhutan-as-protectorate-says-chinese-commentary/article4991436.ece |work=The Hindu |date=5 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What Were China's Objectives in the Doklam Dispute? |url=https://www.rand.org/blog/2017/09/what-were-chinas-objectives-in-the-doklam-dispute.html |work=[[RAND Corporation]] |date=8 September 2017}}</ref> |
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=== Iran === |
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These countries have to varying degrees been called client states of Iran. |
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*{{flag|Iraq|Iraq}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://intpolicydigest.org/2017/11/09/iraq-is-a-client-state-of-iran/|title=Iraq is a Client State of Iran|date=2017-11-09|website=International Policy Digest|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-22|archive-date=2020-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519123358/https://intpolicydigest.org/2017/11/09/iraq-is-a-client-state-of-iran/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Lebanon|Lebanon}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/lebanon-hezbollah-and-irans-emerging-client-state-11568847112|title=Opinion {{!}} Lebanon, Hezbollah and Iran's Emerging Client State|last=Schanzer|first=Tony Badran and Jonathan|date=2019-09-18|work=Wall Street Journal|access-date=2020-01-22|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Syria|Syria}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idf.il/en/minisites/iran/iran-in-syria/the-future-of-irans-presence-in-syria/|title=The future of Iran's presence in Syria/ |website=www.idf.il|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nationalinterest.org/feature/the-real-reason-why-iran-backs-syria-14999|title=The Real Reason Why Iran Backs Syria|last=Barfi|first=Barak|date=2016-01-24|website=The National Interest|language=en|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Yemen}} ([[Supreme Political Council]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20150424-saudi-airstrikes-in-yemen-may-have-stopped-but-the-conflict-rages-on/|title=Saudi airstrikes in Yemen may have stopped, but the conflict rages on|date=April 24, 2015|website=Middle East Monitor}}</ref> |
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=== Russia === |
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*{{BLR}} - ''[[Financial Times]]'' has said that Russia "has long treated Belarus as a client state".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/45f7016e-3073-11ea-9703-eea0cae3f0de|title=Belarus and Russia ease tensions over oil supplies|website=www.ft.com|access-date=2020-01-16}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} has been referred to as a Russian client state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ponarseurasia.org/article/cooley-kyrgyzstan-entering-new-era-russian-client-state|title=Cooley: Kyrgyzstan is entering a new era as a Russian client state|date=2014-09-19|website=www.ponarseurasia.org|language=en|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eurasianet.org/with-massive-russian-military-aid-is-kyrgyzstan-becoming-a-client-state|title=With Massive Russian Military Aid, Is Kyrgyzstan Becoming A Client State?|website=Eurasianet|language=en|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Armenia}} is sometimes referred to as a Russian client state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2018/05/04/new-armenia-will-stay-with-russia-if-reluctantly-opinion-a61343|title=New Armenia Will Stay With Russia, If Reluctantly (Op-ed)|website=The Moscow Times|date=4 May 2018|language=en|access-date=2020-08-14}}</ref> |
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*{{SYR}} has sometimes been called a client state of Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2015/10/08/why-russia-syria/|title=Why Russia Needs Syria|last=Knight|first=Amy|date=2015-10-08|website=The New York Review of Books|language=en|access-date=2020-01-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-uncovered/analysis-could-putin-end-syrian-war-n435186|title=Analysis: Despite Icy Relations With U.S., Could Putin End Syrian War?|website=NBC News|language=en|access-date=2020-01-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/kerry-warns-of-grave-concerns-about-russias-intent-with-air-strikes-in-syria/2015/09/30/ccab60be-6792-11e5-9223-70cb36460919_story.html|title=Obama administration scrambles as Russia attempts to seize initiative in Syria|last=DeYoung|first=Karen|date=2015-09-30|work=Washington Post|access-date=2020-01-16|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/russia-no-middle-east-strategic-hegemon-by-shlomo-ben-ami-2019-11|title=Is Russia the Middle East's New Hegemon? {{!}} by Shlomo Ben-Ami|last=Ben-Ami|first=Shlomo|date=2019-11-18|website=Project Syndicate|language=en|access-date=2020-01-16}}</ref> |
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*{{VEN}} is sometimes referred to as a Russian client state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailygazette.com/article/2019/10/05/sweeney-defends-russian-bank-work|title=Former local U.S. Congressman Sweeney defends Russian bank work {{!}} The Daily Gazette|website=dailygazette.com|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> |
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*{{flag|Transnistria}} has been referred to as a client state of Russia.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA183859064|title=A foot in both camps: Moldova and the Transnistrian conundrum from the Kozak memorandum|first=Paul D.|last=Quinlan|journal=East European Quarterly|volume=42|issue=2|year=2008}}</ref> |
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=== Japan === |
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*{{Flag|Djibouti}} has been described as a client state of [[Japan]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dispatching P3C patrol aircraft to areas off Somalia marks new stage of SDF missions abroad|url=https://www.japan-press.co.jp/2009/2622/sdf_1.html|access-date=2021-07-08|website=www.japan-press.co.jp}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-06|title=日本は、自衛隊が駐留するジブチに「占領軍」のような不平等協定を強いている – 日刊SPA!|url=https://nikkan-spa.jp/1556286|access-date=2021-07-08|language=ja}}</ref> |
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=== Saudi Arabia === |
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*{{BHR}} - According to ''The Atlantic'', "Bahrain has long positioned itself as a client state to Saudi Arabia as well as the [[United States|U.S]]."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/09/obamas-un-address-and-the-bahrain-exception/245467/|title=Obama's UN Address and the Bahrain Exception|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=2011-09-21|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> |
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*{{UAE}} |
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*{{YEM}} ([[Cabinet of Yemen]]) - during the [[Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)|civil war in Yemen]]. |
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===Turkey=== |
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*{{flag|Azerbaijan}} is sometimes referred to as a Turkish client state.<ref>{{cite news |title=NATO's Rogue Member Meddles in Another Conflict |url=https://www.cato.org/blog/natos-rogue-member-meddles-another-conflict |work=[[Cato Institute]] |date=September 29, 2020}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Northern Cyprus}} is often referred to as a Turkish client state. |
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=== United States of America === |
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{{Other uses|American imperialism|}} |
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There are three Pacific Island states that are under the [[Compact of Free Association]]: |
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*{{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}} |
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*{{flag|Marshall Islands}} |
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*{{flag|Palau}} |
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[[Puerto Rico]] is officially a commonwealth of the [[United States]], that is, it has a pact of association for the common good with the United States. It is an associated state, but unlike the other three it is not entirely independent.<ref name="Staff">{{Cite web|last=Staff|first=Liberation|date=2009-09-04|title=U.S. 'liberators' turned South Korea into a neo-colony|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/09-09-04-us-liberators-turned-south-k-html/|access-date=2021-08-11|website=Liberation News|language=en-US}}</ref> |
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Various other media have listed the following as American client states:<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fisher|first=Max|date=2011-09-27|title=The Decline of American Client States|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/09/the-decline-of-american-client-states/245592/|access-date=2020-01-21|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Jegic|first=Denijal|title=Trump's Kosovo-Serbia normalisation deal is all about Israel|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/9/28/trumps-kosovo-serbia-normalisation-deal-is-all-about-israel|access-date=2021-04-05|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Mason|first=Mark|date=2018-01-15|title='Pakistan Is a Fractured Client State of the US Empire, Afghanistan a US Colony'|url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/6/12757/Pakistan-Is-a-Fractured-Client-State-of-the-US-Empire-Afghanistan-a-US-Colony|access-date=2020-11-27|website=TheCitizen.in|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Staff"/> |
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*{{Flag|Argentina}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Bahamas}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Bahrain}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Belize}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Chile}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Colombia}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Costa Rica}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Dominican Republic}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Ecuador}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Egypt}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|El Salvador}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Guatemala}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Haiti}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Honduras}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Indonesia}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Iraq}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Israel}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Jamaica}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Jordan}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Kosovo}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Kuwait}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Morocco}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Panama}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Peru}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Qatar}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|South Korea}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Taiwan}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|Tunisia}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{Flag|United Arab Emirates}} has been described as a client state of United States. |
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*{{YEM}} ([[Cabinet of Yemen]]) has been described as a client state of United States. |
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While the term has also been used to describe: |
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*{{Flag|Australia}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Steger|first=Isabella|title=Australia is at a point where it has to choose between its ally America and its economic backer|url=https://qz.com/971330/australia-is-at-a-point-where-it-has-to-choose-between-its-ally-america-and-its-economic-backer-china/|access-date=2020-01-22|website=Quartz|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-09-23|title=Australia's role as dutiful US client state|url=https://antonyloewenstein.com/australias-role-as-dutiful-us-client-state/|access-date=2021-06-25|website=Antony Loewenstein|language=en-AU}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Austria}}<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last=Sylvan |first=David|date=2003-02-25|title=An Agent-Based Model of the Acquisition of U.S. Client States|url=https://faculty.washington.edu/majeski/isa03.pap.pdf|journal=The Continuity of Client States and Military Intervention|language=en}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Brazil}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=2009-01-28|title=The United States and Brazil: Limits of Influence|language=en-US|journal=Foreign Affairs : America and the World|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/capsule-review/1981-06-01/united-states-and-brazil-limits-influence|access-date=2020-01-22|issn=0015-7120}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Bulgaria}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=България независима държава ли е, или американска колония? – Официален блог на Костадин Костадинов|url=https://kostadin.eu/2018/04/10/%d0%b1%d1%8a%d0%bb%d0%b3%d0%b0%d1%80%d0%b8%d1%8f-%d0%bd%d0%b5%d0%b7%d0%b0%d0%b2%d0%b8%d1%81%d0%b8%d0%bc%d0%b0-%d0%b4%d1%8a%d1%80%d0%b6%d0%b0%d0%b2%d0%b0-%d0%bb%d0%b8-%d0%b5-%d0%b8%d0%bb%d0%b8-%d0%b0/|access-date=2021-06-27|language=bg-BG}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Canada}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kilian|first=Crawford|date=2017-06-07|title=Can Canada Become a 'Hard Power'?|url=https://thetyee.ca/Opinion/2017/06/07/Canada-Hard-Power/|access-date=2021-04-21|website=The Tyee|language=English}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Croatia}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.vecernji.hr/amp/vijesti/postaju-51-americka-drzava-tri-milijuna-amerikanaca-koji-sluze-vojsku-ali-ne-mogu-birati-predsjednika-1463403|title=Postaju 51. američka država? Tri milijuna Amerikanaca koji služe vojsku, ali ne mogu birati predsjednika|access-date=2021-08-11|website=m.vecernji.hr}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Czech}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-05-18|title=Z Česka udělal kolonii USA. Vedení KSČM podpořilo Filipův útok na Petříčka|url=https://www.idnes.cz/zpravy/domaci/petricek-kscm-komuniste-diplomacie-kolonie-usa.A200518_153529_domaci_remy|access-date=2021-06-26|website=iDNES.cz|language=cs}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Denmark}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=1989-07-02|title=Denmark Becomes 51st State Every Fourth of July|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-07-02-tr-4522-story.html|access-date=2021-04-18|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref>（{{Flag|Greenland}}） |
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*{{Flag|Dominica}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dominica: The Push for Annexation with the United States|url=https://www.thedominican.net/articlesone/usannex.htm|access-date=2021-04-18|website=www.thedominican.net}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|France}}<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-06-24|title=NSA : "D'un point de vue technologique, la France est une colonie américaine"|url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/politique/2015/06/24/31001-20150624ARTFIG00213-nsa-d-un-point-de-vue-technologique-la-france-est-une-colonie-americaine.php|access-date=2021-06-27|website=LEFIGARO|language=fr}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Georgia}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lieven|first=Anatol|date=2007-11-14|title=A Tale of Two Client States|url=https://nationalinterest.org/commentary/inside-track-a-tale-of-two-client-states-1867|access-date=2020-01-21|website=The National Interest|language=en}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Germany}}<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-04-12|title=Deutschland, Kolonie der USA – Die Weichen wurden in der unmittelbaren Nachkriegszeit gestellt|url=https://www.westendverlag.de/kommentare/deutschland-kolonie-der-usa-die-weichen-wurden-in-der-unmittelbaren-nachkriegszeit-gestellt/|access-date=2021-03-15|website=Westend Verlag GmbH|language=de-DE}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Ghana}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2018-06-01|title=Africa's client states|url=https://newafricanmagazine.com/20912/|access-date=2021-06-27|website=New African Magazine}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Greece}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Κομνηνού|first=Ιωάννα|date=2019-03-18|title=Η διαμόρφωση θρησκευτικών ταυτοτήτων σύμφωνα με τις αλλαγές του μοντέλου διδασκαλίας του μαθήματος των Θρησκευτικών στην Ελλάδα από το 2011 και μετά|journal=Social Cohesion and Development|volume=13|issue=1|pages=33|doi=10.12681/scad.19874|issn=2459-4156|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|last=Epochi|first=rizospastis gr {{!}} Synchroni|date=1999-08-10|title=rizospastis.gr - Ιδού η αποικία σας...|url=https://www.rizospastis.gr/story.do?id=3781933|access-date=2021-08-05|website=ΡΙΖΟΣΠΑΣΤΗΣ}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Italy}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trump ha detto che Italia e Stati Uniti sono alleati "da migliaia di anni"? {{!}} Asiablog.it|url=http://www.asiablog.it/2019/10/17/trump-italia-stati-uniti/|access-date=2021-04-18|website=www.asiablog.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=L'Italia è una colonia degli Stati Uniti. Lo sostiene il generale Fabio Mini - www.altreinfo.org|url=https://www.altreinfo.org/attualita/11564/litalia-e-una-colonia-degli-stati-uniti-lo-sostiene-il-generale-fabio-mini/|access-date=2021-06-10|website=www.altreinfo.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-16|title=Bradanini, ex ambasciatore in Cina e Iran: "L'Italia è una colonia degli Usa"|url=https://spazio-politico.com/index.php/ambasciatore-bradanini-italia-colonia-usa/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=Spazio Politico|language=it-IT}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Iceland}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Osnos|first=Peter|date=1983-07-11|title=Iceland Guards Its Character Behind a Shield Of U.S. Sentinels|language=en-US|work=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1983/07/11/iceland-guards-its-character-behind-a-shield-of-us-sentinels/055902cd-bf9f-43a3-84f8-d65174dd2522/|access-date=2021-05-12|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Japan}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gittings|first=John|date=2007-09-12|title=Contradictions of a client state|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/sep/12/contradictionsofaclientsta|access-date=2020-01-22|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Liberia}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=C.|first=Johnathan|date=April 11, 1996|title=U.S. COPTERS FERRY HUNDREDS OUT OF CHAOTIC LIBERIA|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1996/04/11/us-copters-ferry-hundreds-out-of-chaotic-liberia/51b4c515-0e61-4695-a203-fb0605d3551d/|journal=The New York Times|language=en}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Norway}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Leer-Salvesen|first=Tarjei|title=– Norge er som en koloni!|url=https://arkiv.klassekampen.no/article/20021123/ARTICLE/311239966|access-date=2021-06-27|website=Klassekampen}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Nigeria}}<ref name=":0" /> |
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*{{Flag|Mexico}}<ref>{{Cite news|title=How Mexico's New President Is Turning His Country Into a Servile US Client|journal=The Nation|language=en|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/how-mexicos-new-president-turning-his-country-servile-us-client/|access-date=2021-04-21|issn=0027-8378}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Philippines}}<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Bustos|first1=Loren|last2=Cabacungan|first2=Vanessa|title=TIMELINE: Efforts to make the Philippines a US state|url=http://r3.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/56124-timeline-ph-us-state-annexation|access-date=2021-04-20|website=Rappler|language=en}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Poland}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Adrian Zandberg: Czy jesteśmy kolonią USA?|url=https://www.se.pl/wiadomosci/polityka/adrian-zandberg-czy-jestesmy-kolonia-usa-aa-Qdt2-BHzK-8cpK.html?format=amp|access-date=2021-07-14|website=www.se.pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ronald Lasecki: Polska jest kolonią USA|url=https://www.salon24.pl/u/ronald-lasecki/877445,polska-jest-kolonia-usa|access-date=2021-07-14|website=salon24.pl|language=pl}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Portugal}}<ref name="auto"/> |
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*{{Flag|Romania}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=searchnewsglobal|date=2013-11-01|title=România este colonie americană|url=https://searchnewsglobal.wordpress.com/2013/11/01/romania-este-colonie-americana/|access-date=2021-06-24|language=ro-RO}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Slovakia}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=SLOVENSKO SA DNES STALO AMERICKOU KOLÓNIOU|url=https://www.extraplus.sk/clanok/slovensko-sa-dnes-stalo-americkou-koloniou|access-date=2021-08-09|website=www.extraplus.sk|language=sk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Zem|first1=· AUTOR|last2=Vek|date=2019-05-31|title=Nie sme proeurópske Slovensko, ale americká kolónia - Zem&Vek|url=https://zemavek.sk/nie-sme-proeuropske-slovensko-ale-americka-kolonia/|access-date=2021-08-09|website=Zem&Vek - Alternatívne spravodajstvo|language=sk-SK}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-26|title=Škandál! Minister zahraničných vecí USA sa vyjadruje o Slovensku ako o kolónii USA!|url=https://www.hlavnydennik.sk/2021/02/26/skandal-minister-zahranicnych-veci-usa-sa-vyjadruje-o-slovensku-ako-o-kolonii-usa/|access-date=2021-08-09|website=HLAVNÝ DENNÍK|language=sk-SK}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|South Africa}}<ref name=":0" /> |
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*{{Flag|South Sudan}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hamilton|first=Rebecca|date=2009-01-09|title= U.S. Played Key Role in Southern Sudan's Long Journey to Independence|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/07/us-played-key-role-in-southern-sudans-long-journey-to-independence/241660/}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Spain}}<ref name="auto"/> |
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*{{Flag|Sweden}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fenjan|first=Tamara|title=– Sverige är en klientstat till USA|url=http://flamman.se/a/sverige-ar-en-klientstat-till-usa|access-date=2021-06-27|website=flamman.se|language=sv}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|Ukraine}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dubovyk|first=Volodymyr|date=2017-02-16|title=Is Ukraine a "Client State" of the United States?|url=http://www.ponarseurasia.org/memo/ukraine-client-state-united-states|journal=PonarsEuarasia - Policy Memos|language=en}}</ref> |
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*{{Flag|United Kingdom}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Britain is a US client state and should not forget it, says the neocons' oracle {{!}} Politics {{!}} The Guardian|url=https://amp.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/nov/19/foreignpolicy.usa|access-date=2021-06-07|website=amp.theguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2003-07-19|title=Will Hutton: Don't sell out to Uncle Sam|url=http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2003/jul/20/foreignpolicy.usa|access-date=2021-06-07|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=We are now a client state {{!}} Politics {{!}} The Guardian|url=https://amp.theguardian.com/politics/2003/jul/17/usa.world|access-date=2021-06-27|website=amp.theguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=CNN columnist suggests the UK become the 51st state of the US following Brexit vote|url=https://sg.news.yahoo.com/cnn-columnist-suggests-uk-become-020621457.html|access-date=2021-08-25|website=sg.news.yahoo.com|language=en-SG}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=UK is becoming 51st state of the US under Tories, SNP MP claims|url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/18118929.uk-becoming-51st-state-us-tories---kenny-macaskill/|access-date=2021-08-25|website=HeraldScotland|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Make UK the 51st state|url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/06/29/opinions/make-the-uk-the-51st-state/index.html|access-date=2021-08-25|website=CNN|language=en}}</ref> |
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In certain instances, particularly in defense, the {{Flag|European Union}} has been described as a client state of the USA.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cicarelli |first=Siena|date=2021-06-01|title=The Case for EU Defense|url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/reports/2021/06/01/500099/case-eu-defense///flanguage=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Garms|first=Jörg|date=2009|title=Ciò che volevano fare – ciò che dovevano fare – ciò che hanno fatto. Gli storici dell’arte borsisti a Roma|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1553/rhm50s455|journal=Römische Historische Mitteilungen|volume=50|pages=455–474|doi=10.1553/rhm50s455|issn=0080-3790}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{div col|colwidth=18em}} |
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*[[Banana republic]] |
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*[[ |
* [[Associated state]] |
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*[[ |
* [[Banana republic]] |
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* [[Condominium]] |
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* [[Dominion]] |
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* [[Neo-colony]] |
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* [[Protectorate]] |
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* [[Puppet state]] |
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* [[Satellite state]] |
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* [[Self-governing colony]] |
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* [[Strategic autonomy]] |
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* [[Suzerainty]] |
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* [[Tributary state]] |
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* [[Tributary state|Tributary]] |
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* [[Vassal state]] |
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{{div col end}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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Latest revision as of 16:02, 16 November 2024
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In the field of international relations, a client state, is a state that is economically, politically, and militarily subordinated to a more powerful controlling state.[1] Alternative terms[according to whom?] for a client state are satellite state, associated state, and dominion, condominium, self-governing colony, and neo-colony, protectorate, vassal state, puppet state, and tributary state.
Controlling states in history
[edit]Persia, Greece, Ancient China and Rome
[edit]Ancient states such as Persia and Parthia, Greek city-states, Ancient China and Ancient Rome sometimes created client states by making the leaders of that state subservient, having to provide tribute and soldiers. Classical Athens, for example, forced weaker states into the Delian League and in some cases imposed democratic governments on them. Later, Philip II of Macedon similarly imposed the League of Corinth. One of the most prolific users of client states was Republican Rome[2][3] which, instead of conquering and then absorbing into an empire, chose to make client states out of those it defeated (e.g. Demetrius of Pharos), a policy which was continued up until the 1st century BCE when it became the Roman Empire. Sometimes the client was not a former enemy but a pretender whom Rome helped, Herod the Great being a well-known example. The use of client states continued through the Middle Ages as the feudal system began to take hold.[citation needed]
Ottoman Empire
[edit]
The number of tributary or vassal states varied over time but most notable were the Khanate of Crimea, Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, the Sharifate of Mecca, and the Sultanate of Aceh.[citation needed]
19th and 20th centuries
[edit] | This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2014) |
Russian Empire
[edit]Austria-Hungary tried to make Serbia a client state in order to form a Christian opposition to the Ottoman Empire, but after the 1903 May Coup, Serbia came under the influence of Russia, which was forming a pan-Eastern Orthodox opposition to the Latin Christianity represented by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1914, Russia repeatedly warned Austria-Hungary against attacking Serbia. When it did attack, Russia mobilised its army.[4][5][6] Russia also wanted Bulgaria[7] and Montenegro[8] as client states.
At the time, Great Britain and Austria-Hungary both considered Serbia as a client state controlled by Russia.[9]
First French Empire
[edit]
During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras (1789–1815), France conquered most of western Europe and established several client states.
At first, during the French Revolutionary Wars, these states were erected as "Républiques soeurs" ("sister republics"). They were established in Italy (the Cisalpine Republic in Northern Italy and the Parthenopean Republic in Southern Italy), Greece (Îles Ioniennes), Switzerland (the Helvetic Republic and the Rhodanic Republic), and Belgium and the Netherlands (Batavian Republic).
During the First French Empire, while Napoleon I and the French Army occupied much of Europe, such states changed, and several new states were formed. The Italian republics were transformed into the Kingdom of Italy under Napoleon's direct rule in the north, and the Kingdom of Naples in the south, first under Joseph Bonaparte and later under Marshal Joachim Murat. A third state was created in the Italian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Etruria. The Batavian Republic was replaced by the Kingdom of Holland, ruled by Napoleon's third brother, Louis Bonaparte.
A total of 35 German states, all of them allies of France, seceded from the Holy Roman Empire to create the Confederation of the Rhine, a client state created to provide a buffer between France and its two largest enemies to the east, Prussia and Austria. Two of those states were Napoleonic creations: the Kingdom of Westphalia, which was controlled by Jérôme Bonaparte, the Emperor's youngest brother; and the Grand Duchy of Würzburg as was Poland, then the Duchy of Warsaw.
During the French invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, Napoleon attempted to subjugate Portugal and Spain into a client Kingdom of Spain, but the French were eventually driven out of Iberia in a costly war.
France after decolonisation
[edit]In the 20th century, France exercised a sphere of influence, or Françafrique over its former African colonies,[10][11] and to some degree former Belgian colonies in Africa (which were also French-speaking). The term is sometimes used pejoratively, to characterise the relationship with France as neocolonial. The former colonies provide oil and minerals important to the French economy, and in some, French companies have commercial interests.
British Empire
[edit]
The Indian princely states were nominally sovereign entities in the British Empire and in 1947, were given a choice to either accede to independent India or Pakistan or get independence (the Nizam of Hyderabad did opt for independence but his kingdom was annexed by Indian forces in 1948). Egyptian independence in 1922 ended its brief status as a British protectorate and Iraq was made a kingdom in 1932. But in both cases, the economic and military reality did not amount to full independence, but a status where the local rulers were British clients. Other instances include Africa (e.g. Northern Nigeria under Lord Lugard), and the Unfederated Malay States; the policy of indirect rule.
Germany
[edit]World War I
[edit]
Kingdom of Poland[12] (1917–1918)
Kingdom of Lithuania (1918)
Ukrainian State[13] (1918)- Duchy of Courland and Semigallia[14] (1918)
Democratic Republic of Georgia[15] (1918)
World War II
[edit]
Vichy France (1940–1944)
Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945)
Slovak Republic (1939–1945)
Albanian Kingdom (1943–1944)
United States
[edit]
The term has also been applied to states which are extremely economically dependent on a more powerful nation. The three Pacific Ocean countries associated with the United States under the Compact of Free Association (the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau) have been called client states.[16][17][18]
China (1945–1949) → Taiwan (1949–1979)
Khmer Republic (1970–1975)
Philippines (1965–1986)
South Korea (1948–1953)
South Vietnam (1954–1975)
Thailand (1949–1976)
Imperial Japan
[edit]
In the late 19th century, the Empire of Japan gradually reduced Joseon Korea's status to that of a client state. In the early 20th century, this was converted to direct rule. Manchukuo, in contrast, remained a puppet state throughout World War II.
Azad Hind (1943–1945)
State of Burma (1943–1945)
Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)- China (East Hebei Autonomous Government and North Shanxi Autonomous Government)[19]
Great Way Government (1937–1938)
Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)
Reorganised National Government of the Republic of China (1940–1945)
Joseon (After the First Sino-Japanese War)[20]
Korean Empire[21][22][unreliable source] (1905–1910)
Kingdom of Luang Phrabang (1945)
Manchukuo (1932–1945)
Mengjiang (1939–1945)
Second Philippine Republic (1943–1945)
Empire of Vietnam (1945)
Soviet Union
[edit]Soviet proxy, "satellite", or client states included much of the Warsaw Pact member states whose policies were heavily influenced by Soviet military power and economic aid. Other nations with Marxist–Leninist governments were routinely criticised as being Soviet proxies as well, among them Cuba following the Cuban Revolution, the Chinese Soviet Republic, North Korea,[23] North Vietnam, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, South Yemen, the People's Republic of Angola, the People's Republic of Mozambique, and the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Within the Soviet Union itself, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR, had seats at the United Nations, but were actually proper Soviet territory.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Michael Graham Fry, Erik Goldstein, Richard Langhorne. Guide to International Relations and Diplomacy. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Continuum International Publishing, 2002. Pp. 9.
- ^ Rocca, Samuel (2008). Herod's Judaea. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 9783161497179.
- ^ Collected studies: Alexander and his successors in Macedonia, by Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond,1994, page 257,"to Demetrius of Pharos, whom she set up as a client king
- ^ Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov warned Austria in 1914 that Russia "Would respond militarily to any action against the client state." Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2012) p 481.
- ^ Thomas F. X. Noble; et al. (2010). Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries, Volume C: Since 1789. Cengage. p. 692. ISBN 978-1424069606.
- ^ Michael J. Lyons (2016). World War II: A Short History. Routledge. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9781315509440.
- ^ Barbara Jelavich (2004). Russia and the Formation of the Romanian National State, 1821–1878. Cambridge UP. p. 288. ISBN 9780521522519.
- ^ Clive Ponting (2002). Thirteen Days: The Road to the First World War. Chatto & Windus. p. 60. ISBN 9780701172930.
- ^ Henry Cowper (1990). World War One and Its Consequences. Open University Press. p. 209. ISBN 9780335093076.
- ^ "The French African Connection". Al Jazeera. April 7, 2014. Archived from the original on November 12, 2018. Retrieved September 27, 2018.
- ^ Haski, Pierre (July 21, 2013). "The Return of Françafrique". The New York Times. New York. Retrieved September 27, 2018.
- ^ The Regency Kingdom has been referred to as a puppet state by Norman Davies in Europe: A history (Google Print, p. 910); by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki in A Concise History of Poland (Google Print, p. 218); by Piotr J. Wroblel in Chronology of Polish History and Nation and History (Google Print, p. 454); and by Raymond Leslie Buell in Poland: Key to Europe (Google Print, p. 68: "The Polish Kingdom... was merely a pawn [of Germany]").
- ^ Kataryna Wolczuk. The Moulding of Ukraine: The Constitutional Politics of State Formation. p. 37.
- ^ Kevin O'Connor, The History of the Baltic States, page 78, ISBN 0-313-32355-0.
- ^ Rayfield, Donald (2012). Edge of empires: a history of Georgia. London: Reaktion Books. pp. 326–331. ISBN 978-1-78023-030-6.
- ^ Hanlon, David L. (2018). "A Different Historiography for "A Handful of Chickpeas Flung Over the Sea": Approaching the Federated States of Micronesia's Deeper Past". In Warwick Anderson; Miranda Johnson; Barbara Brookes (eds.). Pacific Futures: Past and Present. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-7742-2.
- ^ Chen, Millie (2020). "The Marshall Islands and U.S. Imperial Relations". Mundi. 1 (1). Temple University.
- ^ Rampell, Ed (8 January 2019). "George H.W. Bush: Dirty Tricks and Regime Change in Nuclear-Free Palau". Island Times. Retrieved 15 April 2023.
- ^ "China grapples with preserving reminders of Japanese occupation". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 2022-05-31.
- ^ "Transimperial Genealogies of Korea as a Protectorate: The Egypt Model in Japan's Politics of Colonial Comparison | Cross-Currents". cross-currents.berkeley.edu. Archived from the original on 2022-03-17. Retrieved 2022-05-31.
- ^ "How Japan Took Control of Korea | HISTORY". www.history.com. Retrieved 2021-07-02.
- ^ "Japanese Rule Over Korea - A Liberation Day Korea History - Koryo Tours". koryogroup.com. 15 August 2020. Retrieved 2022-06-02.
- ^ Mizokami, Kyle (8 January 2016). "Why North Korea is betting big on nuclear weapons". The Week.