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{{italictitle}}
'''lat''' refers to the bar-shaped coinage minted and used as currency in the kingdom of [[Lan Xang]] and its successor kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Vientiane|Vientiane]], [[Kingdom of Luang Phrabang|Luang Prabang]], and [[Kingdom of Champasak|Champasak]]. "Lat" is a [[Lao language|Lao]] abbreviation for "talat" or "market," refering to the small denomination currency which may also be referred to as "boat money" or "Ngern Heua." The bar-shaped coinage of Lan Xang could be differentiated according to shape, weight, metal, [[Alloy metal|alloy]], and mint marks.
[[File:20171113 Theatre of the Royal Palace, Luang Prabang 2433 DxO.jpg|thumb|Scene from ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'', the Lao form of the Indian ''[[Ramayana]]''. Several versions of the story were recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts between the 15th and early 19th centuries.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). ''Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia.'' (pp. 54–73). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.</ref>]]
==History==
''''''Phra Lak Phra Ram'''''' (<big>ພຣະລັກພຣະຣາມ</big>, pʰrāʔ lāk pʰrāʔ ráːm) is the national [[Epic poetry|epic]] of the [[Lao people]], and is the Lao adaptation of the [[Dasaratha Jataka]], a story narrating one of the previous life of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] as a [[Bodhisattva|Bodhisatta]] named Rama''.''<ref name=":0" /> It was brought to [[Laos]] and other [[Southeast Asia]] by propagation of [[Buddhism]]. The story reached Laos much later than [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]] (Siam) and thus was affected by local adaptation.<ref>{{cite web|website=Phralak Phralam|url=http://phralakphralam.com/phralak_phralam_en/le-phralak-phralam/les-personnages/|title=The characters &#124; Phralak Phralam}}</ref>
In Lan Xang, as in the rest of [[Southeast Asia]], the earliest and most common mode of exchange would have been barter. The earliest lat coinage is dated from the fourteenth century.(cresswell 31) The founder of Lan Xang, King [[Fa Ngum|Fa Ngum]] (1353–1378), introduced a new mass unit and use of geometric weights, both of which he adopted from the [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]]. (85) Unlike in neighboring polities where standards fluctuated, the [[Mekong River]] valley area maintained a 1.23g or 12.3g standard mass unit from the time of Lan Xang until the nineteenth century. Although denominations are unknown, the smallest denomination transactions would have used the "lat" coins which are made typically of copper or bronze, or an alloy, and have few or no mint marks. Silver "hoi" would have been used for higher value transactions. Coins were manufactured by casting into closed molds. (Cresswell 32) Gold was reserved for royal or religious purposes.(16 daniel) As an inland trade center for Southeast Asia in addition to "lat" coinage other forms of currency from neighboring polities would have been widely distributed.


The areas to the east of [[Luang Prabang]] provided accessible copper and silver for mining, gold would have been gathered from [[alluvial]] deposits.(Daniel 17) The first Western account of the mineral wealth of Lan Xang came in 1552, from a Portuguese explorer Joao de Barros, who noted that the Lao exported silver.(Daniel 17) In 1642 the [[Dutch East India Company]] expedition led by Gerrit Van Wuysthoff noted the good quantities of gold and other metals available for trading, and made note of a monk who was arrested for counterfeiting. Some [[numismatists]], including Daniel, have speculated that some of the more ornate "hoi" coins date from this period as a protection against counterfeiting.(Daniel 19) Another Dutch trader, Jeremias Van Vliet, noted in 1692 that Lan Xang was trading in gold with [[Ayutthaya Kingdom|Ayutthaya]] but not in coin or ingot forms.


==Introduction==
Although dating of coins is difficult, the general consensus is that most lat coins came into use during the fifteenth century, becoming widespread in the sixteenth century coinciding with the reigns of kings [[Visoun]], [[Photisarath]], and [[Setthathirath]]. Coin making would have dropped off during the period from the mid-1570s to 1585 during the period of [[Taungoo Empire|Burmese]] invasions.(Daniel 18) During the reign of King [[Sourigna Vongsa|Souligna Vongsa]], generally cited as the "golden age" of Lan Xang, demand for coinage would have increased and the first regular European accounts of Lan Xang were recorded. By the mid-eighteenth century Burmese invasions and succession disputes had divided Lan Xang into the kingdoms of Vientiane, Luang Prabang, and Champasak.
Waves- sinhalese- differences to Khmer, Thai, Lan Na
==Adaption==
unique lao
==Textual Characteristics==
===Genre===
===Form===
AAB Khun Ay; Nitsay
==Structure==
2 parts
==Characters==
==Synopsis==
==Themes==
==Influence==


By 1779 the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)|Siamese]] had driven out the Burmese and extended suzerainty over the Lao kingdoms. From the late eighteenth century to the 1820s the Siamese attempted to consolidate their control over the Lao kingdoms. In 1826, [[Anouvong]] the king of Vientiane, [[Lao rebellion (1826–1828)|rebelled]] and was defeated. Daniel suggests that it was during this period that minting operations moved to [[Lan Na]] and Luang Prabang, which would explain Lan Na markings on some hoi coins. In the years following the rebellion, it appears that markings were banned by the Siamese and the coinage becomes more inferior. Lower denominations of lat coins have been dated to 1855 during the reign of King [[Manthaturath|Manthathurat]] of Luang Prabang, and would have continued to be minted by subsequent kings into the late nineteenth century.(daniel 23-24) Also during the period, shortly after the Siamese King [[Mongkut|Mongkut’s]] accession to the throne in 1851 the "baht" must have been introduced in Laos. Thus for transactions of goods between the Siamese-controlled parts of Laos and Siam there would have existed two different weighing standards side by side until the arrival of the [[French protectorate of Laos|French]]. The "baht" became the gold mass unit in Siam/Thailand and Laos, where it is used beside the metric system at present.


===Mint Marks===
In Laos both weights and bar-shaped coins were stamped with the "luang" symbol, proving that they were valid weight pieces and means of payment. By this symbol, considered as sacred, both weights and coins were protected. Manipulations could not be prevented, but tampering would be considered sacrilege.(Gabel 76) The form of the "luang" or "Na" symbol varies, from a sideways "S" or "J" to a "W" and symbolized a mythical snake or naga.(Cresswell 35) The "luang" was one of two royal symbols commonly used on coinage, the other being an elephant. As noted by Mayoury and Pheuiphanh (2009, 7) write: ‘In the early sixteenth century, the preferred translation for “Sisattanakhanahuta” changed from “Million Naga” to “Million Elephants” or “Lan Xang” in Lao’. According to Gabel, it follows that the white elephant rose to be the royal symbol only considerably later, with the wide spread adoption of Buddhism, probably not before the sixteenth century, although, according to Cresswell, it is already depicted on early lat money dating to the thirteenth or fourteenth century.(cresswell 30)


==Names==
In addition to royal marks of the "luang" or elephant, religious marks are also commonly used. A Buddhist "[[chakra]]" or "[[dharma wheel]]" are the most common and vary in appearance.(Cresswell 31-32) Of note, the "luang" symbol does not appear on coins with other Buddhist markings, which adds plausibility to interpretation that the symbol is connected to [[animism]] or [[Satsana Phi|Satsana Phi]] and related [[Naga (mythology)|naga]] offerings.


''Phra Lak Phra Ram'' is named after two principal characters, the brothers ''Phra Lak'', or [[Lakshaman]], and ''Phra Ram'', or [[Rama]]. Since ''Phra Ram'' is considered the hero, it is believed the altered name was chosen for euphony. Veteran dance performers of Luang Prabang, however, say that ''Phra Lak'' comes first in deference to his voluntary assistance of ''Phra Ram,'' whose actions were obligatory to his kingship.<ref>Jähnichen, G. (2009). Re-designing the role of phalak and pharam in modern Lao Ramayana. Wacana Seni Journal of Art Discourse, 8, p 3-4.</ref> Since it is considered a Jataka tale, it is referred to as ''Phra Ram Xadôk'' (<big>ພຣະຣາມຊາດົກ</big>, pʰrāʔ ráːm sáː dók). It was also called ''Rammakien'' (<big>ຣາມມະກຽນ</big>, Ráːm māʔ kian), but this the name for this other regional varieties in the ''Ramayana'' in general.
Other common markings on lat coins include various animals and flora which appear to be used as mint marks indicating where the coins were struck. Fish, turtles, clams, flowers and lotuses are common motifs. It is during the late-eighteenth century that some have speculated the variety of marks increased due to rivalry between Vientiane, Luang Prabang, and Champassak with the lion, cow, horse, or deer replacing the elephant as a symbol of royal authority.


==Lat Coins==
==Introduction to Laos==
''Lat'' money also known as ''boat money'', ''Heua money'', or ''leech money'' was a smaller denomination of coinage made of copper.(cresswell 30) These coins are grouped generally into two types. The first type is generally marked with three (sometimes four) symbols. Always present is an elephant symbol, attributed as a sign of royal authentication. Usually present is also a "chakra" symbol. The third is typically an animal or floral symbol, which may be an indication of where the coin was minted.
The second type of coin has a taper at both ends with a hollow or depression running the length of the coin, these coins are most commonly called "canoe" or "boat money." These coins generally have no marks of any kind, and are made of copper.
==Hoi Coins==
''Hoi'' money also known as ''tiger tongue'' was a larger denomination of coinage made of higher content silver. In form the coins are generally larger than other types of lat, and are characterized by a "double sucker" or dotted texture around the rim. (Cresswell 34) Markings are typically limited to a Buddhist wheel, or a "Na" or "Luang" symbol representing a mythical "Naga" or serpent. (cresswell 35) (Gabel){{sfnp|Stuart-Fox|1998|p=127}}


Lao legends attribute to the introduction of the ''Phra Ram Xadôk'' via the first king of [[Lan Xang]], Chao [[Fa Ngoum]], who arrived with his soldiers, artists, dancers, concubines, poets from musicians from [[Angkor]] who would have been familiar with the Reamker. Yet Indic civilizations knew of what is now Yunnan in China, as "Gandhara" no later than the second century B.C.<ref>Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 247.</ref> [[Hindu culture]], language and religion spread into that part of the world incident to the [[Satavahanas#Cultural achievements|cultural achievements of the Sahavahana]]s (230 BC–AD 220.) Though definitive dates cannot be established for the [[Peopling_of_Laos#Gradual_Tai_inland_migration_from_China|gradual Tai inland migration from China]], transmission of the epic likely occurred much sooner than the traditional date. Tai tribes definitely settled on the fringes of highly Indianized kingdoms of the Mon and Khmer culture, adopting much of Indic learning and knowledge. As those kingdoms receded, the Lao came to venerate the earlier Hindu temples, often decorated in [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]] motifs, such as at [[Vat Phou]] in [[Champasak Province|Champassak]].
==Citations==

{{reflist|3}}
Earlier versions remained somewhat similar to other versions, but by the 18th century, the versions are completely localised. Although Theravada Buddhism was known to the Mekong River Tai tribes as early as the 7th or 8th century B.C., it wasn't until the 14th or 15th centuries that a re-invigorated Theravada Buddhism supplanted earlier animist, Hindu, or Mahayana Buddhist loyalties.<ref>Saveda, A. (1994). Laos: a country study. [Replaces 1971 version.]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://countrystudies.us/laos/</ref><ref>Charles, I. (2007). Buddhism, power and political order. New York: Routledge.</ref> This would have also seen introduction of the Dasaratha Jataka, an ancient Buddhist crystallisation of the story.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). p. 54.</ref> By the 18th century, the manuscripts are completely adapted to Lao culture and Theravada Buddhist religion.<ref>p. 18.</ref>

==Religious significance==

Lao culture has always been oral and visual, and oral tales were often codified into elaborate dance-dramas by the royal courts. Great influence in dance came from Khmer, Thai, and even Javanese culture, with a slight native flair. In ''khône'' and ''lakhone'' dance-dramas, the symbolism, costumes, and story are also more attuned to and influenced by Hindu, Khmer, Thai, and Javanese traditions.

Some versions explicitly announce that it is a Jataka tale, while others are generally assumed to be so. Phra Lak and Phra Ram are the epitome of moral leadership, ethics, selflessness, and living true to dharma. Pha Ram is associated with a previous life of Siddartha Gautama, while his cousin Hapmanasouane (Ravanna) is often compared to Buddha's cousin ''[[Devadatta|Phra Thevathat]]'' or Buddha's final impasse to enlightenment, ''Phra Man''. The parallels include their religious knowledge and generally moral superiority but also their ruin by greed and desire.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). Many rāmāyaṇas: the diversity of a narrative tradition in south asia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.</ref> Hampanasouane as [[Mara (demon)|Mara]], the personification of worldly desires who tried to tempt the Buddha during meditation, can be seen in both their searches for lust, power, and material gain. The cosmology and some elements are taken from the [[Tripiṭaka|Tripitaka]], such as the greater role of Indra vis-à-vis Shiva, and Indra asking riddles of religion and Buddhist thought to a young Hapmanasouane.<ref>Richman, P. (1991). pp. 62-73</ref> Although important, religiously, it is subordinate to the greater and more chronologically recent Jataka tales of Phra Vet and the annals of the lifetime of Siddhartha Gautama.<ref>Holt, J. (2009). Spirits of the place: Buddhism and Lao religious culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 267.</ref>

Animistic elements are not as apparent in the ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'', but it is noteworthy to point out that the scenery takes place along the Mekong River. She is a great goddess and ancestral spirit that is as sacred and quintessentially 'theirs' as the [[Ganges]] is to India and a personification of water, bounty, and life. It was also the [[Phaya Naga|King of the Nagas]] that suggested Phra Ram's father move the capital from Maha Thani Si Pan Phao (modern-day [[Nong Khai]], Thailand) across the bank to Chantaboury Sri Sattanak (modern-day [[Vientiane]]).<ref name=":0">Tinh, V. T. (1971). Phra lak phra Ram: a previous life of the buddha [Published on-line 2003.]. (Adapted from text of Vat Kang Tha.), Retrieved from http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/index.htm</ref> Like most animistic elements, the [[Nāga]] is seen in both Buddhist and Hindu-influenced contexts, but worship of nagas predates Indian influence in the region, and are common in folktales of Laos and Isan. A unique version of the ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'', the ''Khwai Thoraphi'' focuses very much on Sankhip and Palichane's fight with the water buffalo. It was often read at temple, probably in Buddhism's attempt to replace Lao spirit propitiation ceremonies that involved water buffalo sacrifice.<ref>Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006) pp. 237-8.</ref>

==Influence on culture and art==
[[File:Lao New Year, dancers.jpg|thumb|A dancer wearing a demon mask from Phra Lak Phra Ram]]
The importance of ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'' to Lao culture can be seen in how ubiquitous it is. It is a mainstay of dance and drama, song, painting, sculpture, religious texts, and manuscripts. It is also seen in the more common arts, such as classical [[morlam]], folklore, and village dances.<ref>p. 231.</ref> Scenes from court dancers were performed on Lao New Year celebrations, and other Buddhist holidays. The texts are commonly read during sermons. And the tales themselves have been deeply interwoven into local folklore, myth, and legend. Sculpture, lacquerware, carvings, and paintings adorn temples and palaces. The chapters have been intricately crafted into song and dance and accompanying music. Through the Buddhist elements, Lao beliefs of morality and karma are re-affirmed. The first half of Lao versions also establish the mythology for the creation of the Lao polities, land features, and waterways, and it serves as a transmission of culture.

==Characters==

===Main characters===

[[Rama|''Phra Ram'']] (<big>ພຣະຣາມ</big>, pʰrāʔ ráːm)
* Son of [[Dasharatha|Thattaratha]], brother of Phra Lak, husband of Nang Sida.
[[Lakshaman|''Phra Lak'']] (<big>ພຣະລັກ</big>, pʰrāʔ lāk)
* Son of [[Dasharatha|Thattaratha]], brother of Phra Ram.
[[Sita|''Nang Sida'']] (<big>ນາງສີດາ</big>, náːŋ sǐː daː)
* Daughter of Thôtsakane and Nang Chanta, incarnation of Nang Souxada.
[[Ravana|''Thôtsakane'']] or ''Hapmanasouane'' (<big>ທົດສະກັນ</big>, tʰōt sáʔ kan; <big>ຮາບມະນາສວນ</big>, hȃːp māʔ naː sŭaːn)
* Soun of Viloun Ha, incarnation of Thao Loun Lo.

===Heavenly characters===

*[[Indra|''Phra In'']] (<big>ພຣະອິນ</big>, pʰrāʔ ʔìn)
** Chief of the gods, mentor of Thao Loun Lo.
*[[Shiva|''Phra Isouane'']] or ''Tapboramèsouane'' (<big>ພຣະອີສວນ</big>, pʰrāʔ ʔiː sŭaːn; <big>ຕັບບໍຣະເມສວນ</big>, táp bɔː rāʔ méː sŭaːn)
** A god who falls to the earth and is the first ruler of Inthapatha Maha Nakhone.
*[[Brahma|''Phra Phrôm'']] or ''Phrômmachak'' (<big>ພຣະພຣົມ</big>, pʰrāʔ pʰróm; <big>ພຣົມມະຈັກ</big>, pʰróm mā tɕák)
** Prince of Muong Thoay, father of several lesser wives of Phra Lak and Phra Ram.
*[[Shachi|''Nang Souxada'']] (<big>ນາງສຸດຊາດາ</big>, sút sáː daː)
** Wife of Indra who is defiled by Hapmanasouane and vows to seek vengeance in her next life as Nang Sida.
*[[Surya|''Phra Athit'']] (<big>ພຣະອາທິດ</big>, pʰrāʔ ʔàːtʰīt)
** The sun god, has affair with Nang Khaysi who bears the sons Sanghkip and Palichane.
*[[Garuda|''Phagna Khrout'']] (<big>ພະຍາຄຸດ</big>, pʰāʔ ɲáː kʰūt)
** Garuda replaces [[Jatayu]].
*[[Uchchaihshravas|''Manikap'']] (<big>ມະນີກາບ</big>, māʔ níː kȁːp)
**The [[Pegasus]]-like [[vahana]], or deity mount, of Indra.
*[[Nagaraja|''Phagna Nak'']] (<big>ພະຍານາກ</big>, pʰāʔ ɲáː nȃːk)
** King of the Nagas, protector and deity founder of Chao Si Sattanak.

===Monkeys===

Divine parentage makes these monkeys special. The more formal term for this class of humanoid simians is ''vanone'' (<big>ວານອນ</big>, váː nɔ́ːn). Because of this the male ones take the noble title ''Thao'' (<big>ທ້າວ</big>, tʰȃːo).
*[[Hanuman|''Hanoumane'']] or ''Hounlamane'' (<big>ຫະນຸມານ</big>, háʔ nū máːn; <big>ຫຸນລະມານ</big>, hŭn lāʔ máːn)
**Son of Pha Ram and Nang Phéngsi, aids in the search for Nang Sida and the battle with Hampanasouane.
*[[Sugriva|''Sangkhip'']] (<big>ສັງຄີບ</big>, săŋ kʰȋːp)
** Switches the role of Valmiki's [[Vali (Ramayana)|Vali]], son from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Palichane.
*[[Vali (Ramayana)|''Palichane'']] (<big>ພະລີຈັນ</big>, pʰāʔ líː tɕan)
** Switches the role of Valmiki's [[Sugriva]], sone from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Sangkhip.
*''Nang Phéngsi'' (ນາງແພງສີ, náːŋ pʰɛ́ːŋ sǐː)

==Versions==

===Textual===
Due to the fragile nature of organic matter in hot, humid weather, most of these texts have been mostly lost or destroyed. Nevertheless, several texts have been uncovered at Vat Phra Kèo in Vientiane, Vat Kang Tha in Ban Bo Ô, Ban Naxone Tay, Ban Hom, and Vat Nong Bon, in Laos; Roi Et in Thailand, now housed in Bangkok; and a manuscript of the Vientiane version in Phnom Penh. Of these, only Ban Hom and Ban Naxone Tay have complete versions preserved.<ref>Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp. 6-7.</ref>

Only two modern printed editions exist. The most noted is Sachchidanda Sahai's version, mostly based on the Vat Phra Kèo version. It was printed in 1973 by the patronage of the Indian Embassy in Vientiane.<ref>Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 231</ref> Vietnamese scholar Vo Thu Tinh also published a 1972 version adapted from the manuscript of Vat Kang Tha, and is depicted at Vat Oup Muong in Vientiane. This version has been criticised for being too simplified.<ref>Giteau Madeleine. Note sur des sculptures sur bois de Luang Prabang représentant des scènes du Rāmāyaṇa. In: Arts asiatiques. Tome 45, 1990. pp. 67-75.</ref><ref>Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp.7.</ref>

===Sister texts===
In addition to the Phra Lak Phra Ram, other similar stories are known from Laos.

*Phrômmachak
- In a version of the [[Tai Lue people|Tai Lu]] people preserved in [[Louang Phrabang]], Sita is born as [[Indra]]'s wife Sujata, who is raped by Ravana and reborn as Ravana's daughter On Hi Slap.

*Kuay Toraphi
*Langka Noy

==See also==
*[[Literature of Laos]]
*[[Ramayana]]
*[[Ramakien]]
*[[Reamker]]
*[[Hikayat Seri Rama]]
*[[Thens]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite book|title=Early Coinage of South East Asia |first1=Oliver |last1=Cresswell |publisher=Numismatics International|place=Dallas, Texas |year=1974}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Gabel|first=Joachim|date=2009|title=Lao Weights and the Luang Symbol|journal=Journal of the Siam Society|volume=97|pages=69-100}}
*{{cite book|title=Lao Coins and Currency |first1=Howard |last1=Daniel |publisher=The Southeast Asian Treasury|place=Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam |year=2014|ISBN= 9786048607609}}
*{{cite web |title=Hoy, Lad, Hang, Huea, Tu: The Identities of Thailand’s Isan Money|url=http://coinmuseum.treasury.go.th/en/news_view.php?nid=141 |website=The Coin Museum |publisher=Thai Treasury Department |access-date=1 October 2021 |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last=Stuart-Fox |first=Martin |year=1998 |title=The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang: Rise and Decline |location=Bangkok |publisher=White Lotus Press |ISBN=9748434338}}


==Further Reading==
==External links==
* {{in lang|en|fr}} [http://www.phralakphralam.com Royal theatre of Luang Prabang]
*{{cite book|title=The History and Coinage of South-East Asia |first1=Mitchiner |last1=Michael |publisher=Hawkins Publications|place=London |year=1998}}
* [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/page01.htm Phra Lak Phra Lam - A Previous Life of the Buddha]
* [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/characters.htm Characters of the Phra Lak Phra Lam]


{{HinduMythology}}
[[Category:History of money]]
{{Ramayana}}
[[Category:Currencies of Laos]]
{{National epic poems}}
[[Category:Currencies of Asia]]
[[:Category:Laotian literature]]
[[:Category:Works based on the Ramayana]]
[[:Category:Epics]]

Latest revision as of 20:20, 13 November 2021

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Scene from Phra Lak Phra Ram, the Lao form of the Indian Ramayana. Several versions of the story were recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts between the 15th and early 19th centuries.[1]

'Phra Lak Phra Ram' (ພຣະລັກພຣະຣາມ, pʰrāʔ lāk pʰrāʔ ráːm) is the national epic of the Lao people, and is the Lao adaptation of the Dasaratha Jataka, a story narrating one of the previous life of Buddha as a Bodhisatta named Rama.[2] It was brought to Laos and other Southeast Asia by propagation of Buddhism. The story reached Laos much later than Cambodia and Thailand (Siam) and thus was affected by local adaptation.[3]


Introduction

[edit]

Waves- sinhalese- differences to Khmer, Thai, Lan Na

Adaption

[edit]

unique lao

Textual Characteristics

[edit]

Genre

[edit]

Form

[edit]

AAB Khun Ay; Nitsay

Structure

[edit]

2 parts

Characters

[edit]

Synopsis

[edit]

Themes

[edit]

Influence

[edit]

Names

[edit]

Phra Lak Phra Ram is named after two principal characters, the brothers Phra Lak, or Lakshaman, and Phra Ram, or Rama. Since Phra Ram is considered the hero, it is believed the altered name was chosen for euphony. Veteran dance performers of Luang Prabang, however, say that Phra Lak comes first in deference to his voluntary assistance of Phra Ram, whose actions were obligatory to his kingship.[4] Since it is considered a Jataka tale, it is referred to as Phra Ram Xadôk (ພຣະຣາມຊາດົກ, pʰrāʔ ráːm sáː dók). It was also called Rammakien (ຣາມມະກຽນ, Ráːm māʔ kian), but this the name for this other regional varieties in the Ramayana in general.

Introduction to Laos

[edit]

Lao legends attribute to the introduction of the Phra Ram Xadôk via the first king of Lan Xang, Chao Fa Ngoum, who arrived with his soldiers, artists, dancers, concubines, poets from musicians from Angkor who would have been familiar with the Reamker. Yet Indic civilizations knew of what is now Yunnan in China, as "Gandhara" no later than the second century B.C.[5] Hindu culture, language and religion spread into that part of the world incident to the cultural achievements of the Sahavahanas (230 BC–AD 220.) Though definitive dates cannot be established for the gradual Tai inland migration from China, transmission of the epic likely occurred much sooner than the traditional date. Tai tribes definitely settled on the fringes of highly Indianized kingdoms of the Mon and Khmer culture, adopting much of Indic learning and knowledge. As those kingdoms receded, the Lao came to venerate the earlier Hindu temples, often decorated in Ramayana and the Mahabharata motifs, such as at Vat Phou in Champassak.

Earlier versions remained somewhat similar to other versions, but by the 18th century, the versions are completely localised. Although Theravada Buddhism was known to the Mekong River Tai tribes as early as the 7th or 8th century B.C., it wasn't until the 14th or 15th centuries that a re-invigorated Theravada Buddhism supplanted earlier animist, Hindu, or Mahayana Buddhist loyalties.[6][7] This would have also seen introduction of the Dasaratha Jataka, an ancient Buddhist crystallisation of the story.[8] By the 18th century, the manuscripts are completely adapted to Lao culture and Theravada Buddhist religion.[9]

Religious significance

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Lao culture has always been oral and visual, and oral tales were often codified into elaborate dance-dramas by the royal courts. Great influence in dance came from Khmer, Thai, and even Javanese culture, with a slight native flair. In khône and lakhone dance-dramas, the symbolism, costumes, and story are also more attuned to and influenced by Hindu, Khmer, Thai, and Javanese traditions.

Some versions explicitly announce that it is a Jataka tale, while others are generally assumed to be so. Phra Lak and Phra Ram are the epitome of moral leadership, ethics, selflessness, and living true to dharma. Pha Ram is associated with a previous life of Siddartha Gautama, while his cousin Hapmanasouane (Ravanna) is often compared to Buddha's cousin Phra Thevathat or Buddha's final impasse to enlightenment, Phra Man. The parallels include their religious knowledge and generally moral superiority but also their ruin by greed and desire.[10] Hampanasouane as Mara, the personification of worldly desires who tried to tempt the Buddha during meditation, can be seen in both their searches for lust, power, and material gain. The cosmology and some elements are taken from the Tripitaka, such as the greater role of Indra vis-à-vis Shiva, and Indra asking riddles of religion and Buddhist thought to a young Hapmanasouane.[11] Although important, religiously, it is subordinate to the greater and more chronologically recent Jataka tales of Phra Vet and the annals of the lifetime of Siddhartha Gautama.[12]

Animistic elements are not as apparent in the Phra Lak Phra Ram, but it is noteworthy to point out that the scenery takes place along the Mekong River. She is a great goddess and ancestral spirit that is as sacred and quintessentially 'theirs' as the Ganges is to India and a personification of water, bounty, and life. It was also the King of the Nagas that suggested Phra Ram's father move the capital from Maha Thani Si Pan Phao (modern-day Nong Khai, Thailand) across the bank to Chantaboury Sri Sattanak (modern-day Vientiane).[2] Like most animistic elements, the Nāga is seen in both Buddhist and Hindu-influenced contexts, but worship of nagas predates Indian influence in the region, and are common in folktales of Laos and Isan. A unique version of the Phra Lak Phra Ram, the Khwai Thoraphi focuses very much on Sankhip and Palichane's fight with the water buffalo. It was often read at temple, probably in Buddhism's attempt to replace Lao spirit propitiation ceremonies that involved water buffalo sacrifice.[13]

Influence on culture and art

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A dancer wearing a demon mask from Phra Lak Phra Ram

The importance of Phra Lak Phra Ram to Lao culture can be seen in how ubiquitous it is. It is a mainstay of dance and drama, song, painting, sculpture, religious texts, and manuscripts. It is also seen in the more common arts, such as classical morlam, folklore, and village dances.[14] Scenes from court dancers were performed on Lao New Year celebrations, and other Buddhist holidays. The texts are commonly read during sermons. And the tales themselves have been deeply interwoven into local folklore, myth, and legend. Sculpture, lacquerware, carvings, and paintings adorn temples and palaces. The chapters have been intricately crafted into song and dance and accompanying music. Through the Buddhist elements, Lao beliefs of morality and karma are re-affirmed. The first half of Lao versions also establish the mythology for the creation of the Lao polities, land features, and waterways, and it serves as a transmission of culture.

Characters

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Main characters

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Phra Ram (ພຣະຣາມ, pʰrāʔ ráːm)

  • Son of Thattaratha, brother of Phra Lak, husband of Nang Sida.

Phra Lak (ພຣະລັກ, pʰrāʔ lāk)

Nang Sida (ນາງສີດາ, náːŋ sǐː daː)

  • Daughter of Thôtsakane and Nang Chanta, incarnation of Nang Souxada.

Thôtsakane or Hapmanasouane (ທົດສະກັນ, tʰōt sáʔ kan; ຮາບມະນາສວນ, hȃːp māʔ naː sŭaːn)

  • Soun of Viloun Ha, incarnation of Thao Loun Lo.

Heavenly characters

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  • Phra In (ພຣະອິນ, pʰrāʔ ʔìn)
    • Chief of the gods, mentor of Thao Loun Lo.
  • Phra Isouane or Tapboramèsouane (ພຣະອີສວນ, pʰrāʔ ʔiː sŭaːn; ຕັບບໍຣະເມສວນ, táp bɔː rāʔ méː sŭaːn)
    • A god who falls to the earth and is the first ruler of Inthapatha Maha Nakhone.
  • Phra Phrôm or Phrômmachak (ພຣະພຣົມ, pʰrāʔ pʰróm; ພຣົມມະຈັກ, pʰróm mā tɕák)
    • Prince of Muong Thoay, father of several lesser wives of Phra Lak and Phra Ram.
  • Nang Souxada (ນາງສຸດຊາດາ, sút sáː daː)
    • Wife of Indra who is defiled by Hapmanasouane and vows to seek vengeance in her next life as Nang Sida.
  • Phra Athit (ພຣະອາທິດ, pʰrāʔ ʔàːtʰīt)
    • The sun god, has affair with Nang Khaysi who bears the sons Sanghkip and Palichane.
  • Phagna Khrout (ພະຍາຄຸດ, pʰāʔ ɲáː kʰūt)
  • Manikap (ມະນີກາບ, māʔ níː kȁːp)
  • Phagna Nak (ພະຍານາກ, pʰāʔ ɲáː nȃːk)
    • King of the Nagas, protector and deity founder of Chao Si Sattanak.

Monkeys

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Divine parentage makes these monkeys special. The more formal term for this class of humanoid simians is vanone (ວານອນ, váː nɔ́ːn). Because of this the male ones take the noble title Thao (ທ້າວ, tʰȃːo).

  • Hanoumane or Hounlamane (ຫະນຸມານ, háʔ nū máːn; ຫຸນລະມານ, hŭn lāʔ máːn)
    • Son of Pha Ram and Nang Phéngsi, aids in the search for Nang Sida and the battle with Hampanasouane.
  • Sangkhip (ສັງຄີບ, săŋ kʰȋːp)
    • Switches the role of Valmiki's Vali, son from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Palichane.
  • Palichane (ພະລີຈັນ, pʰāʔ líː tɕan)
    • Switches the role of Valmiki's Sugriva, sone from the rape of Nang Khaysi by Phra Athit, brother of Sangkhip.
  • Nang Phéngsi (ນາງແພງສີ, náːŋ pʰɛ́ːŋ sǐː)

Versions

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Textual

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Due to the fragile nature of organic matter in hot, humid weather, most of these texts have been mostly lost or destroyed. Nevertheless, several texts have been uncovered at Vat Phra Kèo in Vientiane, Vat Kang Tha in Ban Bo Ô, Ban Naxone Tay, Ban Hom, and Vat Nong Bon, in Laos; Roi Et in Thailand, now housed in Bangkok; and a manuscript of the Vientiane version in Phnom Penh. Of these, only Ban Hom and Ban Naxone Tay have complete versions preserved.[15]

Only two modern printed editions exist. The most noted is Sachchidanda Sahai's version, mostly based on the Vat Phra Kèo version. It was printed in 1973 by the patronage of the Indian Embassy in Vientiane.[16] Vietnamese scholar Vo Thu Tinh also published a 1972 version adapted from the manuscript of Vat Kang Tha, and is depicted at Vat Oup Muong in Vientiane. This version has been criticised for being too simplified.[17][18]

Sister texts

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In addition to the Phra Lak Phra Ram, other similar stories are known from Laos.

  • Phrômmachak

- In a version of the Tai Lu people preserved in Louang Phrabang, Sita is born as Indra's wife Sujata, who is raped by Ravana and reborn as Ravana's daughter On Hi Slap.

  • Kuay Toraphi
  • Langka Noy

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Richman, P. (1991). Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia. (pp. 54–73). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  2. ^ a b Tinh, V. T. (1971). Phra lak phra Ram: a previous life of the buddha [Published on-line 2003.]. (Adapted from text of Vat Kang Tha.), Retrieved from http://www.seasite.niu.edu/lao/otherTopics/PhralakPhralam/index.htm
  3. ^ "The characters | Phralak Phralam". Phralak Phralam.
  4. ^ Jähnichen, G. (2009). Re-designing the role of phalak and pharam in modern Lao Ramayana. Wacana Seni Journal of Art Discourse, 8, p 3-4.
  5. ^ Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 247.
  6. ^ Saveda, A. (1994). Laos: a country study. [Replaces 1971 version.]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://countrystudies.us/laos/
  7. ^ Charles, I. (2007). Buddhism, power and political order. New York: Routledge.
  8. ^ Richman, P. (1991). p. 54.
  9. ^ p. 18.
  10. ^ Richman, P. (1991). Many rāmāyaṇas: the diversity of a narrative tradition in south asia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  11. ^ Richman, P. (1991). pp. 62-73
  12. ^ Holt, J. (2009). Spirits of the place: Buddhism and Lao religious culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 267.
  13. ^ Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006) pp. 237-8.
  14. ^ p. 231.
  15. ^ Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp. 6-7.
  16. ^ Iyengar, K. R. S. (2006). Asian variations in ramayana. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 231
  17. ^ Giteau Madeleine. Note sur des sculptures sur bois de Luang Prabang représentant des scènes du Rāmāyaṇa. In: Arts asiatiques. Tome 45, 1990. pp. 67-75.
  18. ^ Jähnichen, G. (2009), pp.7.
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Category:Laotian literature Category:Works based on the Ramayana Category:Epics

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