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The '''experience sampling method (ESM)''',<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Sather T |date= November 2014 |title=Experience Sampling Method|url=https://academy.pubs.asha.org/2014/11/experience-sampling-method/|access-date=2021-03-21|website=ASHA Journals Academy|language=en-US}}</ref> also referred to as a '''daily diary method''', or '''ecological momentary assessment''' ('''EMA'''), is an intensive longitudinal [[research methodology]] that involves asking participants to report on their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and/or environment on multiple occasions over time.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Intensive longitudinal thods: An introduction to diary and experience sampling research.| vauthors = Bolger N, Laurenceau JP |publisher=Guilford Press|year=2013|location=New York, N.Y.}}</ref> Participants report on their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and/or environment in the moment (right then, not later; right there, not elsewhere) or shortly thereafter.<ref name="ESM">{{cite book | vauthors = Csikszentmihalyi M |date= July 2014 |title= Validity and Reliability of the Experience-Sampling Method|location= New York |publisher= Springer |page= 322 |isbn= 978-94-017-9087-1}}</ref> Participants can be given a journal with many identical pages. Each page can have a [[Psychometrics|psychometric scale]], [[Closed-ended question|open-ended questions]], or anything else used to assess their condition in that place and time. ESM studies can also operate fully automatized on portable electronic devices or via the internet.<ref name="HND">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krieke LV, Jeronimus BF, Blaauw FJ, Wanders RB, Emerencia AC, Schenk HM, Vos SD, Snippe E, Wichers M, Wigman JT, Bos EH, Wardenaar KJ, Jonge PD | display-authors = 6 | title = HowNutsAreTheDutch (HoeGekIsNL): A crowdsourcing study of mental symptoms and strengths | journal = International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–44 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 26395198 | pmc = 6877205 | doi = 10.1002/mpr.1495 }}</ref> The experience sampling method was developed by Larson and [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Csikszentmihalyi]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Larson R, Csikszentmihalyi M | year = 1983 | title = The experience sampling method | journal = New Directions for Methodology of Social and Behavioral Science | volume = 15 | pages = 41–56 }}</ref>
The '''experience sampling method''' ('''ESM'''),<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Sather T |date= November 2014 |title=Experience Sampling Method|url=https://academy.pubs.asha.org/2014/11/experience-sampling-method/|access-date=2021-03-21|website=ASHA Journals Academy|language=en-US}}</ref> also referred to as a '''daily diary method''', or '''ecological momentary assessment''' ('''EMA'''), is an intensive longitudinal [[research methodology]] that involves asking participants to report on their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and/or environment on multiple occasions over time.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Intensive longitudinal thods: An introduction to diary and experience sampling research.| vauthors = Bolger N, Laurenceau JP |publisher=Guilford Press|year=2013|location=New York, N.Y.}}</ref> Participants report on their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and/or environment in the moment (right then, not later; right there, not elsewhere) or shortly thereafter.<ref name="ESM">{{cite book | vauthors = Csikszentmihalyi M |date= July 2014 |title= Validity and Reliability of the Experience-Sampling Method|location= New York |publisher= Springer |page= 322 |isbn= 978-94-017-9087-1}}</ref> Participants can be given a journal with many identical pages. Each page can have a [[Psychometrics|psychometric scale]], [[Closed-ended question|open-ended questions]], or anything else used to assess their condition in that place and time. ESM studies can also operate fully automatized on portable electronic devices or via the internet.<ref name="HND">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krieke LV, Jeronimus BF, Blaauw FJ, Wanders RB, Emerencia AC, Schenk HM, Vos SD, Snippe E, Wichers M, Wigman JT, Bos EH, Wardenaar KJ, Jonge PD | display-authors = 6 | title = HowNutsAreTheDutch (HoeGekIsNL): A crowdsourcing study of mental symptoms and strengths | journal = International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–44 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 26395198 | pmc = 6877205 | doi = 10.1002/mpr.1495 }}</ref> The experience sampling method was developed by Suzanne Prescott during doctoral work at [[University of Chicago]]'s Committee on Human Development with assistance from her dissertation advisor [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hektner |first1=Joel M |title=Experience sampling method : measuring the quality of everyday life |date=2007 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4129-4923-1 |pages=7–9}}</ref> Early studies that used ESM were coauthored by fellow students Reed W. Larson and Ronald Graef, whose dissertations both used the method.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Csikszentmihalyi |first1=Mihaly |last2=Larson |first2=Reed |last3=Prescott |first3=Suzanne |title=The ecology of adolescent activity and experience |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence |date=1 September 1977 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=281–294 |doi=10.1007/BF02138940 |pmid=24408457 |s2cid=23892740 |language=en |issn=1573-6601}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prescott |first1=Suzanne |last2=Csikszentmihalyi |first2=Mihaly |last3=Graef |first3=Ronald |title=Environmental effects on cognitive and affective states: The experiential time sampling approach |journal=Social Behavior and Personality |date=1981 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=23–32 |doi=10.2224/sbp.1981.9.1.23 |url=https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1981.9.1.23|url-access=subscription }}</ref>


==Overview==
==Overview==
There are different ways to signal participants when to take notes in their journal or complete a questionnaire,<ref>{{cite book | veditors = Hektner JM, Schmidt JA, Csikszentmihalyi M |title=Experience sampling method : measuring the quality of everyday life |date=2007 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. | isbn=978-1-4129-2557-0}}</ref> like using preprogrammed stopwatches. An observer can have an identically programmed [[stopwatch]], so the observer can record specific events as the participants are recording their feelings or other behaviors. It is best to avoid letting subjects know in advance when they will record their feelings, so they can't anticipate the event, and will just be "acting naturally" when they stop and take notes on their current condition. Conversely, some statistical techniques require roughly equidistant time intervals, which has the limitation that assessments can be anticipated. Validity in these studies comes from repetition, so you can look for patterns, like participants reporting greater happiness right after meals. For instance, Stieger and Reips<ref>Stieger, S., & Reips, U. D. (2019). Well-being, smartphone sensors, and data from open-access databases: A mobile experience sampling study. ''Field Methods'', ''31''(3), 277-291. [[doi:10.1177/1525822X18824281]]</ref> were able to replicate and refine past research about the dynamics of well-being fluctuations during the day (low in the morning, high in the evening) and over the course of a week (low just before the beginning of the week, highest near the end of the week).<ref>Akay, A., & Martinsson, P. (2009). Sundays are blue: Aren't they? The day-of-the-week effect on subjective well-being and socio-economic status. IZA Discussion Paper No. 4563. <nowiki>https://ssrn.com/abstract=1506315</nowiki> (accessed May 19, 2021).</ref> These correlations can then be tested by other means for cause and effect, such as vector autoregression,<ref name= "Kr2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = van der Krieke L, Blaauw FJ, Emerencia AC, Schenk HM, Slaets JP, Bos EH, de Jonge P, Jeronimus BF | display-authors = 6 | title = Temporal Dynamics of Health and Well-Being: A Crowdsourcing Approach to Momentary Assessments and Automated Generation of Personalized Feedback | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 79 | issue = 2 | pages = 213–223 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27551988 | doi = 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000378 | s2cid = 10955232 }}</ref> since ESM just shows correlation. Moreover, by using the experience sampling method different research questions can be analyzed regarding the use of mobile devices in research. Following on from this, Stieger and colleagues<ref>Stieger, S., Lewetz, D., & Reips, U. D. (2018). Can smartphones be used to bring computer-based tasks from the lab to the field? A mobile experience-sampling method study about the pace of life. ''Behavior research methods'', ''50''(6), 2267-2275.</ref> used the experience sampling method to show that smartphones can be used to transfer computer-based tasks (CBTs) from the lab to the field.
There are different ways to signal participants when to take notes in their journal or complete a questionnaire,<ref>{{cite book | veditors = Hektner JM, Schmidt JA, Csikszentmihalyi M |title=Experience sampling method : measuring the quality of everyday life |date=2007 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. | isbn=978-1-4129-2557-0}}</ref> like using preprogrammed stopwatches. An observer can have an identically programmed [[stopwatch]], so the observer can record specific events as the participants are recording their feelings or other behaviors. It is best to avoid letting subjects know in advance when they will record their feelings, so they can't anticipate the event, and will just be "acting naturally" when they stop and take notes on their current condition. Conversely, some statistical techniques require roughly equidistant time intervals, which has the limitation that assessments can be anticipated. Validity in these studies comes from repetition, so you can look for patterns, like participants reporting greater happiness right after meals. For instance, Stieger and Reips<ref>Stieger, S, & Reips, UD (2019). Well-being, smartphone sensors, and data from open-access databases: A mobile experience sampling study. ''Field Methods'', ''31''(3), 277-291. [[doi:10.1177/1525822X18824281]]</ref> were able to replicate and refine past research about the dynamics of well-being fluctuations during the day (low in the morning, high in the evening) and over the course of a week (low just before the beginning of the week, highest near the end of the week).<ref>Akay A, & Martinsson P (2009). Sundays are blue: Aren't they? The day-of-the-week effect on subjective well-being and socio-economic status. IZA Discussion Paper No. 4563. {{SSRN|1506315}} (accessed May 19, 2021).</ref> These correlations can then be tested by other means for cause and effect, such as vector autoregression,<ref name= "Kr2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = van der Krieke L, Blaauw FJ, Emerencia AC, Schenk HM, Slaets JP, Bos EH, de Jonge P, Jeronimus BF | display-authors = 6 | title = Temporal Dynamics of Health and Well-Being: A Crowdsourcing Approach to Momentary Assessments and Automated Generation of Personalized Feedback | journal = Psychosomatic Medicine | volume = 79 | issue = 2 | pages = 213–223 | year = 2016 | pmid = 27551988 | doi = 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000378 | s2cid = 10955232 | url = https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/40193705/00006842_201702000_00011.pdf }}</ref> since ESM just shows correlation. Moreover, by using the experience sampling method different research questions can be analyzed regarding the use of mobile devices in research. Following on from this, Stieger and colleagues<ref>Stieger, S, Lewetz D, & Reips UD (2018). Can smartphones be used to bring computer-based tasks from the lab to the field? A mobile experience-sampling method study about the pace of life. ''Behavior research methods'', ''50''(6), 2267–2275.</ref> used the experience sampling method to show that smartphones can be used to transfer computer-based tasks (CBTs) from the lab to the field.


Some authors also use the term experience sampling to encompass passive data derived from sources such as smartphones, wearable sensors, the Internet of Things, email and social media that do not require explicit input from participants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nielson DM, Smith TA, Sreekumar V, Dennis S, Sederberg PB | title = Human hippocampus represents space and time during retrieval of real-world memories | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 112 | issue = 35 | pages = 11078–83 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26283350 | pmc = 4568259 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1507104112 | bibcode = 2015PNAS..11211078N | doi-access = free }}</ref> These methods can be advantageous as they impose less demand on participants improving compliance and allowing data to be collected for much longer periods, are less likely to change the behaviour being studied and allow data to be sampled at much higher rates and with greater precision. Many research questions can benefit from both active and passive forms of experience sampling.
Some authors also use the term experience sampling to encompass passive data derived from sources such as smartphones, wearable sensors, the [[Internet of things|Internet of Things]], email and social media that do not require explicit input from participants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nielson DM, Smith TA, Sreekumar V, Dennis S, Sederberg PB | title = Human hippocampus represents space and time during retrieval of real-world memories | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 112 | issue = 35 | pages = 11078–83 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26283350 | pmc = 4568259 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1507104112 | bibcode = 2015PNAS..11211078N | doi-access = free }}</ref> These methods can be advantageous as they impose less demand on participants improving compliance and allowing data to be collected for much longer periods, are less likely to change the behaviour being studied and allow data to be sampled at much higher rates and with greater precision. Many research questions can benefit from both active and passive forms of experience sampling.


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== In clinical practice ==
==Software and related tools==
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Increasingly, ESM is being tested as a clinical monitoring tool in psychiatric and psychological treatments. Patients then use ESM to monitor themselves for several weeks or months and discuss feedback based on their ESM data with their clinician. Patients and clinicians are enthusiastic about the clinical use of ESM.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bos FM, Snippe E, Bruggeman R, Wichers M, van der Krieke L | title = Insights of Patients and Clinicians on the Promise of the Experience Sampling Method for Psychiatric Care | journal = Psychiatric Services | volume = 70 | issue = 11 | pages = 983–991 | date = November 2019 | pmid = 31434558 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ps.201900050 | doi-access = free | url = https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/95669572/Insights_of_Patients_and_Clinicians_on_the_Promise_of_the_Experience_Sampling_Method_for_Psychiatric_Care.pdf }}</ref> Qualitative studies suggest ESM may increase insight and awareness, help personalize treatments, and improve communication between patient and clinician.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bos FM, Snippe E, Bruggeman R, Doornbos B, Wichers M, van der Krieke L | title = Recommendations for the use of long-term experience sampling in bipolar disorder care: a qualitative study of patient and clinician experiences | journal = International Journal of Bipolar Disorders | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 38 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33258015 | pmc = 7704990 | doi = 10.1186/s40345-020-00201-5 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frumkin MR, Piccirillo ML, Beck ED, Grossman JT, Rodebaugh TL | title = Feasibility and utility of idiographic models in the clinic: A pilot study | journal = Psychotherapy Research | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 520–534 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 32838671 | pmc = 7902742 | doi = 10.1080/10503307.2020.1805133 }}</ref> ESM may be viewed as an improved form of registration and monitoring already often used in psychiatric treatments, and may therefore be an excellent fit. Randomized controlled trials so far show mixed evidence for the efficacy of ESM in improving symptoms and functioning in patients with depression,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kramer I, Simons CJ, Hartmann JA, Menne-Lothmann C, Viechtbauer W, Peeters F, Schruers K, van Bemmel AL, Myin-Germeys I, Delespaul P, van Os J, Wichers M | display-authors = 6 | title = A therapeutic application of the experience sampling method in the treatment of depression: a randomized controlled trial | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 68–77 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24497255 | pmc = 3918026 | doi = 10.1002/wps.20090 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bastiaansen JA, Ornée DA, Meurs M, Oldehinkel AJ | title = An evaluation of the efficacy of two add-on ecological momentary intervention modules for depression in a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (ZELF-i) | journal = Psychological Medicine | pages = 2731–2740 | date = December 2020 | volume = 52 | issue = 13 | pmid = 33315003 | doi = 10.1017/S0033291720004845 | pmc = 9650062 | doi-access = free }}</ref> although many more trials in diverse clinical populations are currently underway.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Riese H, von Klipstein L, Schoevers RA, van der Veen DC, Servaas MN | title = Personalized ESM monitoring and feedback to support psychological treatment for depression: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (Therap-i) | journal = BMC Psychiatry | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 143 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 33691647 | pmc = 7945664 | doi = 10.1186/s12888-021-03123-3 | doi-access = free }}</ref>


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Several tools are being developed to aid clinicians in using personalized ESM diaries in treatment such as [https://www.petrapsy.nl/en/ PETRA] and [https://m-path.io/landing/ m-Path]. [https://www.petrapsy.nl/en/ PETRA]<ref>{{Cite web|title=PETRA|url=https://www.petrapsy.nl/en/|access-date=2021-04-14|language=en-GB}}</ref> is a Dutch tool with which patients and clinicians can construct a personalized ESM diary and examine personalized feedback together. PETRA is developed in collaboration with patients and clinicians and integrated in electronic personal health records (PHR) to facilitate easy access. [https://m-path.io/landing/ m-Path]<ref>{{Cite web|last=m-Path|title=m-Path|url=https://m-path.io/|access-date=2021-04-14|website=m-path.io}}</ref> is a freely accessible flexible platform to facilitate real-time monitoring as well as real-life interventions. Practitioners are able to create new questionnaires and interventions from scratch or can use existing templates shared by the community.
The first mobile device application that could be used as a tool for Experience Sampling Method was the ESP Package (dating to the late 1990s). This had limited functionality in that it is designed for older iOS Palm devices and had limited scheduling capabilities. It no longer works on modern mobile devices.<ref>{{Cite book| vauthors = Mehl MJ, Tamlin CL |title=Handbook of Research Methods for Studying Daily Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oseYAwAAQBAJ&q=experience+sampling+ipod+touch&pg=PA135|isbn=9781462513055|date=2013-10-01}}</ref> iHabit was the first smartphone mobile application designed for Experience Sampling. It was developed in 2011 and used in a study published by PLOS ONE in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Runyan JD, Steenbergh TA, Bainbridge C, Daugherty DA, Oke L, Fry BN | title = A smartphone ecological momentary assessment/intervention "app" for collecting real-time data and promoting self-awareness | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = e71325 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23977016 | pmc = 3743745 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0071325 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...871325R | doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2015, it was superseded by the [https://www.lifedatacorp.com/ LifeData] system, which was used in a study published by JAMA Pediatrics in 2016.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wiebe DJ, Nance ML, Houseknecht E, Grady MF, Otto N, Sandsmark DK, Master CL | title = Ecologic Momentary Assessment to Accomplish Real-Time Capture of Symptom Progression and the Physical and Cognitive Activities of Patients Daily Following Concussion | journal = JAMA Pediatrics | volume = 170 | issue = 11 | pages = 1108–1110 | date = November 2016 | pmid = 27617669 | doi = 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.1979 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This system has subsequently been used in numerous studies. The [https://pielsurvey.org/ PIEL Survey] app (first version 2012) is a free app available in iOS<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/piel-survey/id1257313392?mt=8 | title=PIEL Survey}}</ref> and Android <ref>{{Cite web | url=https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=au.com.bluejay.pielsurvey | title=PIEL Survey - Apps on Google Play}}</ref> versions and has since been used in more than 12 academic publications. It can be used for scheduled, random and on-demand surveys. Unlike many platforms, no server is required as data is saved on the device and emailed to the researcher or else retrieved by file sharing.<ref>{{cite web | title = PIEL app publications | url = https://pielsurvey.org/profile/survey-experience-sampling-method/ | publisher = Blue Jay Ventures Pty Ltd }}</ref> Other early smartphone platforms for ESM include SurveySignal<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hofmann W, Patel PV | title = SurveySignal: A convenient solution for experience sampling research using participants' own smartphones. | journal = Social Science Computer Review | date = April 2015 | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 235–53 | doi = 10.1177/0894439314525117 }}</ref> and [https://ilumivu.com/ Ilumivu] (developed in 2012), [http://metricwire.com/ MetricWire] (developed in 2013), [https://m-path.io/landing/ m-Path], [https://instantsurveyapp.com/ Instant Survey], [http://www.movisens.com/en/ Movisens], and [http://www.awareframework.com/ Aware (Open Source)]. The largest ESM study was achieved through [http://www.psyt.co.uk/ PSYT]'s [http://www.mappiness.org.uk/ Mappiness App],<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://personal.lse.ac.uk/mackerro/happy_natural_envs.pdf | vauthors = MacKerron G, Mourato S | title = Happiness is greater in natural environments. | journal = Global Environmental Change | date = October 2013 | volume = 23 | issue = 5 | pages = 992–1000 | doi = 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.03.010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160705015921/http://personal.lse.ac.uk/mackerro/happy_natural_envs.pdf |archive-date=2016-07-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref> PSYT's apps collect data through ESM as well as reporting the data back to users to enable real-time visualisation and tracking of variables. Several other commercial and open source systems are currently available to help researchers run ESM studies,<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Conner TS | date = May 2013 | title = Experience sampling and ecological momentary assessment with mobile phones. | url = http://www.otago.ac.nz/psychology/otago047475.pdf }}</ref> including BeepMe,<ref>as available through, e.g., [https://f-droid.org/repository/browse/?fdid=com.glanznig.beepme F-Droid catalogue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306190034/https://f-droid.org/repository/browse/?fdid=com.glanznig.beepme |date=2016-03-06 }}</ref> and Expimetrics.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.expimetrics.com | title=Expimetrics}}</ref> [https://web.archive.org/web/20171012161143/http://www.physiqual.com/ Physiqual] enables researchers to gather and integrate data from commercially available sensors and service providers to use them in ESM,<ref name="Physiqual">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blaauw FJ, Schenk HM, Jeronimus BF, van der Krieke L, de Jonge P, Aiello M, Emerencia AC | title = Let's get Physiqual - An intuitive and generic method to combine sensor technology with ecological momentary assessments | journal = Journal of Biomedical Informatics | volume = 63 | pages = 141–149 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27498066 | doi = 10.1016/j.jbi.2016.08.001 | doi-access = free }}</ref> including [http://fitbit.com Fitbit] and [http://fit.google.com Google Fit]. As of 2014, [http://www.movisens.com/en/ Movisens] have developed the ability to trigger sampling forms from physiological data such as actigraphy and ECG.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.movisens.com/de/interactive-ambulatory-assessment-project/ | title=Interactive Ambulatory Assessment - Project - movisens GmbH}}</ref> [https://unforgettable.me unforgettable.me] provide a platform for both active and passive experience sampling that allows the integration of some 400 data sources. <ref>{{Cite web|title=CASPER well-being and workplace productivity tool|url=https://casper.24-7.ro/#about|access-date=2021-12-04|website=casper.24-7.ro}}</ref>[https://casper.24-7.ro CASPER] is another free open source product based in Scotland for students and anyone interested in doing small ESM research.

In 2021, the open-source platform [https://samply.js.org/ Samply] <ref name=":0">Shevchenko, Y., Kuhlmann, T., & Reips, U. D. (2021). Samply: A user-friendly smartphone app and web-based means of scheduling and sending mobile notifications for experience-sampling research. ''Behavior Research Methods'', 1-21.</ref> was developed by the research group iScience at the University of Konstanz in Germany. In general, Samply supports experience sampling, ambulatory assessment and diary studies. Samply enables researchers to access the complete interface via a web browser and to manage their present studies. In addition, it allows researchers to easily schedule, customize and send notifications linking to online surveys or experiments created in any Internet-based service or software (e.g., Google Forms, SurveyMonkey, Qualtrics, WEXTOR, lab.js). The flexible schedule builder enables the creation of a customized notification schedule, which can be randomized for each participant. The Samply Research mobile application is free for both researchers and participants and is available at the Google Play or the App Store. The mobile app logs the history of notifications, and at the same time preserves participants’ anonymity, as the personal login and application use data are stored separately from the response data. Shevchenko and colleagues<ref name=":0" /> demonstrated via two empirical studies the app's functionality and usability.

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== ESM in clinical practice ==
⚫
Increasingly, ESM is being tested as a clinical monitoring tool in psychiatric and psychological treatments. Patients then use ESM to monitor themselves for several weeks or months and discuss feedback based on their ESM data with their clinician. Patients and clinicians are enthusiastic about the clinical use of ESM.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bos FM, Snippe E, Bruggeman R, Wichers M, van der Krieke L | title = Insights of Patients and Clinicians on the Promise of the Experience Sampling Method for Psychiatric Care | journal = Psychiatric Services | volume = 70 | issue = 11 | pages = 983–991 | date = November 2019 | pmid = 31434558 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ps.201900050 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Qualitative studies suggest ESM may increase insight and awareness, help personalize treatments, and improve communication between patient and clinician.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bos FM, Snippe E, Bruggeman R, Doornbos B, Wichers M, van der Krieke L | title = Recommendations for the use of long-term experience sampling in bipolar disorder care: a qualitative study of patient and clinician experiences | journal = International Journal of Bipolar Disorders | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 38 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33258015 | pmc = 7704990 | doi = 10.1186/s40345-020-00201-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frumkin MR, Piccirillo ML, Beck ED, Grossman JT, Rodebaugh TL | title = Feasibility and utility of idiographic models in the clinic: A pilot study | journal = Psychotherapy Research | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 520–534 | date = April 2021 | pmid = 32838671 | pmc = 7902742 | doi = 10.1080/10503307.2020.1805133 | pmc-embargo-date = April 1, 2022 }}</ref> ESM may be viewed as an improved form of registration and monitoring already often used in psychiatric treatments, and may therefore be an excellent fit. Randomized controlled trials so far show mixed evidence for the efficacy of ESM in improving symptoms and functioning in patients with depression,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kramer I, Simons CJ, Hartmann JA, Menne-Lothmann C, Viechtbauer W, Peeters F, Schruers K, van Bemmel AL, Myin-Germeys I, Delespaul P, van Os J, Wichers M | display-authors = 6 | title = A therapeutic application of the experience sampling method in the treatment of depression: a randomized controlled trial | journal = World Psychiatry | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 68–77 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24497255 | pmc = 3918026 | doi = 10.1002/wps.20090 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bastiaansen JA, Ornée DA, Meurs M, Oldehinkel AJ | title = An evaluation of the efficacy of two add-on ecological momentary intervention modules for depression in a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (ZELF-i) | journal = Psychological Medicine | pages = 1–10 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33315003 | doi = 10.1017/S0033291720004845 | doi-access = free }}</ref> although many more trials in diverse clinical populations are currently underway.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Riese H, von Klipstein L, Schoevers RA, van der Veen DC, Servaas MN | title = Personalized ESM monitoring and feedback to support psychological treatment for depression: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (Therap-i) | journal = BMC Psychiatry | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 143 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 33691647 | pmc = 7945664 | doi = 10.1186/s12888-021-03123-3 }}</ref>

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Several tools are being developed to aid clinicians in using personalized ESM diaries in treatment such as [https://www.petrapsy.nl/en/ PETRA] and [https://m-path.io/landing/ m-Path]. [https://www.petrapsy.nl/en/ PETRA]<ref>{{Cite web|title=PETRA|url=https://www.petrapsy.nl/en/|access-date=2021-04-14|language=en-GB}}</ref> is a Dutch tool with which patients and clinicians can construct a personalized ESM diary and examine personalized feedback together. PETRA is developed in collaboration with patients and clinicians and integrated in electronic personal health records (PHR) to facilitate easy access. [https://m-path.io/landing/ m-Path]<ref>{{Cite web|last=m-Path|title=m-Path|url=https://m-path.io/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-14|website=m-path.io}}</ref> is a freely accessible flexible platform to facilitate real-time monitoring as well as real-life interventions. Practitioners are able to create new questionnaires and interventions from scratch or can use existing templates shared by the community.


== See also ==
== See also ==

Latest revision as of 09:26, 18 March 2024

The experience sampling method (ESM),[1] also referred to as a daily diary method, or ecological momentary assessment (EMA), is an intensive longitudinal research methodology that involves asking participants to report on their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and/or environment on multiple occasions over time.[2] Participants report on their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and/or environment in the moment (right then, not later; right there, not elsewhere) or shortly thereafter.[3] Participants can be given a journal with many identical pages. Each page can have a psychometric scale, open-ended questions, or anything else used to assess their condition in that place and time. ESM studies can also operate fully automatized on portable electronic devices or via the internet.[4] The experience sampling method was developed by Suzanne Prescott during doctoral work at University of Chicago's Committee on Human Development with assistance from her dissertation advisor Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.[5] Early studies that used ESM were coauthored by fellow students Reed W. Larson and Ronald Graef, whose dissertations both used the method.[6][7]

Overview

[edit]

There are different ways to signal participants when to take notes in their journal or complete a questionnaire,[8] like using preprogrammed stopwatches. An observer can have an identically programmed stopwatch, so the observer can record specific events as the participants are recording their feelings or other behaviors. It is best to avoid letting subjects know in advance when they will record their feelings, so they can't anticipate the event, and will just be "acting naturally" when they stop and take notes on their current condition. Conversely, some statistical techniques require roughly equidistant time intervals, which has the limitation that assessments can be anticipated. Validity in these studies comes from repetition, so you can look for patterns, like participants reporting greater happiness right after meals. For instance, Stieger and Reips[9] were able to replicate and refine past research about the dynamics of well-being fluctuations during the day (low in the morning, high in the evening) and over the course of a week (low just before the beginning of the week, highest near the end of the week).[10] These correlations can then be tested by other means for cause and effect, such as vector autoregression,[11] since ESM just shows correlation. Moreover, by using the experience sampling method different research questions can be analyzed regarding the use of mobile devices in research. Following on from this, Stieger and colleagues[12] used the experience sampling method to show that smartphones can be used to transfer computer-based tasks (CBTs) from the lab to the field.

Some authors also use the term experience sampling to encompass passive data derived from sources such as smartphones, wearable sensors, the Internet of Things, email and social media that do not require explicit input from participants.[13] These methods can be advantageous as they impose less demand on participants improving compliance and allowing data to be collected for much longer periods, are less likely to change the behaviour being studied and allow data to be sampled at much higher rates and with greater precision. Many research questions can benefit from both active and passive forms of experience sampling.

In clinical practice

[edit]

Increasingly, ESM is being tested as a clinical monitoring tool in psychiatric and psychological treatments. Patients then use ESM to monitor themselves for several weeks or months and discuss feedback based on their ESM data with their clinician. Patients and clinicians are enthusiastic about the clinical use of ESM.[14] Qualitative studies suggest ESM may increase insight and awareness, help personalize treatments, and improve communication between patient and clinician.[15][16] ESM may be viewed as an improved form of registration and monitoring already often used in psychiatric treatments, and may therefore be an excellent fit. Randomized controlled trials so far show mixed evidence for the efficacy of ESM in improving symptoms and functioning in patients with depression,[17][18] although many more trials in diverse clinical populations are currently underway.[19]

Several tools are being developed to aid clinicians in using personalized ESM diaries in treatment such as PETRA and m-Path. PETRA[20] is a Dutch tool with which patients and clinicians can construct a personalized ESM diary and examine personalized feedback together. PETRA is developed in collaboration with patients and clinicians and integrated in electronic personal health records (PHR) to facilitate easy access. m-Path[21] is a freely accessible flexible platform to facilitate real-time monitoring as well as real-life interventions. Practitioners are able to create new questionnaires and interventions from scratch or can use existing templates shared by the community.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Sather T (November 2014). "Experience Sampling Method". ASHA Journals Academy. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
  2. ^ Bolger N, Laurenceau JP (2013). Intensive longitudinal thods: An introduction to diary and experience sampling research. New York, N.Y.: Guilford Press.
  3. ^ Csikszentmihalyi M (July 2014). Validity and Reliability of the Experience-Sampling Method. New York: Springer. p. 322. ISBN 978-94-017-9087-1.
  4. ^ Krieke LV, Jeronimus BF, Blaauw FJ, Wanders RB, Emerencia AC, Schenk HM, et al. (June 2016). "HowNutsAreTheDutch (HoeGekIsNL): A crowdsourcing study of mental symptoms and strengths". International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research. 25 (2): 123–44. doi:10.1002/mpr.1495. PMC 6877205. PMID 26395198.
  5. ^ Hektner, Joel M (2007). Experience sampling method : measuring the quality of everyday life. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-1-4129-4923-1.
  6. ^ Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly; Larson, Reed; Prescott, Suzanne (1 September 1977). "The ecology of adolescent activity and experience". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 6 (3): 281–294. doi:10.1007/BF02138940. ISSN 1573-6601. PMID 24408457. S2CID 23892740.
  7. ^ Prescott, Suzanne; Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly; Graef, Ronald (1981). "Environmental effects on cognitive and affective states: The experiential time sampling approach". Social Behavior and Personality. 9 (1): 23–32. doi:10.2224/sbp.1981.9.1.23.
  8. ^ Hektner JM, Schmidt JA, Csikszentmihalyi M, eds. (2007). Experience sampling method : measuring the quality of everyday life. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-2557-0.
  9. ^ Stieger, S, & Reips, UD (2019). Well-being, smartphone sensors, and data from open-access databases: A mobile experience sampling study. Field Methods, 31(3), 277-291. doi:10.1177/1525822X18824281
  10. ^ Akay A, & Martinsson P (2009). Sundays are blue: Aren't they? The day-of-the-week effect on subjective well-being and socio-economic status. IZA Discussion Paper No. 4563. SSRN 1506315 (accessed May 19, 2021).
  11. ^ van der Krieke L, Blaauw FJ, Emerencia AC, Schenk HM, Slaets JP, Bos EH, et al. (2016). "Temporal Dynamics of Health and Well-Being: A Crowdsourcing Approach to Momentary Assessments and Automated Generation of Personalized Feedback" (PDF). Psychosomatic Medicine. 79 (2): 213–223. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000378. PMID 27551988. S2CID 10955232.
  12. ^ Stieger, S, Lewetz D, & Reips UD (2018). Can smartphones be used to bring computer-based tasks from the lab to the field? A mobile experience-sampling method study about the pace of life. Behavior research methods, 50(6), 2267–2275.
  13. ^ Nielson DM, Smith TA, Sreekumar V, Dennis S, Sederberg PB (September 2015). "Human hippocampus represents space and time during retrieval of real-world memories". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (35): 11078–83. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11211078N. doi:10.1073/pnas.1507104112. PMC 4568259. PMID 26283350.
  14. ^ Bos FM, Snippe E, Bruggeman R, Wichers M, van der Krieke L (November 2019). "Insights of Patients and Clinicians on the Promise of the Experience Sampling Method for Psychiatric Care" (PDF). Psychiatric Services. 70 (11): 983–991. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201900050. PMID 31434558.
  15. ^ Bos FM, Snippe E, Bruggeman R, Doornbos B, Wichers M, van der Krieke L (December 2020). "Recommendations for the use of long-term experience sampling in bipolar disorder care: a qualitative study of patient and clinician experiences". International Journal of Bipolar Disorders. 8 (1): 38. doi:10.1186/s40345-020-00201-5. PMC 7704990. PMID 33258015.
  16. ^ Frumkin MR, Piccirillo ML, Beck ED, Grossman JT, Rodebaugh TL (April 2021). "Feasibility and utility of idiographic models in the clinic: A pilot study". Psychotherapy Research. 31 (4): 520–534. doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1805133. PMC 7902742. PMID 32838671.
  17. ^ Kramer I, Simons CJ, Hartmann JA, Menne-Lothmann C, Viechtbauer W, Peeters F, et al. (February 2014). "A therapeutic application of the experience sampling method in the treatment of depression: a randomized controlled trial". World Psychiatry. 13 (1): 68–77. doi:10.1002/wps.20090. PMC 3918026. PMID 24497255.
  18. ^ Bastiaansen JA, Ornée DA, Meurs M, Oldehinkel AJ (December 2020). "An evaluation of the efficacy of two add-on ecological momentary intervention modules for depression in a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (ZELF-i)". Psychological Medicine. 52 (13): 2731–2740. doi:10.1017/S0033291720004845. PMC 9650062. PMID 33315003.
  19. ^ Riese H, von Klipstein L, Schoevers RA, van der Veen DC, Servaas MN (March 2021). "Personalized ESM monitoring and feedback to support psychological treatment for depression: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial (Therap-i)". BMC Psychiatry. 21 (1): 143. doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03123-3. PMC 7945664. PMID 33691647.
  20. ^ "PETRA". Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  21. ^ m-Path. "m-Path". m-path.io. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
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