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A stellar black hole (or stellar-mass black hole) is a black hole formed by the gravitational collapse of a star.^[1] They have masses ranging from about 5 to several tens of solar masses.^[2] They are the remnants of supernova explosions, which may be observed as a type of gamma ray burst. These black holes are also referred to as collapsars.

Properties

By the no-hair theorem, a black hole can only have three fundamental properties: mass, electric charge, and angular momentum. The angular momentum of a stellar black hole is due to the conservation of angular momentum of the star or objects that produced it.

The gravitational collapse of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a massive star when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) limit for neutron-degenerate matter, the end product is a compact star – either a white dwarf (for masses below the Chandrasekhar limit) or a neutron star or a (hypothetical) quark star. If the collapsing star has a mass exceeding the TOV limit, the crush will continue until zero volume is achieved and a black hole is formed around that point in space.

The maximum mass that a neutron star can possess before further collapsing into a black hole is not fully understood. In 1939, it was estimated at 0.7 solar masses, called the TOV limit. In 1996, a different estimate put this upper mass in a range from 1.5 to 3 solar masses.^[3] The maximum observed mass of neutron stars is about 2.14 M_☉ for PSR J0740+6620 discovered in September, 2019.^[4]

In the theory of general relativity, a black hole could exist of any mass. The lower the mass, the higher the density of matter has to be in order to form a black hole. (See, for example, the discussion in Schwarzschild radius, the radius of a black hole.) There are no known stellar processes that can produce black holes with mass less than a few times the mass of the Sun. If black holes that small exist, they are most likely primordial black holes. Until 2016, the largest known stellar black hole was 15.65±1.45 solar masses.^[5] In September 2015, a rotating black hole of 62±4 solar masses was discovered by gravitational waves as it formed in a merger event of two smaller black holes.^[6] As of June 2020^[update], the binary system 2MASS J05215658+4359220 was reported^[7] to host the smallest-mass black hole currently known to science, with a mass 3.3 solar masses and a diameter of only 19.5 kilometers.

There is observational evidence for two other types of black holes, which are much more massive than stellar black holes. They are intermediate-mass black holes (in the center of globular clusters) and supermassive black holes in the center of the Milky Way and other galaxies.

X-ray compact binary systems

Stellar black holes in close binary systems are observable when the matter is transferred from a companion star to the black hole; the energy released in the fall toward the compact star is so large that the matter heats up to temperatures of several hundred million degrees and radiates in X-rays. The black hole, therefore, is observable in X-rays, whereas the companion star can be observed with optical telescopes. The energy release for black holes and neutron stars are of the same order of magnitude. Black holes and neutron stars are therefore often difficult to distinguish.

The derived masses come from observations of compact X-ray sources (combining X-ray and optical data). All identified neutron stars have a mass below 3.0 solar masses; none of the compact systems with a mass above 3.0 solar masses display the properties of a neutron star. The combination of these facts makes it more and more likely that the class of compact stars with a mass above 3.0 solar masses are in fact black holes.

Note that this proof of the existence of stellar black holes is not entirely observational but relies on theory: we can think of no other object for these massive compact systems in stellar binaries besides a black hole. A direct proof of the existence of a black hole would be if one actually observes the orbit of a particle (or a cloud of gas) that falls into the black hole.

Black hole kicks

The large distances above the galactic plane achieved by some binaries are the result of black hole natal kicks. The velocity distribution of black hole natal kicks seems similar to that of neutron star kick velocities. One might have expected that it would be the momenta that were the same with black holes receiving lower velocity than neutron stars due to their higher mass but that doesn't seem to be the case,^[8] which may be due to the fall-back of asymmetrically expelled matter increasing the momentum of the resulting black hole.^[9]

Mass gaps

It is predicted by some models of stellar evolution that black holes with masses in two ranges cannot be directly formed by the gravitational collapse of a star. These are sometimes distinguished as the "lower" and "upper" mass gaps, roughly representing the ranges of 2 to 5 and 50 to 150 solar masses (M_☉), respectively.^[10] Another range given for the upper gap is 52 to 133 M_☉.^[11] 150 M_☉ has been regarded as the upper mass limit for stars in the current era of the universe.^[12]

Lower mass gap

A lower mass gap is suspected on the basis of a scarcity of observed candidates with masses within a few solar masses above the maximum possible neutron star mass.^[10] The existence and theoretical basis for this possible gap are uncertain.^[13] The situation may be complicated by the fact that any black holes found in this mass range may have been created via the merging of binary neutron star systems, rather than stellar collapse.^[14] The LIGO/Virgo collaboration has reported three candidate events among their gravitational wave observations in run O3 with component masses that fall in this lower mass gap. There has also been reported an observation of a bright, rapidly rotating giant star in a binary system with an unseen companion emitting no light, including x-rays, but having a mass of 3.3+2.8
−0.7 solar masses. This is interpreted to suggest that there may be many such low-mass black holes that are not currently consuming any material and are hence undetectable via the usual x-ray signature.^[15]

Upper mass gap

The upper mass gap is predicted by comprehensive models of late-stage stellar evolution. It is expected that with increasing mass, supermassive stars reach a stage where a pair-instability supernova occurs, during which pair production, the production of free electrons and positrons in the collision between atomic nuclei and energetic gamma rays, temporarily reduces the internal pressure supporting the star's core against gravitational collapse.^[16] This pressure drop leads to a partial collapse, which in turn causes greatly accelerated burning in a runaway thermonuclear explosion, resulting in the star being blown completely apart without leaving a stellar remnant behind.^[17]

Pair-instability supernovae can only happen in stars with a mass range from around 130 to 250 solar masses (M_☉) and low to moderate metallicity (low abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium – a situation common in Population III stars). However, this mass gap is expected to be extended down to about 45 solar masses by the process of pair-instability pulsational mass loss, before the occurrence of a "normal" supernova explosion and core collapse.^[18] In nonrotating stars the lower bound of the upper mass gap may be as high as 60 M_☉.^[19] The possibility of direct collapse into black holes of stars with core mass > 133 M_☉, requiring total stellar mass of > 260 M_☉ has been considered, but there may be little chance of observing such a high-mass supernova remnant; i.e., the lower bound of the upper mass gap may represent a mass cutoff.^[11]

Observations of the LB-1 system of a star and unseen companion were initially interpreted in terms of a black hole with a mass of about 70 solar masses, which would be excluded by the upper mass gap. However, further investigations have weakened this claim.

Black holes may also be found in the mass gap through mechanisms other than those involving a single star, such as the merger of black holes.

Candidates

Our Milky Way galaxy contains several stellar-mass black hole candidates (BHCs) which are closer to us than the supermassive black hole in the galactic center region. Most of these candidates are members of X-ray binary systems in which the compact object draws matter from its partner via an accretion disk. The probable black holes in these pairs range from three to more than a dozen solar masses.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Name	Mass (solar masses)		Orbital period (days)	Distance from Earth (ly)	Celestial Coordinates^[23]
Name	BHC	Companion	Orbital period (days)	Distance from Earth (ly)	Celestial Coordinates^[23]
Gaia BH3	32.70 ± 0.82	0.76 ± 0.05	4,253.1 ± 98.5	01926	19:39:19 +14:55:54
Cyg X-1	21.2 ± 2.2^[24]	40.6+7.7 −7.1^[24]	5.6	06000...8000	19:58:22 +35:12:06
GRS 1915+105/V1487 Aql	14 ± 4.0	≈1	33.5	40000	19:15:12 +10:56:44
V404 Cyg	12 ± 2	6.0	6.5	07800 ± 460^[25]	20:24:04 +33:52:03
A0620-00/V616 Mon	11 ± 2	2.6–2.8	0.33	03500	06:22:44 −00:20:45
XTE J1650-500	9.7 ± 1.6^[26]	5–10	0.32^[27]	10763	16:50:01 −49:57:45
Gaia BH1	9.62 ± 0.18	0.93 ± 0.05	185.59 ± 0.05	01560	17:28:41 −00:34:52
XTE J1550-564/V381 Nor	9.6 ± 1.2	6.0...7.5	1.5	17000	15:50:59 −56:28:36
4U 1543-475/IL Lupi	9.4 ± 1.0	0.25	1.1	24000	15:47:09 −47:40:10
Gaia BH2	8.94 ± 0.34	1.07 ± 0.19	1,276.7 ± 0.6	03800	13:50:17 −59:14:20
MAXI J1305-704^[28]	8.9+1.6 −1.0	0.43 ± 0.16	0.394 ± 0.004	24500	13:06:55 −70:27:05
GS 1354-64 (BW Cir)^[29]	7.9 ± 0.5	1.1 ± 0.1	2.5445	>81500	13:58:10 −64:44:06
XTE J1859+226 (V406 Vul)^[30]	7.8 ± 1.9	0.55 ± 0.16	0.276 ± 0.003		18:58:42 +22:39:29
HD 130298^[31]	>7.7 ± 1.5	24.2 ± 3.8	14.60	07910	14:49:34 −56:25:38
NGC 3201 #21859^[32]^[33]	7.68 ± 0.50	0.61 ± 0.05	2.2422 ± 0.0001	15700	10:17:39 −46:24:25
GS 2000+25/QZ Vul	7.5 ± 0.3	4.9...5.1	0.35	08800	20:02:50 +25:14:11
XTE J1819-254/V4641 Sgr	7.1 ± 0.3	5...8	2.82	24000...40000^[34]	18:19:22 −25:24:25
LB-1 (disputed)^[35]	7 ± 2^[35]	1.5 ± 0.4^[35]	78.7999 ± 0.0097^[35]	15000^[36]	06:11:49 +22:49:32^[37]
GRS 1124-683/Nova Muscae 1991/GU Mus	7.0 ± 0.6		0.43	17000	11:26:27 −68:40:32
H 1705-25/Nova Ophiuchi 1977/V2107 Oph^[38]	6.95 ± 1.35^[39]	0.34 ± 0.08	0.52125		17:08:15 −25:05:30
XTE J1118+480/KV UMa	6.8 ± 0.4	6...6.5	0.17	06200	11:18:11 +48:02:13
MAXI J1820+070^[40]	6.75+0.64 −0.46	0.49 ± 0.1	0.68549 ± 0.00001	09800	18:20:22 +07:11:07
GRO J1655-40/V1033 Sco	6.3 ± 0.3	2.6...2.8	2.8	05000...11000	16:54:00 −39:50:45
GX 339-4/V821 Ara	5.8	5...6	1.75	15000	17:02:50 −48:47:23
GRO J1719-24	≥4.9	≈1.6	possibly 0.6^[41]	08500	17:19:37 −25:01:03
NGC 3201 #12560^[32]^[33]	4.53 ± 0.21	0.81 ± 0.05	167.01 ± 0.09	15700	10:17:37 −46:24:55
GRS 1009-45 / Nova Velorum 1993/MM Velorum^[42]	4.3 ± 0.1	0.5...0.65	0.285206 ± 0.0000014	17200	10:13:36 −45:04:33
GRO J0422+32/V518 Per	4 ± 1	1.1	0.21	08500	04:21:43 +32:54:27

Extragalactic

Candidates outside our galaxy come from gravitational wave detections:

Outside our galaxy
Name	BHC mass (solar masses)	Companion mass (solar masses )	Orbital period (days)	Distance from Earth (light years)
GW190521 (155+17 −11) `M`_☉	78+9 −5^[43]	78+9 −5^[43]
GW150914 (62 ± 4) `M`_☉	36 ± 4	29 ± 4	.	1.3 billion
GW170104 (48.7 ± 5) `M`_☉	31.2 ± 7	19.4 ± 6	.	1.4 billion
GW170814 (53.2+3.2 −2.5) `M`_☉	30.5+5.7 −3.0	25.3+2.8 −4.2		1.8 billion
GW190412	29.7	8.4		2.4 billion
GW190814	22.2–24.3	2.50–2.67
GW151226 (21.8 ± 3.5) `M`_☉	14.2 ± 6	7.5 ± 2.3	.	2.9 billion
GW170608	12+7 −2	7 ± 2		1.1 billion

Candidates outside our galaxy from X-ray binaries:

Name	Host galaxy	BHC mass (solar masses)	Companion mass (solar masses )	Orbital period (days)	Distance from Earth (light years)
IC 10 X-1^[44]	IC 10	≥23.1 ± 2.1	≥17	1.45175	2.15 million
NGC 300 X-1^[45]	NGC 300	17 ± 4	26+7 −5	1.3663375	6.5 million
M33 X-7	Triangulum Galaxy	15.65 ± 1.45	70 ± 6.9	3.45301 ± 0.00002	2.7 million
LMC X-1^[46]	Large Magellanic Cloud	10.91 ± 1.41	31.79 ± 3.48	3.9094 ± 0.0008	180,000^[47]
LMC X-3^[48]	Large Magellanic Cloud	6.98 ± 0.56	3.63 ± 0.57	1.704808	157,000

The disappearance of N6946-BH1 following a failed supernova in NGC 6946 may have resulted in the formation of a black hole.^[49]

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^ Liu, Jifeng; et al. (27 November 2019). "A wide star–black-hole binary system from radial-velocity measurements". Nature. 575 (7784): 618–621. arXiv:1911.11989. Bibcode:2019Natur.575..618L. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1766-2. PMID 31776491. S2CID 208310287.
^ Dashwood Brown, Cordelia; Gandhi, Poshak; Zhao, Yue (1 January 2024). "On the natal kick of the black hole X-ray binary H 1705-250". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 527 (1): L82–L87. arXiv:2310.11492. Bibcode:2024MNRAS.527L..82D. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad151. ISSN 0035-8711.
^ Remillard, Ronald A.; McClintock, Jeffrey E. (1 September 2006). "X-Ray Properties of Black-Hole Binaries". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 44 (1): 49–92. arXiv:astro-ph/0606352. Bibcode:2006ARA&A..44...49R. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.44.051905.092532. ISSN 0066-4146.
^ Mikołajewska, Joanna; Zdziarski, Andrzej A.; Ziółkowski, Janusz; Torres, Manuel A. P.; Casares, Jorge (1 May 2022). "The Donor of the Black Hole X-Ray Binary MAXI J1820+070". The Astrophysical Journal. 930 (1): 9. arXiv:2201.13201. Bibcode:2022ApJ...930....9M. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac6099. ISSN 0004-637X.
^ Masetti, N.; Bianchini, A.; Bonibaker, J.; della Valle, M.; Vio, R. (1996), "The superhump phenomenon in GRS 1716-249 (=X-Ray Nova Ophiuchi 1993)", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 314: 123, Bibcode:1996A&A...314..123M
^ Filippenko, Alexei V.; Leonard, Douglas C.; Matheson, Thomas; Li, Weidong; Moran, Edward C.; Riess, Adam G. (1 August 1999). "A Black Hole in the X-Ray Nova Velorum 1993". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 111 (762): 969–979. arXiv:astro-ph/9904271. Bibcode:1999PASP..111..969F. doi:10.1086/316413. ISSN 0004-6280.
^ ^a ^b Gayathri, V.; et al. (2020). "GW190521 as a Highly Eccentric Black Hole Merger". arXiv:2009.05461 [astro-ph.HE].
^ Laycock, Silas G. T.; Cappallo, Rigel C.; Moro, Matthew J. (1 January 2015). "Chandra and XMM monitoring of the black hole X-ray binary IC 10 X-1". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 446 (2): 1399–1410. arXiv:1410.3417. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.446.1399L. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2151. ISSN 0035-8711.
^ Binder, Breanna A.; Sy, Janelle M.; Eracleous, Michael; Christodoulou, Dimitris M.; Bhattacharya, Sayantan; Cappallo, Rigel; Laycock, Silas; Plucinsky, Paul P.; Williams, Benjamin F. (1 March 2021). "The Wolf-Rayet + Black Hole Binary NGC 300 X-1: What is the Mass of the Black Hole?". The Astrophysical Journal. 910 (1): 74. arXiv:2102.07065. Bibcode:2021ApJ...910...74B. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abe6a9. ISSN 0004-637X.
^ Orosz, Jerome A.; Steeghs, Danny; McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Torres, Manuel A. P.; Bochkov, Ivan; Gou, Lijun; Narayan, Ramesh; Blaschak, Michael; Levine, Alan M.; Remillard, Ronald A.; Bailyn, Charles D.; Dwyer, Morgan M.; Buxton, Michelle (1 May 2009). "A New Dynamical Model for the Black Hole Binary LMC X-1". The Astrophysical Journal. 697 (1): 573–591. arXiv:0810.3447. Bibcode:2009ApJ...697..573O. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/697/1/573. ISSN 0004-637X.
^ Haardt, F.; Galli, M. R.; Treves, A.; Chiappetti, L.; Dal Fiume, D.; Corongiu, A.; Belloni, T.; Frontera, F.; Kuulkers, E.; Stella, L. (1 March 2001). "Broadband X-Ray Spectra of the Persistent Black Hole Candidates LMC X-1 and LMC X-3". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 133 (1): 187–193. arXiv:astro-ph/0009231. Bibcode:2001ApJS..133..187H. doi:10.1086/319186. ISSN 0067-0049.
^ Orosz, Jerome A.; Steiner, James F.; McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Buxton, Michelle M.; Bailyn, Charles D.; Steeghs, Danny; Guberman, Alec; Torres, Manuel A. P. (1 October 2014). "The Mass of the Black Hole in LMC X-3". The Astrophysical Journal. 794 (2): 154. arXiv:1402.0085. Bibcode:2014ApJ...794..154O. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/794/2/154. ISSN 0004-637X.
^ Adams, S. M.; Kochanek, C. S; Gerke, J. R.; Stanek, K. Z.; Dai, X. (9 September 2016). "The search for failed supernovae with the Large Binocular Telescope: conformation of a disappearing star". arXiv:1609.01283v1 [astro-ph.SR].

External links

Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull Archived 17 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine Award-winning interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute
Black hole diagrams
Ziółkowski, Janusz (2003). "Black Hole Candidates". Frontier Objects in Astrophysics and Particle Physics: 411. arXiv:astro-ph/0307307. Bibcode:2003foap.conf..411Z.
Heaviest Stellar Black Hole Discovered in Nearby Galaxy, Newswise, 17-Oct-2007

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[Thompson2019-7] Thompson, Todd (1 November 2019). "A noninteracting low-mass black hole–giant star binary system". Science. 366 (6465): 637–640. arXiv:1806.02751. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..637T. doi:10.1126/science.aau4005. PMID 31672898. S2CID 207815062. Archived from the original on 11 September 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.

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[KreidbergBailyn2012-13] Kreidberg, Laura; Bailyn, Charles D.; Farr, Will M.; Kalogera, Vicky (2012). "Mass Measurements of Black Holes in X-Ray Transients: Is There a Mass Gap?". The Astrophysical Journal. 757 (1): 36. arXiv:1205.1805. Bibcode:2012ApJ...757...36K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/757/1/36. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 118452794.

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[ThompsonKochanek2019-15] Thompson, Todd A.; Kochanek, Christopher S.; Stanek, Krzysztof Z.; Badenes, Carles; Post, Richard S.; Jayasinghe, Tharindu; Latham, David W.; Bieryla, Allyson; Esquerdo, Gilbert A.; Berlind, Perry; Calkins, Michael L.; Tayar, Jamie; Lindegren, Lennart; Johnson, Jennifer A.; Holoien, Thomas W.-S.; Auchettl, Katie; Covey, Kevin (2019). "A noninteracting low-mass black hole–giant star binary system". Science. 366 (6465): 637–640. arXiv:1806.02751. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..637T. doi:10.1126/science.aau4005. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31672898. S2CID 207815062.

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[FarmerRenzo2019-18] Farmer, R.; Renzo, M.; de Mink, S. E.; Marchant, P.; Justham, S. (2019). "Mind the Gap: The Location of the Lower Edge of the Pair-instability Supernova Black Hole Mass Gap" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. 887 (1): 53. arXiv:1910.12874. Bibcode:2019ApJ...887...53F. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab518b. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 204949567. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2020.

[Mapelli2020-19] Mapelli, M.; Spera, M.; Montanari, E.; Limongi, M.; Chieffi, A.; Giacobbo, N.; Bressan, A.; Bouffanais, Y. (2020). "Impact of the Rotation and Compactness of Progenitors on the Mass of Black Holes". The Astrophysical Journal. 888 (2): 76. arXiv:1909.01371. Bibcode:2020ApJ...888...76M. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab584d. S2CID 213050523.

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[22] McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Remillard, Ronald A. (2003). "Black Hole Binaries". arXiv:astro-ph/0306213.

[ReferenceA-23] ICRS coordinates obtained from SIMBAD. Format: right ascension (hh:mm:ss) ±declination (dd:mm:ss).

[:0-24] Miller-Jones, James C. A.; Bahramian, Arash; Orosz, Jerome A.; Mandel, Ilya; Gou, Lijun; Maccarone, Thomas J.; Neijssel, Coenraad J.; Zhao, Xueshan; Ziółkowski, Janusz; Reid, Mark J.; Uttley, Phil; Zheng, Xueying; Byun, Do-Young; Dodson, Richard; Grinberg, Victoria; Jung, Taehyun; Kim, Jeong-Sook; Marcote, Benito; Markoff, Sera; Rioja, María J.; Rushton, Anthony P.; Russell, David M.; Sivakoff, Gregory R.; Tetarenko, Alexandra J.; Tudose, Valeriu; Wilms, Joern (5 March 2021). "Cygnus X-1 contains a 21–solar mass black hole—Implications for massive star winds". Science. 371 (6533): 1046–1049. arXiv:2102.09091. Bibcode:2021Sci...371.1046M. doi:10.1126/science.abb3363. PMID 33602863. S2CID 231951746.

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[29] Casares, J.; Orosz, J. A.; Zurita, C.; Shahbaz, T.; Corral-Santana, J. M.; McClintock, J. E.; Garcia, M. R.; Martínez-Pais, I. G.; Charles, P. A.; Fender, R. P.; Remillard, R. A. (1 March 2009). "Refined Orbital Solution and Quiescent Variability in the Black Hole Transient GS 1354-64 (= BW Cir)". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 181 (1): 238–243. Bibcode:2009ApJS..181..238C. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/181/1/238. hdl:1721.1/95899. ISSN 0067-0049.

[30] Yanes-Rizo, I. V.; Torres, M. A. P.; Casares, J.; Motta, S. E.; Muñoz-Darias, T.; Rodríguez-Gil, P.; Armas Padilla, M.; Jiménez-Ibarra, F.; Jonker, P. G.; Corral-Santana, J. M.; Fender, R. (1 November 2022). "A refined dynamical mass for the black hole in the X-ray transient XTE J1859+226". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 517 (1): 1476–1482. arXiv:2209.10395. Bibcode:2022MNRAS.517.1476Y. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2719. ISSN 0035-8711.

[31] Mahy, L.; Sana, H.; Shenar, T.; Sen, K.; Langer, N.; Marchant, P.; Abdul-Masih, M.; Banyard, G.; Bodensteiner, J.; Bowman, D. M.; Dsilva, K.; Fabry, M.; Hawcroft, C.; Janssens, S.; Van Reeth, T. (1 August 2022). "Identifying quiescent compact objects in massive Galactic single-lined spectroscopic binaries". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 664: A159. arXiv:2207.07752. Bibcode:2022A&A...664A.159M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243147. ISSN 0004-6361.

[:1-32] Giesers, Benjamin; Kamann, Sebastian; Dreizler, Stefan; Husser, Tim-Oliver; Askar, Abbas; Göttgens, Fabian; Brinchmann, Jarle; Latour, Marilyn; Weilbacher, Peter M.; Wendt, Martin; Roth, Martin M. (1 December 2019). "A stellar census in globular clusters with MUSE: Binaries in NGC 3201". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 632: A3. arXiv:1909.04050. Bibcode:2019A&A...632A...3G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936203. ISSN 0004-6361.

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[Shenar_etal_2020-35] Shenar, T.; Bodensteiner, J.; Abdul-Masih, M.; Fabry, M.; Marchant, P.; Banyard, G.; Bowman, D. M.; Dsilva, K.; Hawcroft, C.; Reggiani, M.; Sana, H. (July 2020). "The 'hidden' companion in LB-1 unveiled by spectral disentangling". Astronomy and Astrophysics (Letter to the Editor). 630: L6. arXiv:2004.12882. Bibcode:2020A&A...639L...6S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038275.

[EA-20191127a-36] Chinese Academy of Science (27 November 2019). "Chinese Academy of Sciences leads discovery of unpredicted stellar black hole". EurekAlert!. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 29 November 2019.

[NAT-20191127-37] Liu, Jifeng; et al. (27 November 2019). "A wide star–black-hole binary system from radial-velocity measurements". Nature. 575 (7784): 618–621. arXiv:1911.11989. Bibcode:2019Natur.575..618L. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1766-2. PMID 31776491. S2CID 208310287.

[38] Dashwood Brown, Cordelia; Gandhi, Poshak; Zhao, Yue (1 January 2024). "On the natal kick of the black hole X-ray binary H 1705-250". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 527 (1): L82–L87. arXiv:2310.11492. Bibcode:2024MNRAS.527L..82D. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad151. ISSN 0035-8711.

[39] Remillard, Ronald A.; McClintock, Jeffrey E. (1 September 2006). "X-Ray Properties of Black-Hole Binaries". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 44 (1): 49–92. arXiv:astro-ph/0606352. Bibcode:2006ARA&A..44...49R. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.44.051905.092532. ISSN 0066-4146.

[40] Mikołajewska, Joanna; Zdziarski, Andrzej A.; Ziółkowski, Janusz; Torres, Manuel A. P.; Casares, Jorge (1 May 2022). "The Donor of the Black Hole X-Ray Binary MAXI J1820+070". The Astrophysical Journal. 930 (1): 9. arXiv:2201.13201. Bibcode:2022ApJ...930....9M. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac6099. ISSN 0004-637X.

[Masetti1996-41] Masetti, N.; Bianchini, A.; Bonibaker, J.; della Valle, M.; Vio, R. (1996), "The superhump phenomenon in GRS 1716-249 (=X-Ray Nova Ophiuchi 1993)", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 314: 123, Bibcode:1996A&A...314..123M

[42] Filippenko, Alexei V.; Leonard, Douglas C.; Matheson, Thomas; Li, Weidong; Moran, Edward C.; Riess, Adam G. (1 August 1999). "A Black Hole in the X-Ray Nova Velorum 1993". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 111 (762): 969–979. arXiv:astro-ph/9904271. Bibcode:1999PASP..111..969F. doi:10.1086/316413. ISSN 0004-6280.

[Gayathri+2020-43] Gayathri, V.; et al. (2020). "GW190521 as a Highly Eccentric Black Hole Merger". arXiv:2009.05461 [astro-ph.HE].

[44] Laycock, Silas G. T.; Cappallo, Rigel C.; Moro, Matthew J. (1 January 2015). "Chandra and XMM monitoring of the black hole X-ray binary IC 10 X-1". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 446 (2): 1399–1410. arXiv:1410.3417. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.446.1399L. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu2151. ISSN 0035-8711.

[45] Binder, Breanna A.; Sy, Janelle M.; Eracleous, Michael; Christodoulou, Dimitris M.; Bhattacharya, Sayantan; Cappallo, Rigel; Laycock, Silas; Plucinsky, Paul P.; Williams, Benjamin F. (1 March 2021). "The Wolf-Rayet + Black Hole Binary NGC 300 X-1: What is the Mass of the Black Hole?". The Astrophysical Journal. 910 (1): 74. arXiv:2102.07065. Bibcode:2021ApJ...910...74B. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abe6a9. ISSN 0004-637X.

[46] Orosz, Jerome A.; Steeghs, Danny; McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Torres, Manuel A. P.; Bochkov, Ivan; Gou, Lijun; Narayan, Ramesh; Blaschak, Michael; Levine, Alan M.; Remillard, Ronald A.; Bailyn, Charles D.; Dwyer, Morgan M.; Buxton, Michelle (1 May 2009). "A New Dynamical Model for the Black Hole Binary LMC X-1". The Astrophysical Journal. 697 (1): 573–591. arXiv:0810.3447. Bibcode:2009ApJ...697..573O. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/697/1/573. ISSN 0004-637X.

[47] Haardt, F.; Galli, M. R.; Treves, A.; Chiappetti, L.; Dal Fiume, D.; Corongiu, A.; Belloni, T.; Frontera, F.; Kuulkers, E.; Stella, L. (1 March 2001). "Broadband X-Ray Spectra of the Persistent Black Hole Candidates LMC X-1 and LMC X-3". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 133 (1): 187–193. arXiv:astro-ph/0009231. Bibcode:2001ApJS..133..187H. doi:10.1086/319186. ISSN 0067-0049.

[48] Orosz, Jerome A.; Steiner, James F.; McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Buxton, Michelle M.; Bailyn, Charles D.; Steeghs, Danny; Guberman, Alec; Torres, Manuel A. P. (1 October 2014). "The Mass of the Black Hole in LMC X-3". The Astrophysical Journal. 794 (2): 154. arXiv:1402.0085. Bibcode:2014ApJ...794..154O. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/794/2/154. ISSN 0004-637X.

[adams-49] Adams, S. M.; Kochanek, C. S; Gerke, J. R.; Stanek, K. Z.; Dai, X. (9 September 2016). "The search for failed supernovae with the Large Binocular Telescope: conformation of a disappearing star". arXiv:1609.01283v1 [astro-ph.SR].

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v t e Black holes
Outline
Types	BTZ black hole Schwarzschild Rotating Charged Virtual Kugelblitz Supermassive Primordial Direct collapse Rogue Malament–Hogarth spacetime
Size	Micro Extremal Electron Stellar Microquasar Intermediate-mass Supermassive Active galactic nucleus Quasar LQG Blazar OVV
Formation	Stellar evolution Gravitational collapse Neutron star Related links Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit White dwarf Related links Supernova Micronova Hypernova Related links Gamma-ray burst Binary black hole Quark star Supermassive star Quasi-star Supermassive dark star X-ray binary
Properties	Astrophysical jet Gravitational singularity Ring singularity Theorems Event horizon Photon sphere Innermost stable circular orbit Ergosphere Penrose process Blandford–Znajek process Accretion disk Hawking radiation Gravitational lens Microlens Bondi accretion M–sigma relation Quasi-periodic oscillation Thermodynamics Bekenstein bound Bousso's holographic bound Immirzi parameter Schwarzschild radius Spaghettification
Issues	Black hole complementarity Information paradox Cosmic censorship ER = EPR Final parsec problem Firewall (physics) Holographic principle No-hair theorem
Metrics	Schwarzschild (Derivation) Kerr Reissner–Nordström Kerr–Newman Hayward
Alternatives	Nonsingular black hole models Black star Dark star Dark-energy star Gravastar Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object Planck star Q star Fuzzball Geon
Analogs	Optical black hole Sonic black hole
Lists	Black holes Most massive Nearest Quasars Microquasars
Related	Outline of black holes Black Hole Initiative Black hole starship Black holes in fiction Big Bang Big Bounce Compact star Exotic star Quark star Preon star Gravitational waves Gamma-ray burst progenitors Gravity well Hypercompact stellar system Membrane paradigm Naked singularity Population III star Supermassive star Quasi-star Supermassive dark star Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer Superluminal motion Timeline of black hole physics White hole Wormhole Tidal disruption event Planet Nine
Notable	Cygnus X-1 XTE J1650-500 XTE J1118+480 A0620-00 Sagittarius A* Centaurus A Phoenix Cluster PKS 1302-102 OJ 287 SDSS J0849+1114 TON 618 MS 0735.6+7421 NeVe 1 Hercules A 3C 273 Q0906+6930 Markarian 501 ULAS J1342+0928 PSO J030947.49+271757.31 AT2018hyz Swift J1644+57
Category Commons

v t e Neutron star
Types	Radio-quiet Pulsar
Single pulsars	Magnetar Soft gamma repeater Anomalous X-ray Ultra-long period Rotating radio transient
Binary pulsars	Binary X-ray pulsar X-ray binary X-ray burster List Millisecond Be/X-ray Spin-up Hulse–Taylor pulsar
Properties	Blitzar Fast radio burst Bondi accretion Chandrasekhar limit Gamma-ray burst Glitch Neutron matter Neutron-star oscillation Optical Pulsar kick Quasi-periodic oscillation Relativistic Rp-process Starquake Timing noise Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit Urca process
Related	Gamma-ray burst progenitors Asteroseismology Compact star Quark star Exotic star Supernova Supernova remnant Related links Hypernova Kilonova Microquasar Neutron star merger Quark-nova White dwarf Related links Stellar black hole Related links Radio star Pulsar planet Pulsar wind nebula Thorne–Żytkow object QCD matter
Discovery	LGM-1 Centaurus X-3 Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
Satellite investigation	Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope Compton Gamma Ray Observatory Chandra X-ray Observatory
Other	X-ray pulsar-based navigation The Magnificent Seven List of neutron stars Most massive neutron stars Neutron stars in fiction
Category Commons

v t e Supernovae
Classes	Type Ia Type Iax Type Ib and Ic Type II (IIP, IIL, IIn, and IIb) Hypernova Superluminous Pair-instability Calcium-rich Common envelope jets supernova
Physics of	Carbon detonation Foe/Bethe Near-Earth Phillips relationship Nucleosynthesis p-process r-process γ-process Neutrinos
Related	Failed Fast blue optical transient Fast radio burst Gamma-ray burst Gravitational wave Kilonova Luminous red nova Micronova Nova Pulsar kick Quark-nova Soft gamma repeater Imposter pulsational pair-instability Symbiotic nova
Progenitors	Hypergiant yellow Red Luminous blue variable Supergiant blue red yellow White dwarf Wolf–Rayet star Super-AGB star Population III star
Remnants	Supernova remnant Pulsar wind nebula Neutron star pulsar magnetar Stellar black hole Compact star electroweak exotic quark Zombie star Local Bubble Superbubble Orion–Eridanus
Discovery	Guest star History of supernova observation Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae
Lists	Candidates Notable Massive stars Most distant Remnants In fiction
Notable	Barnard's Loop Cassiopeia A SN 1054 Crab Nebula iPTF14hls SN 1000+0216 Tycho's Kepler's SN 1885A SN 1987A SN 1994D SN 185 SN 1006 SN 2003fg Remnant G1.9+0.3 SN 2007bi SN 2011fe SN 2014J SN Refsdal Vela Remnant SN 2006gy ASASSN-15lh SN 2016aps SN 2018cow SN 2022jli SN H0pe
Research	ASAS-SN Calán/Tololo Survey High-Z Supernova Search Team Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey Nearby Supernova Factory Sloan Supernova Survey Supernova/Acceleration Probe Supernova Cosmology Project SuperNova Early Warning System Supernova Legacy Survey Texas Supernova Search
Category:Supernovae Commons:Supernovae