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{{short description|Chinese interceptor aircraft family}}
{{short description|Chinese interceptor aircraft family}}
{{More citations needed|article|date=March 2008}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
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{| {{Infobox aircraft begin
{{Infobox aircraft
|name = J-8 / F-8
|name = J-8 / J-8B
|image = Shenyang J-8 (2897990879).jpg
|image = Shenyang J-8 (2897990879).jpg
|caption = J-8 at the [[China Aviation Museum]]}}
|caption = J-8 at the [[China Aviation Museum]]
{{Infobox aircraft type
|type = [[Interceptor aircraft|Interceptor]]
|type = [[Interceptor aircraft|Interceptor]]
|national origin= China
|national_origin= China
|manufacturer = [[Shenyang Aircraft Corporation]]
|manufacturer = [[Shenyang Aircraft Corporation]]
|design group = [[Shenyang Aircraft Design Institute]]
|design_group = [[Shenyang Aircraft Design Institute]]
|first flight = J-8: 5 July 1969<br>J-8II: 12 June 1984
|first_flight = J-8: 5 July 1969<br>J-8B: 12 June 1984
|introduced = 1980
|introduction = 1980
|retired =
|retired =
|status = In limited service
|status = In service
|primary user = [[People's Liberation Army Air Force|PLA Air Force]]
|primary_user = [[People's Liberation Army Air Force]]
|more users = [[People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force|PLA Naval Air Force]]
|more_users = [[People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force]]
|produced = 1979–2010
|produced =
|number_built =At least 408<ref name="iiss_militarybalance2010">{{Citation |editor-last=Hacket |editor-first=James |contribution=The Military Balance 2010 |publisher=[[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] |year=2010 |contribution-url=http://www.iiss.org/publications/military-balance/the-military-balance-2010/ |title=The Military Balance |pages=402, 404 |access-date=28 June 2011 |archive-date=12 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012153727/http://www.iiss.org/publications/military-balance/the-military-balance-2010/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|number built = 380<ref name="plaaf_saic">{{cite web|url=http://china.usc.edu/App_Images/military%20conflict%202008.pdf|title=Capabilities of the Chinese People's Liberation Army to Carry Out Military Action in the Event of Regional Military Conflict|publisher=[[State Administration for Industry and Commerce|SAIC]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813132436/http://china.usc.edu/App_Images/military%20conflict%202008.pdf|archive-date=13 August 2011}}</ref>
}}
}}
|}
The '''Shenyang J-8''' ([[wikt:歼|Chinese]]: 歼-8; [[NATO reporting name]]: '''Finback''') is a high-speed, high-altitude Chinese-built single-seat [[Interceptor aircraft|interceptor]]. The J-8I and J-8II variants differ significantly in appearance. The J-8I has an annular air intake with a conical shock cone in the nose, while the J-8II has rectangular flat ramp type intakes located on the sides of the forward fuselage.


The '''Shenyang J-8''' ([[Simplified Chinese characters|Chinese]]: 歼-8; [[NATO reporting name]]: '''Finback''') is a family of [[interceptor aircraft]] developed by the [[Shenyang Aircraft Design Institute|601 Institute]] (Shenyang) in the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC). It was conceived in the early 1960s as a low-risk program based on enlarging the [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]]F, a version of which the PRC was producing as the [[Chengdu J-7]]. The original J-8 experienced protracted development due to disruption from the [[Cultural Revolution]]; the prototypes first flew in 1969{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}} but the design was not finalized until 1979 with the aircraft entering service in 1980.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=77}}
== Design and development ==
[[File:Shenyang J-8I and J-8II.png|thumb|upright|Shenyang J-8I and J-8II]]


The '''J-8II'''/'''J-8B''' ([[NATO reporting name]]: '''Finback-B''') was a major development of the J-8 and was essentially a new aircraft. The J-8II replaced the distinctive nose air intake{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}} with a conventional [[radome]] and side air intakes to create room for a modern fire-control radar,{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=80}} and used more powerful engines.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}}{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=80}} The aircraft started development in 1982,{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=80}} and was cleared for production and service in 1988.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=81}} The J-8II was the basis for all later major additions to the J-8 family.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=81–86}}
=== J-8 ===
The [[People's Liberation Army Air Force]] requested an all-weather interceptor from [[Shenyang Aircraft Corporation]] and the [[601 Institute]] to combat new, high altitude threats such as [[Convair B-58 Hustler]] bombers, [[Republic F-105 Thunderchief]] fighter-bombers and [[Lockheed U-2]] spy planes as the recently introduced [[Chengdu J-7]] (a licence-built [[MiG-21]]) was incapable of doing so. Development began in 1964 which resulted in the first Chinese-designed and built jet fighter,


==Development==
The prototype first flew in 1969 but due to the political turmoil of the [[Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution]], the J-8 was not produced until 1979 and only entered service in 1980. Its basic configuration is an enlargement of the delta-winged J-7, and utilizes two Liyang (LMC) Wopen-7A turbojet engines to achieve a speed of [[Mach number|Mach]] 2.2. The twin-engined J-8 competed with rival [[Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group]]'s single turbofan engine, canard-delta [[Chengdu J-9|J-9]] project and ultimately emerged as the victor largely due to the existing availability of the powerplant, while the J-9 was cancelled in 1980 due to development difficulties with its engine.
===J-8===
[[File:J-8 fighter.jpg |thumb|J-8 at the [[Beijing Military Museum]]]]
[[File:Shenyang J-8 (Finback-A) - 2.jpg|thumb|J-8 from the rear.]]
By 1964, the [[Chengdu J-7]] was inadequate to perform long-range, high-altitude interceptions. The Chinese Aeronautical Establishment held a conference on 25 October to discuss future fighters. The 601 Institute had two proposals; a twin-engined "scaled-up" J-7 which became the J-8,{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}} and a higher-performing single-engined option that became the [[Chengdu J-9]].{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=90}} Both options were pursued. The J-8 offered lower technical risk and received higher priority and political support;{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}} the J-9 was later cancelled in 1980.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=92}} The [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) approved the operational requirements on 17 May 1965.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}} [[Huang Zhiqian]] and [[Gu Songfen]] became, respectively, the chief and vice chief designers.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}}{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=77}}


The J-8 was shared some features with the J-7, including the front-hinged single-piece cockpit canopy, landing gear design, and positioning of the ventral air brakes. The tail had two ventral fins similar in shape to the J-7's single ventral fin. The aircraft was powered by two Liyang WP-7B afterburning [[turbojet]]s. The nose intake had a small [[inlet cone]] enclosing a radar
In order to house a large radar set, the design called for a solid nose and variable geometry side air intakes. However, the lack of familiarity with this type of intake meant the J-8 used a MiG-21 style nose intake. The solid nose J-8 was finally realized in the '''J-8II''' (Finback-B), which was otherwise based on the layout of the J-8I. The radar chosen was the Type 204 mono-pulse fire-control radar, a primitive ranging radar for daylight within-visual-range operations. The performance of the radar fell well short of the PLAAF's requirements as research into a more capable fire control radar and power source faced delays. The J-8 was originally armed with cannons and seven hardpoints for [[missile]]s, [[bomb]]s, [[rocket]]s or fuel tanks. The original weapons layout of the J-8 was two {{cvt|30|mm}} Type 30-1 cannons after initial problems with the {{cvt|30|mm}} Type 30-II four-barrel Gatling gun. The J-8 was also planned to be armed with the experimental PL-4 medium ranged missile but technical issues and political upheavals prevented development and the project was cancelled in 1985 due to unsatisfactory performance. Therefore, the PL-2 IR-homing short-range air-to-air missile was used instead. Unguided bombs and rockets can also be carried. With the development of light-weight nuclear weaponry, the J-8II is also able to carry missiles with nuclear warheads.
rangefinder. Two Type 30-1 ([[Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30]]) cannon were mounted under the cockpit. There were three hardpoints, one under each wing and one on the centerline under the fuselage, with a total carrying capacity of 2.5 tonnes.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}}
[[File:Shenyang J-8 (Finback-A) - 2.jpg|thumb|Shenyang J-8 from the rear.]]
[[File:Jian-8FighterChina.jpg|thumb|Shenyang F-8II, armed with air-to-air missiles and six bombs on a centreline tri-rack.]]


The programme suffered disruptions into the 1970s. Huang [[Pakistan International Airlines Flight 705|was killed in an air crash in May 1965]] and replaced by Wang Nanshou. Design work was completed in September and a full-size mock-up completed and reviewed by December. The [[Shenyang Aircraft Corporation|Shenyang Aircraft Factory]] was expected to complete a prototype by the end of 1966, but Gao Fangqi – its chief engineer – died and his successor, Liu Hongzhi, was dismissed in November 1966 during the [[Cultural Revolution]]. Development was transferred to the "Joint J-8 Development Command" led by Wang Xin. The construction of two prototypes was slow due to being done "almost clandestinely"; the first, "001 Red" was built from August 1967 to June 1968. 001 Red was damaged during high-speed [[taxiing]] tests on 19 December 1968,{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}} and made its first successful flight on 5 July 1969 piloted by Yin Yuhuan. Shortly afterward, the programme stalled due to the disbanding of Flight Test Command and Shenyang's Chief Design Office{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=76}} The Chief Design Office was only reformed in 1979 with Gu being promoted to chief designer.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=76–77}}
The original combat avionics package was soon replaced with an all-weather capability in aircraft designated '''J-8I''' (Finback-A). The J-8I (later redesignated as the '''J-8A''') received a new gun sight, computer, new cockpit design and redesigned ejection escape system and oxygen supply system. The gun armament was also changed from two {{cvt|30|mm}} cannons to a single {{cvt|23|mm}} twin-barreled cannon and the PL-5 short ranged AAM was also adopted. The later '''J-8E''' featured improved [[electronic warfare]] systems. The unsatisfactory performance of the J-8I led to a very short production run of between 20 and 50 aircraft and the J-8I slowly began being phased in the 1990s. A tactical reconnaissance variant of the J-8, known as the '''JZ-8''' was developed in the mid 1980s to take advantage of the J-8s speed and altitude capabilities to replace the [[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang JZ-6]] in the tactical reconnaissance role. Using an under-fuselage reconnaissance pod with a KA-112A long focal-length optical camera, the JZ-8 usually operates at altitudes around {{cvt|9500|-|15000|m}}. By 1982 work began to replace the J-8I with the '''J-8II'''. The PLAAF's 1982 requirements demanded beyond visual range combat (BVR) capability with the use medium ranged missiles (MRAAM) and secondary ground attack capabilities. The J-8II was expected to have better aerodynamic performance at medium to low altitudes and at transonic speeds.


From 1969 to 1979, 001 Red and 002 Red logged a total of only 1025 flights and 663 flight hours. Flight and static testing revealed several problems, including severe buffeting at transonic and supersonic speeds, overheating of the rear fuselage at supersonic speeds, engine unreliability, and airframe weaknesses. All were eventually resolved,{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=76}} although it continued to suffer poor directional stability.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=80}} The design was finalized on 31 December 1979.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=77}}
=== J-8II ===
[[File:Shenyang J-8.JPEG|thumb|A Shenyang J-8II parked on an airfield]]
The J-8II series appear quite different from the original J-8, with new forward fuselage [[intake ramp]]s with [[Splitter plate (aeronautics)|splitter plates]] and a nose structure more reminiscent of the [[McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II]] or [[Sukhoi Su-15]] to house a new, more powerful radar. The J-8II is powered by two Wopen-13A (WP-13A) engines. The design and development team was led by [[Gu Songfen]], who is also a key member of J-8I design team.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://airforceworld.com/pla/j-8ii-j-8b-fighter-china.htm|title=J-8II J-8B Fighter China PLAAF|work=AirForceWorld.com|access-date=25 March 2011|date=25 March 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303205348/http://www.airforceworld.com/pla/j-8ii-j-8b-fighter-china.htm|archive-date=3 March 2011}}</ref>


===J-8A===
It was hoped to equip the production '''J-8B''' with an American [[AN/APG-66(V)]] radar (to be dubbed the '''J-8C'''), but this proved politically impossible after the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]] so the indigenous Type 208A [[monopulse radar]] fire-control radar was used initially. Although the Type 208A was an improvement over the original J-8I radar, the Type 208A did not have true beyond visual range capabilities (The detection range of the Type 208 was {{cvt|40|km}}) nor look-down/shoot-down ground attack capabilities, thereby falling short of the PLAAFs requirements and the redesign of the airframe. The J-8B was the early production batch of the new J-8II series. In addition to receiving a new radar, new engine and redesigned noses, cockpit and intake, the J-8B also benefited from a new [[head-up display]], integrated [[inertial navigation system]]/[[Global positioning system|Global positioning satellite system]] and [[Tactical Air Navigation|TACAN technology]]. Later J-8Bs were equipped with the more robust KLJ-1 [[pulse-Doppler radar]] [[fire-control radar]] and [[radar warning receiver]], giving the later batch BVR capabilities.
The J-8 was already recognized as obsolescent when it formally entered service on 2 March 1980. Development of the improved J-8 I (later the J-8A) began at Shenyang in February 1978.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=76–77}} The J-8 I replaced the radar rangefinder with the SR-4 radar and the capability to fire the [[PL-4 (missile)|PL-4]] [[air-to-air missile]] (AAM); both radar and missile were still in development when the aircraft's specifications were approved by State Certification Commission on 2 March 1980.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=77–78}} Ultimately, the PL-4 failed and the [[PL-2]]B and [[PL-5]] were used instead.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=78}} The cockpit used a two-piece canopy – as on the J-7 II – and a newer ejection seat. Each Type 30-1 cannon was replaced with a Type 23-III ([[Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-23]]L).{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=77–78}}


The first prototype was completed on in May 1980 and destroyed on 25 June during its first engine run when a burst hydraulic line caused a fire in the engine bay; the J-8's hydraulic system was subsequently reworked. The second prototype first flew on 24 April 1981. Testing was completed in November 1984, and the aircraft was cleared for production on 27 June 1985. The J-8 I also fell short of contemporary requirements and only about 100 were built before production ended in 1987.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=78}}
The J-8B is the second Chinese aircraft with a data link, the first being the [[Chengdu J-7]]III, and it uses the Type 483 which was developed from the J-7III's Type 481 data link, to enable [[ground-controlled interception]] centres to feed directions directly to the J-8Bs autopilot for "hands off" interceptions.


Some were converted into the J-8 IE with the JL-7 radar from the J-7C and various [[avionics]] from the J-8 II.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=78–79}}
At least 30 J-8Bs have been converted by the PLA Navy to '''J-8D''' standard, with an aerial refuelling probe for use with [[Xian H-6]]DU tankers in addition to newly built J-8Ds. The most significant difference between the J-8B and J-8D is the use of the new '''Type-02''' airframe that was heavier than the J-8B and featured uneven length wing fences. The heavier 'Type 02' airframe is able to carry a larger payload and can tolerate higher G-loadings. The new airframe also has a stiffer radome. A few minor differences between the later J-8B batches and the J-8D are the J-8Ds slightly improved avionics. The use of the KLJ-1 pulse-Doppler radar was used through the J-8Ds entire production run. Although the Type 208A was theoretically capable of using [[semi-active radar homing]] missiles and the KLJ-1 was certainly capable; PL-11(Domestic version of [[Aspide|Italian Aspide]]) is only compatible with KLJ-1 as the engineers had difficulties reconciling the missile with the early Type 208A systems.


===J-8B===
An early attempt to remedy these technological shortcomings still present after the redesign of the J-8 to the J-8II was the '''J-8C'''. The project began shortly after failure to obtain American cooperation for the J-8B, so Shenyang turned to Israel and Russia instead. The J-8C was considered a 'radical' upgrade of the original J-8II with a new radar based on the Israeli Elta EL/M 2035 multi-mode pulse Doppler radar, digital fire-control system, a new 'glass' cockpit, in-flight refuelling probe and equipped with a new WP-14 ''Kunlun'' engine. These upgrades were said to 'bring the fighter into the same league as modern Russian and Western fighters such as [[Mikoyan MiG-29]] and [[Dassault Mirage 2000]]'. The project was cancelled in the late 1990s after two prototypes were built in favour of further development of the [[Shenyang J-11]] fighter (which is based on the [[Sukhoi Su-27]]). The '''J-8IIM''', first flown in 1996, is a further improved version. One major improvement over the J-8II is the capable Russian-made Zhuk-8II coherent [[pulse-Doppler radar]], 100 of which have been delivered in the 1990s. Additionally, the J-8IIM carried new multifunction displays, integrated INS/GPS navigation system, new fire-control systems, new alternators and a new [[electronic countermeasure]]s suite. The J-8IIM possessed true BVR capabilities with the use of the [[R-27 (air-to-air missile)]] semi-active infrared seeker medium-ranged missile. New WP-13B turbojet engines were adopted as well. The J-8IIM has had no new orders from China or the export market, where it is offered as the '''F-8IIM'''. It was heavily marketed to Iran but ultimately was not exported anywhere. However the experience and technological achievements gained from the J-8C and F-8IIM projects were later applied by Shenyang Aircraft Company to the later J-8H/F variants.
[[File:Shenyang J-8.JPEG|thumb|J-8B]]
[[File:Shenyang J-8I and J-8II.png|thumb|upright|Comparison of the J-8A and J-8B]]
In 1980, Shenyang began investigating improving the J-8 by using ideas embodied by contemporary aircraft like the [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II]] and the [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23]]. Gu and He Wenzhi began design work on what became the J-8 II (later the J-8B) in 1982.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=80}}


70% of the J-8's airframe structure and systems were reworked. The nose air intake and its shock cone{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=75}} were replaced with an ogival [[radome]] and lateral air intakes to create room for the larger Type 208 [[pulse-Doppler radar]]. The number of external hardpoints increased to seven; a single Type 23-III cannon was carried. The aircraft was [[area rule]]d and the powerplants replaced by the more powerful WP-13A-II turbojets. The two ventral fins under the tail were replaced by a single larger fin copied from the MiG-23; the fin folded to starboard on the ground for ground clearance. Performance was greatly improved with the higher thrust-to-weight ratio, as was handling. Improvements to manoeuvrability were limited due to the 6.9 [[g-force|g]] limit. The prototype was completed in March 1984 and made its first flight on 12 June.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=80}} Production and entry into service was approved in October 1988.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=81}} The greatest problems were with the avionics, particularly the radar.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=80–81}}
It was also during this time that the Shanghai Academy of Spaceflight Technology certified the PL-11 in 2001 after successfully test firing five missiles from the J-8II.


The improved J-8 IIB (or J-8B Block 02), fitted with the KLJ-1 (Type 208A) radar and avionics from the J-7C, flew in November 1989 and entered production in 1996.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=81}}
The '''J-8H''' configuration features the more powerful WP-13B turbojet engines, improved avionics and the improved Type 1471 [[Pulse-Doppler radar|pulse-doppler]] fire control radar with [[look-down/shoot-down]] capability and a range of new operating modes. With the radar upgrade comes the ability to fire the PL-11.<ref>{{Citation|title=HQ-61|date=2021-06-03|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=HQ-61&oldid=1026687097|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2021-11-04}}</ref> The J-8H also is equipped with IFR probe, INS/GPS, [[HOTAS]], and an integrated ECM suite, with twin wing fences on each side of the wings that greatly increased handling ability. The J-8Ds heavier airframe is used but with modified wing fences. Production of the J-8H and the J-8D it had superseded has now ceased in favor of upgrading earlier J-8D aircraft to J-8H standards. It is uncertain if the older J-8B will be upgraded to J-8H standards given the difference in airframe. The '''J-8F''' is the most modern and capable J-8 variant currently in service and has been in production since 2003. The J-8H/F has inherited many of the improvements of the earlier J-8C and F-8IIM, and in some cases, has improved on them. The J-8F features a [[glass cockpit]], a more powerful WP-13BII turbojet engine and enhanced Type 1492 radar for enhanced air-to-air capabilities with the [[PL-12|PL-12/SD-10 MRAAM]], which employs an [[Active radar homing]] (ARH) seeker, full air-to-ground and air-to-sea capabilities using the [[Kh-31|AS-17 'Krypton']] anti-radar missile, and a variety of Chinese designed precision guided laser and satellite guided bombs, making it the first true [[Multirole combat aircraft]] variant of the J-8 series. The J-8F also possesses all the avionic and electronic upgrades the J-8H received. The earlier J-8B/Ds can be distinguished from later J-8H/Fs by their dark green radomes, compared to the latter's black radomes. Introduction of the more powerful WP-14 ''Kunlun'' turbojet engine for the J-8 series is planned to go under way in the coming years. The J-8F also serves in the [[People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force]] as well. A notable variant of the J-8F is the '''JZ-8F''' which has been introduced into the PLAAF in the tactical reconnaissance role. Little information has been released on the JZ-8F, other than the use of an internal camera compartment which replaces the twin 23&nbsp;mm cannon, rather than a camera pod as used by the older JZ-8.


===J-8C and J-8F===
In 1988, one J-8II airframe was converted into the '''J-8ACT''' an [[experimental aircraft|experimental]] fly-by-wire testbed for the [[Chengdu J-10|J-10]] programme. The J-8ACT had a shorter fuselage and a pair of [[canard (aeronautics)|canards]] were fixed to the side of each intake, and replaced older FBW technological demonstrators based on the older [[Shenyang J-6]] and J-8I airframes. To date, no plans for a twin-seat J-8 design have been announced.
[[File:PLAAF Shenyang J-8II Jordan.jpg|thumb|J-8F]]
The J-8 III (later the J-8C) was an attempt to upgrade the J-8 II in the early 1990s. The [[Israel]]i avionics company [[Elta Systems]] was contracted to adapt the EL/M-2034 radar for the aircraft, although ultimately the domestic Type 1471 radar was used. The prototypes flew with WP-13B engines as the intended Liyang WP-14 Kunlun turbojets were under development. The wing had four, rather than two, fences, and a detachable [[aerial refueling]] probe was fitted on the starboard side. The J-8 III was certified in 1995 but production was cancelled because the WP-14 remained unavailable.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=83–84}}


The J-8C led to the J-8F, which started development in 1999 and first flew in 2000. The latter was equipped with the JL-10 (Type 1473) radar and WP-13B-II turbojets.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=85}}
== Operational history ==
[[File:Defense.gov News Photo 010124-D-0000X-001.jpg|thumb|Shenyang J-8II in flight. This plane was involved in the [[Hainan Island incident]] with a US Navy [[EP-3 Aries II]] in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theintercept.com/2017/04/10/snowden-documents-reveal-scope-of-secrets-exposed-to-china-in-2001-spy-plane-incident|title=Burn After Reading: Snowden Documents Reveal Scope of Secrets Exposed to China in 2001 Spy Plane Incident|work=TheIntercept.com|access-date=12 April 2017|date=10 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411184834/https://theintercept.com/2017/04/10/snowden-documents-reveal-scope-of-secrets-exposed-to-china-in-2001-spy-plane-incident/|archive-date=11 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
There are currently over 300 J-8s of all types serving in the [[People's Liberation Army Air Force]] and [[People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force]]. The J-8 is expected to be superseded by modern [[Chengdu J-10]] and [[Shenyang J-11|J-11]] variants in the coming years.


=== April 2001 incident ===
===J-8D and J-8H===
The J-8 IV (also known as the J-8 IIA, and later as the J-8D) was a J-8 II with similar avionics to the J-8 IIB and the same detachable IFR probe as the J-8 III; the IFR probe was later modified because it generated noise in the cockpit. It first flew on 21 November 1990 and entered service in 1996; it was China's first IFR-capable fighter. The J-8 IV was used primarily by the [[People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force]] and armed with the [[PL-9]] AAM.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=84–85}}
{{Main|Hainan Island incident}}
On 1 April 2001, a US [[EP-3E Aries II|EP-3]] reconnaissance aircraft [[Hainan Island incident|collided]] with a Chinese J-8D fighter jet flying near Chinese airspace about {{convert|70|mi|km}} south of China. The EP-3 crew was forced to make an emergency landing on China's [[Hainan]] Island; according to Chinese officials, the pilot of the J-8D, Wang Wei, ejected, but he was never found and is presumed dead. American reconnaissance crews had been intercepted many times before, in some instances the interceptors flying as close as ten metres from the American surveillance aircraft. The crew of 24 Americans was eventually allowed to return home on 11 April. The American aircraft was not returned for another 3 months.


The J-8D was developed into the J-8H fighter/strike aircraft. The J-8H was equipped with the KLJ-1 (Type 1492) radar; armament was the [[PL-11 (missile)|PL-11]] AAM and possibly the [[YJ-91]] [[anti-radiation missile]]. It also had four wing fences like the J-8C. Development started in 1995 and it entered service in 2002.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=85}}
== Variants ==
Data from Jane's All the World's Aircraft 2011-2012<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/682893302|title=Jane's all the world's aircraft 2011-2012|publisher=[[Janes Information Services|Jane's]]|others=Paul A. Jackson, Kenneth Munson, Lindsay Peacock, Susan Bushell|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7106-2955-5|edition=102|location=Coulsdon|language=en|oclc=682893302}}</ref>


=== J-8 (Finback-A) ===
===Peace Pearl===
The 1986 "Peace Pearl" program with the [[United States]] included upgrading 50-55 J-8 IIs with US avionics, [[Martin-Baker]] ejection seats, and possible US engines for {{USD|502 million}}. Two aircraft were flown to the US for prototyping, and work was underway by the time of the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]].{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=82}} Peace Pearl was cancelled by China in 1990; the US had permitted it to continue despite the post-Tiananmen sanctions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mann |first1=Jim |title=China Cancels U.S. Deal for Modernizing F-8 Jet : Military: Shelving the $550-million program signals an important break in the two nations' strategic ties. |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-05-15-mn-161-story.html |website=Los Angeles Times |date=15 May 1990 |access-date=5 April 2022}}</ref>
[[File:J-8 fighter.jpg |thumb|The original J-8 fuselage design at the [[Beijing Military Museum]]]]
: First flew on 5 July 1969. Initial clear-weather day fighter variant, resembles an enlarged MiG-21. Equipped with 2 x WP-7A turbojet engines, SR-4 ranging radar 2 x Type 30-I 30mm cannon (200 rounds each), and 2 x PL-2 IR-guided AAMs, provision for external tanks onutboard. Limited production.<ref>[http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j8.asp J-8 Fighter Aircraft – SinoDefence.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526101152/http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j8.asp |date=26 May 2006 }}</ref>


=== J-8I (Finback-A) ===
== Operational history ==
{{Main|Hainan Island incident}}
[[File:J-8 Fighter at Jianchuan Museum.jpg|thumb|Shenyang J-8I]]
On 1 April 2001, a J-8B collided with a [[United States Navy]] [[Lockheed EP-3|Lockheed EP-3E ARIES II]] [[signals intelligence]] aircraft 70 miles southeast of [[Hainan]] Island. The J-8B crashed and its pilot, Wang Wei, was killed after his parachute failed to open. The EP-3E was severely damaged and made an emergency landing on Hainan; all 24 crew members survived.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chan |first1=Minnie |title=How a mid-air collision near Hainan 18 years ago spurred China's military modernisation |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3004383/how-mid-air-collision-near-hainan-18-years-ago-spurred-chinas |website=South China Morning Post |date=2 April 2019 |access-date=7 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Zetter |first1=Kim |title=Burn After Reading: Snowden Documents Reveal Scope of Secrets Exposed to China in 2001 Spy Plane Incident |url=https://theintercept.com/2017/04/10/snowden-documents-reveal-scope-of-secrets-exposed-to-china-in-2001-spy-plane-incident/ |website=The Intercept |date=10 April 2017 |access-date=12 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411184834/https://theintercept.com/2017/04/10/snowden-documents-reveal-scope-of-secrets-exposed-to-china-in-2001-spy-plane-incident/ |archive-date=11 April 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
: First flew on 24 April 1981. Improved (all-weather) version of J-8. Same powerplant, but fitted with Sichuan SR-4 fire-control radar in intake centerbody; single twin-barrelled Gsh-23L cannon on each side of lower front fuselage. 54 in service in mid-2001, by which time apparently redesignated '''J-8A'''.


==Variants==
=== J-8E (Finback-A) ===
*'''J-8''': Original version. NATO reporting name '''Finback-A'''.
Mid-life upgrade for J-8I.
*'''J-8A''': Improved J-8 equipped with SR-4 radar and air-to-air missiles. Originally designated '''J-8 I'''.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=77–78}}

*'''J-8 IE''': Improved J-8A with upgraded avionics, including JL-7 radar. Converted from J-8A after the development of the J-8B.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=78–79}}
=== J-8B (Finback-B) ===
*'''JZ-8''': Reconnaissance version carrying a camera pod on the center hardpoint. Converted from J-8 in the mid-1980s after the development of the J-8B.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=79}}
[[File:Shenyang J-8B(w).jpg|thumb|Shenyang J-8B at Datang Shan aviation museum]]
*'''J-8 ACT''': "Active Control Technology" testbed for domestic analog and, later, digital [[fly-by-wire]] control system. One J-8 converted in the late-1980s and crashed on 23 April 1991.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=79}}
: Originally '''J-8II'''. All weather version, some 70% redesigned compared with J-8 I and became baseline airframe for new and upgraded variants. Design certified December 1995. Main configuration change is to "solid" nose and twin lateral air intakes, providing more nose space for fire-control radar and other avionics, plus increased airflow for the more powerful WP-13A II turbojets. Manufactured in small economic batches rather than continuous production.
*'''J-8B''': Radically redesigned J-8 with Type 208 pulse-[[Doppler radar]], WP-13A-II turbojets, and increased payload. Originally designated '''J-8 II''', with NATO reporting name '''Finback-B'''.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=79–81}}
; J-8B ('''Finback-B) Block 02'''
*'''J-8B Block 02''': Improved J-8B with KLJ-1 (Type 208A) radar and improved avionics. Originally designated '''J-8 IIB'''.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=81}}
: Late-production J-8Bs have an upgraded (KLJ-1) fire-control radar with a lookdown/shootdown mode compatible with PL-8 ([[Python (missile)|Python-3]]) IR guided and PL-11 (domestic licensed version of Italian Aspide) semi-active radar-guided AAMs, plus a new KJ-8602 RWR antenna on the fintip. New avionics, some possibly of Israeli design or origin, including HK-13E HUD, Type 563B INS/GPS, JD-II Tacan and an RKL-800A integrated ECM suite. In service with PLA Air Force and Navy.
*'''"Peace Pearl" upgrade''': Improved J-8B with American avionics and engines. Cancelled following the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=81–83}}

*'''J-8C''': Improved J-8B with IFR probe, Elta EL/M-2034 and then Type 1471 radar, and WP-13B turbojets. Cancelled due to unavailability of the intended powerplant, the WP-14 turbojet.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=83–84}}
=== J-8C (Originally J-8 III) ===
*'''J-8D''': Improved J-8B with IFR probe and avionics similar to the J-8B Block 02. NATO reporting name '''Finback-B Mod'''.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=84–85}}

*'''J-8F''': Development of the J-8C with JL-10 (Type 1473) radar and PL-11 missiles.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=85}}
: Development apparently began around 1990, but existence not noted until 2001. FIrst prototype(c/n 8301, serial 510) reportedly flew 1992 but powered by WP-13B engines instead of intended WP-14 Kunlun. Elta EL/M-2034 fire control radar initially, Chinese Type 1471 Later; integrated with the new(Type 1785A ?) stores management system; IR guided PL-8 or radar-guided PL-11 missiles. Airframe changed included fixed (but detachable) in flight refuelling probe and additional fence on each wing. Reported digital flight by wire controls and redesigned cockpit with HUD and two MFDs. At least one other prototype completed (serial 511) but, although certified in June 1994, development delays with WP-14 turbojet caused production plans to be abandoned. However, some upgrade technology graduated into later variants.
*'''J-8H''': Development of the J-8D for the fighter/strike role. Equipped with the KLJ-1 (Type 1492) radar, PL-11 and YJ-91 anti-radiation missiles.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=85}}

*'''JZ-8F''': Reconnaissance version of the J-8F with the cannon replaced by an internal camera.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=85}}
=== J-8D (Finback-B Mod) (originally J-8 IV) ===
*'''J-8 II ACT''': Testbed for digital [[fly-by-wire]] control system. Small canards were fitted to the air intake trunks to cause instability. Flew 49 times from 1996 to 1999.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=87}}
[[File:J-8E Fighter 20170902.jpg|thumb|J-8E at [[Beijing Military Museum]].]]
*'''F-8B''': Export version of the J-8B.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=81}}
: First flew on 21 November 1990, Designation of J-8Bs built or modified for in-flight refueling; non-retractable (but removable) probe on starboard side of cockpit; combat radius increased to 648 nm(1,200kml 745miles). Avionics upgrades include Type 208B fire control radar, Type 563 INS, JD-3II Tacan, KJ-8602 radar warning receiver, RKL-800A ECM and HK-13E HUD; can carry up to 4 PL-8 AAMs. IN service with PLA AIr Force and Navy from 1996. Some or all now being upgraded to J-8H, possibly including more powerful SARI Kunlun turbojet.
*'''F-8 IIM''': Improved J-8B for export with Russian avionics and weapons.{{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|pp=85–86}}

=== J-8F ===

:One of the definitive version of the Finback with FOX 3 capabilities. Developed from 1999; first flight 2000. Continues development started with J-8C, retaining detachable refuelling probe and additional wing fences; powered by uprated (approx 68.7kN; 15,432lbs st) WP-13B II turbojet and equipped to launch PL-12(SD-10) AAMs, using improved Type 1492 fire control radar. Cockpit avionics may also have been further upgraded. In limited PLAAF service from 2003 with 3rd Regiment of 1st Division and other units. Some50-80 reported to be in service by end of 2006; said to be entering PLA Navy Service well by early 2008. Re-engining with WP-14PC Kunlun III turbojet reportedly under way in 2008. It is reported that during 2006–2008, J-8 production suffered major setback due to engine problem.<ref name="AirForceWorld.com_J8II_engine_problem">{{cite web|title=AirForceWorld.com J8II engine problem|url=http://airforceworld.com/pla/j-8ii-j-8b-fighter-china.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909145709/http://airforceworld.com/pla/j-8ii-j-8b-fighter-china.htm|archive-date=9 September 2011|access-date=8 June 2011|work=AirForceWorld.com}}</ref>

=== J-8G ===

: An advanced modified variant of the J-8II tasked with the suppression of enemy air defence (SEAD) mission was said to have been developed by the SAC in the 2000s. The aircraft, reportedly designated J-8G, was said to be capable of carrying two indigenous YJ-91 anti-radiation missile and electronic warfare suite to attack enemy radar stations.<ref>[http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j8ii-part2.asp J-8II Fighter Aircraft (Part 2) – SinoDefence.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309212129/http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j8ii-part2.asp|date=9 March 2008}}</ref>

=== J-8H ===

: Further development of J-8D (preceding J-8F). Programme reportedly began 1995 and variant approved 1999. Retains twin pairs of wing fences and removable refuelling probe. WP-13B engines(said to be replaced by WP-14 Kunlun II in 2008); KLJ-1(Type 1471 KLJ-1) radar; PL-11 AAMs; possibly also YJ-91 anti-radiation ASMs. Flying control and avionics include HOTAS, INS/GPS and integrated ECM. Limited PLAAF service from 2002 including 21st division; maybe earmarked for upgrade to J-8F standards. Production completed, but being augmented by upgrading earlier J-8Ds and/or J-8Bs, there being redesignated '''J-8DH''' and '''J-8BH'''.

;J-8T
: Further upgrades of J-8F(Westernised as F-8T) Underdevelopment in 2008, and said to be production ready in late 2009. Including increased power from WP-14C kunlun III engine. Upgraded with [[JL-10A]] X-band radar. Export variant, F-8T, has WP-13B-II engines.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 September 2009|title=The "New" F-8T Fighter|url=http://china-defense.blogspot.com/2009/09/new-f-8t-fighter.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708031702/http://china-defense.blogspot.com/2009/09/new-f-8t-fighter.html|archive-date=8 July 2011|access-date=28 June 2011|publisher=China Defense Blog}}</ref> China National Aero-Technology Import & Export Corporation claims J-8T is equipped with improved integrate avionic and various guided weapons. J-8T can carry out air-to-air BVR intercepting mission, air-to-ground precise attacking mission and stand-off attacking mission.<ref>{{cite web|date=1 December 2011|title=CATIC F-8T Fighter intro|url=http://airforceworld.com/pla/english/j8b-j8f-j8h-f8b-fighter-china.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205041140/http://www.airforceworld.com/pla/english/j8b-j8f-j8h-f8b-fighter-china.html|archive-date=5 February 2012|access-date=2 November 2011|publisher=AirForceWorld.com}}</ref>

=== JZ-8 (J-8R) ===

: Reconnaissance version. Also Reported as '''J-8E''', '''J-8R''', and '''J-8V'''. believe to be converted from J-8A; at least 6 knowns. Retains gun armament; undernose sensor similar to package to that of Su-17/20/22 variants; centerline pod similar in appearance to that carried by Mig-21R, incorporating large rectangular camera window or SLAR antenna, in service with PLA Air Force.

=== JZ-8F ===
[[File:PLAAF Shenyang J-8II Jordan.jpg|thumb|A Shenyang J-8F]]
: A reconnaissance version of the J-8F. existence confirmed in 2007; based on J-8F and replacing JZ-8/J-8R in PLAAF. Internal guns replaced by customised internal camera compartment with one small and one large window, indicating likelihood of separate optical and low-light or IR cameras for all weather day and night photography. Large (comms?) antenna just forward of tailfin; possibly WP-14 powerplant.

=== Peace Pearl J-8 (J-8II) ===

: During the Sino-US cooperation era, up to 50 J-8IIs were to be delivered to the US for upgrades and installation of [[AN/APG-66]](v) radar and fire control system for US$500&nbsp;million, under the Peace Pearl programme. However, the project was cancelled and only about 24 J-8II were produced.<ref>[http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j8b.asp J-8II Fighter Aircraft – SinoDefence.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060716074303/http://sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j8b.asp|date=16 July 2006}}</ref> USAF Air Force Flight Test Center (6510 Squadron) took the task of test flight of modified J-8II.<ref name="AirForceWorld.com_J-8II_Fighter_Peace_Pearl">{{cite web|title=J-8II Fighter Peace Pearl USAF test flight|url=http://airforceworld.com/pla/j-8ii-j-8b-fighter-china-2.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110419024043/http://www.airforceworld.com/pla/j-8ii-j-8b-fighter-china-2.htm|archive-date=19 April 2011|access-date=10 April 2011|work=AirForceWorld.com}}</ref>

; F-8IIM
: Unveiled in Zhuhai Air Show 1996, export version of J-8B with Russian Phazotron Zhuk-8II PD radar (75 km range, and able to track up to ten airborne targets and attack two of them simultaneously), R-27R1 (AA-10) AAM and Kh-31P anti-radiation missile. The F-8IIM was to be powered by two, more powerful WP-13B turbojet engines. This aircraft is often mistakenly referred to as the "J-8IIM" with Kh-31A anti-ship missile (ASM) capability, but its radar lacked sea search mode for anti-shipping role. Additional proposed upgrade including No. 607 Institute Blue Sky Low-altitude navigation pod; Southwest China Electronic Equipment Research Institute KG-300G airborne self-protection jammer pod; No 613 Institute FLIR/Laser targeting pod; and a triple redundant flight by wire flight control system. The F-8IIM failed to attract any export customers and no domestic orders.<ref>[http://www.machtres.com/china.htm China Air Force J8 – J8IIM] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528103157/http://www.machtres.com/china.htm |date=28 May 2006 }}</ref> Conversion from older airframe was reportedly much fewer than the 100 units of Zhuk-8II radar delivered, and the conversion might have only been an experimental programme with none entering service.
: The F-8IIM fighter will probably be equipped with Russia's or China's helmet sight and advanced PL-9 and P-73 missiles. Phazotron, a Russian firm, has signed contracts with China to provide 150–200 improved Zhuk radars mainly in support of China's new F-8II fighter.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/row/j-8.htm |title=J-8 (Jianjiji-8 Fighter aircraft 8) / F-8 |access-date=7 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417001439/http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/row/j-8.htm |archive-date=17 April 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/types/china/shenyang/j-8/J-8.htm |title=Aeroflight » Shenyang J-8 'Finback' |access-date=11 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409032207/http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/types/china/shenyang/j-8/J-8.htm |archive-date=9 April 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/j-8.htm |title=Chinese Aircraft – J-8 (Jianjiji-8 Fighter aircraft 8) / F-8 |access-date=7 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419190125/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/j-8.htm |archive-date=19 April 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/fighter/j8/ |title=Aerospaceweb.org {{!}} Aircraft Museum – J-8 / F-8 'Finback' |access-date=7 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725015548/http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/fighter/j8/ |archive-date=25 July 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>
;
:
; J-8IIG
: Modified J-8II with tail hook and other improvements for developmental work on ship-borne aircraft for carrier operations, such as in April 1987, evaluating & testing the Chinese reverse-engineered steam catapult from that of [[HMAS Melbourne (R21)]], which was finally confirmed 27 years later in April 2014 by [[CCTV-13]].<ref name=J-8IIG1>{{cite web | url=http://www.xinruijunshi.com/sjzb/20140422/88317.shtml | title=J-8IIG | access-date=22 April 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127155155/http://www.xinruijunshi.com/sjzb/20140422/88317.shtml | archive-date=27 January 2016 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>{{dubious|reason=The source heavily relays on a rumor.|date=January 2019}} Both the take-off and landing were conducted on land with the reverse engineered steam catapult installed on the beach, and the test pilot was [[PLANAF]] pilot Li Guoqiang (李国强).<ref name=J-8IIG1/> Experience gained was applied to [[Shenyang J-15]].<ref name=J-15>{{cite web | url=http://epaper.syd.com.cn/sywb/html/2013-11/07/content_956826.htm | title=Knowledge gained from J-8 used on J-15 | access-date=7 November 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127155153/http://epaper.syd.com.cn/sywb/html/2013-11/07/content_956826.htm | archive-date=27 January 2016 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

; J-8IIM (2006)
: At Zhuhai Air Show 2006, a new variant "J-8IIM" was put on display with upgraded systems similar to the J-8H.<ref>[http://www.kanwa.com/dnws/showpl.php?id=216 Kanwa Daily News] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928122648/http://www.kanwa.com/dnws/showpl.php?id=216 |date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> The most significant improvement is the radar upgrade with a new Type 1471 domestic radar used by the J-8H. In comparison to F-8IIM's Russian Zhuk-8II radar, the Type 1471 radar has a number of performance enhancements:{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}}

:* Type 1471 radar has 75&nbsp;km maximum range for targets with 3 square meters RCS, in comparison to Zhuk-8II's 70&nbsp;km maximum range against target of 3 square meters RCS.
:* Additional ability to handle sea-borne targets that Zhuk-8II does not have. For sea targets with 50 square metres RCS, the max range is greater than 100/80 km for sea state 1/2.
:* Simultaneously tracking 10 targets and display 8 most threatening ones out of the 10 on displays, engaging 2 out the 8.
:* Air-to-Air modes: VS (Velocity Search), RWS (Recon./Search while Scan), TWS (Track While Scan), STT (Single Target Tracking), Air Combat Mode (ACM). AMTI, (aerial [[moving target indication]]) mode which is used to discover hovering helicopters can be added upon customer request, though this does not come as standard feature.
:* Air-to-Ground modes: Mapping (Real Beam Mapping RBM), Mapping Expansion/Freezing (EXP/FRZ), Doppler Beam Sharpening (DBS), Ground Moving Target Indication (GMTI), Sea Single Target Tracking (SSTT), Air-to-Ground Ranging (AGR).
:* An improved beacon navigation (BCN) and weather (WX) capability.


== Operators ==
== Operators ==
;{{CHN}}

* [[People's Liberation Army Air Force]]: 50 J-8F/H, 24 JZ-8, 24 JZ-8F{{sfn|The International Institute for Strategic Studies|2022|p=261}}
===People's Republic of China===
* [[People's Liberation Army Navy Air Force]]: 24 J-8F{{sfn|The International Institute for Strategic Studies|2022|p=260}}

* [[People's Liberation Army Air Force]]: 24 J-8, 42 J-8A, 64 J-8B, 36 J-8D, 12 J-8E, 24 J-8F, 48 J-8H, 8 JZ-8, 24 JZ-8F in service in 2010<ref name="iiss_militarybalance2010">{{Citation|editor-last=Hacket |editor-first=James |contribution=The Military Balance 2010 |publisher=[[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] |year=2010 |contribution-url=http://www.iiss.org/publications/military-balance/the-military-balance-2010/| title =The Military Balance}}</ref>
* [[People's Liberation Army Navy Air Force]]: 48 J-8I/J-8F/J-8B/J-8D in service in 2010<ref name="iiss_militarybalance2010"/>
As of early 2011, there are about 300 Chinese J-8s in service.<ref>环球网. 中国空军做出艰难决定 开始退役歼8战机. 2011</ref>


== Specifications (F-8 IIM) ==
== Specifications (F-8 IIM) ==
{{Aircraft specs
{{Aircraft specs
|ref={{sfn|Gordon|Komissarov|2008|p=85-86, 90}}
|ref=Chinese aircraft : China's aviation industry since 1951<ref name="Gordonkom">{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Yefim |last2=Komissarov |first2=Dmitry |title=Chinese aircraft : China's aviation industry since 1951 |url=https://archive.org/details/chineseaircraftc1951gord |url-access=limited |date=2008 |publisher=Hikoki Publications |location=Manchester |isbn=978-1902109046 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/chineseaircraftc1951gord/page/n38 75]-90 |edition=1st}}</ref>
|prime units?=met
|prime units?=met
<!--
<!--
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|wing area note=
|wing area note=
|aspect ratio=<!-- sailplanes -->
|aspect ratio=<!-- sailplanes -->
|airfoil='''root:''' [[TsAGI]] S-12 (4.2%); '''tip:''' TsAGI S-12 (5%)<ref name="Selig">{{cite web |last1=Lednicer |first1=David |title=The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage |url=https://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/ads/aircraft.html |website=m-selig.ae.illinois.edu |access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref>
|airfoil='''root:''' [[TsAGI]] S-12 (4.2%); '''tip:''' TsAGI S-12 (5%)<ref name="Selig">{{cite web |last1=Lednicer |first1=David |title=The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage |url=https://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/ads/aircraft.html |website=UIUC Applied Aerodynamics Group |publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |date= 15 September 2010 |access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref>
|empty weight kg=10371
|empty weight kg=10371
|empty weight note=
|empty weight note=
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Performance
Performance
-->
-->
|max speed kmh=2300
|max speed kmh=
|max speed note=limited to M2.2
|max speed note=
|max speed mach=2.4
|max speed mach=2.2{{sfn|Saunders|Wiseman|2011|p=29}}
|cruise speed kmh=
|cruise speed kmh=
|cruise speed note=
|cruise speed note=
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|ceiling m=18000
|ceiling m=18000
|ceiling note=
|ceiling note=
|g limits=during sustained turn at M 0.9
|g limits=+4.7 sustained at {{cvt|5000|m}}
+6.9 sustained at {{cvt|1000|m}}
+4.7 sustained at {{cvt|5000|m}}
|roll rate=<!-- aerobatic -->
|roll rate=<!-- aerobatic -->
|climb rate ms=224
|climb rate ms=224
|climb rate note=21s from M0.7 to M1.0 at 1000m
|climb rate note=at sea level
54s from M0.6 to M1.25 at 5000m
|time to altitude=
|time to altitude=
|wing loading kg/m2=
|wing loading kg/m2=
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Armament
Armament
-->
-->
|guns= 1 x [[Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-23|23mm Type 23-III cannon]]
|armament=<br/>
|bombs= 5 x low drag {{cvt|500|kg|lb|abbr=on}} or 10 x {{cvt|250|kg|lb|abbr=on}} (4 under-wing, 6 on centerline)
* 1 x 23mm Type 23-3 (Gsh-23) cannon with 200 rounds of ammunition
|rockets= 4 x Type 90-1 [[Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket|FFAR]] pod (57-mm or 90-mm)
* Up to 10 Type 250 III or Type 250 IV low-drag bombs, 4 underwing and 6 under fuselage; Or 5 500kg low-drag bombs, 2 underwing and 3 under fuselage
|missiles= 6 x [[PL-5]] AAM or [[PL-9]] AAM or 2 x [[R-27 (air-to-air missile)|R-27R1]] SARH AAM or 2 x [[PL-11 (missile)|PL-11]] SARH AAM or 2 x [[Kh-31]] anti-ship missiles
* 57mm rocket pods with 12 rounds, 90mm rocket pods
|hardpoints= 1 centerline and 6 under-wing hardpoints
* Up to 6 missiles with a combination of
|hardpoint capacity=3 x drop tanks
* IR missiles PL-2B, PL-5, PL-7(domestic matra magic R550), PL-8(Python 3), PL-9
|hardpoint rockets=
* Radar guided PL-11(Italian Aspide), PL-12, SD-10, R-27R1 depending on version; see variants section for more detail
|hardpoint missiles=
|guns=
|bombs=
|hardpoint bombs=
|hardpoint other=
|rockets=
|avionics=*Radar
|missiles=
**[[Zhuk (radar)|Zhuk]]-8 II or
|hardpoints=<br/>
**[[JL-10A]] (Type 1492)
1 centerline and 6 under-wing hardpoints, the 2nd under-wing hardpoint is for SARH missile
|hardpoint capacity=
|hardpoint rockets=
|hardpoint missiles=
|hardpoint bombs=
|hardpoint other=1x 800 litre drop tank and/or 2 x 480 litre drop tanks

|avionics=Zhuk-8 II Radar, KJ-8602 Omni-directional RWR, Chaff/Flare dispensers in tailcone,
}}
}}


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* [[Chengdu J-7]]
* [[Chengdu J-7]]
* [[Project Sabre II]]
* [[Guizhou JL-9]]


| similar aircraft=
| similar aircraft=
* {{lwc|Mikoyan-Gurevich Ye-150 family}}

* [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23]]
* {{lwc|Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23}}
* [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantom II]]
* {{lwc|McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II|McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantom II}}
* [[Sukhoi Su-15]]
* {{lwc|Sukhoi Su-15}}

| lists=

* (Zircon Anti Ship Missile)


}}
}}


== References ==
==References==

===Citations===
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{Cite book|last=Wilson|first=Stewart|title=Combat Aircraft since 1945|location=London|publisher=Aerospace Publications, 2000|isbn=1-875671-50-1|ref={{harvid|Wilson|2000}}}}


{{refbegin}}
== External links ==
*{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Yefim |last2=Komissarov |first2=Dmitry |title=Chinese Aircraft: China's aviation industry since 1951 |year=2008 |publisher=Hikoki Publications |location=Manchester |isbn=978-1-902109-04-6}}
{{Commons category|Shenyang J-8}}
* {{Cite book |author=The International Institute for Strategic Studies |title=The Military Balance 2021 |year=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-032-01227-8}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110326044633/http://www.airforceworld.com/pla/j-8-j-8i-j-8a-fighter-china.htm China J-8 (Finback-A) photo collection AirForceWorld.com]
* {{cite book |author=The International Institute for Strategic Studies |title=The Military Balance 2022 |date=14 February 2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-62003-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vOFeEAAAQBAJ |language=en}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120205041140/http://www.airforceworld.com/pla/english/j8b-j8f-j8h-f8b-fighter-china.html China J-8II (Finback-B) photo collection]
*{{cite journal |last1=Saunders |first1=Phillip C. |last2=Wiseman |first2=Joshua K. |date=December 2011 |title=Buy, Build, or Steal: China's Quest for Advanced Military Aviation Technologies |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA577394 |journal=Chinese Strategic Perspectives |publisher=Institute for National Strategic Studies, [[National Defense University]] |issue=4 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060615072007/http://china-defense.com/aviation/J8/J801.html China-defense.com Development of China's J-8 Fighter]
{{refend}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060526101152/http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j8.asp sinodefence.com J-8 (Finback-A)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060716074303/http://sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j8b.asp sinodefence.com J-8II (Finback-B)]
* [http://bbs.meyet.com/dispbbs_24_146814_1_116.html] {{in lang|zh}}


{{AVIC Aero Products}}
{{AVIC Aero Products}}
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{{PLAAF Aircraft}}
{{PLAAF Aircraft}}
{{Chinese Military Aircraft}}
{{Chinese Military Aircraft}}
{{USAF/DoD reporting names}}


[[Category:1960s Chinese fighter aircraft|J-08, Shenyang]]
[[Category:1960s Chinese fighter aircraft|J-08, Shenyang]]
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[[Category:Mid-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Mid-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1969]]
[[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1969]]
[[Category:Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear]]

Latest revision as of 00:29, 14 December 2024

J-8 / J-8B
J-8 at the China Aviation Museum
General information
TypeInterceptor
National originChina
ManufacturerShenyang Aircraft Corporation
DesignerShenyang Aircraft Design Institute
StatusIn service
Primary usersPeople's Liberation Army Air Force
Number builtAt least 408[1]
History
Introduction date1980
First flightJ-8: 5 July 1969
J-8B: 12 June 1984

The Shenyang J-8 (Chinese: 歼-8; NATO reporting name: Finback) is a family of interceptor aircraft developed by the 601 Institute (Shenyang) in the People's Republic of China (PRC). It was conceived in the early 1960s as a low-risk program based on enlarging the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21F, a version of which the PRC was producing as the Chengdu J-7. The original J-8 experienced protracted development due to disruption from the Cultural Revolution; the prototypes first flew in 1969[2] but the design was not finalized until 1979 with the aircraft entering service in 1980.[3]

The J-8II/J-8B (NATO reporting name: Finback-B) was a major development of the J-8 and was essentially a new aircraft. The J-8II replaced the distinctive nose air intake[2] with a conventional radome and side air intakes to create room for a modern fire-control radar,[4] and used more powerful engines.[2][4] The aircraft started development in 1982,[4] and was cleared for production and service in 1988.[5] The J-8II was the basis for all later major additions to the J-8 family.[6]

Development

[edit]

J-8

[edit]
J-8 at the Beijing Military Museum
J-8 from the rear.

By 1964, the Chengdu J-7 was inadequate to perform long-range, high-altitude interceptions. The Chinese Aeronautical Establishment held a conference on 25 October to discuss future fighters. The 601 Institute had two proposals; a twin-engined "scaled-up" J-7 which became the J-8,[2] and a higher-performing single-engined option that became the Chengdu J-9.[7] Both options were pursued. The J-8 offered lower technical risk and received higher priority and political support;[2] the J-9 was later cancelled in 1980.[8] The People's Liberation Army (PLA) approved the operational requirements on 17 May 1965.[2] Huang Zhiqian and Gu Songfen became, respectively, the chief and vice chief designers.[2][3]

The J-8 was shared some features with the J-7, including the front-hinged single-piece cockpit canopy, landing gear design, and positioning of the ventral air brakes. The tail had two ventral fins similar in shape to the J-7's single ventral fin. The aircraft was powered by two Liyang WP-7B afterburning turbojets. The nose intake had a small inlet cone enclosing a radar rangefinder. Two Type 30-1 (Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30) cannon were mounted under the cockpit. There were three hardpoints, one under each wing and one on the centerline under the fuselage, with a total carrying capacity of 2.5 tonnes.[2]

The programme suffered disruptions into the 1970s. Huang was killed in an air crash in May 1965 and replaced by Wang Nanshou. Design work was completed in September and a full-size mock-up completed and reviewed by December. The Shenyang Aircraft Factory was expected to complete a prototype by the end of 1966, but Gao Fangqi – its chief engineer – died and his successor, Liu Hongzhi, was dismissed in November 1966 during the Cultural Revolution. Development was transferred to the "Joint J-8 Development Command" led by Wang Xin. The construction of two prototypes was slow due to being done "almost clandestinely"; the first, "001 Red" was built from August 1967 to June 1968. 001 Red was damaged during high-speed taxiing tests on 19 December 1968,[2] and made its first successful flight on 5 July 1969 piloted by Yin Yuhuan. Shortly afterward, the programme stalled due to the disbanding of Flight Test Command and Shenyang's Chief Design Office[9] The Chief Design Office was only reformed in 1979 with Gu being promoted to chief designer.[10]

From 1969 to 1979, 001 Red and 002 Red logged a total of only 1025 flights and 663 flight hours. Flight and static testing revealed several problems, including severe buffeting at transonic and supersonic speeds, overheating of the rear fuselage at supersonic speeds, engine unreliability, and airframe weaknesses. All were eventually resolved,[9] although it continued to suffer poor directional stability.[4] The design was finalized on 31 December 1979.[3]

J-8A

[edit]

The J-8 was already recognized as obsolescent when it formally entered service on 2 March 1980. Development of the improved J-8 I (later the J-8A) began at Shenyang in February 1978.[10] The J-8 I replaced the radar rangefinder with the SR-4 radar and the capability to fire the PL-4 air-to-air missile (AAM); both radar and missile were still in development when the aircraft's specifications were approved by State Certification Commission on 2 March 1980.[11] Ultimately, the PL-4 failed and the PL-2B and PL-5 were used instead.[12] The cockpit used a two-piece canopy – as on the J-7 II – and a newer ejection seat. Each Type 30-1 cannon was replaced with a Type 23-III (Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-23L).[11]

The first prototype was completed on in May 1980 and destroyed on 25 June during its first engine run when a burst hydraulic line caused a fire in the engine bay; the J-8's hydraulic system was subsequently reworked. The second prototype first flew on 24 April 1981. Testing was completed in November 1984, and the aircraft was cleared for production on 27 June 1985. The J-8 I also fell short of contemporary requirements and only about 100 were built before production ended in 1987.[12]

Some were converted into the J-8 IE with the JL-7 radar from the J-7C and various avionics from the J-8 II.[13]

J-8B

[edit]
J-8B
Comparison of the J-8A and J-8B

In 1980, Shenyang began investigating improving the J-8 by using ideas embodied by contemporary aircraft like the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II and the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23. Gu and He Wenzhi began design work on what became the J-8 II (later the J-8B) in 1982.[4]

70% of the J-8's airframe structure and systems were reworked. The nose air intake and its shock cone[2] were replaced with an ogival radome and lateral air intakes to create room for the larger Type 208 pulse-Doppler radar. The number of external hardpoints increased to seven; a single Type 23-III cannon was carried. The aircraft was area ruled and the powerplants replaced by the more powerful WP-13A-II turbojets. The two ventral fins under the tail were replaced by a single larger fin copied from the MiG-23; the fin folded to starboard on the ground for ground clearance. Performance was greatly improved with the higher thrust-to-weight ratio, as was handling. Improvements to manoeuvrability were limited due to the 6.9 g limit. The prototype was completed in March 1984 and made its first flight on 12 June.[4] Production and entry into service was approved in October 1988.[5] The greatest problems were with the avionics, particularly the radar.[14]

The improved J-8 IIB (or J-8B Block 02), fitted with the KLJ-1 (Type 208A) radar and avionics from the J-7C, flew in November 1989 and entered production in 1996.[5]

J-8C and J-8F

[edit]
J-8F

The J-8 III (later the J-8C) was an attempt to upgrade the J-8 II in the early 1990s. The Israeli avionics company Elta Systems was contracted to adapt the EL/M-2034 radar for the aircraft, although ultimately the domestic Type 1471 radar was used. The prototypes flew with WP-13B engines as the intended Liyang WP-14 Kunlun turbojets were under development. The wing had four, rather than two, fences, and a detachable aerial refueling probe was fitted on the starboard side. The J-8 III was certified in 1995 but production was cancelled because the WP-14 remained unavailable.[15]

The J-8C led to the J-8F, which started development in 1999 and first flew in 2000. The latter was equipped with the JL-10 (Type 1473) radar and WP-13B-II turbojets.[16]

J-8D and J-8H

[edit]

The J-8 IV (also known as the J-8 IIA, and later as the J-8D) was a J-8 II with similar avionics to the J-8 IIB and the same detachable IFR probe as the J-8 III; the IFR probe was later modified because it generated noise in the cockpit. It first flew on 21 November 1990 and entered service in 1996; it was China's first IFR-capable fighter. The J-8 IV was used primarily by the People's Liberation Army Naval Air Force and armed with the PL-9 AAM.[17]

The J-8D was developed into the J-8H fighter/strike aircraft. The J-8H was equipped with the KLJ-1 (Type 1492) radar; armament was the PL-11 AAM and possibly the YJ-91 anti-radiation missile. It also had four wing fences like the J-8C. Development started in 1995 and it entered service in 2002.[16]

Peace Pearl

[edit]

The 1986 "Peace Pearl" program with the United States included upgrading 50-55 J-8 IIs with US avionics, Martin-Baker ejection seats, and possible US engines for US$502 million. Two aircraft were flown to the US for prototyping, and work was underway by the time of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.[18] Peace Pearl was cancelled by China in 1990; the US had permitted it to continue despite the post-Tiananmen sanctions.[19]

Operational history

[edit]
Main article: Hainan Island incident

On 1 April 2001, a J-8B collided with a United States Navy Lockheed EP-3E ARIES II signals intelligence aircraft 70 miles southeast of Hainan Island. The J-8B crashed and its pilot, Wang Wei, was killed after his parachute failed to open. The EP-3E was severely damaged and made an emergency landing on Hainan; all 24 crew members survived.[20][21]

Variants

[edit]
  • J-8: Original version. NATO reporting name Finback-A.
  • J-8A: Improved J-8 equipped with SR-4 radar and air-to-air missiles. Originally designated J-8 I.[11]
  • J-8 IE: Improved J-8A with upgraded avionics, including JL-7 radar. Converted from J-8A after the development of the J-8B.[13]
  • JZ-8: Reconnaissance version carrying a camera pod on the center hardpoint. Converted from J-8 in the mid-1980s after the development of the J-8B.[22]
  • J-8 ACT: "Active Control Technology" testbed for domestic analog and, later, digital fly-by-wire control system. One J-8 converted in the late-1980s and crashed on 23 April 1991.[22]
  • J-8B: Radically redesigned J-8 with Type 208 pulse-Doppler radar, WP-13A-II turbojets, and increased payload. Originally designated J-8 II, with NATO reporting name Finback-B.[23]
  • J-8B Block 02: Improved J-8B with KLJ-1 (Type 208A) radar and improved avionics. Originally designated J-8 IIB.[5]
  • "Peace Pearl" upgrade: Improved J-8B with American avionics and engines. Cancelled following the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre.[24]
  • J-8C: Improved J-8B with IFR probe, Elta EL/M-2034 and then Type 1471 radar, and WP-13B turbojets. Cancelled due to unavailability of the intended powerplant, the WP-14 turbojet.[15]
  • J-8D: Improved J-8B with IFR probe and avionics similar to the J-8B Block 02. NATO reporting name Finback-B Mod.[17]
  • J-8F: Development of the J-8C with JL-10 (Type 1473) radar and PL-11 missiles.[16]
  • J-8H: Development of the J-8D for the fighter/strike role. Equipped with the KLJ-1 (Type 1492) radar, PL-11 and YJ-91 anti-radiation missiles.[16]
  • JZ-8F: Reconnaissance version of the J-8F with the cannon replaced by an internal camera.[16]
  • J-8 II ACT: Testbed for digital fly-by-wire control system. Small canards were fitted to the air intake trunks to cause instability. Flew 49 times from 1996 to 1999.[25]
  • F-8B: Export version of the J-8B.[5]
  • F-8 IIM: Improved J-8B for export with Russian avionics and weapons.[26]

Operators

[edit]
 China

Specifications (F-8 IIM)

[edit]

Data from [29]

General characteristics

  • Crew: 1
  • Length: 21.39 m (70 ft 2 in) (20.53 m (67.4 ft) excluding nose pitot probe)
  • Wingspan: 9.344 m (30 ft 8 in)
  • Height: 5.41 m (17 ft 9 in)
  • Wing area: 42.2 m2 (454 sq ft)
  • Airfoil: root: TsAGI S-12 (4.2%); tip: TsAGI S-12 (5%)[30]
  • Empty weight: 10,371 kg (22,864 lb)
  • Gross weight: 15,288 kg (33,704 lb)
  • Max takeoff weight: 18,879 kg (41,621 lb)
  • Powerplant: 2 × Guizhou WP-13B afterburning turbojet engines, 47.1 kN (10,580 lbf) thrust each dry, 68.6 kN (15,430 lbf) with afterburner

Performance

  • Maximum speed: Mach 2.2[31]
  • Combat range: 1,000 km (620 mi, 540 nmi) radius with 3x drop tanks
  • Combat radius with one AAR: 900 km (560 mi; 490 nmi)
  • Service ceiling: 18,000 m (59,000 ft)
  • g limits: +4.7 sustained at 5,000 m (16,000 ft)
  • Rate of climb: 224 m/s (44,100 ft/min) at sea level
  • Thrust/weight: 0.74
  • Unstick speed: 330 km/h (210 mph; 180 kn)
  • Take-offrun: 630 m (2,070 ft)
  • Touchdown speed: 224 km/h (139 mph; 121 kn)
  • Landing run: 900 m (3,000 ft)

Armament

  • Guns: 1 x 23mm Type 23-III cannon
  • Hardpoints: 1 centerline and 6 under-wing hardpoints with a capacity of 3 x drop tanks
  • Rockets: 4 x Type 90-1 FFAR pod (57-mm or 90-mm)
  • Missiles: 6 x PL-5 AAM or PL-9 AAM or 2 x R-27R1 SARH AAM or 2 x PL-11 SARH AAM or 2 x Kh-31 anti-ship missiles
  • Bombs: 5 x low drag 500 kg (1,100 lb) or 10 x 250 kg (550 lb) (4 under-wing, 6 on centerline)

Avionics

See also

[edit]

Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Hacket, James, ed. (2010), "The Military Balance 2010", The Military Balance, International Institute for Strategic Studies, pp. 402, 404, archived from the original on 12 October 2012, retrieved 28 June 2011
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 75.
  3. ^ a b c Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 77.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 80.
  5. ^ a b c d e Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 81.
  6. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 81–86.
  7. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 90.
  8. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 92.
  9. ^ a b Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 76.
  10. ^ a b Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 76–77.
  11. ^ a b c Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 77–78.
  12. ^ a b Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 78.
  13. ^ a b Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 78–79.
  14. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 80–81.
  15. ^ a b Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 83–84.
  16. ^ a b c d e Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 85.
  17. ^ a b Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 84–85.
  18. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 82.
  19. ^ Mann, Jim (15 May 1990). "China Cancels U.S. Deal for Modernizing F-8 Jet : Military: Shelving the $550-million program signals an important break in the two nations' strategic ties". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 5 April 2022.
  20. ^ Chan, Minnie (2 April 2019). "How a mid-air collision near Hainan 18 years ago spurred China's military modernisation". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
  21. ^ Zetter, Kim (10 April 2017). "Burn After Reading: Snowden Documents Reveal Scope of Secrets Exposed to China in 2001 Spy Plane Incident". The Intercept. Archived from the original on 11 April 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2017.
  22. ^ a b Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 79.
  23. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 79–81.
  24. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 81–83.
  25. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 87.
  26. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, pp. 85–86.
  27. ^ The International Institute for Strategic Studies 2022, p. 261.
  28. ^ The International Institute for Strategic Studies 2022, p. 260.
  29. ^ Gordon & Komissarov 2008, p. 85-86, 90.
  30. ^ Lednicer, David (15 September 2010). "The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage". UIUC Applied Aerodynamics Group. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
  31. ^ Saunders & Wiseman 2011, p. 29.
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