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Same-sex marriage, also known as gay marriage, is the marriage of two people of the same legal sex. As of 2024,^[update] marriage between same-sex couples is legally performed and recognized in 36 countries, with a total population of 1.5 billion people (20% of the world's population). The most recent jurisdictions to legalize same-sex marriage are Greece and Aruba and Curaçao in the Netherlands. Two more countries, Liechtenstein and Thailand, are set to begin performing same-sex marriages in January 2025.

Same-sex marriage is legally recognized in a large majority of the world's developed countries; notable exceptions are Italy, Japan, South Korea and the Czech Republic. Adoption rights are not necessarily covered, though most states with same-sex marriage allow those couples to jointly adopt as other married couples can. Some countries, such as Nigeria and Russia, restrict advocacy for same-sex marriage.^[1] A few of these are among the 35 countries (as of 2023) that constitutionally define marriage to prevent marriage between couples of the same sex, with most of those provisions enacted in recent decades as a preventative measure. Other countries have constitutionally mandated Islamic law, which is generally interpreted as prohibiting marriage between same-sex couples.^{[citation needed]} In six of the former and most of the latter, homosexuality itself is criminalized.

There are records of marriage between men dating back to the first century.^[2] Michael McConnell and Jack Baker^[3]^[4] are the first same sex couple in modern recorded history^[5] known to obtain a marriage license,^[6] have their marriage solemnized, which occurred on September 3, 1971, in Minnesota,^[7] and have it legally recognized by any form of government.^[8]^[9] The first law providing for marriage equality between same-sex and opposite-sex couples was passed in the continental Netherlands in 2000 and took effect on 1 April 2001.^[10] The application of marriage law equally to same-sex and opposite-sex couples has varied by jurisdiction, and has come about through legislative change to marriage law, court rulings based on constitutional guarantees of equality, recognition that marriage of same-sex couples is allowed by existing marriage law, and by direct popular vote, such as through referendums and initiatives.^[11]^[12] The most prominent supporters of same-sex marriage are the world's major medical and scientific communities,^[13]^[14]^[15] along with human rights and civil rights organizations,^[16] while its most prominent opponents are religious fundamentalist groups.^[17] Polls consistently show continually rising support for the recognition of same-sex marriage in all developed democracies and in many developing countries.

Scientific studies show that the financial, psychological, and physical well-being of gay people are enhanced by marriage, and that the children of same-sex parents benefit from being raised by married same-sex couples within a marital union that is recognized by law and supported by societal institutions. At the same time, no harm is done to the institution of marriage among heterosexuals.^[18] Social science research indicates that the exclusion of same-sex couples from marriage stigmatizes and invites public discrimination against gay and lesbian people, with research repudiating the notion that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon restricting marriage to heterosexuals.^[19]^[20]^[21] Same-sex marriage can provide those in committed same-sex relationships with relevant government services and make financial demands on them comparable to that required of those in opposite-sex marriages, and also gives them legal protections such as inheritance and hospital visitation rights.^[22] Opposition is based on claims such as that homosexuality is unnatural and abnormal, that the recognition of same-sex unions will promote homosexuality in society, and that children are better off when raised by opposite-sex couples. These claims are refuted by scientific studies, which show that homosexuality is a natural and normal variation in human sexuality, that sexual orientation is not a choice, and that children of same-sex couples fare just as well as the children of opposite-sex couples.^[13]

Terminology

Alternative terms

Some proponents of the legal recognition of same-sex marriage—such as Marriage Equality USA (founded in 1998), Freedom to Marry (founded in 2003), Canadians for Equal Marriage, and Marriage for All Japan - used the terms marriage equality and equal marriage to signal that their goal was for same-sex marriage to be recognized on equal ground with opposite-sex marriage.^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28] The Associated Press recommends the use of same-sex marriage over gay marriage.^[29] In deciding whether to use the term gay marriage, it may also be noted that not everyone in a same-sex marriage is gay – for example, some are bisexual – and therefore using the term gay marriage is sometimes considered erasure of such people.^[30]^[31]

Use of the term marriage

Anthropologists have struggled to determine a definition of marriage that absorbs commonalities of the social construct across cultures around the world.^[32]^[33] Many proposed definitions have been criticized for failing to recognize the existence of same-sex marriage in some cultures, including those of more than 30 African peoples, such as the Kikuyu and Nuer.^[33]^[34]^[35]

With several countries revising their marriage laws to recognize same-sex couples in the 21st century, all major English dictionaries have revised their definition of the word marriage to either drop gender specifications or supplement them with secondary definitions to include gender-neutral language or explicit recognition of same-sex unions.^[36]^[37] The Oxford English Dictionary has recognized same-sex marriage since 2000.^[38]

Opponents of same-sex marriage who want marriage to be restricted to pairings of a man and a woman, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Catholic Church, and the Southern Baptist Convention, use the term traditional marriage to mean opposite-sex marriage.^[17]

History

Ancient

A reference to marriage between same-sex couples appears in the Sifra, which was written in the 3rd century CE. The Book of Leviticus prohibited homosexual relations, and the Hebrews were warned not to "follow the acts of the land of Egypt or the acts of the land of Canaan" (Lev. 18:22, 20:13). The Sifra clarifies what these ambiguous "acts" were, and that they included marriage between same-sex couples: "A man would marry a man and a woman a woman, a man would marry a woman and her daughter, and a woman would be married to two men."^[39]

A few scholars believe that in the early Roman Empire some male couples were celebrating traditional marriage rites in the presence of friends. Male–male weddings are reported by sources that mock them; the feelings of the participants are not recorded.^[40] Various ancient sources state that the emperor Nero celebrated two public weddings with males, once taking the role of the bride (with a freedman Pythagoras), and once the groom (with Sporus); there may have been a third in which he was the bride.^[41] In the early 3rd century AD, the emperor Elagabalus is reported to have been the bride in a wedding to his male partner. Other mature men at his court had husbands, or said they had husbands in imitation of the emperor.^[42] Roman law did not recognize marriage between males, but one of the grounds for disapproval expressed in Juvenal's satire is that celebrating the rites would lead to expectations for such marriages to be registered officially.^[43] As the empire was becoming Christianized in the 4th century, legal prohibitions against marriage between males began to appear.^[43]

Contemporary

Newly married couple in Minnesota shortly after the federal legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States, 2015

Michael McConnell and Jack Baker^[3]^[4] are the first same sex couple in modern recorded history^[5] known to obtain a marriage license,^[6] have their marriage solemnized, which occurred on September 3, 1971, in Minnesota,^[7] and have it legally recognized by any form of government.^[8]^[9] Historians variously trace the beginning of the modern movement in support of same-sex marriage to anywhere from around the 1980s to the 1990s. During the 1980s in the United States, the AIDS epidemic led to increased attention on the legal aspects of same-sex relationships.^[44] Andrew Sullivan made the first case for same sex marriage in a major American journal in 1989,^[45] published in The New Republic.^[46]

In 1989, Denmark became the first country to legally recognize a relationship for same-sex couples, establishing registered partnerships, which gave those in same-sex relationships "most rights of married heterosexuals, but not the right to adopt or obtain joint custody of a child".^[47] In 2001, the continental Netherlands became the first country to broaden marriage laws to include same-sex couples.^[10]^[48] Since then, same-sex marriage has been established by law in 34 other countries, including most of the Americas and Western Europe. Yet its spread has been uneven — South Africa is the only country in Africa to take the step; Taiwan and Thailand are the only ones in Asia.^[49]^[50]

Timeline

The summary table below lists in chronological order the sovereign states (the United Nations member states and Taiwan) that have legalized same-sex marriage. As of 2024, 38 states have legalized in some capacity.^[51]

Dates are when marriages between same-sex couples began to be officially certified, or when local laws were passed if marriages were already legal under higher authority.

2001	Netherlands (1 April)
2002
2003	Belgium (1 June) Ontario (10 June) British Columbia (8 July)
2004	Quebec (19 March) Massachusetts (17 May) Yukon (14 July) Manitoba (16 September) Nova Scotia (24 September) Saskatchewan (5 November) Newfoundland and Labrador (21 December)
2005	New Brunswick (23 June) Spain (3 July) Canada [nationwide] (20 July)
2006	South Africa (30 November)
2007
2008	California (June 16, repealed November 5) Connecticut (12 November)
2009	Norway (1 January) Iowa (27 April) Sweden (1 May) Coquille Indian Tribe (20 May) Vermont (1 September)
2010	New Hampshire (1 January) District of Columbia (3 March) Mexican Federal District (4 March) Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation (29 April) Portugal (5 June) Iceland (27 June) Argentina (22 July)
2011	New York (24 July) Suquamish Tribe (1 August) Alagoas (7 December)
2012	Quintana Roo (3 May) Denmark (15 June) Sergipe (5 July) Santa Rita do Sapucaí, Minas Gerais (11 July) Espírito Santo (15 August) Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (10 October) Bahia (26 November) Brazilian Federal District (1 December) Washington (6 December) Port Gamble S'Klallam Tribe (9 December) Piauí (15 December) Maine (29 December)
2013	Maryland (1 January) São Paulo (16 February) Ceará (15 March) Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians (15 March) Paraná (26 March) Mato Grosso do Sul (2 April) Rondônia (26 April) Santa Catarina (29 April) Paraíba (29 April) Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians (8 May) Brazil [nationwide] (16 May) France (18 May) Iipay Nation of Santa Ysabel (24 June) California (28 June) Delaware (1 July) Minnesota (1 August) Rhode Island (1 August) Grand Portage Band of Chippewa (1 August) Uruguay (5 August) New Zealand (19 August) Doña Ana County, New Mexico (21 August) Santa Fe County, New Mexico (23 August) Bernalillo County, New Mexico (26 August) San Miguel County, New Mexico (27 August) Valencia County, New Mexico (27 August) Taos County, New Mexico (28 August) Los Alamos County, New Mexico (4 September) Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation (5 September) Grant County, New Mexico (9 September) Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes (18 October) New Jersey (21 October) Blue Lake Rancheria (1 November) Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe (15 November) Hawaii (2 December) New Mexico [statewide] (19 December)
2014	Cook County, Illinois (21 February) England and Wales (13 March) South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (13 March) Oregon (19 May) Pennsylvania (20 May) Illinois [statewide] (1 June) Akrotiri and Dhekelia (3 June) British Indian Ocean Territory (3 June) Puyallup Tribe of Indians (9 July) Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa (16 July) Confederated Tribes of Coos, Lower Umpqua and Siuslaw Indians (10 August) Coahuila (17 September) Oklahoma (6 October) Virginia (6 October) Utah (6 October) Indiana (6 October) Wisconsin (6 October) Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa (6 October) Colorado (7 October) West Virginia (9 October) Nevada (9 October) Fort McDermitt Paiute and Shoshone Tribes (9 October) North Carolina (10 October) Alaska (12 October) Idaho (15 October) Arizona (17 October) Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation (17 October) Pascua Yaqui Tribe (17 October) Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community (17 October) San Carlos Apache Tribe (17 October) Yavapai-Apache Nation (17 October) Wyoming (21 October) St. Louis, Missouri (5 November) St. Louis County, Missouri (6 November) Jackson County, Missouri (7 November) Douglas County, Kansas (12 November) Sedgwick County, Kansas (12 November) Eastern Shoshone Tribe (14 November) Northern Arapaho Tribe (14 November) Montana (19 November) Blackfeet Nation (19 November) South Carolina (20 November) Keweenaw Bay Indian Community (13 December) Scotland (16 December)
2015	Luxembourg (1 January) Miami-Dade County, Florida (5 January) Florida [statewide] (6 January) Central Council of the Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska (24 February) Pitcairn Islands (14 May) Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians (15 May) Guam (9 June) Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin (10 June) Chihuahua (12 June) United States [nationwide] (26 June) Northern Mariana Islands (30 June) Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians (7 July) United States Virgin Islands (9 July) Puerto Rico (13 July) Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro (21 July) Hannahville Indian Community (3 August) White Mountain Apache Tribe (9 September) Ireland (16 November) Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon (18 November) Nayarit (23 December)
2016	Stockbridge-Munsee Community Band of Mohican Indians (2 February) Greenland (1 April) Colombia (28 April) Tulalip Tribes of Washington (6 May) Jalisco [statewide] (12 May) Campeche (20 May) Colima (12 June) Michoacán (23 June) Morelos (5 July) Isle of Man (22 July) San Pedro Cholula, Puebla (18 September) British Antarctic Territory (13 October) Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin (3 November) Cherokee Nation (9 December) Gibraltar (15 December)
2017	Ascension Island (1 January) Amealco de Bonfil, Querétaro (4 January) Cadereyta de Montes, Querétaro (4 January) Ezequiel Montes, Querétaro (4 January) Huimilpan, Querétaro (4 January) Pedro Escobedo, Querétaro (4 January) San Joaquín, Querétaro (4 January) Tolimán, Querétaro (4 January) Finland (1 March) Osage Nation (20 March) Prairie Island Indian Community (22 March) Falkland Islands (29 April) Guernsey (2 May) Bermuda (5 May, repealed 1 June 2018) Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin (5 June) Faroe Islands (1 July) Tristan da Cunha (4 August) Malta (1 September) Germany (1 October) Ak-Chin Indian Community (25 October) Baja California (3 November) Australia (9 December) Saint Helena (20 December)
2018	Puebla [statewide] (16 February) Chiapas (11 May) Alderney (14 June) Jersey (1 July) Oaxaca (26 August) Ponca Tribe of Nebraska (27 August) Bermuda (23 November, repealed 14 March 2022)
2019	Austria (1 January) Zacatecas, Zacatecas (14 February) Cuauhtémoc, Zacatecas (1 March) Villanueva, Zacatecas (20 May) San Luis Potosí (21 May) Taiwan (24 May) Nuevo León (31 May) Hidalgo (11 June) Baja California Sur (29 June) Miguel Auza, Zacatecas (by 5 July) Ecuador (8 July) Oglala Sioux Tribe (8 July) Bay Mills Indian Community (8 July) Colorado River Indian Tribes (8 August) Aguascalientes (16 August)
2020	Northern Ireland [final jurisdiction in the United Kingdom] (13 January) Sark (23 April) Costa Rica (26 May) Fresnillo, Zacatecas (3 July) Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians (6 August) Tlaxcala (25 December)
2021	Sinaloa (30 June) Sonora (22 October) Querétaro [statewide] (13 November) Guanajuato (20 December) Zacatecas [statewide] (30 December)
2022	Yucatán (4 March) Chile (10 March) Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska (11 April) Chickasaw Nation (18 April) Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians (25 May) Veracruz (13 June) Switzerland (1 July) Slovenia (8 or 9 July) Durango (19 September) Cuba (27 September) Tabasco (27 October) State of Mexico (2 November) Tamaulipas (19 November) Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe (21 December) Guerrero [statewide; final jurisdiction in Mexico] (31 December)
2023	Andorra (17 February) Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi (16 March) Choctaw Nation (23 May)
2024	Estonia (1 January) Greece (16 February) Aruba (12 July) Curaçao (12 July)
2025	Liechtenstein (1 January) Thailand (22 or 23 January)

Same-sex marriage around the world

Same-sex marriage is legally performed and recognized in 36 countries: Andorra, Argentina, Australia,^[a] Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Denmark,^[b] Ecuador,^[c] Estonia, Finland, France,^[d] Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico,^[e] the Netherlands,^[f] New Zealand,^[g] Norway, Portugal, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United Kingdom,^[h] the United States,^[i] and Uruguay.^[52] Same-sex marriage performed remotely or abroad is recognized with full marital rights by Israel.^[53]

Same-sex marriage will begin to be performed by Liechtenstein and Thailand in January 2025, and is under consideration by the legislature or the courts in El Salvador,^[54]^[55] Italy,^[56]^[57] Japan,^[58] Nepal,^[j] and Venezuela.^[62]

Civil unions are being considered in a number of countries, including Kosovo,^[63] Lithuania,^[64] Peru,^[65] the Philippines,^[66] Poland,^[67] and Ukraine.^[68]^[69]

On 12 March 2015, the European Parliament passed a non-binding resolution encouraging EU institutions and member states to "[reflect] on the recognition of same-sex marriage or same-sex civil union as a political, social and human and civil rights issue".^[70]^[71]

In response to the international spread of same-sex marriage, a number of countries have enacted preventative constitutional bans, with the most recent being Mali and Tuvalu in 2023, and Gabon in 2024. In other countries, such restrictions and limitations are effected through legislation. Even before same-sex marriage was first legislated, some countries had constitutions that specified that marriage was between a man and a woman.

International court rulings

European Court of Human Rights

In 2010, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled in Schalk and Kopf v Austria, a case involving an Austrian same-sex couple who were denied the right to marry.^[72] The court found, by a vote of 4 to 3, that their human rights had not been violated.^[73] The court further stated that same-sex unions are not protected under art. 12 of ECHR ("Right to marry"), which exclusively protects the right to marry of opposite-sex couples (without regard if the sex of the partners is the result of birth or of sex change), but they are protected under art. 8 of ECHR ("Right to respect for private and family life") and art. 14 ("Prohibition of discrimination").^[74]

Article 12 of the European Convention on Human Rights states that: "Men and women of marriageable age have the right to marry and to found a family, according to the national laws governing the exercise of this right",^[75] not limiting marriage to those in a heterosexual relationship. However, the ECHR stated in Schalk and Kopf v Austria that this provision was intended to limit marriage to heterosexual relationships, as it used the term "men and women" instead of "everyone".^[72] Nevertheless, the court accepted and is considering cases concerning same-sex marriage recognition, e.g. Andersen v Poland.^[76] In 2021, the court ruled in Fedotova and Others v. Russia—followed by later judgements concerning other member states—that countries must provide some sort of legal recognition to same-sex couples, although not necessarily marriage.^[77]

European Union

On 5 June 2018, the European Court of Justice ruled, in a case from Romania, that, under the specific conditions of the couple in question, married same-sex couples have the same residency rights as other married couples in an EU country, even if that country does not permit or recognize same-sex marriage.^[78]^[79] However, the ruling was not implemented in Romania and on 14 September 2021 the European Parliament passed a resolution calling on the European Commission to ensure that the ruling is respected across the EU.^[80]^[81]

Inter-American Court of Human Rights

On 8 January 2018, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) issued an advisory opinion that states party to the American Convention on Human Rights should grant same-sex couples accession to all existing domestic legal systems of family registration, including marriage, along with all rights that derive from marriage. The Court recommended that governments issue temporary decrees recognizing same-sex marriage until new legislation is brought in. They also said that it was inadmissible and discriminatory for a separate legal provision to be established (such as civil unions) instead of same-sex marriage.^[82]

Other arrangements

Civil unions

Civil union, civil partnership, domestic partnership, registered partnership, unregistered partnership, and unregistered cohabitation statuses offer varying legal benefits of marriage. As of 3 December 2024, countries that have an alternative form of legal recognition other than marriage on a national level are: Bolivia, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Montenegro and San Marino.^[84]^[85] Same-sex marriage performed remotely or abroad is recognized with full marital rights by Israel. Poland offers more limited rights. Additionally, various cities and counties in Cambodia and Japan offer same-sex couples varying levels of benefits, which include hospital visitation rights and others.

Additionally, eighteen countries that have legally recognized same-sex marriage also have an alternative form of recognition for same-sex couples, usually available to heterosexual couples as well: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Greece, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom and Uruguay.^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89]

They are also available in parts of the United States (Arizona,^[k] California, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois, New Jersey, Nevada and Oregon) and Canada.^[90]^[91]

Non-sexual same-sex marriage

Kenya

Female same-sex marriage is practiced among the Gikuyu, Nandi, Kamba, Kipsigis, and to a lesser extent neighboring peoples. About 5–10% of women are in such marriages. However, this is not seen as homosexual, but is instead a way for families without sons to keep their inheritance within the family.^[92]

Nigeria

Among the Igbo people and probably other peoples in the south of the country, there are circumstances where a marriage between women is considered appropriate, such as when a woman has no child and her husband dies, and she takes a wife to perpetuate her inheritance and family lineage.^[93]

Studies

The American Anthropological Association stated on 26 February 2004:

The results of more than a century of anthropological research on households, kinship relationships, and families, across cultures and through time, provide no support whatsoever for the view that either civilization or viable social orders depend upon marriage as an exclusively heterosexual institution. Rather, anthropological research supports the conclusion that a vast array of family types, including families built upon same-sex partnerships, can contribute to stable and humane societies.^[21]

Research findings from 1998 to 2015 from the University of Virginia, Michigan State University, Florida State University, the University of Amsterdam, the New York State Psychiatric Institute, Stanford University, the University of California-San Francisco, the University of California-Los Angeles, Tufts University, Boston Medical Center, the Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, and independent researchers also support the findings of this study.^[94]^[vague]

The overall socio-economic and health effects of legal access to same-sex marriage around the world have been summarized by Badgett and co-authors.^[95] The review found that sexual minority individuals took-up legal marriage when it became available to them (but at lower rates than different-sex couples). There is instead no evidence that same-sex marriage legalization affected different-sex marriages. On the health side, same-sex marriage legalization increased health insurance coverage for individuals in same-sex couples (in the US), and it led to improvements in sexual health among men who have sex with men, while there is mixed evidence on mental health effects among sexual minorities. In addition, the study found mixed evidence on a range of downstream social outcomes such as attitudes toward LGBTQ+ people and employment choices of sexual minorities.

Health

As of 2006^[update], the data of current psychological and other social science studies on same-sex marriage in comparison to mixed-sex marriage indicate that same-sex and mixed-sex relationships do not differ in their essential psychosocial dimensions; that a parent's sexual orientation is unrelated to their ability to provide a healthy and nurturing family environment; and that marriage bestows substantial psychological, social, and health benefits. Same-sex parents and carers and their children are likely to benefit in numerous ways from legal recognition of their families, and providing such recognition through marriage will bestow greater benefit than civil unions or domestic partnerships.^[96]^[97]^{[needs update]} Studies in the United States have correlated legalization of same-sex marriage to lower rates of HIV infection,^[98]^[99] psychiatric disorders,^[100]^[101] and suicide rate in the LGBT population.^[102]^[103]

Issues

While few societies have recognized same-sex unions as marriages,^{[needs update]} the historical and anthropological record reveals a large range of attitudes towards same-sex unions ranging from praise, through full acceptance and integration, sympathetic toleration, indifference, prohibition and discrimination, to persecution and physical annihilation.^{[citation needed]} Opponents of same-sex marriages have argued that same-sex marriage, while doing good for the couples that participate in them and the children they are raising,^[104] undermines a right of children to be raised by their biological mother and father.^[105] Some supporters of same-sex marriages take the view that the government should have no role in regulating personal relationships,^[106] while others argue that same-sex marriages would provide social benefits to same-sex couples.^[l] The debate regarding same-sex marriages includes debate based upon social viewpoints as well as debate based on majority rules, religious convictions, economic arguments, health-related concerns, and a variety of other issues.^{[citation needed]}

Parenting

Scientific literature indicates that parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally recognized union (either a mixed-sex or same-sex union). As a result, professional scientific associations have argued for same-sex marriage to be legally recognized as it will be beneficial to the children of same-sex parents or carers.^[14]^[15]^[107]^[108]^[109]

Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as children reared by heterosexual parents.^[15]^[109]^[110]^[111] According to scientific literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary.^[96]^[112]^[113]^[114]^{[needs update]}

Compared to heterosexual couples, same-sex couples have a greater need for adoption or assisted reproductive technology to become parents. Lesbian couples often use artificial insemination to achieve pregnancy, and reciprocal in vitro fertilization (where one woman provides the egg and the other gestates the child) is becoming more popular in the 2020s, although many couples cannot afford it. Surrogacy is an option for wealthier gay male couples, but the cost is prohibitive. Other same-sex couples adopt children or raise the children from earlier opposite-sex relationships.^[115]^[116]

Adoption

All states that allow same-sex marriage also allow the joint adoption of children by those couples with the exception of Ecuador and a third of states in Mexico, though such restrictions have been ruled unconstitutional in Mexico. In addition, Bolivia, Croatia, Israel and Liechtenstein, which do not recognize same-sex marriage, nonetheless permit joint adoption by same-sex couples. Some additional states do not recognize same-sex marriage but allow stepchild adoption by couples in civil unions, namely the Czech Republic and San Marino.^{[citation needed]}

Transgender and intersex people

The legal status of same-sex marriage may have implications for the marriages of couples in which one or both parties are transgender, depending on how sex is defined within a jurisdiction. Transgender and intersex individuals may be prohibited from marrying partners of the "opposite" sex or permitted to marry partners of the "same" sex due to legal distinctions.^{[citation needed]} In any legal jurisdiction where marriages are defined without distinction of a requirement of a male and female, these complications do not occur. In addition, some legal jurisdictions recognize a legal and official change of gender, which would allow a transgender male or female to be legally married in accordance with an adopted gender identity.^[117]

In the United Kingdom, the Gender Recognition Act 2004 allows a person who has lived in their chosen gender for at least two years to receive a gender recognition certificate officially recognizing their new gender. Because in the United Kingdom marriages were until recently only for mixed-sex couples and civil partnerships are only for same-sex couples, a person had to dissolve their civil partnership before obtaining a gender recognition certificate^{[citation needed]}, and the same was formerly true for marriages in England and Wales, and still is in other territories. Such people are then free to enter or re-enter civil partnerships or marriages in accordance with their newly recognized gender identity. In Austria, a similar provision requiring transsexual people to divorce before having their legal sex marker corrected was found to be unconstitutional in 2006.^[118] In Quebec, prior to the legalization of same-sex marriage, only unmarried people could apply for legal change of gender. With the advent of same-sex marriage, this restriction was dropped. A similar provision including sterilization also existed in Sweden, but was phased out in 2013.^[119] In the United States, transgender and intersex marriages was subject to legal complications.^[120] As definitions and enforcement of marriage are defined by the states, these complications vary from state to state,^[121] as some of them prohibit legal changes of gender.^[122]

Divorce

In the United States before the case of Obergefell v. Hodges, couples in same-sex marriages could only obtain a divorce in jurisdictions that recognized same-sex marriages, with some exceptions.^[123]

Judicial and legislative

There are differing positions regarding the manner in which same-sex marriage has been introduced into democratic jurisdictions. A "majority rules" position holds that same-sex marriage is valid, or void and illegal, based upon whether it has been accepted by a simple majority of voters or of their elected representatives.^[124]

In contrast, a civil rights view holds that the institution can be validly created through the ruling of an impartial judiciary carefully examining the questioning and finding that the right to marry regardless of the gender of the participants is guaranteed under the civil rights laws of the jurisdiction.^[16]

Public opinion

Numerous polls and studies on the issue have been conducted. A trend of increasing support for same-sex marriage has been revealed across many countries of the world, often driven in large part by a generational difference in support. Polling that was conducted in developed democracies in this century shows a majority of people in support of same-sex marriage. Support for same-sex marriage has increased across every age group, political ideology, religion, gender, race and region of various developed countries in the world.^[126]^[127]^[128]^[129]^[130]^{[needs update]}

Various detailed polls and studies on same-sex marriage that were conducted in several countries show that support for same-sex marriage significantly increases with higher levels of education and is also significantly stronger among younger generations, with a clear trend of continually increasing support.^[131]

Greater support with youth

Pew Research polling results from 32 countries found 21 with statistically higher support for same-sex marriage among those under 35 than among those over 35 in 2022–2023. Countries with the greatest absolute difference are placed to the left in the following chart. Countries without a significant generational difference are placed to the right.^[131]

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Taiw

Mex

Sing

ROK

HK

Gre

Pol

Viet

Thai

Jap

Cam

Braz

USA

Arg

Ital

Oz

S. Af.

Sri Lanka

Keny

Swed

Malay

Neth

Spa

Fran

Germ

Cana

UK

India

Isra

Hung

Indo

Nigeria

over 35
additional support from those under 35

A 2016 survey by the Varkey Foundation found similarly high support of same-sex marriage (63%) among 18–21-year-olds in an online survey of 18 countries around the world.^[132]^[133]^[134]

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Germ

Cana

Oz

UK

NZ

Fran

Ital

Arg

USA

Braz

Chin

S. Af.

India

Jap

Isra

ROK

Turk

Nigeria

(The sampling error is approx. 4% for Nigeria and 3% for the other countries. Because of legal constraints, the question on same-sex marriage was not asked in the survey countries of Russia and Indonesia.)

Opinion polls for same-sex marriage by country

Same-sex marriage performed nationwide

Same-sex marriage performed in some parts of the country

Civil unions or registered partnerships nationwide

Civil unions or registered partnerships pending

Same-sex marriage rights pending

Same-sex sexual activity is illegal

Country	Pollster	Year	For^[m]	Against^[m]	Neither^[n]	Margin of error	Ref.
Albania	IPSOS	2023	26%	73% (74%)	1%		^[135]
Andorra	Institut d'Estudis Andorrans	2013	70% (79%)	19% (21%)	11%		^[136]
Antigua and Barbuda	AmericasBarometer	2017	12%	–	–		^[137]
Argentina	Ipsos	2024	69% (81%)	16% [9% support some rights] (19%)	15% not sure	±5%	^[138]
Argentina	Pew Research Center	2023	67% (72%)	26% (28%)	7%	±3.6%	^[139]
Armenia	Pew Research Center	2015	3% (3%)	96% (97%)	1%	±3%	^[140] ^[141]
Aruba		2021	46%				^[142]
Australia	Ipsos	2024	64% (73%)	25% [13% support some rights] (28%)	12% not sure	±3.5%	^[138]
Australia	Pew Research Center	2023	75% (77%)	23%	2%	±3.6%	^[139]
Austria	Eurobarometer	2023	65% (68%)	30% (32%)	5%		^[143]
Bahamas	AmericasBarometer	2015	11%	–	–		^[144]
Belarus	Pew Research Center	2015	16% (16%)	81% (84%)	3%	±4%	^[140] ^[141]
Belgium	Ipsos	2024	69% (78%)	19% [9% support some rights] (22%)	12% not sure	±5%	^[138]
Belgium	Eurobarometer	2023	79%	19%	2% not sure		^[143]
Belize	AmericasBarometer	2014	8%	–	–		^[144]
Bolivia	AmericasBarometer	2017	35%	65%	–	±1.0%	^[137]
Bosnia and Herzegovina	IPSOS	2023	26% (27%)	71% (73%)	3%		^[135]
Brazil	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2024	51% (62%)	31% [17% support some rights] (38%)	18% not sure	±3.5% ^[o]	^[138]
Brazil	Pew Research Center	2023	52% (57%)	40% (43%)	8%	±3.6%	^[139]
Bulgaria	Eurobarometer	2023	17% (18%)	75% (82%)	8%		^[143]
Cambodia	Pew Research Center	2023	57% (58%)	42%	1%		^[139]
Canada	Ipsos	2024	65% (75%)	22% [10% support some rights] (25%)	13% not sure	±3.5%	^[138]
Canada	Pew Research Center	2023	79% (84%)	15% (16%)	6%	±3.6%	^[139]
Chile	Cadem	2024	77% (82%)	22% (18%)	2%	±3.6%	^[145]
China	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2021	43% (52%)	39% [20% support some rights] (48%)	18% not sure	±3.5% ^[o]	^[146]
Colombia	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2024	46% (58%)	33% [19% support some rights] (42%)	21%	±5% ^[o]	^[138]
Costa Rica	CIEP	2018	35%	64%	1%		^[147]
Croatia	Eurobarometer	2023	42% (45%)	51% (55%)	7%		^[143]
Cuba	Apretaste	2019	63%	37%	–		^[148]
Cyprus	Eurobarometer	2023	50% (53%)	44% (47%)	6%		^[143]
Czech Republic	Eurobarometer	2023	60%	34%	6%		^[143]
Denmark	Eurobarometer	2023	93%	5%	2%		^[143]
Dominica	AmericasBarometer	2017	10%	90%	–	±1.1%	^[137]
Dominican Republic	CDN 37	2018	45%	55%	-		^[149]
Ecuador	AmericasBarometer	2019	23% (31%)	51% (69%)	26%		^[150]
El Salvador	Universidad Francisco Gavidia	2021		82.5%	–		^[151]
Estonia	Eurobarometer	2023	41% (45%)	51% (55%)	8%		^[143]
Finland	Eurobarometer	2023	76% (81%)	18% (19%)	6%		^[143]
France	Ipsos	2024	62% (70%)	26% [16% support some rights] (30%)	12% not sure	±3.5%	^[138]
	Pew Research Center	2023	82% (85%)	14% (15%)	4%	±3.6%	^[139]
	Eurobarometer	2023	79% (85%)	14 (%) (15%)	7%		^[143]
Georgia	Women's Initiatives Supporting Group	2021	10% (12%)	75% (88%)	15%		^[152]
Germany	Ipsos	2024	73% (83%)	18% [10% support some rights] (20%)	12% not sure	±3.5%	^[138]
	Pew Research Center	2023	80% (82%)	18%	2%	±3.6%	^[139]
	Eurobarometer	2023	84% (87%)	13%<	3%		^[143]
Greece	Pew Research Center	2023	48% (49%)	49% (51%)	3%	±3.6%	^[139]
Greece	Eurobarometer	2023	57% (59%)	40% (41%)	3%		^[143]
Grenada	AmericasBarometer	2017	12%	88%	–	±1.4%c	^[137]
Guatemala	AmericasBarometer	2017	23%	77%	–	±1.1%	^[137]
Guyana	AmericasBarometer	2017	21%	79%	–	±1.3%	^[144]
Haiti	AmericasBarometer	2017	5%	95%	–	±0.3%	^[137]
Honduras	CID Gallup	2018	17% (18%)	75% (82%)	8%		^[153]
Hong Kong	Pew Research Center	2023	58% (59%)	40% (41%)	2%		^[139]
Hungary	Ipsos	2024	44% (56%)	35% [18% support some rights] (44%)	21% not sure	±5%	^[138]
	Pew Research Center	2023	31% (33%)	64% (67%)	5%	±3.6%	^[139]
	Eurobarometer	2023	42% (45%)	52% (55%)	6%		^[143]
Iceland	Gallup	2006	89%	11%	–		^[154]
India	Pew Research Center	2023	53% (55%)	43% (45%)	4%	±3.6%	^[139]
Indonesia	Pew Research Center	2023	5%	92% (95%)	3%	±3.6%	^[139]
Ireland	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2024	68% (76%)	21% [8% support some rights] (23%)	10%	±5%^[o]	^[138]
Ireland	Eurobarometer	2023	86% (91%)	9%	5%		^[143]
Israel	Pew Research Center	2023	36% (39%)	56% (61%)	8%	±3.6%	^[139]
Italy	Ipsos	2024	58% (66%)	29% [19% support some rights] (33%)	12% not sure	±3.5%	^[138]
	Pew Research Center	2023	73% (75%)	25%	2%	±3.6%	^[139]
	Eurobarometer	2023	69% (72%)	27% (28%)	4%		^[143]
Jamaica	AmericasBarometer	2017	16%	84%	–	±1.0%	^[137]
Japan	Kyodo News	2023	64% (72%)	25% (28%)	11%		^[155]
	Asahi Shimbun	2023	72% (80%)	18% (20%)	10%		^[156]
	Ipsos	2024	42% (54%)	31% [25% support some rights] (40%)	22% not sure	±3.5%	^[138]
	Pew Research Center	2023	68% (72%)	26% (28%)	6%	±2.75%	^[139]
Kazakhstan	Pew Research Center	2016	7% (7%)	89% (93%)	4%		^[140] ^[141]
Kenya	Pew Research Center	2023	9%	90% (91%)	1%	±3.6%	^[139]
Kosovo	IPSOS	2023	20% (21%)	77% (79%)	3%		^[135]
Latvia	Eurobarometer	2023	36%	59%	5%		^[143]
Liechtenstein	Liechtenstein Institut	2021	72%	28%	0%		^[157]
Lithuania	Eurobarometer	2023	39%	55%	6%		^[143]
Luxembourg	Eurobarometer	2023	84%	13%	3%		^[143]
Malaysia	Pew Research Center	2023	17%	82% (83%)	1%		^[139]
Malta	Eurobarometer	2023	74%	24%	2%		^[143]
Mexico	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2024	55%	29% [16% support some rights]	17% not sure	±3.5%^[o]	^[138]
Mexico	Pew Research Center	2023	63% (66%)	32% (34%)	5%	±3.6%	^[139]
Moldova	Europa Libera Moldova	2022	14%	86%			^[158]
Montenegro	IPSOS	2023	36% (37%)	61% (63%)	3%		^[135]
Mozambique (3 cities)	Lambda	2017	28% (32%)	60% (68%)	12%		^[159]
Netherlands	Ipsos	2024	77%	15% [8% support some rights]	8% not sure	±5%	^[138]
	Pew Research Center	2023	89% (90%)	10%	1%	±3.6%	^[139]
	Eurobarometer	2023	94%	5%	2%		^[143]
New Zealand	Ipsos	2023	70% (78%)	20% [11% support some rights] (22%)	9%	±3.5%	^[160]
Nicaragua	AmericasBarometer	2017	25%	75%	–	±1.0%	^[137]
Nigeria	Pew Research Center	2023	2%	97% (98%)	1%	±3.6%	^[139]
North Macedonia	IPSOS	2023	20% (21%)	78% (80%)	2%		^[135]
Norway	Pew Research Center	2017	72% (79%)	19% (21%)	9%		^[140] ^[141]
Panama	AmericasBarometer	2017	22%	78%	–	±1.1%	^[137]
Paraguay	AmericasBarometer	2017	26%	74%	–	±0.9%	^[137]
Peru	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2024	36%	44% [30% support some rights]	20%	±5% ^[o]	^[138]
Philippines	SWS	2018	22% (26%)	61% (73%)	16%		^[161]
Poland	Ipsos	2024	51% (54%)	43% (46%)	6%		^[162]
	Pew Research Center	2023	41% (43%)	54% (57%)	5%	±3.6%	^[139]
	United Surveys by IBRiS	2024	50% (55%)	41% (45%)	9%		^[163]
	Eurobarometer	2023	50%	45%	5%		^[143]
Portugal	Ipsos	2023	80% (84%)	15% [11% support some rights] (16%)	5%		^[160]
Portugal	Eurobarometer	2023	81%	14%	5%		^[143]
Romania	Ipsos	2023	25% (30%)	59% [26% support some rights] (70%)	17%	±3.5%	^[160]
Romania	Eurobarometer	2023	25%	69%	6%		^[143]
Russia	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2021	17% (21%)	64% [12% support some rights] (79%)	20% not sure	±4.8% ^[o]	^[146]
Russia	FOM	2019	7% (8%)	85% (92%)	8%	±3.6%	^[164]
Saint Kitts and Nevis	AmericasBarometer	2017	9%	91%	–	±1.0%	^[137]
Saint Lucia	AmericasBarometer	2017	11%	89%	–	±0.9%	^[137]
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	AmericasBarometer	2017	4%	96%	–	±0.6%	^[137]
Serbia	IPSOS	2023	24% (25%)	73% (75%)	3%		^[135]
Singapore	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2024	33%	46% [21% support some rights]	21%	±5% ^[o]	^[138]
Singapore	Pew Research Center	2023	45% (47%)	51% (53%)	4%		^[139]
Slovakia	Focus	2024	36% (38%)	60% (62%)	4%		^[165]
Slovakia	Eurobarometer	2023	37%	56%	7%		^[143]
Slovenia	Eurobarometer	2023	62% (64%)	37% (36%)	2%		^[143]
South Africa	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2024	53%	32% [14% support some rights]	13%	±5% ^[o]	^[138]
South Africa	Pew Research Center	2023	38% (39%)	59% (61%)	3%	±3.6%	^[139]
South Korea	Ipsos	2024	36%	37% [16% support some rights]	27% not sure	±5%	^[138]
South Korea	Pew Research Center	2023	41% (42%)	56% (58%)	3%		^[139]
Spain	Ipsos	2024	73% (80%)	19% [13% support some rights] (21%)	9% not sure	±3.5%	^[138]
	Pew Research Center	2023	87% (90%)	10%	3%	±3.6%	^[139]
	Eurobarometer	2023	88% (91%)	9% (10%)	3%		^[143]
Sri Lanka	Pew Research Center	2023	23% (25%)	69% (75%)	8%		^[139]
Suriname	AmericasBarometer	2014	18%	–	–		^[144]
Sweden	Ipsos	2024	78% (84%)	15% [8% support some rights] (16%)	7% not sure	±5%	^[138]
	Pew Research Center	2023	92% (94%)	6%	2%	±3.6%	^[139]
	Eurobarometer	2023	94%	5%	1%		^[143]
Switzerland	Ipsos	2023	54% (61%)	34% [16% support some rights] (39%)	13% not sure	±3.5%	^[160]
Taiwan	CNA	2023	63%	37%			^[166]
Taiwan	Pew Research Center	2023	45% (51%)	43% (49%)	12%		^[139]
Thailand	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2024	58%	29% [20% support some rights]	12% not sure	±5%^[o]	^[138]
Thailand	Pew Research Center	2023	60% (65%)	32% (35%)	8%		^[139]
Trinidad and Tobago	AmericasBarometer	2014	16%	–	–		^[144]
Turkey	Ipsos (more urban/educated than representative)	2024	18% (26%)	52% [19% support some rights] (74%)	30% not sure	±5% ^[o]	^[138]
Ukraine	Rating	2023	37% (47%)	42% (53%)	22%	±1.5%	^[167]
United Kingdom	YouGov	2023	77% (84%)	15% (16%)	8%		^[168]
	Ipsos	2024	66% (73%)	24% [11% support some rights] (27%)	10% not sure	±3.5%	^[138]
	Pew Research Center	2023	74% (77%)	22% (23%)	4%	±3.6%	^[139]
United States	Ipsos	2024	51% (62%)	32% [14% support some rights] (39%)	18% not sure	±3.5%	^[138]
United States	Pew Research Center	2023	63% (65%)	34% (35%)	3%	±3.6%	^[139]
Uruguay	LatinoBarómetro	2023	78% (80%)	20%	2%		^[169]
Venezuela	Equilibrium Cende	2023	55% (63%)	32% (37%)	13%		^[170]
Vietnam	Pew Research Center	2023	65% (68%)	30% (32%)	5%		^[160]

Notes

^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in continental Australia and in the non-self-governing possessions of Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands, which follow Australian law.
^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in continental Denmark, the Faroe Islands and Greenland, which together make up the Realm of Denmark.
^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized throughout Ecuador, but such couples are not considered married for purposes of adoption and may not adopt children.
^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in metropolitan France and in all French overseas regions and possessions, which follow a single legal code.
^ Same-sex marriage is available in all jurisdictions, though the process is not everywhere as straightforward as it is for opposite-sex marriage and does not always include adoption rights.
^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in the continental Netherlands, the Caribbean municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, and the constituent countries of Aruba and Curaçao, but not yet in Sint Maarten.
^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in New Zealand proper, but not in its possession of Tokelau, nor in the Cook Islands and Niue, which make up the Realm of New Zealand.
^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in all parts of the United Kingdom and in its non-Caribbean possessions, but not in its Caribbean possessions, namely Anguilla, Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos Islands.
^ Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in all fifty states of the US and in the District of Columbia, in all overseas territories except American Samoa (recognition only), and in all tribal nations that do not have their own marriage laws, as well as in most nations that do. The largest of the dozen or so known exceptions among the federal reservations are Navajo and Gila River, and the largest among the shared-sovereignty Oklahoma Tribal Statistical Areas are the Creek and Citizen Potawatomi. These polities ban same-sex marriage and do not recognize marriages from other jurisdictions, though members may still marry under state law and be accorded all the rights of marriage under state and federal law.
^ Nepal is waiting for a final decision by its supreme court, but meanwhile all local governments are ordered to temporarily register same-sex marriages in a separate record. In April 2024 the National ID and Civil Registration Department issued a circular to all local governments that they register such marriages. However, simply being registered does not grant same-sex couples the legal rights of marriage, and registered same-sex couples cannot inherit property, get tax subsidies, make spousal medical decisions, adopt children etc.^[59]^[60]^[61]
^ Legally available in the Arizona municipalities of Bisbee, Clarkdale, Cottonwood, Jerome, Sedona and Tucson.
^ Dale Carpenter is a prominent spokesman for this view. For a better understanding of this view, see Carpenter's writings at "Dale Carpenter". Independent Gay Forum. Archived from the original on 17 November 2006. Retrieved 31 October 2006.
^ ^a ^b Because some polls do not report 'neither', those that do are listed with simple yes/no percentages in parentheses, so their figures can be compared.
^ Comprises: Neutral; Don't know; No answer; Other; Refused.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k [+ more urban/educated than representative]

References

^ VERPOEST, LIEN (2017). "The End of Rhetorics: LGBT policies in Russia and the European Union". Studia Diplomatica. 68 (4): 3–20. ISSN 0770-2965. JSTOR 26531664.
^ Williams, CA., Roman Homosexuality: Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 280, p. 284.
^ ^a ^b Padnani, Amisha; Fang, Celina (26 June 2015). "Same-Sex Marriage: Landmark Decisions and Precedents". The New York Times.
^ ^a ^b Baume, Matt (1 March 2019). "Meet the Gay Men Whose 1971 Marriage Was Finally Recognized". The Advocate.
^ ^a ^b
StoryCorps Archive (September 12, 2017). "Michael McConnell, Jack Baker, and Lisa Vecoli".
- Michael McConnell (75) and husband Jack Baker (75) talk with friend Lisa Vecoli (55) about having the first same-sex marriage legally recognized by a U.S. civil government in 1971, why they chose to get married, and what the response to their marriage was like.
- JB describes the decades-long (46-year) process from the denial of their marriage license in 1971 until a second request that same year in Blue Earth County, Minnesota, was "declared to be in all respects valid" by Order of Gregory J. Anderson, Judge of District Court.
^ ^a ^b
Newsletter, "Hidden Treasures from the Stacks", The National Archives at Kansas City, p. 6 (September 2013).
- Available online.
^ ^a ^b
Source: Blue Earth County
- Certificate 434960: Minnesota Official Marriage System
- Applicants: James Michael McConnell and Pat Lyn McConnell
- Date of Marriage: September 3, 1971
- Certified Copy: Marriage Certificate
^ ^a ^b
"The September 3, 1971 marriage of James Michael McConnell and Pat Lyn McConnell, a/k/a Richard John Baker, has never been dissolved or annulled by judicial decree and no grounds currently exist on which to invalidate the marriage."
- Sources: CONCLUSIONS OF LAW by Assistant Chief Judge Gregory Anderson, Fifth Judicial District, (page 4);
- Copy: Minnesota Judicial Branch, File Number 07-CV-16-4559, "Findings of Fact, Conclusions of Law and Order for Partial Summary Judgment" from Blue Earth County District Court in re James Michael McConnell et al. v. Blue Earth County et al. (September 18, 2018);
- Available online from U of M Libraries;
- McConnell Files, "America’s First Gay Marriage" (binder #4), Tretter Collection in GLBT Studies, U of M Libraries.
^ ^a ^b Michael McConnell, with Jack Baker, as told to Gail Langer Karwoski, "The Wedding Heard Heard 'Round the World: America's First Gay Marriage Archived August 26, 2015, at the Wayback Machine". University of Minnesota Press (2016). Reprint, "With A New Epilogue" (2020).
^ ^a ^b Winter, Caroline (4 December 2014). "In 14 years, same-sex marriage has spread round the world". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
^ "Same-sex Oklahoma couple marries legally under tribal law". KOCO. 26 September 2013. Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
^ "Clela Rorex, former Boulder County Clerk who issued first same-sex marriage license in 1975 dies at 78". 19 June 2022.
^ ^a ^b
Multiple sources:
- Coghlan, Andy (16 June 2008). "Gay brains structured like those of the opposite sex". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
- Lamanna, Mary Ann; Riedmann, Agnes; Stewart, Susan D. (2014). Marriages, Families, and Relationships: Making Choices in a Diverse Society. Cengage Learning. p. 82. ISBN 978-1305176898. Archived from the original on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016. [T]he APA says that sexual orientation is not a choice [...]. (American Psychological Association, 2010).
- Pawelski, J. G.; Perrin, E. C.; Foy, J. M.; Allen, C. E.; Crawford, J. E.; Del Monte, M.; Kaufman, M.; Klein, J. D.; Smith, K.; Springer, S.; Tanner, J. L.; Vickers, D. L. (2006). "The Effects of Marriage, Civil Union, and Domestic Partnership Laws on the Health and Well-being of Children". Pediatrics. 118 (1): 349–364. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. PMID 16818585. S2CID 219194821. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
- American Medical Association; American Academy of Pediatrics; American Psychological Association; American Psychiatric Association; American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy; National Association of Social Workers; American Psychoanalytic Association; American Academy of Family Physicians; et al. "Brief of [medical organizations] as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioners" (PDF). supremecourt.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
- Bever, Lindsey (7 July 2014). "Children of same-sex couples are happier and healthier than peers, research shows". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 May 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
- Pawelski, James G.; Perrin, Ellen C.; Foy, Jane M.; Allen, Carole E.; Crawford, James E.; Del Monte, Mark; Kaufman, Miriam; Klein, Jonathan D.; Smith, Karen; Springer, Sarah; Tanner, J. Lane; Vickers, Dennis L. (July 2006). "The Effects of Marriage, Civil Union, and Domestic Partnership Laws on the Health and Well-being of Children". Pediatrics. 118 (1). American Academy of Pediatrics: 349–64. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. PMID 16818585. S2CID 219194821. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2019. In fact, growing up with parents who are lesbian or gay may confer some advantages to children.
^ ^a ^b "Brief of the American Psychological Association, The California Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy as amici curiae in support of plaintiff-appellees – Appeal from United States District Court for the Northern District of California Civil Case No. 09-CV-2292 VRW (Honorable Vaughn R. Walker)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Marriage of Same-Sex Couples – 2006 Position Statement Canadian Psychological Association" (PDF). 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2009.
^ ^a ^b Mirchandani, Rajesh (12 November 2008). "Divisions persist over gay marriage ban". BBC News. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2008.
^ ^a ^b "The Divine Institution of Marriage". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 13 August 2008. Archived from the original on 11 June 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
^ Molly Ball, 2024 May 13, Wall Street Journal, How 20 Years of Same-Sex Marriage Changed America
^
Multiple sources:
- "Resolution on Sexual Orientation and Marriage" (PDF). American Psychological Association. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2010.
- "Brief of the American Psychological Association, The California Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy as amici curiae in support of plaintiff-appellees – Appeal from United States District Court for the Northern District of California Civil Case No. 09-CV-2292 VRW (Honorable Vaughn R. Walker)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
- "Marriage of Same-Sex Couples – 2006 Position Statement" (PDF). Canadian Psychological Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
- Pawelski JG, Perrin EC, Foy JM, et al. (July 2006). "The effects of marriage, civil union, and domestic partnership laws on the health and well-being of children". Pediatrics. 118 (1): 349–64. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 16818585. S2CID 219194821.
- Pawelski, J. G.; Perrin, E. C.; Foy, J. M.; Allen, C. E.; Crawford, J. E.; Del Monte, M.; Kaufman, M.; Klein, J. D.; Smith, K.; Springer, S.; Tanner, J. L.; Vickers, D. L. (2006). "The Effects of Marriage, Civil Union, and Domestic Partnership Laws on the Health and Well-being of Children". Pediatrics. 118 (1): 349–364. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1279. PMID 16818585. S2CID 219194821. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
^ "Brief of Amici Curiae American Anthropological Association et al., supporting plaintiffs-appellees and urging affirmance – Appeal from United States District Court for the Northern District of California Civil Case No. 09-CV-2292 VRW (Honorable Vaughn R. Walker)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
^ ^a ^b American Anthropological Association (2004). "Statement on Marriage and the Family". Archived from the original on 12 September 2015. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
^ Handbook of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Administration and Policy — Page 13, Wallace Swan – 2004
^ "Marriage Equality". Garden State Equality. Archived from the original on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
^ "Marriage 101". Freedom to Marry. Archived from the original on 16 February 2010. Retrieved 28 September 2012.
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Spedale, Darren (2006). Gay Marriage: For Better or For Worse? What We've Learned From the Evidence. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518751-9.
Sullivan, Andrew, ed. (2004). Same-Sex Marriage: Pro and Con — A Reader, Revised Updated Edition. New York, NY: Vintage Books, a division of Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4000-7866-0.
Truluck, Rembert S. (2000). Steps to Recovery from Bible Abuse. Gaithersburg, MD: Chi Rho Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-888493-16-0.
Wolfson, Evan (2004). Why Marriage Matters: America, Equality, and Gay People's Right to Marry. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-6459-4.

External links

[kon-2] Performed in the Netherlands proper (including the Caribbean Netherlands), as well as in Aruba and Curaçao. May be registered in Sint Maarten in such cases, but the rights of marriage are not guaranteed.

[3] Neither performed nor recognized in Niue, Tokelau, or the Cook Islands.

[4] Neither performed nor recognized in six British Overseas Territories.

[usa-5] Neither performed nor recognized in some tribal nations. Recognized but not performed in several other tribal nations and American Samoa.

[israel-6] Registered foreign marriages confer all marriage rights. Domestic common-law marriages confer most rights of marriage. Domestic civil marriage recognized by some cities.

[eu-7] The Coman v. Romania ruling of the European Court of Justice obliges the state to provide residency rights for the foreign spouses of EU citizens. Some member states, including Romania, do not follow the ruling.

[8] A "declaration of family relationship" is available in several of Cambodia's communes which may be useful in matters such as housing, but is not legally binding.

[9] Guardianship agreements, conferring some limited legal benefits, including decisions about medical and personal care.

[10] Inheritance, guardianship rights, and residency rights for foreign spouses of legal residents.

[11] Courts have recognised guru–shishya, nata pratha or maitri karar–type contractual relationships, but they are not legally binding.

[12] Some cities and prefectures issue partnership certificates, but they are not legally binding.

[13] Marriages conducted abroad between a Namibian national and a foreign spouse recognized for residency rights.

[14] Hospital visitation rights through a "legal representative" status.

[notyet-1] Not yet in effect.

[australia-66] Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in continental Australia and in the non-self-governing possessions of Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands, which follow Australian law.

[denmark-67] Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in continental Denmark, the Faroe Islands and Greenland, which together make up the Realm of Denmark.

[ecuador-68] Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized throughout Ecuador, but such couples are not considered married for purposes of adoption and may not adopt children.

[france-69] Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in metropolitan France and in all French overseas regions and possessions, which follow a single legal code.

[mexico-70] Same-sex marriage is available in all jurisdictions, though the process is not everywhere as straightforward as it is for opposite-sex marriage and does not always include adoption rights.

[netherlands-71] Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in the continental Netherlands, the Caribbean municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, and the constituent countries of Aruba and Curaçao, but not yet in Sint Maarten.

[nz-72] Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in New Zealand proper, but not in its possession of Tokelau, nor in the Cook Islands and Niue, which make up the Realm of New Zealand.

[uk-73] Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in all parts of the United Kingdom and in its non-Caribbean possessions, but not in its Caribbean possessions, namely Anguilla, Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat and the Turks and Caicos Islands.

[usa-74] Same-sex marriage is performed and recognized by law in all fifty states of the US and in the District of Columbia, in all overseas territories except American Samoa (recognition only), and in all tribal nations that do not have their own marriage laws, as well as in most nations that do. The largest of the dozen or so known exceptions among the federal reservations are Navajo and Gila River, and the largest among the shared-sovereignty Oklahoma Tribal Statistical Areas are the Creek and Citizen Potawatomi. These polities ban same-sex marriage and do not recognize marriages from other jurisdictions, though members may still marry under state law and be accorded all the rights of marriage under state and federal law.

[nepal-85] Nepal is waiting for a final decision by its supreme court, but meanwhile all local governments are ordered to temporarily register same-sex marriages in a separate record. In April 2024 the National ID and Civil Registration Department issued a circular to all local governments that they register such marriages. However, simply being registered does not grant same-sex couples the legal rights of marriage, and registered same-sex couples cannot inherit property, get tax subsidies, make spousal medical decisions, adopt children etc.^[59]^[60]^[61]

[114] Legally available in the Arizona municipalities of Bisbee, Clarkdale, Cottonwood, Jerome, Sedona and Tucson.

[132] Dale Carpenter is a prominent spokesman for this view. For a better understanding of this view, see Carpenter's writings at "Dale Carpenter". Independent Gay Forum. Archived from the original on 17 November 2006. Retrieved 31 October 2006.

[second-161] Because some polls do not report 'neither', those that do are listed with simple yes/no percentages in parentheses, so their figures can be compared.

[neutral-162] Comprises: Neutral; Don't know; No answer; Other; Refused.

[urban-173] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k [+ more urban/educated than representative]

[15] VERPOEST, LIEN (2017). "The End of Rhetorics: LGBT policies in Russia and the European Union". Studia Diplomatica. 68 (4): 3–20. ISSN 0770-2965. JSTOR 26531664.

[WilliamsRoman2-16] Williams, CA., Roman Homosexuality: Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 280, p. 284.

[auto-17] Padnani, Amisha; Fang, Celina (26 June 2015). "Same-Sex Marriage: Landmark Decisions and Precedents". The New York Times.

[auto1-18] Baume, Matt (1 March 2019). "Meet the Gay Men Whose 1971 Marriage Was Finally Recognized". The Advocate.

[auto2-19] StoryCorps Archive (September 12, 2017). "Michael McConnell, Jack Baker, and Lisa Vecoli".
Michael McConnell (75) and husband Jack Baker (75) talk with friend Lisa Vecoli (55) about having the first same-sex marriage legally recognized by a U.S. civil government in 1971, why they chose to get married, and what the response to their marriage was like.

JB describes the decades-long (46-year) process from the denial of their marriage license in 1971 until a second request that same year in Blue Earth County, Minnesota, was "declared to be in all respects valid" by Order of Gregory J. Anderson, Judge of District Court.

[35] Michael McConnell (75) and husband Jack Baker (75) talk with friend Lisa Vecoli (55) about having the first same-sex marriage legally recognized by a U.S. civil government in 1971, why they chose to get married, and what the response to their marriage was like.

[36] JB describes the decades-long (46-year) process from the denial of their marriage license in 1971 until a second request that same year in Blue Earth County, Minnesota, was "declared to be in all respects valid" by Order of Gregory J. Anderson, Judge of District Court.

[National_Archives-20] Newsletter, "Hidden Treasures from the Stacks", The National Archives at Kansas City, p. 6 (September 2013).
Available online.

[38] Available online.

[3Sept1971-21] Source: Blue Earth County
Certificate 434960: Minnesota Official Marriage System

Applicants: James Michael McConnell and Pat Lyn McConnell

Date of Marriage: September 3, 1971

Certified Copy: Marriage Certificate

[40] Certificate 434960: Minnesota Official Marriage System

[41] Applicants: James Michael McConnell and Pat Lyn McConnell

[42] Date of Marriage: September 3, 1971

[43] Certified Copy: Marriage Certificate

[ruling-22] "The September 3, 1971 marriage of James Michael McConnell and Pat Lyn McConnell, a/k/a Richard John Baker, has never been dissolved or annulled by judicial decree and no grounds currently exist on which to invalidate the marriage."
Sources: CONCLUSIONS OF LAW by Assistant Chief Judge Gregory Anderson, Fifth Judicial District, (page 4);

Copy: Minnesota Judicial Branch, File Number 07-CV-16-4559, "Findings of Fact, Conclusions of Law and Order for Partial Summary Judgment" from Blue Earth County District Court in re James Michael McConnell et al. v. Blue Earth County et al. (September 18, 2018);

Available online from U of M Libraries;

McConnell Files, "America’s First Gay Marriage" (binder #4), Tretter Collection in GLBT Studies, U of M Libraries.

[45] Sources: CONCLUSIONS OF LAW by Assistant Chief Judge Gregory Anderson, Fifth Judicial District, (page 4);

[46] Copy: Minnesota Judicial Branch, File Number 07-CV-16-4559, "Findings of Fact, Conclusions of Law and Order for Partial Summary Judgment" from Blue Earth County District Court in re James Michael McConnell et al. v. Blue Earth County et al. (September 18, 2018);

[47] Available online from U of M Libraries;

[48] McConnell Files, "America’s First Gay Marriage" (binder #4), Tretter Collection in GLBT Studies, U of M Libraries.

[epilogue-23] Michael McConnell, with Jack Baker, as told to Gail Langer Karwoski, "The Wedding Heard Heard 'Round the World: America's First Gay Marriage Archived August 26, 2015, at the Wayback Machine". University of Minnesota Press (2016). Reprint, "With A New Epilogue" (2020).

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[57] American Medical Association; American Academy of Pediatrics; American Psychological Association; American Psychiatric Association; American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy; National Association of Social Workers; American Psychoanalytic Association; American Academy of Family Physicians; et al. "Brief of [medical organizations] as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioners" (PDF). supremecourt.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2018.

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"Brief of the American Psychological Association, The California Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy as amici curiae in support of plaintiff-appellees – Appeal from United States District Court for the Northern District of California Civil Case No. 09-CV-2292 VRW (Honorable Vaughn R. Walker)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 5 November 2010.

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v t e Status of same-sex unions around the world
Africa	Angola Botswana Egypt Eswatini Kenya Lesotho Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Nigeria Seychelles South Africa United Kingdom Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Zimbabwe
Americas	Argentina Barbados Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Denmark Greenland Ecuador El Salvador Honduras Mexico Netherlands Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba Nicaragua Paraguay Suriname United Kingdom Bermuda Cayman Islands Falkland Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands United States Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands U.S. tribal nations Uruguay Venezuela
Asia	Bhutan Cambodia China Hong Kong India Indonesia Israel Japan Myanmar Nepal Philippines Russia Singapore South Korea Taiwan Thailand United Kingdom British Indian Ocean Territory Vietnam
Europe	Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Faroe Islands Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kosovo Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom Akrotiri and Dhekelia Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey
Oceania	Australia Fiji Micronesia New Zealand Palau United Kingdom Pitcairn Islands United States American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands Vanuatu
Antarctica	United Kingdom British Antarctic Territory

v t e Constitutional amendments banning civil unions or same-sex marriages around the world
Same-sex marriage prohibited by constitutional amendment	Armenia Belarus Bolivia Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Central African Republic Croatia Democratic Republic of the Congo Dominican Republic Hungary Jamaica Kenya Kyrgyzstan Latvia Lithuania Moldova Mali Mongolia Montenegro Palau Poland Russia Rwanda Serbia Slovakia South Sudan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine Zimbabwe
Same-sex marriage and civil unions prohibited by constitutional amendment	Honduras Paraguay

v t e Discrimination
Forms	Institutional Structural Statistical Taste-based
Attributes	Age Caste Class Dialect Disability Genetic Hair texture Height Language Looks Mental disorder Race / Ethnicity Skin color Scientific racism Rank Sex Sexual orientation Species Size Viewpoint
Social	Arophobia Acephobia Adultism Anti-albinism Anti-autism Anti-homelessness Anti-drug addicts Anti-intellectualism Anti-intersex Anti-left handedness Anti-Masonry Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Clannism Elitism Ephebiphobia Social determinants of health Social determinants of health in poverty Social determinants of mental health Fatphobia Gayphobia Gerontophobia Heterosexism HIV/AIDS stigma Homophobia Leprosy stigma Lesbophobia Discrimination against men Misandry Misogyny Nepotism Pedophobia Perpetual foreigner Pregnancy Sectarianism Supremacism White Male Transphobia 21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom Non-binary Transmisogyny Trans men Vegaphobia Xenophobia
Religious	Atheism Exclusivism Baháʼí Faith Buddhism Christianity Persecution Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy Jehovah's Witnesses LDS or Mormon Tewahedo Orthodoxy post–Cold War era Falun Gong Hinduism Persecution Untouchability Islam Persecution Ahmadiyya Shi'ism Sufism Sunnism minority Muslim Judaism Persecution Neopaganism Protestantism Rastafari Sikhism Yazidism Zoroastrianism
Ethnic/National	Afghan African Albanian Arab Armenian Asian France South Africa United States Assyrian Azerbaijani Black people African Americans China South Africa Bengali Bulgarian Catalan Chechen Chinese Colombian Croat Filipino Fulani Finnish Georgian Greek Haitian Hazara Hungarian Igbo Indian Indigenous people Australia Canada United States Irish Italian Japanese Jewish Antisemitism New Korean Kurdish Lithuanian Malay Māori Mexican Middle Eastern Mongolian Nigerian Pakistani Palestinians Pashtun Polish Quebec Romani Romanian Scottish Serb Slavic Somali Tatar Thai Turkish Ukrainian Uyghur Venezuelan Vietnamese Welsh
Manifestations	Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups Anti-LGBTQ movement in the US Anti-trans movement in the UK Anti-Zionism Blood libel Bullying Cancel culture Capital punishment for homosexuality Compulsory sterilization Corrective rape Counter-jihad Cultural genocide Defamation Democide Disability hate crime Dog whistle Domicide Economic Education Employment Eliminationism Enemy of the people Ethnic cleansing Ethnic conflict Ethnic hatred Ethnic joke Ethnocide Excellence Gender-based dress codes Cosmetics policy High heel policy Forced conversion Freak show Gay bashing Gendercide Genital modification and mutilation Genocide examples Glass ceiling Hate crime LGBTQ Hate group Hate speech Homeless dumping Housing Indian rolling Kill Haole Day Lavender scare LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory List of people killed for being transgender Lynching Mortgage Murder music Native American mascots Occupational segregation Opposition to immigration Paper genocide Persecution Pogrom Political repression Purge Racialization Religious persecution Religious terrorism Religious violence Religious war Scapegoating Segregation academy Sexual harassment Sex-selective abortion Slut-shaming Trans bashing Victimisation Violence against women White flight White genocide conspiracy theory Wife selling Witch hunt
Discriminatory policies	Age of candidacy Blood purity Blood quantum Crime of apartheid Disabilities Catholic Jewish Gender pay gap Gender roles Gerontocracy Gerrymandering Ghetto benches Internment Jewish quota Law for Protection of the Nation LGBTQ rights opposition MSM blood donation restrictions No kid zone Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota) One-drop rule Racial quota Racial segregation Jim Crow laws Nuremberg Laws Racial steering Redlining Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting) Segregation age racial religious sexual Social exclusion Sodomy law State atheism State religion Ugly law Voter suppression
Countermeasures	Affirmative action Anti-discrimination law Anti-racism Constitutional colorblindness Cultural assimilation Cultural pluralism Diversity, equity, and inclusion Diversity training Empowerment Fat acceptance movement Feminism Fighting Discrimination Hate speech laws by country Human rights Intersex human rights LGBT rights Nonviolence Racial integration Reappropriation Self-determination Social integration Toleration
Related topics	Allophilia Amatonormativity Bias Cisnormativity Civil liberties Dehumanization Diversity Multiculturalism Neurodiversity Ethnic penalty Figleaf Gender-blind Heteronormativity Historical eugenics Internalized oppression Intersectionality Masculism Medical model of disability autism Net bias Oikophobia Oppression Police brutality Political correctness Polyculturalism Power distance Prejudice Prisoner abuse Racial bias in criminal news in the United States Racism by country Racial color blindness Religious intolerance Reverse discrimination Reverse racism Second-generation gender bias Snobbery Social exclusion Social identity threat Social model of disability Social privilege Christian male white Social stigma Speciesism Stereotype threat The talk
Category Commons

Latest revision as of 08:51, 3 December 2024

Terminology

Alternative terms

Use of the term marriage

History

Ancient

Contemporary

Timeline

Same-sex marriage around the world

International court rulings

European Court of Human Rights

European Union

Inter-American Court of Human Rights

Other arrangements

Civil unions

Non-sexual same-sex marriage

Kenya

Nigeria

Studies

Health

Issues

Parenting

Adoption

Transgender and intersex people

Divorce

Judicial and legislative

Public opinion

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links