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{{short description|Byzantine empress}}
{{Short description|Byzantine empress (398/399 – 453)}}
{{About|the empress|her aunt|Pulcheria (daughter of Theodosius I)|the genus of moth|Pulcheria (moth)}}
{{About|the empress|her aunt|Pulcheria (daughter of Theodosius I)|the genus of moth|Pulcheria (moth)}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2022}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty|
{{Infobox royalty|
|name = Pulcheria
|name = Pulcheria
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|mother = [[Aelia Eudoxia]]
|mother = [[Aelia Eudoxia]]
|birth_date = 19 January 398 or 399
|birth_date = 19 January 398 or 399
|birth_place = [[Constantinople]]<br />(now [[Istanbul]], Turkey)|death_date=July 453
|birth_place = [[Constantinople]]
|death_place = Probably Constantinople (aged 53–55) <br />(now Istanbul, Turkey)
|death_date=July 453 (aged 53–55)
|death_place = Probably Constantinople
|date of burial =
|date of burial =
|place of burial=
|place of burial=
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| religion = [[Nicene Christianity]]
| religion = [[Nicene Christianity]]
}}
}}
'''Aelia Pulcheria''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|l|i|ə|_|p|ʌ|l|ˈ|k|ɪ|r|i|ə}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Πουλχερία}}; 19 January 398 or 399 – July 453)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://catholicsaints.info/saint-pulcheria/|title=Saint Pulcheria|date=28 June 2009}}</ref> was an [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]] empress who advised her brother emperor [[Theodosius II]] during his minority and then became wife to emperor [[Marcian]] from November 450 to her death in 453.
'''Aelia Pulcheria''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|l|i|ə|_|p|ʌ|l|ˈ|k|ɪ|r|i|ə}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Πουλχερία}}; 19 January 398 or 399 – 453) was an [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]] empress who advised her brother, the emperor [[Theodosius II]], during his minority and then became wife to emperor [[Marcian]] from November 450 to her death in 453.


She was the second (and oldest surviving) child of Eastern Roman Emperor [[Arcadius]] and Empress [[Aelia Eudoxia]]. In 414, the fifteen-year old Pulcheria became the guardian of her younger brother [[Theodosius II]]<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1982. p. 97</ref> and was also proclaimed [[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]. Through her religious devotion and involvement in the contemporary ecclesiastical scene, Pulcheria had significant, though changing, influence and political power during her brother's reign. When Theodosius II died on 26 July 450, Pulcheria married [[Marcian]] on 25 November 450, while simultaneously not violating her vow of virginity. She died three years later, in July 453.
She was the second (and oldest surviving) child of Eastern Roman Emperor [[Arcadius]] and Empress [[Aelia Eudoxia]]. In 414, the fifteen-year old Pulcheria became the guardian of her younger brother [[Theodosius II]]<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1982. p. 97</ref> and was also proclaimed [[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]. Through her religious devotion and involvement in the contemporary ecclesiastical scene, Pulcheria had significant, though changing, influence and political power during her brother's reign. After Theodosius II died on 26 July 450, Pulcheria married [[Marcian]] on 25 November 450, while simultaneously not violating her vow of virginity. She died three years later, in July 453.


Pulcheria influenced the [[Christian Church]] and its theological development by being involved in the [[Council of Ephesus]] and guiding the [[Council of Chalcedon]], in which the Church ruled on [[Christology|christological]] issues. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] subsequently recognized her as a [[saint]].<ref name="World History 2002">''[[Women in World History|Women in World History: A biographical encyclopedia]]''. Edited by [[Anne Commire]] and Deborah Klezmer. Waterford, Connecticut: Yorkin Publications. 1999–2002.</ref>
Pulcheria influenced the [[Christian Church]] and its theological development by being involved in the [[Council of Ephesus]] and guiding the [[Council of Chalcedon]], in which the Church ruled on [[Christology|christological]] issues. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] subsequently recognized her as a [[saint]].


==Early life==
==Early life==
Pulcheria was born into the [[Theodosian dynasty]], whose Eastern branch in the later [[Roman Empire]] ruled in [[Constantinople]]. Her parents were eastern Roman emperor [[Arcadius]] and empress [[Aelia Eudoxia]]. Pulcheria's older sister, Flaccilla, was born in 397 but probably died young. Her younger siblings were [[Arcadia (daughter of Arcadius)|Arcadia]] (born in 400), [[Theodosius II]], the future emperor (born in 401) and Marina (born in 401).<ref name="Jones, A.H.M 1971">Jones, A.H.M, J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris. ''The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.</ref>
Pulcheria was born into the [[Theodosian dynasty]], whose Eastern branch in the later [[Roman Empire]] ruled from [[Constantinople]]. Her parents were the eastern Roman emperor [[Arcadius]] and empress [[Aelia Eudoxia]]. Pulcheria's older sister, Flaccilla, was born in 397 but probably died young. Her younger siblings were [[Arcadia (daughter of Arcadius)|Arcadia]] (born in 400), the future emperor [[Theodosius II]] (born in 401), and Marina (born in 401).<ref name="Jones, A.H.M 1971">Jones, A.H.M, J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris. ''The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.</ref>


Arcadius' reign experienced the conflict between his wife and the [[Archbishop of Constantinople]] [[John Chrysostom]].<ref>“Although his reign (Arcadius) was short, it is remembered in part for the controversial conflicts Eudoxia encountered with [[John Chrysostom]], bishop of Constantinople from 398 to 404." – Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p.37</ref> Sozomen reports that much of the rivalry was based on a silver statue set up in honour of Eudoxia outside the [[cathedral]] of [[Constantinople]], [[Hagia Sophia]], which Chrysostom condemned: "The silver statue of the empress … was placed upon a column of [[porphyry (geology)|porphyry]]; and the event was celebrated by loud acclamations, dancing, games, and other manifestations of public rejoicing … John declared that these proceedings reflected dishonor on the [C]hurch."<ref>Sozomen. ''The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440''. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855. p.391</ref> Also according to Sozomen, Chrysostom had condemned the empress for her grandiose style in his sermons, which enraged her and resulted in Chrysostom's immediate deposition. Later in life, Pulcheria returned the relics of John Chrysostom and installed them for the church, in gratitude for his pious life.<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1982. p.184</ref>
Arcadius' reign experienced conflict between his wife and the [[Archbishop of Constantinople]] [[John Chrysostom]].<ref>“Although his reign (Arcadius) was short, it is remembered in part for the controversial conflicts Eudoxia encountered with [[John Chrysostom]], bishop of Constantinople from 398 to 404." – Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p.37</ref> Sozomen reports that much of the rivalry was based on a silver statue of Eudoxia set up outside the [[cathedral]] of [[Constantinople]], [[Hagia Sophia]], which Chrysostom condemned: "The silver statue of the empress … was placed upon a column of [[porphyry (geology)|porphyry]]; and the event was celebrated by loud acclamations, dancing, games, and other manifestations of public rejoicing … John declared that these proceedings reflected dishonor on the [C]hurch."<ref>Sozomen. ''The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440''. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855. p.391</ref> Also according to Sozomen, Chrysostom had condemned the empress for her grandiose style in his sermons, which enraged her and resulted in Chrysostom's immediate deposition. Later in life, Pulcheria returned the relics of John Chrysostom and installed them for the church, in gratitude for his pious life.<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1982. p.184</ref>


Eudoxia died in 404, and Arcadius in 408. They left behind four young children, including [[Theodosius II]], then 7 years of age, who had been his father's nominal co-emperor since 402 and was now sole emperor. The [[praetorian prefect]] [[Anthemius (praetorian prefect)|Anthemius]] at first led government affairs. The imperial chamberlain [[Antiochus (praepositus sacri cubiculi)|Antiochus]] educated Theodosius, but upon reaching adulthood the emperor dismissed him from office.
==Sister of the emperor==


⚫
==Augusta==
Eudoxia died in 404, and Arcadius in 408. They left behind four young children, including [[Theodosius II]], then 7 years of age, who had been his father's nominal co-emperor since 402 and was now sole emperor himself. The [[praetorian prefect]] [[Anthemius (praetorian prefect)|Anthemius]] at first led government affairs. The imperial chamberlain [[Antiochus (praepositus sacri cubiculi)|Antiochus]] educated Theodosius in the meantime but the emperor, upon reaching adulthood, dismissed him from office. In 414, Pulcheria began to act as her brother and his government's guardian:<ref>"In 412 Pulcheria quarreled with Antiochus, who like Anthemius had served the dynasty faithfully for a number of years, and induced her brother to dismiss him from the duties of ''praepositus''. She then took personal charge of the imperial family, directing its affairs with such authority that she became known in society at large as the emperor's guardian." Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 91</ref> Theodosius proclaimed Pulcheria ''[[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]'' on 4 July 414, Pulcheria was a ''deo coronata'' and possessed ''basileia''.<ref name="Holum1989">{{cite book|author=Kenneth G. Holum|title=Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oq1ntYVZnt4C&pg=PA97|year=1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-90970-0|page=97}}</ref> At the same time, Pulcheria and her sisters made [[vow of chastity|vows of virginity]],<ref name="World History 2002"/> to keep off potential suitors. After this, the imperial palace assumed a monastic tone more so than the previous regime. Sozomen describes the pious ways of Pulcheria and her sisters in his ''Ecclesiastical History'':
⚫
<blockquote>
⚫
They all pursue the same mode of life; they are sedulous in their attendance in the house of prayer, and evince great charity towards strangers and the poor…and pass their days and their nights together in singing the praises of God.<ref>Sozomen. ''The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440''. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855. p. 410</ref>
⚫
</blockquote>


On 4 July 414, Pulcheria took a [[vow of chastity|vow of virginity]] and was proclaimed ''[[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]''. From then on until Theodosius' adulthood, Pulcheria began to act as her brother and his government's guardian.<ref>"In 412 Pulcheria quarreled with Antiochus, who like Anthemius had served the dynasty faithfully for a number of years, and induced her brother to dismiss him from the duties of ''praepositus''. She then took personal charge of the imperial family, directing its affairs with such authority that she became known in society at large as the emperor's guardian." Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 91</ref>
⚫
Rituals within the imperial palace included chanting and reciting passages of [[sacred scripture]] and fasting twice per week.<ref name="holum91">Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 91</ref> The sisters relinquished luxurious jewelry and apparel which most women of the imperial court wore. Pulcheria assembled the emperor's imperial announcements and provided many instruction necessary for Theodosius to be a successful emperor when he would come of age.<ref>
⚫
"Although the empire was technically to be ruled by Theodosius II when he would come of age, his older sister Pulcheria exercised such profound influence over him all his life that she must be considered the co-[[regent]] of the empire until her death in 453. In fact it can be said without exaggeration that Pulcheria gave the identity to her brother's reign." from Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 42</ref> According to Sozomen, Pulcheria's training of Theodosius included good deportment, horsemanship, and how to don clothes.<ref>"... how an emperor must walk, and ride his horse, alone or in procession; how he should sit upon his throne: how to wear his Imperial armor and robes; and how to speak with dignity. By no means must he yield to loud laughter …" Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 123</ref> Not only did Pulcheria train her brother in the duties and customs of imperial office, but she also ensured that Theodosius was trained to become a pious Christian leader. However Theodosius was accused by some people of providing poor leadership.<ref>"He was by nature kind, affable, easily led … Not only was he foolishly kind; he was careless, and often he was to neglect his duty in the administration of his Empire." Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 125</ref>


Pulcheria was highly esteemed at court. In the [[Byzantine Senate]] a bust of her was erected, along with those of other ''augusti''.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.</ref> Pulcheria was a ''deo coronata'' and possessed ''basileia''.<ref name="Holum1989">{{cite book|author=Kenneth G. Holum|title=Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oq1ntYVZnt4C&pg=PA97|year=1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-90970-0|page=97}}</ref>
⚫
==Vow of virginity==


⚫
===Vow of virginity===
⚫
She also took a [[vow of chastity|vow of virginity]] in 414, and her sisters followed her example. Sozomen explains that:

⚫
When she took the [[vow of chastity|vow of virginity]] in 414, her sisters followed her example. This was to deter potential suitors. Sozomen explains that:


<blockquote>
<blockquote>
She devoted her virginity to God, and instructed her sisters to do likewise. To avoid cause of scandal and opportunities for intrigue, she permitted no man to enter her palace. In confirmation of her resolution she took God, the priests, and all the subjects of the Roman empire as witnesses ...<ref>Sozomen. ''The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440''. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855.</ref></blockquote>
She devoted her virginity to God, and instructed her sisters to do likewise. To avoid cause of scandal and opportunities for intrigue, she permitted no man to enter her palace. In confirmation of her resolution she took God, the priests, and all the subjects of the Roman empire as witnesses ...<ref>Sozomen. ''The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440''. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855.</ref></blockquote>


In a letter from [[Pope Leo I]], a contemporary of Pulcheria, he complimented her great piety and despisal of the errors of heretics.<ref>"In it you clearly show how much you love the Catholic faith and how much you despise the errors of heretics." – Pope St. Leo the Great. ''St. Leo the Great: Letters''. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C., New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc. 1957. p. 132</ref> It is possible that Pulcheria may have had another motive to remain unmarried: she would have had to relinquish her power to a potential husband. In addition, the husbands of Pulcheria and her sisters could have wielded overbearing influence on their young brother, or even posed a threat to him.<ref>Sozomen, ''The Ecclesiastical History'' 9.1.3.; Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 93-94</ref>
It is possible that Pulcheria may have had another motive to remain unmarried, as she would have had to relinquish her power to a potential husband. In addition, the husbands of Pulcheria and her sisters could have wielded overbearing influence on their young brother, or even posed a threat to him.<ref>Sozomen, ''The Ecclesiastical History'' 9.1.3.; Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 93-94</ref>


Increasingly, the imperial palace assumed a monastic tone more so than the previous regime. Sozomen describes the pious ways of Pulcheria and her sisters in his ''Ecclesiastical History'':
⚫
==Role as Augusta==
⚫
<blockquote>
⚫
They all pursue the same mode of life; they are sedulous in their attendance in the house of prayer, and evince great charity towards strangers and the poor…and pass their days and their nights together in singing the praises of God.<ref>Sozomen. ''The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440''. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855. p. 410</ref>
⚫
</blockquote>


⚫
Rituals within the imperial palace included chanting and reciting passages of [[sacred scripture]] and fasting twice per week.<ref name="holum91">Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 91</ref> The sisters relinquished luxurious jewelry and apparel, which most women of the imperial court wore.
Pulcheria also attained the title of ''[[Augusta (honorific)|augusta]]'' when she vowed her virginity in 414 and was highly esteemed at court. In the [[Byzantine Senate]] a bust was erected in her honour along with those of other ''augusti''.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.</ref>

===Education of Theodosius===

Pulcheria provided many instructions necessary for Theodosius to be a successful emperor when he would come of age.<ref>
⚫
"Although the empire was technically to be ruled by Theodosius II when he would come of age, his older sister Pulcheria exercised such profound influence over him all his life that she must be considered the co-[[regent]] of the empire until her death in 453. In fact it can be said without exaggeration that Pulcheria gave the identity to her brother's reign." from Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 42</ref> According to Sozomen, Pulcheria's training of Theodosius included good deportment, horsemanship, and how to don clothes.<ref>"... how an emperor must walk, and ride his horse, alone or in procession; how he should sit upon his throne: how to wear his Imperial armor and robes; and how to speak with dignity. By no means must he yield to loud laughter …" Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 123</ref> However, as adult, Theodosius was accused by some people of providing lackluster leadership.<ref>"He was by nature kind, affable, easily led … Not only was he foolishly kind; he was careless, and often he was to neglect his duty in the administration of his Empire." Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 125</ref>

Not only did Pulcheria train her brother in the duties and customs of imperial office, one source says she handled imperial rescripts for her brother during his minority.<ref>Philostorgius, ''Ecclesiastical History'', 12.7</ref>


===Church and Judaism===
===Church and Judaism===
⚫
Many important events occurred during her time as ''augusta'' and her brother's reign as Emperor; however, Pulcheria's influence was mostly ecclesiastical. Pulcheria and her brother potentially harboured [[anti-Jewish sentiment]]s, which may have contributed to laws against [[Jewish worship]] in the capital. Before the reign of [[Theodosius II]], [[synagogue]]s were treated as private property and protected by the imperial government. Theodosius enacted a law that forbade the construction of synagogues and required the destruction of those in existence. Pulcheria and Theodosius also ordered the execution of a group of Jews after strife among Christians emerged in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 98</ref> Kenneth Holum writes "Pulcheria had long nursed a special hatred for Jews and [[Nestorian]] Christianity, which appeared to contemporaries to be of Jewish origin, no doubt served to confirm that hatred."<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 188</ref>


{{For|ecclesiastical policy|#Ecclesiastical Policy}}
⚫
Pulcheria was also famous for her philanthropy. She erected many churches and buildings for the poor in and around Constantinople.<ref>"Sozomen writes that it would take too much time to describe all the churches Pulcheria built, as well as hospitals and inns for the poor." – Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 49</ref> Pulcheria's building projects in Constantinople were so vast that a whole district was named the ''Pulcherianai'' in her honour.<ref>"Some of these establishments were extensive enough to give the names of their proprietors to entire quarters of the city such as the 'Marina quarter' in the second region and the Pulcherianai in the eleventh." – Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 132</ref> As well as contributing new churches and districts to the city, Pulcheria contributed significantly to the Christian Church by reinstating bishops who were dismissed and returning the remains of others, such as [[Flavian of Constantinople|Flavian]], as [[relic]]s of the church.<ref>"…the entire Roman Church is most grateful to you for all the works of your faith, whether having assisted envoys in every way with devoted affection and for having brought back the Catholic bishops who were ejected from their churches by an unjust sentence, or for having brought back with fitting honor to the church he governed so well the remains of Flavian of holy memory, an innocent and Catholic bishop." Pope St. Leo the Great. ''St. Leo the Great: Letters''. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C., New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc., 1957. p. 145.</ref>

Many important events occurred during her time as ''augusta'' and her brother's reign as emperor; however, Pulcheria's influence was mostly ecclesiastical. In a letter from [[Pope Leo I]], a contemporary of Pulcheria, he complimented her great piety and despisal of the errors of heretics.<ref>"In it you clearly show how much you love the Catholic faith and how much you despise the errors of heretics." – Pope St. Leo the Great. ''St. Leo the Great: Letters''. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C., New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc. 1957. p. 132</ref>

⚫
Pulcheria and Theodosius potentially held [[anti-Jewish sentiment]]s, which may have contributed to laws against [[Jewish worship]] in the capital. Before the reign of [[Theodosius II]], [[synagogue]]s were treated as private property and protected by the imperial government. Theodosius enacted a law that forbade the construction of synagogues and required the destruction of those in existence. Theodosius also ordered the execution of a group of Jews after strife among Christians emerged in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 98</ref><ref>Kenneth Holum writes "Pulcheria had long nursed a special hatred for Jews and [[Nestorian]] Christianity, which appeared to contemporaries to be of Jewish origin, no doubt served to confirm that hatred." Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 188</ref>

⚫
Pulcheria was also famous for her philanthropy. She erected many churches and buildings for the poor in and around Constantinople.<ref>"Sozomen writes that it would take too much time to describe all the churches Pulcheria built, as well as hospitals and inns for the poor." – Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 49</ref> Pulcheria's building projects in Constantinople were so vast that a whole district was named the ''Pulcherianai''.<ref>"Some of these establishments were extensive enough to give the names of their proprietors to entire quarters of the city such as the 'Marina quarter' in the second region and the Pulcherianai in the eleventh." – Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 132</ref> As well as contributing new churches and districts to the city, Pulcheria contributed significantly to the Christian Church by reinstating bishops who were dismissed and returning the remains of others, such as [[Flavian of Constantinople|Flavian]], as [[relic]]s of the church.<ref>"…the entire Roman Church is most grateful to you for all the works of your faith, whether having assisted envoys in every way with devoted affection and for having brought back the Catholic bishops who were ejected from their churches by an unjust sentence, or for having brought back with fitting honor to the church he governed so well the remains of Flavian of holy memory, an innocent and Catholic bishop." Pope St. Leo the Great. ''St. Leo the Great: Letters''. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C., New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc., 1957. p. 145.</ref>


===War with Persia===
===War with Persia===
{{Main|Roman–Sassanid War (421–422)}}
{{Main|Roman–Sassanid War (421–422)}}
Pulcheria's time as Augusta also was marked by war and ongoing conflict with [[Sassanid Persia]]. The imperial court called for war against Persia when Persian King [[Yazdegerd I]] executed a Christian bishop who had destroyed a [[Zoroastrian]] altar.<ref name="Holum 102">Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 102</ref> Theodosius sent troops into battle, described by Socrates as "ready to do anything for the sake of Christianity."<ref name="Holum 102" /> Though the war was inconclusive, a surviving inscription declares that Theodosius was able to conquer through his sisters' vow of virginity.<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity.'' Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. pp. 110–111</ref> Theodosius thus made his sister's virginity a tool of war propaganda, and because of her vow to be faithful only to God, the hand of God would help Roman troops in battle against Persia.
Pulcheria's time as Augusta also was marked by war and ongoing conflict with [[Sassanid Persia]]. The imperial court called for war against Persia when the Persian king [[Yazdegerd I]] executed a Christian bishop who had destroyed a [[Zoroastrian]] altar.<ref name="Holum 102">Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 102</ref> Theodosius sent troops into battle, described by Socrates as "ready to do anything for the sake of Christianity."<ref name="Holum 102" /> Though the war was inconclusive, a surviving inscription declares that Theodosius was able to conquer through his sisters' vows of virginity.<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity.'' Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. pp. 110–111</ref> Theodosius thus made his sister's virginity a tool of war propaganda, and because of her vow to be faithful only to God, the hand of God would help Roman troops in battle against Persia.


==Relationship with Aelia Eudocia==
===Relationship with Aelia Eudocia===
The relationship between Pulcheria and [[Aelia Eudocia]], Theodosius II's wife, was strained. The two women over the years had developed a rivalry possibly based on their different backgrounds and religious beliefs. Eudocia was originally named ''Athenais'' and was born in [[Athens]] to a Greek philosopher and professor of rhetoric. When her father died, he left her with little means, only "one hundred gold coins".<ref name="Duckett125">Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 125.</ref> She visited her aunt in Constantinople out of desperation. On 7 June 421, Theodosius married Athenais, but her name was changed to ''Eudocia''. Opinions differ as to whether Pulcheria really recommended Eudocia to her brother, a claim made by [[John Malalas]].<ref>Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 126</ref> The rivalry between the two women was posed by some scholars to have been motivated by Eudocia's envy of Pulcheria's power in court.<ref name="Duckett146">"She had always felt jealous of her sister-in-law, Pulcheria, who for many years had held greater influence at Court then she herself had enjoyed, as Empress, as wife." – Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 146</ref>
The relationship between Pulcheria and [[Aelia Eudocia]], Theodosius II's wife, was strained. The two women over the years had developed a rivalry, possibly based on their different backgrounds and religious beliefs. Eudocia was originally named ''Athenais'' and was born in [[Athens]] to a Greek philosopher and professor of rhetoric. When her father died, he left her with little means, only "one hundred gold coins".<ref name="Duckett125">Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 125.</ref> She visited her aunt in Constantinople out of desperation. On 7 June 421, Theodosius married Athenais, and her name was changed to ''Eudocia''. Opinions differ as to whether Pulcheria really recommended Eudocia to her brother, a claim made by [[John Malalas]].<ref>Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 126</ref> The rivalry between the two women was posed by some scholars to have been motivated by Eudocia's envy of Pulcheria's power in court.<ref name="Duckett146">"She had always felt jealous of her sister-in-law, Pulcheria, who for many years had held greater influence at Court then she herself had enjoyed, as Empress, as wife." – Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 146</ref>


Centuries later, [[Theophanes the Confessor]] wrote that Eudocia and the chief minister, the [[eunuch]] [[Chrysaphius]], convinced Theodosius to rely less on his sister's influence and more on that of his new wife. This caused Pulcheria in the late 440s to leave the imperial palace and live in "…[[Hebdomon]], a seaport seven miles from Constantinople."<ref>Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 146</ref> However, the chronology of her departure does not support Theophanes' narrative.<ref> Elton, H. (25 June 2019). Pulcheria, Roman Augusta, 414–453 CE. Oxford Classical Dictionary</ref> The rivalry of Eudocia and Pulcheria may have come to a head when Eudocia departed for the [[Holy Land]] and, for a time, openly supported monastic [[Miaphysitism]].<ref>"But she had been brought up in Athens in pagan ways; she had ever been devoted to the literature of her native Greece." – Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 164</ref> Nonetheless, the sources do not speak of any dispute between them in this period.
Centuries later, [[Theophanes the Confessor]] wrote that Eudocia and the chief minister, the [[eunuch]] [[Chrysaphius]], convinced Theodosius to rely less on his sister's influence and more on that of his new wife. This caused Pulcheria in the late 440s to leave the imperial palace and live in "…[[Hebdomon]], a seaport seven miles from Constantinople."<ref>Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 146</ref> However, the chronology of her departure does not support Theophanes' narrative.<ref>Elton, H. (25 June 2019). Pulcheria, Roman Augusta, 414–453 CE. Oxford Classical Dictionary</ref> The rivalry of Eudocia and Pulcheria may have come to a head when Eudocia departed for the [[Holy Land]] and, for a time, openly supported monastic [[Miaphysitism]].<ref>"But she had been brought up in Athens in pagan ways; she had ever been devoted to the literature of her native Greece." – Duckett, Eleanor. ''Medieval Portraits from East and West''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 164</ref> Nonetheless, the sources do not speak of any dispute between them in this period.


==Empress==
==Wife of Marcian==
While hunting on horseback in 450, [[Theodosius II]] fell from his horse and injured his spine; he died 2 days later from the injury.<ref name="Jones, A.H.M 1971"/> What exactly happened in government during the interregnum is unclear. It is speculated by some historians that she reigned over the Empire alone for about one month after the death of Theodosius, which may have primarily consisted of arranging the public funeral of Theodosius.<ref name="Holum208">Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 208</ref> As the deceased emperor lacked surviving male children, Pulcheria could bestow dynastic legitimacy on an outsider by marrying him. She honoured her vow of virginity despite entering a legitimate marriage.<ref>{{cite book |title=Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204|year=1999|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantineempress00garl|url-access=limited|publisher=London: Routledge, 1999| authors=Garland | page=[https://archive.org/details/byzantineempress00garl/page/n23 3] |isbn=9780415146883 }}</ref> She married [[Marcian]], a [[tribune]] and close associate of general [[Aspar]], probably at the general's suggestion.<ref>R.W. Burgess, 'The Accession of Marcian in the Light of Chalcedonian Apologetic and Monophysite Polemic', ''Byzantinische Zeitschrift'' 86/87 (1993/1994), 47–68.</ref> Marcian's origins were of low status in comparison to those of previous emperors: "Marcian was a man of little substance, with no ancient aristocratic or imperial blood. He was Roman, however, and thus the bond of ''kedeia'' at once communicated eligibility for ''basileia''."<ref name="Holum208" /> One condition of the marriage was that Marcian obey and respect Pulcheria's vow of virginity, and he complied with it.<ref name="World History 2002"/> In order for the marriage to not seem scandalous to the Roman state, the church proclaimed that "Christ himself sponsored the union and it therefore should not provoke shock or unjustified suspicions."<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 209</ref> After their marriage, Pulcheria and Marcian had Chrysaphius killed.<ref>Marcellinus Comes, ''Chronicle'' a. 450; John Malalas, ''Chronographia'' 14.32</ref>
While hunting on horseback in 450, [[Theodosius II]] fell from his horse and injured his spine; he died two days later.<ref name="Jones, A.H.M 1971"/> What exactly happened in government during the interregnum is unclear. It is speculated by some historians that Pulcheria reigned over the empire alone for about one month after the death of Theodosius, which may have primarily consisted of arranging the public funeral of Theodosius.<ref name="Holum208">Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 208</ref> As the deceased emperor lacked surviving male children, Pulcheria could bestow dynastic legitimacy on an outsider by marrying him. She honoured her vow of virginity despite entering a legitimate marriage.<ref>{{cite book |title=Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204 |year=1999 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |last=Garland |first=Lynda |author-link=Lynda Garland |page=3 |isbn=9780415146883}}</ref> She married [[Marcian]], a [[tribune]] and close associate of general [[Aspar]], probably at the general's suggestion.<ref>R.W. Burgess, 'The Accession of Marcian in the Light of Chalcedonian Apologetic and Monophysite Polemic', ''Byzantinische Zeitschrift'' 86/87 (1993/1994), 47–68.</ref> Marcian's origins were of low status in comparison to those of previous emperors: "Marcian was a man of little substance, with no ancient aristocratic or imperial blood. He was Roman, however, and thus the bond of ''kedeia'' at once communicated eligibility for ''basileia''."<ref name="Holum208" /> One condition of the marriage was that Marcian obey and respect Pulcheria's vow of virginity, which he did.<ref name="World History 2002">''[[Women in World History|Women in World History: A biographical encyclopedia]]''. Edited by [[Anne Commire]] and Deborah Klezmer. Waterford, Connecticut: Yorkin Publications. 1999–2002. Page 840-841</ref> In order for the marriage to not seem scandalous to the Roman state, the church proclaimed that "Christ himself sponsored the union and it therefore should not provoke shock or unjustified suspicions."<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 209</ref> After their marriage, Pulcheria and Marcian had Chrysaphius killed.<ref>Marcellinus Comes, ''Chronicle'' a. 450; John Malalas, ''Chronographia'' 14.32</ref>

⚫
==Ecclesiastical Policy==

===First Council of Ephesus===

{{Main|Council of Ephesus}}


⚫
==Ecclesiastical conflicts==
The [[First Council of Ephesus]], held in 431 in Theodosius's reign, involved two rival bishops: [[Nestorius]], who was [[Archbishop of Constantinople]], and [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]], the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]].<ref>Cameron, Averil. ''The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600'' London: Routledge, 1993. pp. 22–23</ref> The dispute grew from their disagreement over the nature of Christ.<ref>"The issue was whether, and, if so, how, Christ had two natures; the [[Monophysites]] held that he had only a divine nature, while Nestorius, and 'Nestorians' after him, emphasized the human." Cameron, Averil. ''The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600'' London: Routledge, 1993. p. 23</ref>
The [[First Council of Ephesus]], held in 431 in Theodosius's reign, involved two rival bishops: [[Nestorius]], who was [[Archbishop of Constantinople]], and [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]], the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]].<ref>Cameron, Averil. ''The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600'' London: Routledge, 1993. pp. 22–23</ref> The dispute grew from their disagreement over the nature of Christ.<ref>"The issue was whether, and, if so, how, Christ had two natures; the [[Monophysites]] held that he had only a divine nature, while Nestorius, and 'Nestorians' after him, emphasized the human." Cameron, Averil. ''The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600'' London: Routledge, 1993. p. 23</ref>


Nestorius advocated diminishing the influence of the doctrine of the "[[Theotokos]]", i.e., "the one who gives birth to the One Who is God" or "Mother of God", in the church. This conflicted with the religious beliefs of Pulcheria, as she was a virgin empress, and a rivalry between them ensued, during which Nestorius launched a smear campaign against her. Nestorius also tried to remove Pulcheria's image and her altar cloth from the altar, against her wishes.<ref>"Nestorius took specific action against Pulcheria. He implied that she enjoyed illicit sexual relations with at least seven lovers. He also would not accede to her demand that she be remembered in prayers as the 'bride of Christ' since she had been 'corrupted by men'. Most egregious of all, he effaced her image which he had removed from above the altar; and he refused to use her robe as an altar cover," in Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 54</ref> However, Pulcheria and her allies, including [[Eusebius of Dorylaeum]], struck back by launching a campaign against Nestorius. Meanwhile, Cyril had already publicly condemned Nestorius and wrote to the imperial court stating that the doctrine of the "Theotokos" was correct. Theodosius and his advisors decided to hold a council, thereby allowing Nestorius an opportunity to vindicate himself.
Nestorius advocated diminishing the influence of the doctrine of the "[[Theotokos]]", i.e. "Mother of God", in the church. This conflicted with the religious beliefs of Pulcheria, as she was a virgin empress, and a rivalry between them ensued, during which Nestorius launched a smear campaign against her. Nestorius also tried to remove Pulcheria's image and her altar cloth from the altar, against her wishes.<ref>"Nestorius took specific action against Pulcheria. He implied that she enjoyed illicit sexual relations with at least seven lovers. He also would not accede to her demand that she be remembered in prayers as the 'bride of Christ' since she had been 'corrupted by men'. Most egregious of all, he effaced her image which he had removed from above the altar; and he refused to use her robe as an altar cover," in Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 54</ref> However, Pulcheria and her allies, including [[Eusebius of Dorylaeum]], struck back by launching a campaign against Nestorius. Meanwhile, Cyril had already publicly condemned Nestorius and wrote to the imperial court stating that the doctrine of the "Theotokos" was correct. Theodosius and his advisors decided to hold a council, thereby allowing Nestorius an opportunity to vindicate himself.


However, the Council, teeming with Cyril's allies, condemned Nestorius' position.<ref>"The council was weighted heavily in favor of the Cyrillians, since they had 'planted' uncouth Alexandrians to heckle the Nestorians. They drove the emperor's ambassador and the Nestorian bishops out of the session, and then declared Nestorius a heretic." – Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 56</ref> Nestorians, who were unable to take part in the previous council, held their own council to denounce Cyril. The emperor first tried to find a middle ground but eventually favored Cyril. The title of "Theotokos" was decreed as orthodox. He also deposed Nestorius and banished him to a monastery in [[Antioch]]. Thus, Pulcheria's campaign against Nestorius was successful, but ecclesiastical controversies did not stop there.<ref>"Under such public pressure Theodosius succumbed to Pulcheria's demands and had Cyril's decree deposing Nestorius read in the Great Church. Nestorius was sent back to his monastery in Antioch…" – Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. pp. 56–57.</ref>
However, the Council, teeming with Cyril's allies, condemned Nestorius' position.<ref>"The council was weighted heavily in favor of the Cyrillians, since they had 'planted' uncouth Alexandrians to heckle the Nestorians. They drove the emperor's ambassador and the Nestorian bishops out of the session, and then declared Nestorius a heretic." – Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 56</ref> Nestorians, who were unable to take part in the previous council, held their own council to denounce Cyril. The emperor first tried to find a middle ground but eventually favored Cyril. The title of "Theotokos" was decreed as orthodox. He also deposed Nestorius and banished him to a monastery in [[Antioch]]. Thus, Pulcheria's campaign against Nestorius was successful, but ecclesiastical controversies did not stop there.<ref>"Under such public pressure Theodosius succumbed to Pulcheria's demands and had Cyril's decree deposing Nestorius read in the Great Church. Nestorius was sent back to his monastery in Antioch…" – Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. pp. 56–57.</ref>


===Second Council of Ephesus===
⚫
In 449, christological debates flared up again. Theodosius summoned [[Second Council of Ephesus|another council]] to [[Ephesus]], to resolve the disputes. At this council, [[Pope Leo I]] was the primary advocate for Pulcheria's claims of the doctrine, and he "…forcefully intervened, sending a [[Tome of Leo|long letter]] to [[Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople]], in which he argued for the two natures, but questioned the legality of the recent condemnation of a certain [[Eutyches]] for denying them. At this the party of [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Dioscorus]], Cyril's successor in [[Alexandria]], having believed that Eutyches had renounced his heresy earlier,<ref>The story of the Copts by Iris Habib el Masri – XVIII. The Rupture between the churches of the east and west</ref> was able to overturn the situation, whereupon Leo asked for a second council, calling that [council in] Ephesus the ''[[Robber Council]]''."<ref name="Cameron23">Cameron, Averil. ''The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600'' London: Routledge, p. 23.</ref>

{{Main|Second Council of Ephesus}}

⚫
In 449, Christological debates flared up again. Theodosius summoned [[Second Council of Ephesus|another council]] to [[Ephesus]] to resolve the disputes. At this council, [[Pope Leo I]] was the primary advocate for Pulcheria's claims of the doctrine, and he "…forcefully intervened, sending a [[Tome of Leo|Tome]], a long letter, to [[Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople]], in which he argued for the two natures, but questioned the legality of the recent condemnation of a certain [[Eutyches]] for denying them. At this the party of [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Dioscorus]], Cyril's successor in [[Alexandria]] was able to overturn the situation, whereupon Leo asked for a second council, calling that [council in] Ephesus the ''[[Robber Council]]''."<ref name="Cameron23">Cameron, Averil. ''The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600'' London: Routledge, p. 23.</ref>

⚫
During this council, Flavian was beaten and died from his injuries. He was later declared a saint and [[martyr]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06098c.htm Rudge, F.M. "St. Flavian." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909</ref>

===Council of Chalcedon===


{{Main|Council of Chalcedon}}
⚫
During this council, Flavian was beaten and died from his injuries. He was later declared a saint and [[martyr]].{{cn|date=July 2020}}


Two years later, Pulcheria and Marcian summoned the [[Council of Chalcedon]], attended by 452 bishops. It condemned the doctrines of both Nestorius and Eutyches, developed the doctrines of Cyril and Pope Leo I into one, and it declared the doctrine of the "Theotokos" orthodox. It also reversed the decision of the second Council of Ephesus and denounced it as 'Robber Council'. According to historian [[Averil Cameron]], the Council of Chalcedon "…developed and clarified the [[creed of Nicaea]], according to which God was Father, Son and Holy Spirit, by further proclaiming that Christ was at all times after the [[Incarnation]] fully God and fully human."<ref name="Cameron23" /> Pulcheria and Marcian were both hailed as the "new Constantine" and "new Helena" at the council. From this council grew an irreconcilable gulf between [[Chalcedonian Christianity|Chalcedonians]], those who upheld the council's decision, and [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysites]], whose persecution began in this period.
Two years later, Pulcheria and Marcian summoned the [[Council of Chalcedon]], attended by 452 bishops. It condemned the doctrines of both Nestorius and Eutyches, developed the doctrines of Cyril and Pope Leo I into one, and it declared the doctrine of the "Theotokos" orthodox. It also reversed the decision of the second Council of Ephesus and denounced it as 'Robber Council'. According to historian [[Averil Cameron]], the Council of Chalcedon "…developed and clarified the [[creed of Nicaea]], according to which God was Father, Son and Holy Spirit, by further proclaiming that Christ was at all times after the [[Incarnation]] fully God and fully human."<ref name="Cameron23" /> Pulcheria and Marcian were both hailed as the "new Constantine" and "new Helena" at the council. From this council grew an irreconcilable gulf between [[Chalcedonian Christianity|Chalcedonians]], those who upheld the council's decision, and [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysites]], who opposed it.


Pulcheria devoted the last years of her life to the "Theotokos", and had three churches in [[Constantinople]] dedicated to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]]: the [[Monastery of the Panagia Hodegetria]], the [[Church of St. Mary of Blachernae (Istanbul)|Church of St. Mary of Blachernae]], and the [[Chalkoprateia]].<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 57</ref>
Pulcheria devoted the last years of her life to the "Theotokos", and had three churches in [[Constantinople]] dedicated to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]]: the [[Monastery of the Panagia Hodegetria]], the [[Church of St. Mary of Blachernae (Istanbul)|Church of St. Mary of Blachernae]], and the Chalkoprateia.<ref>Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 57</ref>


==Death and veneration==
==Death and veneration==
On what day in 453 Pulcheria died is unknown.<ref name="Jones, A.H.M 1971"/> She probably died in [[Constantinople]]. Her death shocked the people of Constantinople, since she had formed a bond with the city's inhabitants.<ref name="Holum226">"Mention of her death in the chronicles confirms that her passing, like that of Flacilla [her grandmother], struck like an earthquake in the dynastic city. Unlike [[Aelia Eudocia|Eudocia]] [wife of the late Theodosius], she lived out her life in Constantinople and its suburbs, forming a bond with its people which even death could not sever." Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 226.</ref>
Pulcheria died in 453, but the specific day is unknown.<ref name="Jones, A.H.M 1971"/> She probably died in [[Constantinople]]. Her death shocked the people of Constantinople, since she had formed a bond with the city's inhabitants.<ref name="Holum226">"Mention of her death in the chronicles confirms that her passing, like that of Flacilla [her grandmother], struck like an earthquake in the dynastic city. Unlike [[Aelia Eudocia|Eudocia]] [wife of the late Theodosius], she lived out her life in Constantinople and its suburbs, forming a bond with its people which even death could not sever." Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 226.</ref>


Even in her last days Pulcheria thought of ways to help the poor of Constantinople, for "in her will she reinforced that bond by instructing that all of her remaining wealth be distributed among the poor…"<ref name="Holum226" />
Even in her last days Pulcheria thought of ways to help the poor of Constantinople, for "in her will she reinforced that bond by instructing that all of her remaining wealth be distributed among the poor…"<ref name="Holum226" />


After her death, she was declared a [[saint]] by the church, which is today the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref>"She became a saint of the church, both in West and in the East, where centuries later the faithful of Constantinople celebrated her memorial each year on September 10, bearing in mind her piety and virginity, her works of philanthropy and construction and especially her greatest triumph: 'she caused the holy synod to take place at Chalcedon'." Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 227</ref>
After her death, she was declared a [[saint]] by the church, which is today the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] churches.<ref>"She became a saint of the church, both in West and in the East, where centuries later the faithful of Constantinople celebrated her memorial each year on September 10, bearing in mind her piety and virginity, her works of philanthropy and construction and especially her greatest triumph: 'she caused the holy synod to take place at Chalcedon'." Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 227</ref>


==In art==
==In art==
[[File:Elfenbeintafel mit Reliquienprozession, Konstantinopel, 5. Jahrhundert.jpg|thumb|210px|left|The Trier Ivory, representing a procession with royal figures theorized to depict Theodosius II and Pulcheria.]]
[[File:Elfenbeintafel mit Reliquienprozession, Konstantinopel, 5. Jahrhundert.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The Trier Ivory, representing a procession with royal figures theorized to depict Theodosius II and Pulcheria.]]
Pulcheria brought many holy relics to churches in Constantinople. The [[Trier Adventus Ivory]], now housed in the treasury of [[Trier Cathedral]], Germany, has been interpreted as depicting the installation of one of these relics. Historian Kenneth Holum describes the Ivory thus: "On the Ivory Theodosius wears distinctive costume and inclines slightly forward, but essentially he remains only part of the cortege and thus of the ceremonial context. The direction of the wagon's movement inexorably toward the scene at the right, toward the diminutive woman clothed in the rich costume of an Augusta … in it she deposited the holy relics."<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 107</ref>
Pulcheria brought many holy relics to churches in Constantinople. The [[Trier Adventus Ivory]], now housed in the treasury of [[Trier Cathedral]], Germany, has been interpreted as depicting the installation of one of these relics. Historian Kenneth Holum describes the Ivory thus: "On the Ivory Theodosius wears distinctive costume and inclines slightly forward, but essentially he remains only part of the cortege and thus of the ceremonial context. The direction of the wagon's movement inexorably toward the scene at the right, toward the diminutive woman clothed in the rich costume of an Augusta … in it she deposited the holy relics."<ref>Holum, Kenneth G. ''Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 107</ref>


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* Turpin, Joanne. ''Women in Church History: 20 Stories for 20 Centuries''. Cincinnati, OH: St. Anthony Messenger Press. 1986.
* Turpin, Joanne. ''Women in Church History: 20 Stories for 20 Centuries''. Cincinnati, OH: St. Anthony Messenger Press. 1986.
* Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge. 1994.
* Limberis, Vasiliki. ''Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople''. London and New York: Routledge. 1994.
* ''Women in World History: a Biographical Encyclopedia''. Edited by Anne Commire and Deborah Klezmer. Waterford, CN: Yorkin Publications. 1999–2002.
* "[https://archive.org/details/womeninworldhist12comm/mode/2up?view=theater&q=chastity Pulcheria]", Robert W. Hewsen. ''Women in World History: a Biographical Encyclopedia''. Edited by Anne Commire and Deborah Klezmer. Waterford, CN: Yorkin Publications. 1999–2002. Vol. 12: O-Q. Pages 839-844
{{Refend}}
{{Refend}}


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{{s-end}}


{{Roman Emperors}}
{{Roman empresses}}
{{Authority control}}
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[[Category:Aelii]]
[[Category:Aelii]]
[[Category:Augustae]]
[[Category:Augustae]]
[[Category:Byzantine saints]]
[[Category:Byzantine royal saints]]
[[Category:Christian royal saints]]
[[Category:Daughters of Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Daughters of Roman emperors]]
[[Category:5th-century empresses consort]]
[[Category:Byzantine regents]]
[[Category:5th-century women regents]]
[[Category:5th-century regents]]

Latest revision as of 05:15, 23 November 2024

This article is about the empress. For her aunt, see Pulcheria (daughter of Theodosius I). For the genus of moth, see Pulcheria (moth).

Pulcheria
Augusta
Solidus of Pulcheria
Roman empress
(in the East)
Tenure25 August 450 – July 453
Born19 January 398 or 399
Constantinople
DiedJuly 453 (aged 53–55)
Probably Constantinople
SpouseMarcian
HouseHouse of Theodosius
DynastyTheodosian
FatherArcadius
MotherAelia Eudoxia
ReligionNicene Christianity

Aelia Pulcheria (/ˈiːliə pʌlˈkɪriə/; ‹See Tfd›Greek: Πουλχερία; 19 January 398 or 399 – 453) was an Eastern Roman empress who advised her brother, the emperor Theodosius II, during his minority and then became wife to emperor Marcian from November 450 to her death in 453.

She was the second (and oldest surviving) child of Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius and Empress Aelia Eudoxia. In 414, the fifteen-year old Pulcheria became the guardian of her younger brother Theodosius II[1] and was also proclaimed Augusta. Through her religious devotion and involvement in the contemporary ecclesiastical scene, Pulcheria had significant, though changing, influence and political power during her brother's reign. After Theodosius II died on 26 July 450, Pulcheria married Marcian on 25 November 450, while simultaneously not violating her vow of virginity. She died three years later, in July 453.

Pulcheria influenced the Christian Church and its theological development by being involved in the Council of Ephesus and guiding the Council of Chalcedon, in which the Church ruled on christological issues. The Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church subsequently recognized her as a saint.

Early life

[edit]

Pulcheria was born into the Theodosian dynasty, whose Eastern branch in the later Roman Empire ruled from Constantinople. Her parents were the eastern Roman emperor Arcadius and empress Aelia Eudoxia. Pulcheria's older sister, Flaccilla, was born in 397 but probably died young. Her younger siblings were Arcadia (born in 400), the future emperor Theodosius II (born in 401), and Marina (born in 401).[2]

Arcadius' reign experienced conflict between his wife and the Archbishop of Constantinople John Chrysostom.[3] Sozomen reports that much of the rivalry was based on a silver statue of Eudoxia set up outside the cathedral of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia, which Chrysostom condemned: "The silver statue of the empress … was placed upon a column of porphyry; and the event was celebrated by loud acclamations, dancing, games, and other manifestations of public rejoicing … John declared that these proceedings reflected dishonor on the [C]hurch."[4] Also according to Sozomen, Chrysostom had condemned the empress for her grandiose style in his sermons, which enraged her and resulted in Chrysostom's immediate deposition. Later in life, Pulcheria returned the relics of John Chrysostom and installed them for the church, in gratitude for his pious life.[5]

Eudoxia died in 404, and Arcadius in 408. They left behind four young children, including Theodosius II, then 7 years of age, who had been his father's nominal co-emperor since 402 and was now sole emperor. The praetorian prefect Anthemius at first led government affairs. The imperial chamberlain Antiochus educated Theodosius, but upon reaching adulthood the emperor dismissed him from office.

Augusta

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On 4 July 414, Pulcheria took a vow of virginity and was proclaimed Augusta. From then on until Theodosius' adulthood, Pulcheria began to act as her brother and his government's guardian.[6]

Pulcheria was highly esteemed at court. In the Byzantine Senate a bust of her was erected, along with those of other augusti.[7] Pulcheria was a deo coronata and possessed basileia.[8]

Vow of virginity

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When she took the vow of virginity in 414, her sisters followed her example. This was to deter potential suitors. Sozomen explains that:

She devoted her virginity to God, and instructed her sisters to do likewise. To avoid cause of scandal and opportunities for intrigue, she permitted no man to enter her palace. In confirmation of her resolution she took God, the priests, and all the subjects of the Roman empire as witnesses ...[9]

It is possible that Pulcheria may have had another motive to remain unmarried, as she would have had to relinquish her power to a potential husband. In addition, the husbands of Pulcheria and her sisters could have wielded overbearing influence on their young brother, or even posed a threat to him.[10]

Increasingly, the imperial palace assumed a monastic tone more so than the previous regime. Sozomen describes the pious ways of Pulcheria and her sisters in his Ecclesiastical History:

They all pursue the same mode of life; they are sedulous in their attendance in the house of prayer, and evince great charity towards strangers and the poor…and pass their days and their nights together in singing the praises of God.[11]

Rituals within the imperial palace included chanting and reciting passages of sacred scripture and fasting twice per week.[12] The sisters relinquished luxurious jewelry and apparel, which most women of the imperial court wore.

Education of Theodosius

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Pulcheria provided many instructions necessary for Theodosius to be a successful emperor when he would come of age.[13] According to Sozomen, Pulcheria's training of Theodosius included good deportment, horsemanship, and how to don clothes.[14] However, as adult, Theodosius was accused by some people of providing lackluster leadership.[15]

Not only did Pulcheria train her brother in the duties and customs of imperial office, one source says she handled imperial rescripts for her brother during his minority.[16]

Church and Judaism

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For ecclesiastical policy, see § Ecclesiastical Policy.

Many important events occurred during her time as augusta and her brother's reign as emperor; however, Pulcheria's influence was mostly ecclesiastical. In a letter from Pope Leo I, a contemporary of Pulcheria, he complimented her great piety and despisal of the errors of heretics.[17]

Pulcheria and Theodosius potentially held anti-Jewish sentiments, which may have contributed to laws against Jewish worship in the capital. Before the reign of Theodosius II, synagogues were treated as private property and protected by the imperial government. Theodosius enacted a law that forbade the construction of synagogues and required the destruction of those in existence. Theodosius also ordered the execution of a group of Jews after strife among Christians emerged in Palestine.[18][19]

Pulcheria was also famous for her philanthropy. She erected many churches and buildings for the poor in and around Constantinople.[20] Pulcheria's building projects in Constantinople were so vast that a whole district was named the Pulcherianai.[21] As well as contributing new churches and districts to the city, Pulcheria contributed significantly to the Christian Church by reinstating bishops who were dismissed and returning the remains of others, such as Flavian, as relics of the church.[22]

War with Persia

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Main article: Roman–Sassanid War (421–422)

Pulcheria's time as Augusta also was marked by war and ongoing conflict with Sassanid Persia. The imperial court called for war against Persia when the Persian king Yazdegerd I executed a Christian bishop who had destroyed a Zoroastrian altar.[23] Theodosius sent troops into battle, described by Socrates as "ready to do anything for the sake of Christianity."[23] Though the war was inconclusive, a surviving inscription declares that Theodosius was able to conquer through his sisters' vows of virginity.[24] Theodosius thus made his sister's virginity a tool of war propaganda, and because of her vow to be faithful only to God, the hand of God would help Roman troops in battle against Persia.

Relationship with Aelia Eudocia

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The relationship between Pulcheria and Aelia Eudocia, Theodosius II's wife, was strained. The two women over the years had developed a rivalry, possibly based on their different backgrounds and religious beliefs. Eudocia was originally named Athenais and was born in Athens to a Greek philosopher and professor of rhetoric. When her father died, he left her with little means, only "one hundred gold coins".[25] She visited her aunt in Constantinople out of desperation. On 7 June 421, Theodosius married Athenais, and her name was changed to Eudocia. Opinions differ as to whether Pulcheria really recommended Eudocia to her brother, a claim made by John Malalas.[26] The rivalry between the two women was posed by some scholars to have been motivated by Eudocia's envy of Pulcheria's power in court.[27]

Centuries later, Theophanes the Confessor wrote that Eudocia and the chief minister, the eunuch Chrysaphius, convinced Theodosius to rely less on his sister's influence and more on that of his new wife. This caused Pulcheria in the late 440s to leave the imperial palace and live in "…Hebdomon, a seaport seven miles from Constantinople."[28] However, the chronology of her departure does not support Theophanes' narrative.[29] The rivalry of Eudocia and Pulcheria may have come to a head when Eudocia departed for the Holy Land and, for a time, openly supported monastic Miaphysitism.[30] Nonetheless, the sources do not speak of any dispute between them in this period.

Wife of Marcian

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While hunting on horseback in 450, Theodosius II fell from his horse and injured his spine; he died two days later.[2] What exactly happened in government during the interregnum is unclear. It is speculated by some historians that Pulcheria reigned over the empire alone for about one month after the death of Theodosius, which may have primarily consisted of arranging the public funeral of Theodosius.[31] As the deceased emperor lacked surviving male children, Pulcheria could bestow dynastic legitimacy on an outsider by marrying him. She honoured her vow of virginity despite entering a legitimate marriage.[32] She married Marcian, a tribune and close associate of general Aspar, probably at the general's suggestion.[33] Marcian's origins were of low status in comparison to those of previous emperors: "Marcian was a man of little substance, with no ancient aristocratic or imperial blood. He was Roman, however, and thus the bond of kedeia at once communicated eligibility for basileia."[31] One condition of the marriage was that Marcian obey and respect Pulcheria's vow of virginity, which he did.[34] In order for the marriage to not seem scandalous to the Roman state, the church proclaimed that "Christ himself sponsored the union and it therefore should not provoke shock or unjustified suspicions."[35] After their marriage, Pulcheria and Marcian had Chrysaphius killed.[36]

Ecclesiastical Policy

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First Council of Ephesus

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Main article: Council of Ephesus

The First Council of Ephesus, held in 431 in Theodosius's reign, involved two rival bishops: Nestorius, who was Archbishop of Constantinople, and Cyril, the Patriarch of Alexandria.[37] The dispute grew from their disagreement over the nature of Christ.[38]

Nestorius advocated diminishing the influence of the doctrine of the "Theotokos", i.e. "Mother of God", in the church. This conflicted with the religious beliefs of Pulcheria, as she was a virgin empress, and a rivalry between them ensued, during which Nestorius launched a smear campaign against her. Nestorius also tried to remove Pulcheria's image and her altar cloth from the altar, against her wishes.[39] However, Pulcheria and her allies, including Eusebius of Dorylaeum, struck back by launching a campaign against Nestorius. Meanwhile, Cyril had already publicly condemned Nestorius and wrote to the imperial court stating that the doctrine of the "Theotokos" was correct. Theodosius and his advisors decided to hold a council, thereby allowing Nestorius an opportunity to vindicate himself.

However, the Council, teeming with Cyril's allies, condemned Nestorius' position.[40] Nestorians, who were unable to take part in the previous council, held their own council to denounce Cyril. The emperor first tried to find a middle ground but eventually favored Cyril. The title of "Theotokos" was decreed as orthodox. He also deposed Nestorius and banished him to a monastery in Antioch. Thus, Pulcheria's campaign against Nestorius was successful, but ecclesiastical controversies did not stop there.[41]

Second Council of Ephesus

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Main article: Second Council of Ephesus

In 449, Christological debates flared up again. Theodosius summoned another council to Ephesus to resolve the disputes. At this council, Pope Leo I was the primary advocate for Pulcheria's claims of the doctrine, and he "…forcefully intervened, sending a Tome, a long letter, to Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople, in which he argued for the two natures, but questioned the legality of the recent condemnation of a certain Eutyches for denying them. At this the party of Dioscorus, Cyril's successor in Alexandria was able to overturn the situation, whereupon Leo asked for a second council, calling that [council in] Ephesus the Robber Council."[42]

During this council, Flavian was beaten and died from his injuries. He was later declared a saint and martyr.[43]

Council of Chalcedon

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Main article: Council of Chalcedon

Two years later, Pulcheria and Marcian summoned the Council of Chalcedon, attended by 452 bishops. It condemned the doctrines of both Nestorius and Eutyches, developed the doctrines of Cyril and Pope Leo I into one, and it declared the doctrine of the "Theotokos" orthodox. It also reversed the decision of the second Council of Ephesus and denounced it as 'Robber Council'. According to historian Averil Cameron, the Council of Chalcedon "…developed and clarified the creed of Nicaea, according to which God was Father, Son and Holy Spirit, by further proclaiming that Christ was at all times after the Incarnation fully God and fully human."[42] Pulcheria and Marcian were both hailed as the "new Constantine" and "new Helena" at the council. From this council grew an irreconcilable gulf between Chalcedonians, those who upheld the council's decision, and Miaphysites, who opposed it.

Pulcheria devoted the last years of her life to the "Theotokos", and had three churches in Constantinople dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary: the Monastery of the Panagia Hodegetria, the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae, and the Chalkoprateia.[44]

Death and veneration

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Pulcheria died in 453, but the specific day is unknown.[2] She probably died in Constantinople. Her death shocked the people of Constantinople, since she had formed a bond with the city's inhabitants.[45]

Even in her last days Pulcheria thought of ways to help the poor of Constantinople, for "in her will she reinforced that bond by instructing that all of her remaining wealth be distributed among the poor…"[45]

After her death, she was declared a saint by the church, which is today the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.[46]

In art

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The Trier Ivory, representing a procession with royal figures theorized to depict Theodosius II and Pulcheria.

Pulcheria brought many holy relics to churches in Constantinople. The Trier Adventus Ivory, now housed in the treasury of Trier Cathedral, Germany, has been interpreted as depicting the installation of one of these relics. Historian Kenneth Holum describes the Ivory thus: "On the Ivory Theodosius wears distinctive costume and inclines slightly forward, but essentially he remains only part of the cortege and thus of the ceremonial context. The direction of the wagon's movement inexorably toward the scene at the right, toward the diminutive woman clothed in the rich costume of an Augusta … in it she deposited the holy relics."[47]

However, this interpretation is disputed,[48] and another opinion is that the ivory shows the later Empress Irene of the eighth century, who sponsored renovation of the church.[49]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1982. p. 97
  2. ^ a b c Jones, A.H.M, J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
  3. ^ “Although his reign (Arcadius) was short, it is remembered in part for the controversial conflicts Eudoxia encountered with John Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople from 398 to 404." – Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p.37
  4. ^ Sozomen. The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855. p.391
  5. ^ Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1982. p.184
  6. ^ "In 412 Pulcheria quarreled with Antiochus, who like Anthemius had served the dynasty faithfully for a number of years, and induced her brother to dismiss him from the duties of praepositus. She then took personal charge of the imperial family, directing its affairs with such authority that she became known in society at large as the emperor's guardian." Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 91
  7. ^ Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
  8. ^ Kenneth G. Holum (1989). Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. University of California Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-520-90970-0.
  9. ^ Sozomen. The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855.
  10. ^ Sozomen, The Ecclesiastical History 9.1.3.; Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 93-94
  11. ^ Sozomen. The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855. p. 410
  12. ^ Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 91
  13. ^ "Although the empire was technically to be ruled by Theodosius II when he would come of age, his older sister Pulcheria exercised such profound influence over him all his life that she must be considered the co-regent of the empire until her death in 453. In fact it can be said without exaggeration that Pulcheria gave the identity to her brother's reign." from Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 42
  14. ^ "... how an emperor must walk, and ride his horse, alone or in procession; how he should sit upon his throne: how to wear his Imperial armor and robes; and how to speak with dignity. By no means must he yield to loud laughter …" Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 123
  15. ^ "He was by nature kind, affable, easily led … Not only was he foolishly kind; he was careless, and often he was to neglect his duty in the administration of his Empire." Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 125
  16. ^ Philostorgius, Ecclesiastical History, 12.7
  17. ^ "In it you clearly show how much you love the Catholic faith and how much you despise the errors of heretics." – Pope St. Leo the Great. St. Leo the Great: Letters. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C., New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc. 1957. p. 132
  18. ^ Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 98
  19. ^ Kenneth Holum writes "Pulcheria had long nursed a special hatred for Jews and Nestorian Christianity, which appeared to contemporaries to be of Jewish origin, no doubt served to confirm that hatred." Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 188
  20. ^ "Sozomen writes that it would take too much time to describe all the churches Pulcheria built, as well as hospitals and inns for the poor." – Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 49
  21. ^ "Some of these establishments were extensive enough to give the names of their proprietors to entire quarters of the city such as the 'Marina quarter' in the second region and the Pulcherianai in the eleventh." – Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 132
  22. ^ "…the entire Roman Church is most grateful to you for all the works of your faith, whether having assisted envoys in every way with devoted affection and for having brought back the Catholic bishops who were ejected from their churches by an unjust sentence, or for having brought back with fitting honor to the church he governed so well the remains of Flavian of holy memory, an innocent and Catholic bishop." Pope St. Leo the Great. St. Leo the Great: Letters. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C., New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc., 1957. p. 145.
  23. ^ a b Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 102
  24. ^ Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. pp. 110–111
  25. ^ Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 125.
  26. ^ Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 126
  27. ^ "She had always felt jealous of her sister-in-law, Pulcheria, who for many years had held greater influence at Court then she herself had enjoyed, as Empress, as wife." – Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 146
  28. ^ Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 146
  29. ^ Elton, H. (25 June 2019). Pulcheria, Roman Augusta, 414–453 CE. Oxford Classical Dictionary
  30. ^ "But she had been brought up in Athens in pagan ways; she had ever been devoted to the literature of her native Greece." – Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. p. 164
  31. ^ a b Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 208
  32. ^ Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. London: Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 9780415146883.
  33. ^ R.W. Burgess, 'The Accession of Marcian in the Light of Chalcedonian Apologetic and Monophysite Polemic', Byzantinische Zeitschrift 86/87 (1993/1994), 47–68.
  34. ^ Women in World History: A biographical encyclopedia. Edited by Anne Commire and Deborah Klezmer. Waterford, Connecticut: Yorkin Publications. 1999–2002. Page 840-841
  35. ^ Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 209
  36. ^ Marcellinus Comes, Chronicle a. 450; John Malalas, Chronographia 14.32
  37. ^ Cameron, Averil. The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600 London: Routledge, 1993. pp. 22–23
  38. ^ "The issue was whether, and, if so, how, Christ had two natures; the Monophysites held that he had only a divine nature, while Nestorius, and 'Nestorians' after him, emphasized the human." Cameron, Averil. The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600 London: Routledge, 1993. p. 23
  39. ^ "Nestorius took specific action against Pulcheria. He implied that she enjoyed illicit sexual relations with at least seven lovers. He also would not accede to her demand that she be remembered in prayers as the 'bride of Christ' since she had been 'corrupted by men'. Most egregious of all, he effaced her image which he had removed from above the altar; and he refused to use her robe as an altar cover," in Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 54
  40. ^ "The council was weighted heavily in favor of the Cyrillians, since they had 'planted' uncouth Alexandrians to heckle the Nestorians. They drove the emperor's ambassador and the Nestorian bishops out of the session, and then declared Nestorius a heretic." – Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 56
  41. ^ "Under such public pressure Theodosius succumbed to Pulcheria's demands and had Cyril's decree deposing Nestorius read in the Great Church. Nestorius was sent back to his monastery in Antioch…" – Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. pp. 56–57.
  42. ^ a b Cameron, Averil. The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600 London: Routledge, p. 23.
  43. ^ Rudge, F.M. "St. Flavian." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909
  44. ^ Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge, 1994. p. 57
  45. ^ a b "Mention of her death in the chronicles confirms that her passing, like that of Flacilla [her grandmother], struck like an earthquake in the dynastic city. Unlike Eudocia [wife of the late Theodosius], she lived out her life in Constantinople and its suburbs, forming a bond with its people which even death could not sever." Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 226.
  46. ^ "She became a saint of the church, both in West and in the East, where centuries later the faithful of Constantinople celebrated her memorial each year on September 10, bearing in mind her piety and virginity, her works of philanthropy and construction and especially her greatest triumph: 'she caused the holy synod to take place at Chalcedon'." Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 227
  47. ^ Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982. p. 107
  48. ^ Wortley, John (Winter 1980). "The Trier Ivory Reconsidered". Roman and Byzantine Studies. 21 (4): 381–394.
  49. ^ Niewöhner, Philipp. "CBOMGS seminar: The Trier Ivory, the Icon of Christ on the Chalke Gate, empress Irene's triumph over Iconoclasm and the church of St Euphemia at the Hippodrome". University of Birmingham. Retrieved 4 July 2014.

References

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  • Cameron, Averil. The Mediterranean World In Late Antiquity AD 395–600 London: Routledge.
  • Chestnut, Glenn F. The First Christian Histories: Eusibius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Evagrius. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. 1986 2nd Ed.
  • Duckett, Eleanor. Medieval Portraits from East and West. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 1972.
  • Garland, Lynda. Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. London: Routledge. 1999.
  • Holum, Kenneth G. Theodosian Empresses: Women and Imperial Dominion in Late Antiquity. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1982.
  • Jones, A.H.M; J.R. Martindale; and J. Morris. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1971.
  • Pope St. Leo the Great. St. Leo the Great: Letters. Translated by Brother Edmund Hunt, C.S.C. New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc. 1957.
  • Sozomen. The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1855.
  • Teetgen, Ada B. The Life and Times of Empress Pulcheria: A.D. 399–A.D. 452. London: Swan Sonnenshein & Co., Lim. 1907.
  • Turpin, Joanne. Women in Church History: 20 Stories for 20 Centuries. Cincinnati, OH: St. Anthony Messenger Press. 1986.
  • Limberis, Vasiliki. Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary and the Creation of Christian Constantinople. London and New York: Routledge. 1994.
  • "Pulcheria", Robert W. Hewsen. Women in World History: a Biographical Encyclopedia. Edited by Anne Commire and Deborah Klezmer. Waterford, CN: Yorkin Publications. 1999–2002. Vol. 12: O-Q. Pages 839-844
[edit]
Pulcheria
Born: 19 January 398/399 Died: July 453
Royal titles
Preceded by Byzantine Empress consort
450–453 		Succeeded by
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