Democratic-Republican Party: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|American political party (1792–1834)}} |
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{{Infobox_Historical_American_Political_Party |
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{{redirect|Democratic Republican|other uses|Democratic Republican (disambiguation)|and|Democratic Republican Party (disambiguation){{!}}Democratic Republican Party}} |
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| party_name = Democratic-Republican Party |
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{{Use American English|date=April 2019}} |
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| party_articletitle = Democratic-Republican Party (United States) |
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{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2016}} |
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| party_logo = |
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{{Infobox political party |
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| founders = [[Thomas Jefferson]]<br> [[James Madison]] |
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| colorcode = {{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}} |
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| foundation = [[1792]] |
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| name = Democratic-Republican Party |
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| disbanded = [[1828]] |
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| lang1 = Other |
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| ideology = [[Republicanism in the United States|Republicanism]]<br> |
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| name_lang1 = {{ubl|Jeffersonian Republicans|Republican Party|Democratic Party{{efn-la|name=internalNameLink}} }} |
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| footnotes = |
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| logo = Tricolour Cockade.svg |
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| founders = {{plainlist| |
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*[[Thomas Jefferson]] |
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*[[James Madison]]}} |
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| founded = {{nowrap|{{start date and age|1792|05|13|mf=y}}<ref name="bill 2047"/>}} |
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| dissolved = c. {{end date and age|1825}} |
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| predecessor = [[Anti-Administration party]] |
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| successor = {{plainlist| |
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*[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] |
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*[[National Republican Party]] |[[Whig]] |
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}} |
}} |
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| newspaper = ''[[National Gazette]]'' (1791–1793) |
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| ideology = [[Jeffersonian democracy]]<ref name="Larson 2007">{{cite book |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MXcCdlmwwecC |title=A Magnificent Catastrophe: The Tumultuous Election of 1800, America's First Presidential Campaign |year=2007 |isbn=9780743293174 |page=21 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |quote=The divisions between Adams and Jefferson were exasperated by the more extreme views expressed by some of their partisans, particularly the High Federalists led by Hamilton on what was becoming known as the political right, and the democratic wing of the Republican Party on the left, associated with New York Governor George Clinton and Pennsylvania legislator Albert Gallatin, among others. |author-link=Edward J. Larson}}</ref> |
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* [[Agrarianism]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/enwiki/w/Democratic-Republican_Party |title=Democratic-Republican Party |last=Ohio History Connection |website=[[Ohio History Central]] |access-date=August 30, 2017 |quote=Democratic-Republicans favored keeping the U.S. economy based on agriculture and said that the U.S. should serve as the agricultural provider for the rest of the world [...]. Economically, the Democratic-Republicans wanted to remain a predominantly agricultural nation, [...].}}</ref> |
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* [[Anti-clericalism]]<ref>{{cite journal |first=James R. |last=Beasley |date=1972 |title=Emerging Republicanism and the Standing Order: The Appropriation Act Controversy in Connecticut, 1793 to 1795 |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |volume=29 |issue=4 |page=604 |doi=10.2307/1917394 |jstor=1917394}}</ref> |
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* [[Liberalism in the United States#18th and 19th century|Classical liberalism]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Adams |first=Ian |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA32 |title=Political Ideology Today |edition=reprinted, revised |location=Manchester |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |page=32|isbn=9780719060205 |quote=Ideologically, all US parties are liberal and always have been. Essentially they espouse classical liberalism, that is a form of democratized Whig constitutionalism plus the free market. The point of difference comes with the influence of social liberalism.}}</ref> |
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* [[Republicanism in the United States|Republicanism]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Democratic-Republican-Party |title=Democratic-Republican Party |date=July 20, 1998 |access-date=August 30, 2017 |quote=The Republicans contended that the Federalists harboured aristocratic attitudes and that their policies placed too much power in the central government and tended to benefit the affluent at the expense of the common man. |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> |
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"Factions" |
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* [[Radicalism in the United States|Radicalism]]<ref name="Matthews 1984 p.">{{cite book |last=Matthews |first=Richard K. |title=The radical politics of Thomas Jefferson: a revisionist view |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence, KS |date=1984 |page=18 |isbn=0-7006-0256-9 |oclc=10605658}}</ref> |
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* [[Populism]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Wood|title=The American Revolution|page=100}}</ref> |
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* [[Social Liberalism]] |
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| headquarters = [[Washington, D.C.]] |
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| colors = {{plainlist| |
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{{color box|#002387|border=darkgray}} [[Blue]] {{color box|#FFFFFF|border=darkgray}} [[White]] {{color box|#CC0000|border=darkgray}} [[Red]]}}<br>{{color box|{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}|border=darkgray}} [[Green (color)|Green]] (customary) |
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| country = the United States |
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}} |
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{{liberalism US}} |
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The '''Republican Party''', known retrospectively as the '''Democratic-Republican Party''' (also referred to by historians as the '''Jeffersonian Republican Party'''){{efn-la|name=internalNameLink|Party members generally referred to it as the Republican Party; although the word ''Republican'' is not to be confused with the modern [[History of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party founded in the 1850s]]. To distinguish this party from the current Republican Party, political scientists usually use the term "Democratic-Republican".}}, was an [[Political parties in the United States|American political party]] founded by [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] in the early 1790s. It championed [[Liberalism in the United States|liberalism]], [[Republicanism in the United States|republicanism]], individual liberty, equal rights, separation of church and state, freedom of religion, decentralization, free markets, free trade, and [[agrarianism]]. In foreign policy it was hostile to Great Britain and the Netherlands and in sympathy with the [[French Revolution]] and [[Napoleonic wars]]. The party became increasingly dominant after the [[1800 United States elections|1800 elections]] as the opposing [[Federalist Party]] collapsed. |
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Increasing dominance over American politics led to increasing factional splits within the party. [[Old Republicans]], led by [[John Taylor of Caroline]] and [[John Randolph of Roanoke]], believed that the administrations of Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe—and the Congresses led by [[Henry Clay]]—had in some ways betrayed the republican "[[Principles of '98]]" by expanding the size and scope of the national government. The Republicans splintered during the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]]. Those calling for a return to the older founding principles of the party were often referred to as "Democratic Republicans" (later [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]]) while those embracing the newer nationalist principles of "[[American System (economic plan)|The American System]]" were often referred to as [[National Republicans]] (later [[Whig Party (United States)|Whigs]]).<ref name="pop style">{{Cite web |url=https://nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/populism-american-style |title=Populism, American Style |last=Olsen |first=Henry |date=Summer 2010 |access-date=30 May 2021 |publisher=National Affairs |quote="Amid the passion and the anger, Jefferson and Madison's Republican Party — the forerunner of today's Democrats — won the day; the coalition they built then proceeded to win every national election until 1824... The elections of 1828 and 1832 saw the ruling Republicans break into two factions: The minority faction — headed by incumbent president John Quincy Adams — became the National Republicans (and then the Whigs); it drew its support from the mercantile regions of the country, mainly New England and the large cities of the South. Members of the majority faction, meanwhile, renamed themselves the Democrats under the leadership of Andrew Jackson."}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/03/15/what-is-happening-to-the-republicans |title=What is Happening to the Republicans? |last=Cobb |first=Jelani |date=8 March 2021 |access-date=27 January 2022 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |quote=In the uproar that ensued, the Party split, with each side laying claim to a portion of its name: the smaller faction, led by Adams, became the short-lived National Republicans; the larger, led by Jackson, became the Democratic Party.}}</ref> |
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The '''Democratic-Republican Party''', founded by [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] as the '''Republican party''' in 1792, was the dominant political party in the United States from 1800 until the 1820s and the precursor of the modern-day [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]. The party and its members identified themselves as the '''Republican party''' (not related to the present-day [[History of the United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]), '''Republicans''', '''Jeffersonians''', '''Democratic-Republicans,''' less frequently '''Democrats''',<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe09/rbpe099/09901000/rbpe09901000.db&recNum=1&itemLink=r?ammem/rbpebib:@field%28NUMBER+@band%28rbpe+09901000%29%29:&linkText=0 Address of the Republican committee of the County of Gloucester, New-Jersey ... Gloucester County, December 15, 1800] and the last nominating caucus of the Party. {{cite journal|title = Anti Caucus/Caucus|journal=Washington Republican|date= [[February 6]], [[1824]]|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe19/rbpe192/1920070a/rbpe1920070a.db&recNum=0&itemLink=r?ammem/rbpe:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28rbpe1920070a%29%29%231920070a001&linkText=1}} </ref> or combinations of these (like ''Jeffersonian republicans'').<ref>Mathews, ''Dictionary of Americanisms'' (1951)</ref> |
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The Republican Party originated in [[United States Congress|Congress]] to oppose the nationalist and economically interventionist policies of [[Alexander Hamilton]], who served as [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] under President [[George Washington]]. The Republicans and the opposing [[Federalist Party]] each became more cohesive during Washington's second term, partly as a result of the debate over the [[Jay Treaty]]. Though he was defeated by Federalist [[John Adams]] in the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 presidential election]], Jefferson and his Republican allies came into power following the 1800 elections. As president, Jefferson presided over a reduction in the national debt and government spending, and completed the [[Louisiana Purchase]] with [[French First Republic|France]]. |
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Jefferson and Madison created the party in order to oppose the economic and foreign policies of the [[Federalist Party (United States)|Federalists]], a party created a year or so earlier by Treasury Secretary [[Alexander Hamilton]]. Foreign policy issues were central; the party opposed the [[Jay Treaty]] of 1794 with Britain (then at war with France) and supported good relations with [[France]] before 1801. The Party insisted on a [[strict construction]] of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]], and denounced many of Hamilton's proposals (especially the [[Bank of the United States|national bank]]) as unconstitutional. The party promoted [[states' rights]] and the primacy of the [[Yeoman#Yeoman Farmers|yeoman farmer]] over bankers, industrialists, merchants, and other monied interests. From 1792 to 1816 the party opposed such Federalist policies as high tariffs, a navy, military spending, a national debt, and a national bank. After the military defeats of the [[War of 1812]], however, the party split on these issues. Many younger party leaders, notably [[Henry Clay]], [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[John C. Calhoun]], became nationalists and wanted to build a strong national defense.<ref>Wiltse (1944), Chapters 8–11.</ref> Meanwhile, the "[[Old Republican]]" faction led by [[John Randolph of Roanoke]], [[William H. Crawford]] and [[Nathaniel Macon]] continued to oppose these policies. By 1828, the Old Republicans were supporting [[Andrew Jackson]] against Clay and Adams. |
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Madison succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809 and led the country during the largely inconclusive [[War of 1812]] with [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. After the war, Madison and his congressional allies established the [[Second Bank of the United States]] and implemented protective [[Tariffs in United States history|tariffs]], marking a move away from the party's earlier emphasis on [[states' rights]] and a strict construction of the [[United States Constitution]]. The Federalists collapsed after 1815, beginning a period known as the [[Era of Good Feelings]]. Lacking an effective opposition, the Republicans split into rival groups after the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]]: one faction supported President [[John Quincy Adams]], while another faction backed General [[Andrew Jackson]]. Jackson's supporters eventually coalesced into the Democratic Party, while supporters of Adams became known as the [[National Republican Party]], which itself later merged into the Whig Party. |
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The party's elected presidents were [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1800 and 1804), [[James Madison]] (1808 and 1812), and [[James Monroe]] (1816 and 1820). The party soon dominated Congress and most state governments outside of [[New England]]. By 1820, the Federalists were no longer acting as a national party; there was little to hold the Democratic-Republican Party together. William H. Crawford in 1824 was the last nominee by caucus; but the majority of the party boycotted the caucus. Crawford finished third in the election that year, behind John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. The Democratic-Republican party split into various factions during the 1824 election, some of which formed the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]. |
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Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the aristocratic tendencies of the Federalists. During the 1790s, the party strongly opposed Federalist programs, including the [[History of central banking in the United States|national bank]]. After the War of 1812, Madison and many other party leaders came to accept the need for a national bank and federally funded infrastructure projects. In foreign affairs, the party advocated western expansion and tended to favor France over Britain, though the party's pro-French stance faded after [[Napoleon]] took power. The Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the [[Southern United States|South]] and the [[American frontier|western frontier]], and weakest in [[New England]]. |
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[[Image:TJeffersonrpeale.jpg|thumb|right|[[Thomas Jefferson]], founder of the party.]] |
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===Founding=== |
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Madison started the party among Congressmen in Philadelphia (the national capital); then he, Jefferson, and others reached out to include state and local leaders around the country, especially New York and the South.<ref>Chambers, 81–91.</ref> The precise date of founding is disputed, but 1792 is a reasonable estimate; some time in the early 1790s is certain. The new party set up newspapers that made withering critiques of Hamiltonianism, extolled the yeomen farmer, argued for [[Strict constructionism|strict construction]] of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]], supported neutral relations with European powers, and called for stronger state governments than the Federalist Party was proposing.<ref>Cornell.</ref> |
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== History == |
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===Presidential Elections of 1792 and 1796 === |
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The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist [[John Beckley]] put it, as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest." In New York, the candidates for governor were [[John Jay]], a Federalist, and incumbent [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]], who was allied with Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, 288.</ref> |
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===Founding, 1789–1796=== |
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In [[United States presidential election, 1796|1796]], the party made its first bid for the [[President of the United States|presidency]] with Jefferson as its presidential candidate and [[Aaron Burr]] as its vice presidential candidate. Jefferson came in second in the [[electoral college]] and became vice president. He was a consistent and strong opponent of the policies of the [[John Adams|Adams]] administration. Jefferson and Madison, through the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]], announced the “[[Principles of 1798]],” which became the hallmark of the party. The most important of these principles were states' rights, opposition to a strong national government, skepticism in regard to the federal courts, and opposition to a [[Navy]] and a [[National Bank]]. The party saw itself as a champion of [[Republicanism in the United States|republicanism]] and viewed its opponents as supporters of the aristocracy, not of the people. |
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{{further|Presidency of George Washington|Anti-Administration party|First Party System}} |
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{{multiple image|align=right|total_width=300|image1=Official Presidential portrait of Thomas Jefferson (by Rembrandt Peale, 1800).jpg|image2=James Madison.jpg|caption1=[[Thomas Jefferson]], 3rd president of the United States (1801–1809)|caption2=[[James Madison]], 4th president of the United States (1809–1817)}} |
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In the [[1788–89 United States presidential election|1788–89 presidential election]], the first such election following the ratification of the [[United States Constitution]] in 1788, [[George Washington]] won the votes of every member of the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]].<ref name="GWelections">{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/washington/campaigns-and-elections |title=George Washington: Campaigns and Elections |last=Knott |first=Stephen |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |location=Charlottesville, Virginia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728033729/https://millercenter.org/president/washington/campaigns-and-elections |archive-date=July 28, 2017 |access-date=July 14, 2017}}</ref> His unanimous victory in part reflected the fact that no formal [[political parties]] had formed at the national level in the [[United States]] prior to 1789, though the country had been broadly polarized between the [[Federalism in the United States#Early federalism|Federalists]], who supported ratification of the Constitution, and the [[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalists]], who opposed ratification.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=25, 29}} Washington selected [[Thomas Jefferson]] as [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]] as [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]],<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 282–284</ref> and he relied on [[James Madison]] as a key adviser and ally in Congress.<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 292–293</ref> |
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Hamilton implemented an expansive economic program, establishing the [[First Bank of the United States]],<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 293–298</ref> and convincing Congress to [[Funding Act of 1790|assume the debts]] of state governments.<ref>{{harvp|Bordewich|2016}}, pp. 244–252</ref> Hamilton pursued his programs in the belief that they would foster a prosperous and stable country.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=44–45}} His policies engendered an opposition, chiefly concentrated in the [[Southern United States]], that objected to Hamilton's [[Anglophilia]] and accused him of unduly favoring well-connected wealthy Northern merchants and speculators. Madison emerged as the leader of the congressional opposition while Jefferson, who declined to publicly criticize Hamilton while both served in Washington's Cabinet, worked behind the scenes to stymie Hamilton's programs.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=45–48}} Jefferson and Madison established the ''[[National Gazette]]'', a newspaper which recast national politics not as a battle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, but as a debate between aristocrats and republicans.<ref>{{harvp|Wood|2009}}, pp. 150–151</ref> In the [[1792 United States presidential election|1792 election]], Washington effectively ran unopposed for president, but Jefferson and Madison backed New York Governor [[George Clinton (New York)|George Clinton]]'s unsuccessful attempt to unseat Vice President [[John Adams]].{{sfnp|Thompson|1980|pp=174–175}} |
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The party itself originally coalesced around Jefferson, who diligently maintained extensive correspondence with like-minded republican leaders throughout the country.<ref>Onuf.</ref> Washington frequently decried the growing sense of "party" emerging from the internal battles between Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, Adams and others in his administration. As tensions in Europe increased, the two factions increasingly found themselves on different sides of foreign policy issues, with the Democratic-Republicans favoring neutral ties with both France and England. The Democratic-Republicans opposed Hamilton's national bank and his belief that a national debt was good for the country. They strongly distrusted the elitism of Hamilton's circle, denouncing it as "aristocratic"; and they called for state's rights. Above all they disagreed with Hamilton's sense of the Constitution as an elastic, growing document. They feared this interpretation would allow the national government to centralize power. |
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Political leaders on both sides were reluctant to label their respective faction as a political party, but distinct and consistent voting blocs emerged in Congress by the end of 1793. Jefferson's followers became known as the Republicans (or sometimes as the Democratic-Republicans)<ref name="drname"/> and Hamilton's followers became the [[Federalist Party|Federalists]].<ref>{{harvp|Wood|2009}}, pp. 161–162</ref> While economic policies were the original motivating factor in the growing partisan split, foreign policy became even more important as war broke out between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] (favored by Federalists) and [[First French Republic|France]], which Republicans favored until 1799.<ref name="auto1">{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 299–302, 309–311</ref> Partisan tensions escalated as a result of the [[Whiskey Rebellion]] and Washington's subsequent denunciation of the [[Democratic-Republican Societies]], a type of new local political societies that favored democracy and generally supported the Jeffersonian position.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=60, 64–65}} Historians use the term "Democratic-Republican" to describe these new organizations, but that name was rarely used at the time. They usually called themselves "Democratic", "Republican", "True Republican", "Constitutional", "United Freeman", "Patriotic", "Political", "Franklin", or "Madisonian".<ref>Foner found only two that used the actual term "Democratic-Republican", including the "Democratic-Republican Society of Dumfries", Virginia, 1794. Philip S. Foner, ''The Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790-1800: A Documentary Source-book of Constitutions, Declarations, Addresses, Resolutions, and Toasts'' (1977) pp 350, 370.</ref> The ratification of the [[Jay Treaty]] with Britain further inflamed partisan warfare, resulting in a hardening of the divisions between the Federalists and the Republicans.<ref name="Ferling300s">{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 323–328, 338–344</ref> |
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The fierce debate over the [[Jay Treaty]] in 1794–95, transformed those opposed to Hamilton's policies from a loose movement into a true political party. To fight the treaty the Jeffersonians "established coordination in activity between leaders at the capital, and leaders, actives and popular followings in the states, counties and towns."<ref>Chambers, 80.</ref> |
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By 1795–96, election campaigns—federal, state and local—were waged primarily along partisan lines between the two national parties, although local issues continued to affect elections, and party affiliations remained in flux.<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2003}}, pp. 397–400</ref> As Washington declined to seek a third term, the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 presidential election]] became the first contested president election. Having retired from Washington's Cabinet in 1793, Jefferson had left the leadership of the Democratic-Republicans in Madison's hands. Nonetheless, the Democratic-Republican [[congressional nominating caucus]] chose Jefferson as the party's presidential nominee, in the belief that he would be the party's strongest candidate; the caucus chose Senator [[Aaron Burr]] of New York as Jefferson's running mate.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=72–73, 86}} Meanwhile, an informal caucus of Federalist leaders nominated a ticket of John Adams and [[Thomas Pinckney]].<ref name="mcdonald178181" /> Though the candidates themselves largely stayed out of the fray, supporters of the candidates waged an active campaign; Federalists attacked Jefferson as a [[Francophile]] and [[atheist]], while the Democratic-Republicans accused Adams of being an anglophile and a [[Monarchism|monarchist]].<ref name="JAelections">{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/adams/campaigns-and-elections |title=John Adams: Campaigns and Elections |last=Taylor |first=C. James |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |location=Charlottesville, Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2017}}</ref> Ultimately, Adams won the presidency by a narrow margin, garnering 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson, who became the vice president.<ref name="mcdonald178181">{{harvp|McDonald|1974}}, pp. 178–181</ref>{{efn-la|name=12thA|Prior to the ratification of the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]] in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between electoral votes for president and electoral votes for [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. Under these rules, an individual who received more votes than any other candidate, and received votes from a majority of the electors, was elected as president. If neither of those conditions were met, the House of Representatives would select the president through a contingent election in which each state delegation received one vote. After the selection of the president, the individual who finished with the most votes was elected as vice president, with the Senate holding a contingent election in the case of a tie.<ref>{{Citation |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |title=Contingent Election of the President and Vice President by Congress: Perspectives and Contemporary Analysis |date=3 November 2016 |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40504.pdf |publisher=Congressional Research Service}}</ref>}} |
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==Party Strength in Congress== |
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Historians have used statistical techniques to estimate the party breakdown in Congress. Many Congressmen were hard to classify in the first few years, but after 1796 there was less uncertainty. |
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===Adams and the Revolution of 1800=== |
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{| class=wikitable |
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{{Further|Presidency of John Adams}} |
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| |
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[[File:ElectoralCollege1800.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Thomas Jefferson]] defeated [[John Adams]] in the 1800 presidential election, thereby becoming the first Democratic-Republican president.]] |
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! colspan=10 | Election year |
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|- |
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! House |
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| 1788 |
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| 1790 |
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| 1792 |
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| 1794 |
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| 1796 |
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| 1798 |
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| 1800 |
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| 1802 |
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| 1804 |
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| 1806 |
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|- {{party shading/Federalist}} |
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! Federalist |
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| 37 |
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| 39 |
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| 51 |
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| 47 |
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| 57 |
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| 60 |
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| 38 |
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| 39 |
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| 25 |
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| 24 |
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|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} |
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! Democratic-Republican |
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| 28 |
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| 30 |
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| 54 |
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| 59 |
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| 49 |
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| 46 |
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| 65 |
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| 103 |
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| 116 |
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| 118 |
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|- |
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| % Democratic-Republican |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 43% |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 43% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 51% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 56% |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 46% |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 43% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 63% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 73% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 82% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 83% |
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|- |
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! Senate |
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|- {{party shading/Federalist}} |
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! Federalist |
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| 18 |
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| 16 |
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| 16 |
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| 21 |
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| 22 |
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| 22 |
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| 15 |
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| 9 |
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| 7 |
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| 6 |
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|- {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} |
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! Democratic-Republican |
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| 8 |
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| 13 |
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| 14 |
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| 11 |
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| 10 |
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| 10 |
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| 17 |
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| 25 |
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| 17 |
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| 28 |
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|- |
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| % Democratic-Republican |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 31% |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 45% |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 47% |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 34% |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 31% |
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| {{party shading/Federalist}} | 31% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 53% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 74% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 71% |
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| {{party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 82% |
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|} |
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:''Source: Kenneth C. Martis, ''The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 1789-1989'' (1989); the numbers are estimates by historians. '' |
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Shortly after Adams took office, he dispatched a group of envoys to seek peaceful relations with France, which had begun seizing American merchantmen trading with Britain after the ratification of the Jay Treaty. The failure of talks, and the French demand for bribes in what became known as the [[XYZ Affair]], outraged the American public and led to the [[Quasi-War]], an undeclared naval war between France and the United States. The Federalist-controlled Congress passed measures to expand the [[United States Armed Forces|American military]] and also pushed through the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]]. These acts restricted speech critical of the government while also implementing stricter naturalization requirements.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=77–78}} Numerous journalists and other individuals aligned with the Democratic-Republicans were prosecuted under the Sedition Act, sparking a backlash against the Federalists.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=80–82}} Meanwhile, Jefferson and Madison drafted the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]], which held that state legislatures could determine the constitutionality of federal laws.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=78–79}} |
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The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians; these were slowly coalescing groups with initially considerable independent thinking and voting; Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives, up till 1794, voted with Madison as much as two-thirds of the time, and another quarter against him two-thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent. [[Albert Gallatin]] recalled only two caucuses on legislative policy between 1795 and 1801, one over appropriations for Jay's Treaty, the other over the [[Quasi-War]], and in neither case did the party decide to vote unanimously.<ref>Cunningham (1957), 82.</ref> |
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In the [[1800 United States presidential election|1800 presidential election]], the Democratic-Republicans once again nominated a ticket of Jefferson and Burr. Shortly after a Federalist caucus re-nominated President Adams on a ticket with [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]], Adams dismissed two Hamilton allies from his Cabinet, leading to an open break between the two key figures in the Federalist Party.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=85–87}} Though the Federalist Party united against Jefferson's candidacy and waged an effective campaign in many states, the Democratic-Republicans won the election by winning most Southern electoral votes and carrying the crucial state of New York.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=86, 91–92}} |
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==Organizational strategy== |
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The new party invented some of the campaign and organizational techniques that were later adopted by the Federalists and became standard American practice. It was especially effective in building a network of [[History of American newspapers|newspapers]] in major cities to broadcast its statements and editorialize in its favor. [[Fisher Ames]], a leading Federalist, used the term "[[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]]" to link members of Jefferson's party to the terrorists of the [[French Revolution]]. He blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson; they were, he wrote, "an overmatch for any Government…. The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition."<ref>Cunningham (1957), 167.</ref> |
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A significant element in the party's success in New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore and other east-coast cities were [[Society of United Irishmen|United Irish]] exiles, and other [[Irish Americans|Irish immigrants]], whom the Federalists regarded with distinct suspicion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carter |first=Edward C. |title=A "Wild Irishman" under Every Federalist's Bed: Naturalization in Philadelphia, 1789-1806 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/987049 |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=178–189 |date=1989 |issn=0003-049X |jstor=987049}}</ref><ref name="Gilmore">{{cite book |last1=Gilmore |first1=Peter |last2=Parkhill |first2=Trevor |last3=Roulston |first3=William |title=Exiles of '98: Ulster Presbyterians and the United States |url=https://www.ancestryireland.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Exiles-lo-res.pdf |publisher=Ulster Historical Foundation |location=Belfast, UK |date=2018 |pages=25–37 |access-date=16 January 2021 |isbn=9781909556621}}</ref> Among these was [[William Duane (journalist)|William Duane]] who in his newspaper, the ''[[Philadelphia Aurora]]'', exposed the details of the [[James Ross (Pennsylvania politician)|Ross Bill]], by means of which the Federalist-controlled Congress sought to establish a closed-door Grand Committee with powers to disqualify [[United States Electoral College|College electors]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Weisberger |first=Bernard A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXU3KFC9lOcC |title=America Afire: Jefferson, Adams, and the First Contested Election |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-06-211768-7 |pages=235}}</ref> Adams was to name Duane one of the three or four men most responsible for his eventual defeat.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=Kim T. |date=1977 |title=William Duane, Philadelphia's Democratic Republicans, and the Origins of Modern Politics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20091178 |journal=The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=(365–387) 368 |jstor=20091178 |issn=0031-4587}}</ref> |
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As one historian explained, "It was the good fortune of the (Democratic-)Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability… to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand." Outstanding phrasemakers included editor [[William Duane]] and party leaders [[Albert Gallatin]], [[Thomas Cooper]] and Jefferson himself.<ref>Tinkcom, 271.</ref> |
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Jefferson and Burr both finished with 73 electoral votes, more than Adams or Pinckney, necessitating a contingent election between Jefferson and Burr in the House of Representatives.{{efn-la|name=12thA}} Burr declined to take his name out of consideration, and the House deadlocked as most Democratic-Republican congressmen voted for Jefferson and most Federalists voted for Burr. Preferring Jefferson to Burr, Hamilton helped engineer Jefferson's election on the 36th ballot of the contingent election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=92–94}} Jefferson would later describe the 1800 election, which also saw Democratic-Republicans gain control of Congress, as the "Revolution of 1800", writing that it was "as real of a revolution in the principles of our government as that of [1776] was in its form."{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=97–98}} In the final months of his presidency, Adams reached an agreement with France to end the Quasi-War<ref>{{harvp|Brown|1975}}, pp. 165–166</ref> and appointed several Federalist judges, including Chief Justice [[John Marshall]].<ref>{{harvp|Brown|1975}}, pp. 198–200</ref> |
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Just as important was effective party organization of the sort that [[John J. Beckley]] pioneered. In 1796, he managed the Jefferson campaign in Pennsylvania, blanketing the state with agents who passed out 30,000 hand-written tickets, naming all 15 electors (printed tickets were not allowed). Thus he told one agent, "In a few days a select republican friend from the City will call upon you with a parcel of tickets to be distributed in your County. Any assistance and advice you can furnish him with, as to suitable districts & characters, will I am sure be rendered." Beckley thus was the first American professional campaign manager, and his techniques were quickly adopted in other states.<ref>Cunningham (1956), 40–52.</ref> |
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===Jefferson's presidency, 1801–1809=== |
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The emergence of the new organizational strategies can be seen in the politics of Connecticut around 1806, which have been well-documented by Cunningham. The Federalists dominated Connecticut, so the Democratic-Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections. Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty." Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total up the number of taxpayers, the number of eligible voters, how many were "decided republicans," "decided federalists," or "doubtful," and finally to count the number of supporters who were not currently eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. These highly detailed returns were to be sent to the county manager. They in turn were to compile county-wide statistics and send it on to the state manager. Using the newly compiled lists of potential voters, the managers were told to get all the eligible people to the town meetings, and help the young men qualify to vote. At the annual official town meeting the managers were told to, "notice what republicans are present, and see that each stays and votes till the whole business is ended. And each District-Manager shall report to the Town-Manager the names of all republicans absent, and the cause of absence, if known to him." Of utmost importance the managers had to nominate candidates for local elections, and to print and distribute the party ticket. The state manager was responsible for supplying party newspapers to each town for distribution by town and district managers.<ref>Cunningham (1963), 129.</ref> This highly coordinated "get-out-the-vote" drive would be familiar to modern political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history. |
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{{Further|Presidency of Thomas Jefferson}} |
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[[File:Louisiana Purchase.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Louisiana Purchase]] in 1803 totaled {{convert|827,987|lk=in|sqmi|km2|abbr=off|sp=us}}, doubling the size of the United States.]] |
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Despite the intensity of the 1800 election, the transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans was peaceful.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=99–100}} In his inaugural address, Jefferson indicated that he would seek to reverse many Federalist policies, but he also emphasized reconciliation, noting that "every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle".{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=95–97}} He appointed a geographically balanced and ideologically moderate Cabinet that included Madison as Secretary of State and [[Albert Gallatin]] as Secretary of the Treasury; Federalists were excluded from the Cabinet, but Jefferson appointed some prominent Federalists and allowed many other Federalists to keep their positions.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=101–102}} Gallatin persuaded Jefferson to retain the First Bank of the United States, a major part of the Hamiltonian program, but other Federalist policies were scrapped.{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=291–296}} Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican allies eliminated the whiskey excise and other taxes,<ref>[[#Bailey2007|Bailey, 2007]], p. 216.</ref> shrank the army and the navy,<ref>[[#Chernow04|Chernow, 2004]], p. 671.</ref> repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and pardoned all ten individuals who had been prosecuted under the acts.{{sfnp|McDonald|1976|pp=41–42}} |
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With the repeal of Federalist laws and programs, many Americans had little contact with the federal government in their daily lives, with the exception of the [[United States Postal Service|postal service]].{{sfnp|Wood|2009|p=293}} Partly as a result of these spending cuts, Jefferson lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 million between 1801 and 1809.<ref name="Meacham387">[[#Meacham|Meacham, 2012]], p. 387.</ref> Though he was largely able to reverse Federalist policies, Federalists retained a bastion of power on the Supreme Court; [[Marshall Court]] rulings continued to reflect Federalist ideals until Chief Justice Marshall's death in the 1830s.<ref name="Appleby6569">Appleby, 2003, pp. 65–69</ref> In the Supreme Court case of ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'', the Marshall Court established the power of [[Judicial review in the United States|judicial review]], through which the [[Federal judiciary of the United States|judicial branch]] had the final word on the constitutionality of federal laws.<ref name="Appleby, 2003, pp. 7–8, 61–63">Appleby, 2003, pp. 7–8, 61–63</ref> |
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==Revolution of 1800== |
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===Jefferson's platform=== |
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Political parties in the 1790s did not issue official platforms, but Jefferson issued a major statement in January 1799 that was widely reprinted and circulated. It became the basis of his party's philosophy: |
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{{cquote|…In confutation of these and all future calumnies, by way of anticipation, I shall make to you a profession of my political faith; in confidence that you will consider every future imputation on me of a contrary complexion, as bearing on its front the mark of falsehood and calumny. |
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[[File:Albert Gallatin, by Rembrandt Peale, from life, 1805.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[Albert Gallatin]] served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents Jefferson and Madison.]] |
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I do then, with sincere zeal, wish an inviolable preservation of our present federal constitution, according to the true sense in which it was adopted by the States, that in which it was advocated by its friends, and not that which its enemies apprehended, who therefore became its enemies; and I am opposed to the monarchising its features by the forms of its administration, with a view to conciliate a first transition to a President and Senate for life, and from that to a hereditary tenure of these offices, and thus to worm out the elective principle. I am for preserving to the States the powers not yielded by them to the Union, and to the legislature of the Union its constitutional share in the division of powers. |
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By the time Jefferson took office, Americans had settled as far west as the [[Mississippi River]].{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=357–359}} Many in the United States, particularly those in the west, favored further territorial expansion, and especially hoped to annex the Spanish province of [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Louisiana]].{{sfnp|Appleby|2003|pp=63–64}} In early 1803, Jefferson dispatched [[James Monroe]] to France to join ambassador [[Robert R. Livingston (chancellor)|Robert Livingston]] on a diplomatic mission to purchase New Orleans.{{sfnp|Nugent|2008|pp=61–62}} To the surprise of the American delegation, Napoleon offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana for $15 million.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=108}} After Secretary of State James Madison gave his assurances that the purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution, the [[United States Senate|Senate]] quickly ratified the treaty, and the House immediately authorized funding.<ref name="Rodriguez97">[[#Rodriguez|Rodriguez, 2002]], p. 97.</ref> The Louisiana Purchase nearly doubled the size of the United States, and Treasury Secretary Gallatin was forced to borrow from foreign banks to finance the payment to France.{{sfnp|Appleby|2003|pp=64–65}} Though the Louisiana Purchase was widely popular, some Federalists criticized it; Congressman [[Fisher Ames]] argued that "We are to spend money of which we have too little for land of which we already have too much."{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=369–370}} |
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And I am not for transferring all the powers of the States to the general government, nor all those of that government to the Executive branch. I am for a government rigorously frugal and simple, applying all the possible savings of the public revenue to the discharge of the national debt; and not for a multiplication of officers and salaries merely to make partisans, and for increasing, by every device, the public debt, on the principle of it's being a public blessing. |
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By 1804, Vice President Burr had thoroughly alienated Jefferson, and the Democratic-Republican presidential nominating caucus chose George Clinton as Jefferson's running mate for the [[1804 United States presidential election|1804 presidential election]]. That same year, Burr challenged Hamilton to a [[Burr–Hamilton duel|duel]] after taking offense to a comment allegedly made by Hamilton; Hamilton died in the subsequent duel. Bolstered by a superior party organization, Jefferson won the 1804 election in a landslide over Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=115–116}} In 1807, as the [[Napoleonic Wars]] continued, the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] announced the [[Orders in Council (1807)|Orders in Council]], which called for a blockade on French-controlled ports.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|p=12}} In response to subsequent British and French searches of American shipping, the Jefferson administration passed the [[Embargo Act of 1807]], which cut off American trade with Europe.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|p=13}} The embargo proved unpopular and difficult to enforce, especially in Federalist-leaning [[New England]], and expired at the end of Jefferson's second term.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=130–134}} Jefferson declined to seek a third term in the [[1808 United States presidential election|1808 presidential election]], but helped Madison triumph over George Clinton and James Monroe at the party's congressional nominating caucus. Madison won the general election in a landslide over Pinckney.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=134–135}} |
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I am for relying, for internal defence, on our militia solely, till actual invasion, and for such a naval force only as may protect our coasts and harbors from such depredations as we have experienced; and not for a standing army in time of peace, which may overawe the public sentiment; nor for a navy, which, by its own expenses and the eternal wars in which it will implicate us, grind us with public burthens, and sink us under them. I am for free commerce with all nations, political connection with none, and little or no diplomatic establishment. |
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===Madison's presidency, 1809–1817=== |
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And I am not for linking ourselves by new treaties with the quarrels of Europe; entering that field of slaughter to preserve their balance, or joining in the confederacy of kings to war against the principles of liberty. I am for freedom of religion, and against all maneuvers to bring about a legal ascendancy of one sect over another: for freedom of the press, and against all violations of the constitution to silence by force and not by reason the complaints or criticisms, just or unjust, of our citizens against the conduct of their agents. |
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{{Further|Presidency of James Madison}} |
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{{multiple image|align=right|total_width=300|image1=Henry Clay 1848 restored.jpg|image2=George Peter Alexander Healy - John C. Calhoun - Google Art Project.jpg|caption1=[[Henry Clay]]|caption2=[[John C. Calhoun]]}} |
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As attacks on American shipping continued after Madison took office, both Madison and the broader American public moved towards war.<ref>{{harvp|Wills|2002|pages=94–96}}.</ref> Public resentment towards Britain led to the election of a new generation of Democratic-Republican leaders, including [[Henry Clay]] and [[John C. Calhoun]], who championed high [[Tariffs in United States history|tariffs]], federally funded [[internal improvement]]s and a jingoistic attitude towards Britain.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=147–148}} On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war.<ref>{{harvp|Wills|2002|pages=95–96}}.</ref> The declaration was passed largely along sectional and party lines, with intense opposition coming from the Federalists and some other congressmen from the Northeast.<ref name="RRA 217-224">Rutland, ''James Madison: The Founding Father'', pp. 217–24</ref> For many who favored war, national honor was at stake; [[John Quincy Adams]] wrote that the only alternative to war was "the abandonment of our right as an independent nation."{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=156}} George Clinton's nephew, [[DeWitt Clinton]], challenged Madison in the [[1812 United States presidential election|1812 presidential election]]. Though Clinton assembled a formidable coalition of Federalists and anti-Madison Democratic-Republicans, Madison won a close election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=156–159}} |
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Madison initially hoped for a quick end to the [[War of 1812]], but the war got off to a disastrous start as multiple American invasions of [[The Canadas|Canada]] were defeated.<ref>{{harvp|Wills|2002|pages=97–98}}.</ref> The United States had more military success in 1813, and American troops under [[William Henry Harrison]] defeated [[Tecumseh's confederacy]] in the [[Battle of the Thames]] in 1814, crushing Indian resistance to [[Territorial evolution of the United States|U.S. expansion]]. Britain shifted troops to North America in 1814 following Napoleon's abdication, and British forces [[Burning of Washington|captured and burnt Washington]] in August 1814.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=160–161}} In early 1815, Madison learned that his negotiators in Europe had signed the [[Treaty of Ghent]], ending the war without major concessions by either side.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=186–188}} Though it had no effect on the treaty, [[Andrew Jackson]]'s victory in the January 1815 [[Battle of New Orleans]] ended the war on a triumphant note.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=175–176}} Napoleon's defeat at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] in June 1815 brought a final end to the Napoleonic Wars and European interference with American shipping.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=192, 201}} With Americans celebrating a successful "second war of independence", the Federalist Party slid towards national irrelevance.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=211–212}} The subsequent period of virtually one-party rule by the Democratic-Republican Party is known as the "[[Era of Good Feelings]]."{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} |
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And I am for encouraging the progress of science in all its branches and not for raising a hue and cry against the sacred name of philosophy. For awing the human mind by stories of raw-head & bloody bones to a distrust of its own vision, & to repose implicitly on that of others, to go backwards instead of forwards to look for improvement, to believe that government, religion, morality, and every other science were in the highest perfection in ages of the darkest ignorance, and that nothing can ever be devised more perfect than what was established by our forefathers. |
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In his first term, Madison and his allies had largely hewed to Jefferson's domestic agenda of low taxes and a reduction of the national debt, and Congress allowed the national bank's charter to expire during Madison's first term.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=20, 68–70}} The challenges of the War of 1812 led many Democratic-Republicans to reconsider the role of the federal government.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=181–182}} When the [[14th United States Congress|14th Congress]] convened in December 1815, Madison proposed the re-establishment of the national bank, increased spending on the army and the navy, and a tariff designed to [[Protectionism|protect]] American goods from foreign competition. Madison's proposals were strongly criticized by strict constructionists like [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]], who argued that Madison's program "out-Hamiltons Alexander Hamilton."{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=195–198}} Responding to Madison's proposals, the 14th Congress compiled one of the most productive legislative records up to that point in history, enacting the [[Tariff of 1816]] and establishing the [[Second Bank of the United States]].{{sfnp|Howe|2007|pp=82–84}} At the party's 1816 [[congressional nominating caucus]], Secretary of State James Monroe defeated Secretary of War [[William H. Crawford]] in a 65-to-54 vote.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=15–18}} The Federalists offered little opposition in the [[1816 United States presidential election|1816 presidential election]] and Monroe won in a landslide election.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=18–19}} |
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To these I will add, that I was a sincere well-wisher to the success of the French revolution, and still wish it may end in the establishment of a free and well-ordered republic. But I have not been insensible under the atrocious depredations they have committed on our commerce.<ref>{{cite web | title = Thomas Jefferson to Elbridge Gerry, January 26, 1799, with Draft | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field(DOCID+@lit(tj090014)) | accessdate = 2006-08-10 }} See also: Peterson, 627.</ref>}} |
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===Monroe and Era of Good Feelings, 1817–1825=== |
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===Election of 1800=== |
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{{Further|Presidency of James Monroe}} |
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The party's electors secured a majority in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1800|1800]] election, but by an oversight, an equal number of electors cast votes for Jefferson and Burr. The tie sent the election to the House, and Federalists there blocked any choice. Finally Hamilton, believing that Burr would be a poor choice for president, arranged for Jefferson to win. Starting with 1800 in what Jefferson called the “[[Revolution of 1800]],” the party took control of the presidency and both houses of Congress, beginning a quarter century of control of those institutions. A faction called “Old Republicans” opposed the nationalism that grew popular after 1815; they were stunned when party leaders started a [[Second Bank of the United States]] in 1816. |
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[[File:James Monroe White House portrait 1819.jpg|thumb|[[James Monroe]], 5th President of the United States (1817–1825)]] |
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[[File:ElectoralCollege1824.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Four Democratic-Republicans sought the presidency in 1824: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay.]] |
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Monroe believed that the existence of political parties was harmful to the United States,{{sfnp|Howe|pp=93–94}} and he sought to usher in the end of the Federalist Party by avoiding divisive policies and welcoming ex-Federalists into the fold.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=19–21}} Monroe favored infrastructure projects to promote economic development and, despite some constitutional concerns, signed bills providing federal funding for the [[National Road]] and other projects.<ref name="JM:DA">{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/monroe/domestic-affairs |title=James Monroe: Domestic Affairs |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=February 22, 2017}}</ref> Partly due to the mismanagement of national bank president [[William Jones (statesman)|William Jones]], the country experienced a prolonged economic recession known as the [[Panic of 1819]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=206–207}} The panic engendered a widespread resentment of the national bank and a distrust of [[banknote|paper money]] that would influence national politics long after the recession ended.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=209–210, 251–252}} Despite the ongoing economic troubles, the Federalists failed to field a serious challenger to Monroe in the [[1820 United States presidential election|1820 presidential election]], and Monroe won re-election essentially unopposed.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=217}} |
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During the proceedings over the admission of [[Missouri Territory]] as a state, Congressman [[James Tallmadge, Jr.]] of New York "tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings" by proposing amendments providing for the eventual exclusion of slavery from Missouri.{{sfnp|Howe|2007|p=147}} The amendments sparked the first major national [[slavery in the United States|slavery]] debate since the ratification of the Constitution,{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=28–29}} and instantly exposed the [[Sectionalism|sectional]] polarization over the issue of slavery.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2004|p=376|ps=: "[T]he sectional divisions among the Jeffersonian Republicans...offers historical paradoxes...in which hard-line slaveholding Southern Republicans rejected the egalitarian ideals of the slaveholder [Thomas] Jefferson while the antislavery Northern Republicans upheld them – even as Jefferson himself supported slavery's expansion on purportedly antislavery grounds.}} Northern Democratic-Republicans formed a coalition across partisan lines with the remnants of the Federalist Party in support of the amendments, while Southern Democratic-Republicans were almost unanimously against such the restrictions.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2004|pp=380, 386}} In February 1820, Congressman [[Jesse B. Thomas]] of [[Illinois]] proposed [[Missouri Compromise|a compromise]], in which Missouri would be admitted as a slave state, but slavery would be excluded in the remaining [[Territories of the United States|territories]] north of the [[parallel 36°30′ north]].{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=101–103}} A bill based on Thomas's proposal became law in April 1820.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=103–104}} |
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In 1804, the party's Congressional caucus for the first time created a sort of national committee, with members from 13 states charged with "promoting the success of the republican nominations."<ref>Cunningham (1978). ''The Process of Government Under Jefferson'', 278–279.</ref> That committee later was disbanded and did not become permanent. Unlike the Federalists, the party never held a national convention but always relied on its Congressional caucus to select the national ticket. That caucus, however, did not deal with legislative issues, which were handled by the elected Speaker and informal floor leaders. The state legislatures often instructed members of Congress how to vote on specific issues. More exactly, they "instructed" the Senators (who were elected by the legislatures), and "requested" the Representatives (who were elected by the people.) On rare occasions a Senator resigned rather than follow instructions.<ref>Cunningham (1978). ''The Process of Government Under Jefferson'', 288.</ref> |
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By 1824, the Federalist Party had largely collapsed as a national party, and the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]] was waged by competing members of the Democratic-Republican Party.{{sfnp|Parsons|2009|pages=70–72}} The party's congressional nominating caucus was largely ignored, and candidates were instead nominated by state legislatures.{{sfnp|Parsons|2009|pages=79–86}} Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, former Speaker of the House Henry Clay, Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford, and General [[Andrew Jackson]] emerged as the major candidates in the election.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=386–389}} The regional strength of each candidate played an important role in the election; Adams was popular in New England, Clay and Jackson were strong in the West, and Jackson and Crawford competed for the South.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=386–389}} |
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The opposition Federalist Party, suffering from a lack of leadership after the |
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collapse of Hamilton and the retirement of [[John Adams]], quickly declined; it revived briefly in opposition to the [[War of 1812]] but the extremism of its [[Hartford Convention]] of 1815 utterly destroyed it as a political force. |
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As no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote in the 1824 election, the House of Representatives held a [[contingent election]] to determine the president.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=391–393, 398}} Clay personally disliked Adams but nonetheless supported him in the contingent election over Crawford, who opposed Clay's nationalist policies, and Jackson, whom Clay viewed as a potential tyrant.{{efn|Clay himself was not eligible in the contingent election because the House could only choose from the top-three candidates in the electoral vote tally. Clay finished a close fourth to Crawford in the electoral vote.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=254–255}}}} With Clay's backing, Adams won the contingent election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=254–255}} After Clay accepted appointment as Secretary of State, Jackson's supporters claimed that Adams and Clay had reached a "[[Corrupt Bargain]]" in which Adams promised Clay the appointment in return for Clay's support in the contingent election.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=391–393, 398}} Jackson, who was deeply angered by the result of the contingent election, returned to Tennessee, where the state legislature quickly nominated him for president in the [[1828 United States presidential election|1828 election]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=256–257}} |
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==Monroe and Adams, 1816-1828== |
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In rapidly expanding western states, the Federalists had few supporters. Every state had a distinct political geography that shaped party membership. In Pennsylvania, the Democratic-Republicans were weakest around [[Philadelphia]] and strongest in [[Scots-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]] settlements in the west. Members came from all social classes, but came predominantly from the poor, subsistence farmers, mechanics and tradesmen.<ref>Klein, 44.</ref> After the [[War of 1812]], partisanship subsided across the young republic—people called it the [[Era of Good Feeling]]. James Monroe narrowly won the party's nomination for President in Congress over [[William H. Crawford|William Crawford]] in 1816 and defeated Federalist [[Rufus King]] in the general election. |
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=== Final years, 1825–1829 === |
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In the early years of the party, the key central organization grew out of caucuses of Congressional leaders in Washington. However, the key battles to choose electors occurred in the states, not in the caucus. In many cases, legislatures still chose electors; in others, the election of electors was heavily influenced by local parties that were heavily controlled by relatively small groups of officials. Without a significant Federalist opposition, the need for party unity was greatly diminished and the party's organization faded away. |
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{{Further|Presidency of John Quincy Adams}} |
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[[File:JQA Photo.tif|thumb|upright=1.0|[[John Quincy Adams]] won the 1824 presidential election as a Democratic-Republican after leaving the Federalist Party earlier in his career.]] |
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Adams shared Monroe's goal of ending partisan conflict, and his Cabinet included individuals of various ideological and regional backgrounds.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=106–107}}.</ref> In his 1825 annual message to Congress, Adams presented a comprehensive and ambitious agenda, calling for major investments in internal improvements as well as the creation of a national university, a naval academy, and a national astronomical observatory.<ref>{{harvp|Kaplan|2014|pages=402–403}}.</ref> His requests to Congress galvanized the opposition, spurring the creation of an anti-Adams congressional coalition consisting of supporters of Jackson, Crawford, and Vice President Calhoun.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=114–120}}.</ref> Following the 1826 elections, Calhoun and [[Martin Van Buren]] (who brought along many of Crawford's supporters) agreed to throw their support behind Jackson in the 1828 election.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=127–128}}.</ref> In the press, the two major political factions were referred to as "Adams Men" and "Jackson Men".<ref name="Howe 2007 251">{{harvp|Howe|2007|p=251}}</ref> |
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The Jacksonians formed an effective party apparatus that adopted many modern campaign techniques and emphasized Jackson's popularity and the supposed corruption of Adams and the federal government.<ref>{{harvp|Howe|2007|pp=275–277}}</ref> Though Jackson did not articulate a detailed political platform in the same way that Adams did, his coalition was united in opposition to Adams's reliance on government planning and tended to favor the opening of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] lands to white settlement.<ref>{{harvp|Howe|2007|pp=279–280}}</ref> Ultimately, Jackson won 178 of the 261 electoral votes and just under 56 percent of the popular vote.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=181–183}}.</ref> Jackson won 50.3 percent of the popular vote in the free states and 72.6 percent of the vote in the slave states.<ref>{{harvp|Howe|2007|pp=281–283}}</ref> The election marked the permanent end of the Era of Good Feelings and the start of the [[Second Party System]]. The dream of non-partisan politics, shared by Monroe, Adams, and many earlier leaders, was shattered, replaced with Van Buren's ideal of partisan battles between legitimated political parties.<ref name="auto">{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=185–187, 195}}.</ref> |
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[[James Monroe]] ran under the party's banner in [[U.S. presidential election, 1820|1820]] and built support by consensus. Monroe faced no serious rival and was nearly unanimously elected by the electoral college. The party's historic domination by the Virginian delegation faded as New York and Pennsylvania became more important. In [[U.S. presidential election, 1824|1824]], most of the party in Congress boycotted the caucus; only a small rump group backed [[William H. Crawford|William Crawford]]. The Crawford faction included most "Old Republicans," who remained committed to states' rights and the Principles of 1798, and distrustful of the nationalizing program promoted by [[Henry Clay]] and [[John C. Calhoun]]. Following the lead of former Crawford supporter [[Martin Van Buren]], the Old Republicans mostly supported [[Andrew Jackson]] by the late 1820s. |
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== {{anchor|Party Name}} Origins of party name == |
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Thomas Jefferson wrote on the state of party politics in the early 1820s: |
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In the 1790s, political parties were new in the United States and people were not accustomed to having formal names for them. There was no single official name for the Democratic-Republican Party, but party members generally called themselves Republicans and voted for what they called the "Republican party", "republican ticket" or "republican interest".<ref name="Republican_name_1">For examples of original quotes and documents from various states, see Cunningham, Noble E., ''Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization: 1789–1801'' (1957), pp. 48, 63–66, 97, 99, 103, 110, 111, 112, 144, 151, 153, 156, 157, 161, 163, 188, 196, 201, 204, 213, 218 and 234.<br />See also "[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe09/rbpe099/09901000/rbpe09901000.db&recNum=1&itemLink=r?ammem/rbpebib:@field%28NUMBER+@band%28rbpe+09901000%29%29:&linkText=0 Address of the Republican committee of the County of Gloucester, New-Jersey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021164216/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe09%2Frbpe099%2F09901000%2Frbpe09901000.db&recNum=1&itemLink=r%3Fammem%2Frbpebib%3A%40field%28NUMBER+%40band%28rbpe+09901000%29%29%3A&linkText=0 |date=October 21, 2017 }}", Gloucester County, December 15, 1800.</ref><ref name="Republican_name_2">Jefferson used the term "republican party" in a letter to Washington in May 1792 to refer to those in Congress who were his allies and who supported the existing republican constitution. {{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28tj060237%29%29 |title=Thomas Jefferson to George Washington, May 23, 1792 |access-date=October 4, 2006}} At a conference with Washington a year later, Jefferson referred to "what is called the republican party here". Bergh, ed. ''Writings of Thomas Jefferson'' (1907) 1:385, 8:345</ref> Jefferson and Madison often used the terms "republican" and "Republican party" in their letters.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=05/mjm05.db&recNum=591 |title=James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 2, 1794 |access-date=October 14, 2006}} "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose." See also: Smith, 832.<br />{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=11/mjm11.db&recNum=94 |title=James Madison to William Hayward, March 21, 1809. Address to the Republicans of Talbot Co. Maryland |access-date=October 27, 2006}}<br />{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28tj060237%29%29 |title=Thomas Jefferson to John Melish, January 13, 1813 |access-date=October 27, 2006}} "The party called republican is steadily for the support of the present constitution"<br />{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=17/mjm17.db&recNum=308 |title=James Madison to Baltimore Republican Committee, April 22, 1815 |access-date=October 27, 2006}}<br />{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=20/mjm20.db&recNum=428 |title=James Madison to William Eustis, May 22, 1823 |access-date=October 27, 2006}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=I6tLmjLqRfAC&pg=PA317 Transcript]. "The people are now able every where to compare the principles and policy of those who have borne the name of Republicans or Democrats with the career of the adverse party and to see and feel that the former are as much in harmony with the Spirit of the Nation as the latter was at variance with both."</ref> As a general term (not a party name), the word republican had been in widespread usage from the 1770s to describe the type of government the break-away colonies wanted to form: a republic of three separate branches of government derived from some principles and structure from ancient republics; especially the emphasis on [[civic duty]] and the opposition to corruption, elitism, aristocracy and monarchy.<ref>Banning, 79–90.</ref> |
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{{cquote|An opinion prevails that there is no longer any distinction, that the republicans & Federalists are compleatly amalgamated but it is not so. The amalgamation is of name only, not of principle. All indeed call themselves by the name of Republicans, because that of Federalists was extinguished in the battle of New Orleans. But the truth is that finding that monarchy is a desperate wish in this country, they rally to the point which they think next best, a consolidated government. Their aim is now therefore to break down the rights reserved by the constitution to the states as a bulwark against that consolidation, the fear of which produced the whole of the opposition to the constitution at its birth. Hence new Republicans in Congress, preaching the doctrines of the old Federalists, and the new nick-names of Ultras and Radicals. But I trust they will fail under the new, as the old name, and that the friends of the real constitution and union will prevail against consolidation, as they have done against monarchism. I scarcely know myself which is most to be deprecated, a consolidation, or dissolution of the states. The horrors of both are beyond the reach of human foresight.<ref>{{cite web | title = Thomas Jefferson to William Johnson, October 27, 1822 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page053.db&recNum=457 | accessdate = 2006-10-02 }} See also: {{cite web | title = Thomas Jefferson to William Johnson, June 12, 1823 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page053.db&recNum=997}} [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0Fz_zz_wSWAiVg9LI1&id=vvVVhCadyK4C&pg=PA290 Transcript]. {{cite web | title = Thomas Jefferson to Edward Livingston, April 4, 1824 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page054.db&recNum=440}} [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0Fz_zz_wSWAiVg9LI1&id=vvVVhCadyK4C&pg=PA342 Transcript]. {{cite web | title = Thomas Jefferson to William Short, January 8, 1825 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28ws03131%29%29}} {{cite web | title = Thomas Jefferson to William B. Giles, December 26, 1825 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page055.db&recNum=767}} [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0Fz_zz_wSWAiVg9LI1&id=vvVVhCadyK4C&pg=PA426 Transcript].</ref>}} |
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The term "Democratic-Republican" was used by contemporaries only occasionally,<ref name="drname">See ''The Aurora General Advertiser'' (Philadelphia), April. 30, 1795, p. 3; ''New Hampshire Gazette'' (Portsmouth), October 15, 1796, p. 3; ''Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser'' (Philadelphia), October 10, 1797, p. 3; ''Columbian Centinel'' (Boston), September 15, 1798, p. 2; ''Alexandria (VA) Times'', October 8, 1798, p. 2; ''Daily Advertiser'' (New York), September 22, 1800, p. 2 & November 25, 1800, p. 2; ''The Oracle of Dauphin'' (Harrisburg), October 6, 1800, p. 3; ''Federal Gazette'' (Baltimore), October 23, 1800, p. 3; ''The Spectator'' (New York), October 25, 1800, p. 3; ''Poulson's American Daily Advertiser'' (Philadelphia), November 19, 1800, p. 3; ''Windham (CT) Herald'', November 20, 1800, p. 2; ''City Gazette'' (Charleston), November 22, 1800, p. 2; ''The American Mercury'' (Hartford), November 27, 1800, p. 3; and ''[[Constitutional Telegraphe]]'' (Boston), November 29, 1800, p. 3.<br/>After 1802, some local organizations slowly began merging "Democratic" into their own name and became known as the "Democratic Republicans". Examples include [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page025.db&recNum=1138 1802], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/rbpebib:@OR%28@field%28AUTHOR+@3%28Independent+Republican+Citizens,+Philadelphia+County++%29%29+@field%28OTHER+@3%28Independent+Republican+Citizens,+Philadelphia+County++%29%29%29 1803], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/rbpebib:@OR%28@field%28TITLE+@od1%28To+the+Democratic+Republican+electors,+of+the+State+of+Pennsylvania++Fellow+Citizens++The+choice+of+electors+of+the+President+and+Vice-President,+is+to+be+made+on+Friday,+the+2d+of+November+++++Benjamin+Franklin+Bache++%5B1804+++%29%29+@field%28ALTTITLE+@od1%28To+the+Democratic+Republican+electors,+of+the+State+of+Pennsylvania++Fellow+Citizens++The+choice+of+electors+of+the+President+and+Vice-President,+is+to+be+made+on+Friday,+the+2d+of+November+++++Benjamin+Franklin+Bache++%5B1804+++%29%29%29 1804], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(sj003543)) 1804], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/rbpebib:@OR%28@field%28AUTHOR+@3%28Democratic+Republican+corresponding+committee++Newcastle+County++Delaware++%29%29+@field%28OTHER+@3%28Democratic+Republican+corresponding+committee++Newcastle+County++Delaware++%29%29%29 1805], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page036.db&recNum=1114 1806], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page037.db&recNum=643 1807], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page041.db&recNum=667 1808], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page043.db&recNum=1023 1809].</ref> but is used by modern political scientists.{{sfnp|Brown|1999|p=17}} Historians often refer to the "Jeffersonian Republicans".<ref>{{cite news |last=Onuf |first=Peter |url=https://millercenter.org/president/jefferson/impact-and-legacy |title=Thomas Jefferson: Impact and Legacy |date=August 12, 2019 |publisher=Miller Center}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/defense/energy-government-and-defense-magazines/jeffersonian-republican-party |title=Jeffersonian Republican Party |website=Encyclopedia.com |publisher=The Gale Group |access-date=August 12, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Noah |url=https://archive.org/details/acollectionpape00websgoog |title=A Collection of Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects |publisher=Webster & Clark |year=1843 |page=[https://archive.org/details/acollectionpape00websgoog/page/n338 332] |quote=From the time when the anti-federal party assumed the more popular appellation of republican, which was soon after the arrival of the French minister in 1793, that epithet became a powerful instrument in the process of making proselytes to the party. The influence of names on the mass of mankind, was never more distinctly exhibited, than in the increase of the democratic party in the United States. |author-link=Noah Webster}}</ref> The term "Democratic Party" was first used pejoratively by Federalist opponents.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Kenneth |last1=Janda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VZ6aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA212 |title=The Challenge of Democracy: American Government in Global Politics 13th ed. |first2=Jeffrey M. |last2=Berry |first3=Jerry |last3=Goldman|first4=Deborah |last4=Deborah |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |year=2015 |isbn=9781305537439 |page=212}}</ref><ref>In a private letter in September 1798, George Washington wrote, "You could as soon as scrub the blackamore white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country." {{cite book |last=George Washington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4GyAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA474 |title=The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources 1745-1799 Volume 36 August 4, 1797-October 28, 1798 |year=1939 |isbn=9781623764463 |page=474| publisher=Best Books on }}</ref> Historians argue that the party died out before the present-day [[History of the Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] was formed. However, since the days of Franklin Roosevelt Democratic politicians proudly claim Jefferson as their founder.<ref name="bill 2047">{{citation|title= S.2047 – A bill to establish a commission to commemorate the bicentennial of the establishment of the Democratic Party of the United States.|author=((102nd Congress))|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/102nd-congress/senate-bill/2047/text|year=1991}} "In 1992, the Democratic Party of the United States will celebrate the 200th anniversary of its establishment on May 13, 1792... Thomas Jefferson founded the first political party in the United States, the Democratic Party, which was originally known as the Republican Party."</ref> |
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In the aftermath of the disputed [[United States presidential election, 1824|1824]] election, the separate factions took on many characteristics of parties in their own right. Adams' supporters, in league with Clay, favored modernization, banks, industrial development, and federal spending for roads and other internal improvements, which the Old Republicans and the Jackson men usually opposed. Writing in his personal journal on [[December 13]], [[1826]], President Adams noted the difficulty he faced in attempting to be nonpartisan in appointing men to office:{{cquote|And it is upon the occasion of appointments to office that all the wormwood and the gall of the old party hatred ooze out. Not a vacancy to any office occurs but there is a distinguished federalist started and pushed home as a candidate to fill it—always well qualified, sometimes in an eminent degree, and yet so obnoxious to the Democratic-Republican party, that he cannot be appointed without exciting a vehement clamor against him and the Administration. It becomes thus impossible to fill any appointment without offending one half of the community—the federalists, if their associate is overlooked; the Republicans, if he is preferred.<ref>Adams, 207–208.</ref>}} |
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== Ideology == |
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Presidential electors were now all chosen by direct election, except in South Carolina, where the state legislatures chose them. White manhood suffrage was the norm throughout the West and in most of the East as well. The voters thus were much more powerful, and to win their votes required complex party organization. The Jacksonians, under the leadership of [[Martin Van Buren]], built strong state and local organizations throughout the country. President Adams was defeated by Andrew Jackson in the election of [[United States presidential election, 1828|1828]]. |
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{{Further|Jeffersonian democracy|Thomas Jefferson#Political, social and religious views}} |
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The Democratic-Republican Party saw itself as a champion of republicanism and denounced the Federalists as supporters of monarchy and aristocracy.<ref name="sharp/">James Roger Sharp, ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis'' (1993).</ref>{{page needed|date=October 2019}} Ralph Brown writes that the party was marked by a "commitment to broad principles of personal liberty, social mobility, and westward expansion."{{sfnp|Brown|1999|p=19}} Political scientist James A. Reichley writes that "the issue that most sharply divided the Jeffersonians from the Federalists was not states rights, nor the national debt, nor the national Bank... but the question of social equality."{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|p=52}} In a world in which few believed in democracy or egalitarianism, Jefferson's belief in political equality stood out from many of the other leaders who held that the wealthy should lead society. His opponents, says Susan Dunn{{who|date=November 2022}}, warned that Jefferson's "Republicans would turn America upside down, permitting the [[hoi polloi]] to govern the nation and unseating the wealthy social elite, long accustomed to wielding political power and governing the nation."<ref>Susan Dunn, ''Jefferson's second revolution: the election crisis of 1800 and the triumph of republicanism'' (HMH, 2004) p 1.</ref> Jefferson advocated a philosophy that historians call [[Jeffersonian democracy]], which was marked by his belief in [[agrarianism]] and [[limited government|strict limits on the national government]].{{sfnp|Appleby|2003|pp=1–5}} Influenced by the Jeffersonian belief in equality, by 1824 all but three states had removed property-owning requirements for voting.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|p=57}} |
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Though open to some redistributive measures, Jefferson saw a strong centralized government as a threat to freedom.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=55–56}} Thus, the Democratic-Republicans opposed Federalist efforts to build a strong, centralized state, and resisted the establishment of a national bank, the build-up of the army and the navy, and passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=51–52}} Jefferson was especially averse to a national debt, which he believed to be inherently dangerous and immoral.{{sfnp|McDonald|1976|pp=42–43}} After the party took power in 1800, Jefferson became increasingly concerned about foreign intervention and more open to programs of economic development conducted by the federal government. In an effort to promote economic growth and the development of a diversified economy, Jefferson's Democratic-Republican successors would oversee the construction of numerous federally funded infrastructure projects and implement protective tariffs.{{sfnp|Brown|1999|pp=19–20}} |
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==Party name== |
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While economic policies were the original catalyst to the partisan split between the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists, foreign policy was also a major factor that divided the parties. Most Americans supported the French Revolution prior to the [[Execution of Louis XVI]] in 1793, but Federalists began to fear the radical egalitarianism of the revolution as it became increasingly violent.<ref name="auto1"/> Jefferson and other Democratic-Republicans defended the French Revolution {{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=35–36}} until [[Napoleon]] ascended to power.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=108}} Democratic-Republican foreign policy was marked by support for expansionism, as Jefferson championed the concept of an "[[Empire of Liberty]]" that centered on the acquisition and settlement of western territories.{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=357–358}} Under Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, the United States completed the Louisiana Purchase, acquired [[Spanish Florida]], and reached a treaty with Britain providing for shared sovereignty over [[Oregon Country]].{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} In 1823, the Monroe administration promulgated the [[Monroe Doctrine]], which reiterated the traditional [[United States non-interventionism|U.S. policy of neutrality]] with regard to European wars and conflicts, but declared that the United States would not accept the recolonization of any country by its former European master.<ref name="JMforeign">{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/monroe/foreign-affairs |title=James Monroe: Foreign Affairs |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=February 25, 2017}}</ref> |
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The name of the party evolved over the period of its rise and decline as a cohesive party. Party members in the 1790s called themselves ''republicans'' or ''Republicans'',<ref>The use of capital letters was erratic in that era.</ref> and voted for what they called the ''Republican party'', ''republican ticket'', or the ''republican interest''; occasionally other names were used.<ref>Cunningham (1957) provides original quotes and documents from various states on pages 48, 63-66, 97, 99, 103, 110, 111, 112, 144, 151, 153, 156, 157, 161, 163, 188, 196, 201, 204, 213, 218 and 234.</ref> Both "Federalist" and "Republican" were positive words in the 1790s, and both parties sometimes claimed them; so Republicans occasionally called themselves ''Federalist'' or ''Federalist Republicans''.<ref>Cunningham (1957), p. 111, 218. Conversely, the Federalist ticket in Pennsylvania in 1796 was called "Federalist and Republican" and similar forms were used elsewhere; the Virginia Federalists called themselves the "American Republican Ticket" in 1800.</ref> |
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=== Slavery === |
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The term "Republican" emphasizes devotion to [[republicanism in the United States|republicanism]]. The word "republican" was used by most Americans in the late 18th century to indicate the new nation's political values, especially its devotion to opposition to corruption, elitism, and monarchies;<ref>Banning, 79–90.</ref> Jefferson used the term "republican party," meaning those in Congress who were his allies, and supported the existing republican Constitution, in a letter to Washington as early as May 1792.<ref>{{cite web | title = Thomas Jefferson to George Washington, May 23, 1792 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28tj060237%29%29| accessdate = 2006-10-04}} At a conference with Washington a year later, Jefferson referred to "what is called the republican party here." Bergh, ed. ''Writings of Thomas Jefferson'' (1907) 1:385, 8:345</ref> From 1794 through 1823, Jefferson and Madison routinely used the term "republican" and the "Republican party."<ref>{{cite web | title = James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 2, 1794 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=05/mjm05.db&recNum=591 | accessdate = 2006-10-14}} "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose." See also: Smith, 832.</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = James Madison to William Hayward, March 21, 1809. Address to the Republicans of Talbot Co. Maryland | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=11/mjm11.db&recNum=94| accessdate = 2006-10-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Thomas Jefferson to John Melish, January 13, 1813 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28tj060237%29%29| accessdate = 2006-10-27}} "The party called republican is steadily for the support of the present constitution"</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = James Madison to Baltimore Republican Committee, April 22, 1815 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=17/mjm17.db&recNum=308| accessdate = 2006-10-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = James Madison to William Eustis, May 22, 1823 | url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=20/mjm20.db&recNum=428| accessdate = 2006-10-27}} [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC04075562&id=I6tLmjLqRfAC&pg=PA317 Transcript]. "The people are now able every where to compare the principles and policy of those who have borne the name of Republicans or Democrats with the career of the adverse party. and to see and feel that the former are as much in harmony with the Spirit of the Nation as the latter was at variance with both."</ref> |
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From the foundation of the party, slavery divided the Democratic-Republicans. Many Southern Democratic-Republicans, especially from the Deep South, defended the institution. Jefferson and many other Democratic-Republicans from Virginia held an ambivalent view on slavery; Jefferson believed it was an immoral institution, but he opposed the immediate emancipation of all slaves on social and economic grounds. Instead, he favored gradual phasing out of the institution.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=136–137}} Meanwhile, Northern Democratic-Republicans often took stronger anti-slavery positions than their Federalist counterparts, supporting measures like the abolition of slavery in Washington. In 1807, with President Jefferson's support, Congress [[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves|outlawed]] the [[Atlantic slave trade|international slave trade]], doing so at the earliest possible date allowed by the Constitution.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=218–221}} |
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After the War of 1812, Southerners increasingly came to view slavery as a beneficial institution rather than an unfortunate economic necessity, further polarizing the party over the issue.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=218–221}} Anti-slavery Northern Democratic-Republicans held that slavery was incompatible with the equality and individual rights promised by the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. They further held that slavery had been permitted under the Constitution only as a local and impermanent exception, and thus, slavery should not be allowed to spread outside of the original thirteen states. The anti-slavery positions developed by Northern Democratic-Republicans would influence later anti-slavery parties, including the [[Free Soil Party]] and the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=225–227}} Some Democratic-Republicans from the border states, including [[Henry Clay]], continued to adhere to the Jeffersonian view of slavery as a necessary evil; many of these leaders joined the [[American Colonization Society]], which proposed the voluntary recolonization of Africa as part of a broader plan for the gradual emancipation of slaves.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=228–229}} |
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In pre-existing usage, "party," where it did not have the overt negative sense of "faction," often meant a loose coalition or collective political influence; the Democratic-Republicans included some personal or single-issue state organizations, like the Clintonians of New York or the "correspondents" of Pennsylvania. They continued to be sometimes referred to by personal names; not merely Jefferson, but also Madison (perhaps more frequently), [[William Branch Giles]], and [[Charles Pinckney]].<ref>Cunningham (1957), 35–39. 68, 189</ref> |
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Their Federalist opponents often called them "Democrats" or "Jacobins" as an insult, referring to mob rule or to the Terror stage of the French Revolution; although one historian remarked that it seemed that "democrat" and "republican" had been used almost equivalently in 1792-3 (and, for the political philosophy, earlier.)<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FPPS%2FPPS3_03%2FS1537592705050280a.pdf&code=1223f744d68e4fd16dc05fe2f918880a|first= Robert A.|last=Dahl|title=James Madison: Republican or Democrat?|journal= |
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Perspectives on Politics|issue= Volume 3, Issue 03, Sep 2005|page=439-448}} and Dumas Malone, ''Jefferson'', 3:162</ref> In 1798 former President George Washington wrote, "you could as soon scrub the blackamore white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country."<ref>{{cite web |title = George Washington to James McHenry, September 30, 1798 |url = http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw4&fileName=gwpage113.db&recNum=107 |accessdate = 2006-10-12}} [http://www.pbs.org/georgewashington/collection/post_pres_1798sep30.html Transcript].</ref> Equally, the republicans called Federalists "aristocrats," "monarchists," and "monarcrats," decrying Hamilton's (prior) openly professed adoration of Britain and the British governing structure.<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28ws03131%29%29 Thomas Jefferson to William Short, January 8, 1825]. Retrieved on [[2006]]-[[10-30]]. "At my own table in presence of Mr. Adams, Knox, Randolph, and myself, in a dispute between Mr. Adams and himself, he avowed his preference of monarchy over every other government and his opinion that the English was the most perfect model of government ever devised by the wit of man, Mr. Adams agreeing if it's corruptions were done away, while Hamilton insisted that with these corruptions it was perfect, and without them it would be an impracticable government!"</ref> After 1802, some local organizations slowly began merging "Democratic" into their own name and became known as the "Democratic-Republicans."<ref>Some "Democratic Republican" examples: [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page025.db&recNum=1138 1802], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/rbpebib:@OR%28@field%28AUTHOR+@3%28Independent+Republican+Citizens,+Philadelphia+County++%29%29+@field%28OTHER+@3%28Independent+Republican+Citizens,+Philadelphia+County++%29%29%29 1803], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/rbpebib:@OR%28@field%28TITLE+@od1%28To+the+Democratic+Republican+electors,+of+the+State+of+Pennsylvania++Fellow+Citizens++The+choice+of+electors+of+the+President+and+Vice-President,+is+to+be+made+on+Friday,+the+2d+of+November+++++Benjamin+Franklin+Bache++%5B1804+++%29%29+@field%28ALTTITLE+@od1%28To+the+Democratic+Republican+electors,+of+the+State+of+Pennsylvania++Fellow+Citizens++The+choice+of+electors+of+the+President+and+Vice-President,+is+to+be+made+on+Friday,+the+2d+of+November+++++Benjamin+Franklin+Bache++%5B1804+++%29%29%29 1804], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(sj003543)) 1804], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/rbpebib:@OR%28@field%28AUTHOR+@3%28Democratic+Republican+corresponding+committee++Newcastle+County++Delaware++%29%29+@field%28OTHER+@3%28Democratic+Republican+corresponding+committee++Newcastle+County++Delaware++%29%29%29 1805], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page036.db&recNum=1114 1806], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page037.db&recNum=643 1807], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page041.db&recNum=667 1808], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page043.db&recNum=1023 1809]</ref> <!--In 1811, [[Hezekiah Niles]] used "Democratic Republican" routinely in the ''Niles' Register''{{cn}}--> A few members of the Party were even referring to themselves as Democrats by 1812.<ref>''Madison Papers:Presidential series: 5:147; August 11, 1812</ref> The national party eventually split into Republican and Democratic factions. |
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== Base of support == |
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Gammon (1922) claimed that "Party nomenclature began to take distinctive shape, locally at least, during the campaign of 1824. At the beginning of that contest the one party name in existence was 'Republican.'"<ref>Gammon, 155-156. In example: {{cite news|publisher=Washington Republican|title=Anti-Caucus/Caucus|date=[[February 6]], [[1824]]|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe19/rbpe192/1920070a/rbpe1920070a.db&recNum=0&itemLink=r?ammem/rbpe:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28rbpe1920070a%29%29%231920070a001&linkText=1}} </ref> The term "National Republican" was first applied to the Adams-Clay faction in New York during the latter stages of the campaign of 1824. In New York state politics the name "Democratic" was revived in 1824. In 1818 there had been a split in the New York Democratic-Republican Party, with [[DeWitt Clinton]] leading one faction and [[Martin Van Buren]] the other. The latter faction was dubbed by its enemies the "Bucktails," and about the same time began to refer to itself as the "Democratic" party. The term "Republican," however, was still used to indicate both "Bucktails" and Clintonians. |
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[[File:First Party System.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Presidential election results from 1796 to 1824. Darker shades of green indicate that the state generally supported the Democratic-Republicans, and darker shades of brown indicate that the state generally supported the Federalists.]] |
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Madison and Jefferson formed the Democratic-Republican Party from a combination of former Anti-Federalists and supporters of the Constitution who were dissatisfied with the Washington administration's policies.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=36–37}} Nationwide, Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the South, and many of party's leaders were wealthy Southern slaveowners. The Democratic-Republicans also attracted middle class Northerners, such as artisans, farmers, and lower-level merchants, who were eager to challenge the power of the local elite.{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=166–168}} Every state had a distinct political geography that shaped party membership; in Pennsylvania, the Republicans were weakest around [[Philadelphia]] and strongest in [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] settlements in the west.<ref>Klein, 44.</ref> The Federalists had broad support in New England, but in other places they relied on wealthy merchants and landowners.{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=168–171}} After 1800, the Federalists collapsed in the South and West, though the party remained competitive in New England and in some [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]] states.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|p=54}} |
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[[James Wilson]] used "democractical" in juxtaposition to "monarchial" or "despotic" in one speech to describe the new Constitution to the Pennsylvania Convention in 1787.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FPPS%2FPPS3_03%2FS1537592705050280a.pdf&code=1223f744d68e4fd16dc05fe2f918880a|first= Robert A.|last=Dahl|title=James Madison: Republican or Democrat?|journal= |
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Perspectives on Politics|issue= Volume 3, Issue 03, Sep 2005|pages=439-448}} covers all this, and cites Wilson's [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(fr003159)) speech to the Pennsylvania ratifying convention]</ref> According to American [[lexicographer]] (and Federalist), [[Noah Webster]], the choice of the name was: |
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:"…a powerful instrument in the process of making proselytes to the party. The influence of names on the mass of mankind, was never more distinctly exhibited, than in the increase of the democratic party in the United States. The popularity of the denomination of the republican party, was more than a match for the popularity of Washington's character and services, and contributed to overthrow his administration."<ref>Miller, 320.</ref> |
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== Factions == |
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A related grass roots movement, the [[Democratic-Republican Societies]] arose in 1793–94; the use of "democratic" was supported by the French minister, [[Citizen Genet]], a [[Girondin]]. It was not formally affiliated with the new party; though some local Jeffersonian republican leaders were also leaders of the societies. There were some three dozen of these societies; they did not nominate tickets or attempt to control legislatures, as the Republicans did.<ref> Cunningham (1957) 62-64</ref> The Federalists soon denounced the Democratic-Republican Societies . |
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[[File:John Wesley Jarvis - John Randolph - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[John Randolph of Roanoke]] was a prominent member of a group of Southern plantation owners known as the [[Old Republican]]s.]] |
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Historian [[Sean Wilentz]] writes that, after assuming power in 1801, the Democratic-Republicans began to factionalize into three main groups: moderates, radicals, and [[Old Republicans]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=100}} The Old Republicans, led by [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]], were a loose group of influential Southern plantation owners who strongly favored states' rights and denounced any form of compromise with the Federalists. The radicals consisted of a wide array of individuals from different sections of the country who were characterized by their support for far-reaching political and economic reforms; prominent radicals include [[William Duane (journalist)|William Duane]] and [[Michael Leib]], who jointly led a powerful [[political machine]] in Philadelphia. The moderate faction consisted of many former supporters of the ratification of the Constitution, including James Madison, who were more accepting of Federalist economic programs and sought conciliation with moderate Federalists.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=105–107}} |
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After 1810, a younger group of nationalist Democratic-Republicans, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, rose to prominence. These nationalists favored federally funded internal improvements and high tariffs, positions that would form the basis for Clay's [[American System (economic plan)|American System]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=144–148}} In addition to its base among the leaders of Clay and Calhoun's generation, nationalist policies also proved attractive to many older Democratic-Republicans, including James Monroe.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=202–203}} The Panic of 1819 sparked a backlash against nationalist policies, and many of those opposed to the nationalist policies rallied around William H. Crawford until he had a major stroke in 1823.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=241–242}} After the 1824 election, most of Crawford's followers, including Martin Van Buren, gravitated to Andrew Jackson, forming a major part of the coalition that propelled Jackson to victory in the 1828 election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=294–296}} |
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Both "Federalist" and "Republican" were positive words in the 1790s, and both parties sometimes claimed them; so Republicans occasionally called themselves ''Federalist'' or ''Federalist Republicans''.<ref> Cunningham (1957), p. 111, 218. Conversely, the Federalist ticket in Pennsylvania in 1796 was called "Federalist and Republican" and similar forms were used elsewhere; the Virginia Federalists called themselves the "American Republican Ticket" in 1800 - ''republicanism'' being particularly popular in Virginia. </ref> The party also came to call itself "Democratic Republicans" as well as "Republicans" during Madison's term of office; some members called themselves "Democrats."<ref>See, for example, ''Madison Papers: Presidential Series, V, p. 147, August 11, 1812</ref> |
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== {{anchor|Organizational Strategy}} Organizational strategy == |
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==Claims to the party's heritage== |
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The Democratic-Republican Party invented campaign and organizational techniques that were later adopted by the Federalists and became standard American practice. It was especially effective in building a network of [[History of American newspapers|newspapers]] in major cities to broadcast its statements and editorialize its policies.<ref>Jeffrey L. Pasley. ''"The Tyranny of Printers": Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic'' (2003)</ref> [[Fisher Ames]], a leading Federalist, used the term "[[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]]" to link members of Jefferson's party to the radicals of the [[French Revolution]]. He blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson and wrote they were "an overmatch for any Government.... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition".{{sfnp|Cunningham|1957|p=167}} |
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As one historian explained: "It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand". Outstanding propagandists included editor William Duane (1760–1835) and party leaders [[Albert Gallatin]], [[Thomas Cooper (American politician, born 1759)|Thomas Cooper]] and Jefferson himself.<ref>Tinkcom, 271.</ref> Just as important was effective party organization of the sort that [[John J. Beckley]] pioneered. In 1796, he managed the Jefferson campaign in Pennsylvania, blanketing the state with agents who passed out 30,000 hand-written tickets, naming all 15 electors (printed tickets were not allowed). Beckley told one agent: "In a few days a select republican friend from the City will call upon you with a parcel of tickets to be distributed in your County. Any assistance and advice you can furnish him with, as to suitable districts & characters, will I am sure be rendered". Beckley was the first American professional campaign manager and his techniques were quickly adopted in other states.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cunningham |first=Noble E. |year=1956 |title=John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=40–52 |doi=10.2307/1923388 |jstor=1923388}}</ref> |
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The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] is often called "the party of Jefferson," while the modern [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] is often called "the party of Lincoln," although the modern party system with a liberal, economically [[populist]] Democratic Party and a conservative, free market-oriented Republican Party did not arise until the 1890s. |
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The Democratic-Republican party split into various factions during the 1824 election, based more on personality than on ideology. When the election was thrown to the [[House of Representatives]], [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]] [[Henry Clay]] backed [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Quincy Adams]] to deny the presidency to [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Andrew Jackson]], a longtime personal rival and a hero of the [[War of 1812]]. Jackson's political views were unknown at the time. At first, the various factions continued to view themselves as Republicans. Jackson's supporters were called "Jackson Men," while Adams supporters were called "Adams Men." |
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The emergence of the new organizational strategies can be seen in the politics of [[Connecticut]] around 1806, which have been well documented by Cunningham. The Federalists dominated Connecticut, so the Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections. Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty". Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total the number of taxpayers and the number of eligible voters, find out how many favored the Republicans and how many the Federalists and to count the number of supporters of each party who were not eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. These highly detailed returns were to be sent to the county manager and in turn were compiled and sent to the state manager. Using these lists of potential voters, the managers were told to get all eligible people to town meetings and help the young men qualify to vote. The state manager was responsible for supplying party newspapers to each town for distribution by town and district managers.<ref>Cunningham (1963), 129.</ref> This highly coordinated "[[get out the vote|get-out-the-vote]]" drive would be familiar to future political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history. |
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The Jacksonians held their first national convention as the "Republican Party" in 1832.<ref>{{cite book| title=Summary Of The Proceedings Of A Convention Of Republican Delegates, From The Several States In The Union, For The Purpose of Nominating A Candidate For The Office Of Vice-President Of The United States; Held At Baltimore, In The State Of Maryland, May, 1832| url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=LCCN09032457&id=8WC055De2fkC&printsec=titlepage| year=1832| publisher=Packard and Van Benthuysen |location=Albany}}</ref> By the mid-1830s, they referred to themselves as the "Democratic Party," although they also continued to use the name "Democratic Republicans" and the name was not officially changed until 1844.<ref>For example, see Madison's letter of August 18, 1834, endorsing [[John Mercer Patton]]. Madison: ''Letters and Other Writings'' (1865) IV, 348-349; see also examples: [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28hj02756%29%29 1834], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=24/mjm24.db&recNum=562 1834], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC13127365&id=jhsFyUO2OzQC&printsec=titlepage 1840], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/rbpe:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28rbpe17500200%29%29 1841].</ref> |
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=={{anchor|Claims to the Party's Heritage}} Legacy== |
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Many politicians of the Democratic Party have emphasized their party's lineage to Jefferson and the Democratic-Republican Party. [[Martin Van Buren]] wrote in his ''Inquiry Into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States'' that the party's name had changed from Republican to Democratic and that Jefferson was the founder of the party.<ref>Van Buren, 5, 242, 270, 383, 424.</ref> [[Thomas Jefferson Randolph]], the eldest grandson of Jefferson, gave a speech at the 1872 [[Democratic National Convention]] and said that he had spent eighty years of his life in the Democratic-Republican Party.<ref>{{cite book | title = Official Proceedings of the National Democratic Convention, Held at Baltimore, July 9, 1872 | publisher = Rockwell & Churchill, Printers | date = 1872 | location = Boston | pages= 5–6 | url = http://books.google.com/books?vid=0ZLk0_BwqJCv3oLczXPOI6K&id=BxGK8fgilvMC&printsec=titlepage }}</ref> |
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{{further|Second Party System}} |
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{{see also|Thomas Jefferson#Legacy}} |
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[[File:Andrew jackson head.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Andrew Jackson]] led a faction of Democratic-Republicans that ultimately coalesced into the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]].]] |
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The Federalists collapsed after 1815, beginning a period known as the [[Era of Good Feelings]]. After the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]] the Democratic-Republicans split into factions. The coalition of Jacksonians, Calhounites, and Crawfordites built by [[Andrew Jackson]] and [[Martin Van Buren]] coalesced into the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], which dominated presidential politics in the decades prior to the Civil War. Supporters of [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[Henry Clay]] would form the main opposition to Jackson as the [[National Republican Party]], which in turn eventually formed part of the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]], which was the second major party in the United States between the 1830s and the early 1850s.<ref name="auto" /> The diverse and changing nature of the Democratic-Republican Party allowed both major parties to claim that they stood for Jeffersonian principles.{{sfnp|Brown|1999|pp=18–19}} Historian [[Daniel Walker Howe]] writes that Democrats traced their heritage to the "Old Republicanism of [[Nathaniel Macon|Macon]] and [[William H. Crawford|Crawford]]", while the Whigs looked to "the new Republican nationalism of [[James Madison|Madison]] and [[Albert Gallatin|Gallatin]]."{{sfnp|Howe|2007|p=582}} |
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The Whig Party fell apart in the 1850s due to divisions over the expansion of slavery into new territories. The modern [[History of the United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] was formed in 1854 to oppose the expansion of slavery, and many former Whig Party leaders joined the newly formed anti-slavery party.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://content.wisconsinhistory.org/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/tp&CISOPTR=46379&CISOSHOW=46363 |title=''The Origin of the Republican Party'', A.F. Gilman, Ripon College, 1914 |publisher=Content.wisconsinhistory.org |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref> The Republican Party sought to combine Jefferson and Jackson's ideals of liberty and equality with Clay's program of using an active government to modernize the economy.<ref>Gould (2003), p. 14.</ref> The Democratic-Republican Party inspired the name and ideology of the Republican Party, but is not directly connected to that party.{{sfnp|Howe|2007|pp=66, 275, 897}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lipset |first=Seymour Martin |url=https://archive.org/stream/politicalmansoci00inlips#page/292/mode/2up |title=Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics |publisher=Garden City, N.Y.,: Doubleday |year=1960 |page=292 |author-link=Seymour Martin Lipset}}</ref> |
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The Adams/Clay alliance became the basis of the [[National Republican Party (United States)|National Republican Party]], a rival to the Jacksonian party. This party favored a higher tariff to protect U.S. manufacturers, as well as public works, especially roads. Former members of the defunct Federalist Party (including [[Daniel Webster]]) joined the party. After Clay's defeat by Jackson in the 1832 presidential election, the National Republicans were absorbed into the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]], a diverse group of Jackson opponents. Taking a leaf from the Jacksonians, the Whigs tended to nominate non-ideological war heroes as their presidential candidates. |
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Fear of a large debt is a major legacy of the party. Andrew Jackson believed the national debt was a "national curse" and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Remini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8VbWdnrWmkC&pg=PA180 |title=Andrew Jackson |publisher=Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=9780230614703 |page=180 |first=Robert V.}}</ref> Politicians ever since have used the issue of a high national debt to denounce the other party for profligacy and a threat to fiscal soundness and the nation's future.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nagel |first=Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJHKeXEhn4MC&pg=PA503 |title=Encyclopedia of Policy Studies |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1994 |isbn=9780824791421 |edition=2nd |pages=503–504}}</ref> |
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The modern [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] was founded in 1854 as an anti-slavery party. Most northern Whigs soon defected to the new party. The name was chosen to harken back to Jeffersonian ideals of liberty and equality, but not those of limited government or states' rights, ideals that [[Abraham Lincoln]] and many members of the new party sought to revive together with Clay's program of using an active government to modernize the economy.<ref>Gould, 14.</ref> |
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== Electoral history == |
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In 1991 the United States Senate passed by voice vote "A bill to establish a commission to commemorate the bicentennial of the establishment of the Democratic Party of the United States." It was introduced by Democratic Senator [[Terry Sanford]] and cosponsored by 56 Senators.<ref>{{cite web | title = S. 2047, 102nd Cong., 1st Sess. | url = http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c102:S.2047.CPS: | accessdate = 2006-08-10}} See also: Senate Floor Remarks of May 13, 1992. "The Birth of the Democratic Party," essay by Wayne Goodwin in the Congressional Record of June 4, 1992.</ref> |
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===Presidential elections=== |
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{{Main|List of Democratic-Republican Party presidential tickets}} |
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{|class="sortable wikitable" |
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The [[Jefferson Republican Party]] claims to be the modern party closest in ideology to the Democratic-Republican Party and bases its platform on the writings of Jefferson. |
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|- |
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! rowspan=2 | Election |
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! colspan=2 | Ticket |
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! Popular vote |
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! colspan=2 | [[United States Electoral College|Electoral vote]] |
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|- |
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== Party presidents == |
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! Presidential nominee |
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The following [[President of the United States|United States President]]s were elected following a process that selected them as a national nominee of the Republican party: |
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! Running mate |
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! Percentage |
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! class=unsortable | Electoral votes |
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! Ranking |
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|- |
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| style="text-align:center;"|[[1796 United States presidential election|1796]] |
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|rowspan=3|'''[[Thomas Jefferson]]'''{{efn-ua|In his first presidential run, Jefferson did not win the presidency, and Burr did not win the vice presidency. However, under the pre-[[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|12th Amendment]] election rules, Jefferson won the vice presidency due to dissension among Federalist electors.}} |
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|rowspan=2|'''[[Aaron Burr]]'''{{efn-ua|In their second presidential run, Jefferson and Burr received the same number of electoral votes. Jefferson was subsequently chosen as President by the House of Representatives.}} |
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| style="text-align:center;"|46.6 |
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|align="left"|{{composition bar|68|138|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
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| 2 |
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|- |
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| style="text-align:center;"|[[1800 United States presidential election|1800]] |
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| style="text-align:center;"|61.4 |
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|align="left"|{{composition bar|73|138|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
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| 1 |
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|- |
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| style="text-align:center;"|[[1804 United States presidential election|1804]] |
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|rowspan=2|'''[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]''' |
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| style="text-align:center;"|72.8 |
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|align="left"|{{composition bar|162|176|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
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| 1 |
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|- |
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| style="text-align:center;"|[[1808 United States presidential election|1808]] |
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|rowspan=2|'''[[James Madison]]''' |
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| style="text-align:center;"|64.7 |
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|align="left"|{{composition bar|122|176|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
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| 1 |
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|- |
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| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|[[1812 United States presidential election|1812]] |
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|'''[[Elbridge Gerry]]''' |
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| style="text-align:center;"|50.4 |
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|align="left"|{{composition bar|128|217|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
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| 1 |
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|- |
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|[[DeWitt Clinton]]{{efn-ua|While commonly labeled as the Federalist candidate, Clinton technically ran as a Democratic-Republican and was not nominated by the Federalist party itself, the latter simply deciding not to field a candidate. This did not prevent endorsements from state Federalist parties (such as in Pennsylvania), but he received the endorsement from the New York state Democratic-Republicans as well.}} |
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|[[Jared Ingersoll]] |
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| style="text-align:center;"|47.6 |
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|align="left"|{{composition bar|89|217|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
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| 2 |
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|- |
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| style="text-align:center;"|[[1816 United States presidential election|1816]] |
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|rowspan=2|'''[[James Monroe]]''' |
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|rowspan=2|'''[[Daniel D. Tompkins]]''' |
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| style="text-align:center;"|68.2 |
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|align="left"|{{composition bar|183|217|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
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| 1 |
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|- |
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| style="text-align:center;"|[[1820 United States presidential election|1820]] |
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| style="text-align:center;"|80.6 |
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|align="left"|{{composition bar|231|232|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
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| 1 |
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|- |
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| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center;"|[[1824 United States presidential election|1824]]{{efn-ua|[[William H. Crawford]] and [[Albert Gallatin]] were nominated for president and vice-president by a group of 66 Congressmen that called itself the "Democratic members of Congress".<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe19/rbpe192/1920070a/rbpe1920070a.db&recNum=0 |title=Anti-Caucus/Caucus |date=February 6, 1824 |access-date=November 17, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831001556/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe19%2Frbpe192%2F1920070a%2Frbpe1920070a.db&recNum=0 |archive-date=August 31, 2017 |publisher=Washington Republican}}</ref> Gallatin later withdrew from the contest. [[Andrew Jackson]], [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[Henry Clay]] ran as Republicans, although they were not nominated by any national body. While Jackson won a plurality in the electoral college and popular vote, he did not win the constitutionally required majority of electoral votes to be elected president. The contest was thrown to the House of Representatives, where Adams won with Clay's support. The electoral college chose [[John C. Calhoun]] for vice president.}} |
|||
|[[Andrew Jackson]] |
|||
|rowspan=2|'''[[John C. Calhoun]]''' |
|||
| style="text-align:center;"|41.4 |
|||
|align="left"|{{composition bar|99|261|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
|||
| 1 |
|||
|- |
|||
|'''[[John Quincy Adams]]''' |
|||
| style="text-align:center;"|30.9 |
|||
|align="left"|{{composition bar|84|261|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
|||
| 2 |
|||
|- |
|||
|[[William H. Crawford]] |
|||
|[[Nathaniel Macon]] |
|||
| style="text-align:center;"|11.2 |
|||
|align="left"|{{composition bar|41|261|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
|||
| 3 |
|||
|- |
|||
|[[Henry Clay]] |
|||
|[[Nathan Sanford]] |
|||
| style="text-align:center;"|13 |
|||
|align="left"|{{composition bar|37|261|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} |
|||
| 4 |
|||
|} |
|||
{{notelist-ua}} |
|||
===Congressional representation=== |
|||
* [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1801–1809) |
|||
{{see also|Party divisions of United States Congresses}} |
|||
* [[James Madison]] (1809–1817) |
|||
The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians. The parties were slowly coalescing groups; at first there were many independents. Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives up until 1794 voted with Madison as much as two-thirds of the time and another quarter against him two-thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1957|p=82}} |
|||
* [[James Monroe]] (1817–1825) |
|||
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center;" |
|||
In addition, [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[Andrew Jackson]] identified themselves and their administrations as Republican, but ran in elections where opponents were also identified as Republican. |
|||
|- valign=bottom |
|||
! rowspan=2 | Congress |
|||
! rowspan=2 | Years |
|||
! rowspan=25 | |
|||
! colspan=5 | Senate<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/history/partydiv.htm |title=Party Division |website=United States Senate}}</ref> |
|||
! rowspan=25 | |
|||
! colspan=5 | House of Representatives<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://history.house.gov/Institution/Party-Divisions/Party-Divisions/ |title=Party Divisions of the House of Representatives, 1789 to Present |website=United States House of Representatives}}</ref> |
|||
! rowspan=25 | |
|||
! rowspan=2 | President |
|||
|- valign=bottom |
|||
==Candidates== |
|||
! Total |
|||
{{start U.S. presidential ticket list}} |
|||
! {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | [[Anti-Administration party|Anti-<br/>Admin]] |
|||
{{U.S. presidential ticket list row |
|||
! {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | [[Federalist Party|Pro-<br/>Admin]] |
|||
| year=1792 |
|||
! [[List of political parties in the United States|Others]] |
|||
| year_rows=1 |
|||
! Vacancies |
|||
| result=lost |
|||
! Total |
|||
| pres=''(none)'' |
|||
! {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | Anti-<br/>Admin |
|||
| pres_rows=1 |
|||
! {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | Pro-<br/>Admin |
|||
| vp=[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] |
|||
! Others |
|||
| vp_rows=1}} |
|||
! Vacancies |
|||
{{U.S. presidential ticket list row |
|||
| year=1796 |
|||
| year_rows=1 |
|||
| result=lost<sup>(a)</sup> |
|||
| pres=[[Thomas Jefferson]] |
|||
| pres_rows=3 |
|||
| vp=[[Aaron Burr]] |
|||
| vp_rows=2 |
|||
}} |
|||
{{U.S. presidential ticket list row no pres vp |
|||
| year=1800 |
|||
| year_rows=1 |
|||
| result=won<sup>(b)</sup> |
|||
}} |
|||
{{U.S. presidential ticket list row no pres |
|||
| year=1804 |
|||
| year_rows=1 |
|||
| result=won |
|||
| vp=[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] |
|||
| vp_rows=2 |
|||
}} |
|||
{{U.S. presidential ticket list row no vp |
|||
| year=1808 |
|||
| year_rows=1 |
|||
| result=won |
|||
| pres=[[James Madison]] |
|||
| pres_rows=2 |
|||
}} |
|||
{{U.S. presidential ticket list row no pres |
|||
| year=1812 |
|||
| year_rows=1 |
|||
| result=won |
|||
| vp=[[Elbridge Gerry]] |
|||
| vp_rows=1 |
|||
}} |
|||
{{U.S. presidential ticket list row |
|||
| year=1816 |
|||
| year_rows=1 |
|||
| result=won |
|||
| pres=[[James Monroe]] |
|||
| pres_rows=2 |
|||
| vp=[[Daniel Tompkins]] |
|||
| vp_rows=2 |
|||
}} |
|||
{{U.S. presidential ticket list row no pres vp |
|||
| year=1820 |
|||
| year_rows=1 |
|||
| result=won |
|||
}} |
|||
{{U.S. presidential ticket list row |
|||
| year=1824 |
|||
| year_rows=1 |
|||
| result=lost<sup>(c)</sup> |
|||
| pres=[[William H. Crawford]] |
|||
| pres_rows=1 |
|||
| vp=[[Albert Gallatin]] |
|||
| vp_rows=1 |
|||
}} |
|||
{{end U.S. presidential ticket list}} |
|||
|- |
|||
* <sup>(a)</sup> ''Jefferson did not win the presidency, and Burr did not win the vice presidency. However, under the pre-[[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|12th Amendment]] election rules, Jefferson won the Vice Presidency due to dissension among Federalist electors.'' |
|||
| [[1st United States Congress|1st]] |
|||
* <sup>(b)</sup> ''Jefferson and Burr received the same total of electoral votes. Jefferson was subsequently chosen as president by the House of Representatives. |
|||
| 1789–1791 |
|||
* <sup>(c)</sup> ''Crawford and Gallatin were nominated by a small group of their supporters in Congress. Gallatin later withdrew from the contest. [[Andrew Jackson]], [[John Quincy Adams]], and [[Henry Clay]] also ran as Republicans, although they were not nominated by a national body. While Jackson won a plurality in the electoral college and popular vote, he did not win the constitutionally required majority of electoral votes to be elected president. The contest was thrown to the House of Representatives, where Adams won with Clay's support. The electoral college chose [[John C. Calhoun]] for vice president.'' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 26 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 8 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''18''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 65 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 28 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''37''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| rowspan=3 | [[George Washington]] |
|||
|- |
|||
==See also== |
|||
| [[2nd United States Congress|2nd]] |
|||
| 1791–1793 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 30 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 13 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''16''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| 1 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 69 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 30 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''39''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[3rd United States Congress|3rd]] |
|||
| 1793–1795 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 30 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 14 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''16''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 105 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | '''54''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 51 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- valign=bottom |
|||
! Congress |
|||
! Years |
|||
! Total |
|||
! {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | [[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Democratic-<br/>Republicans]] |
|||
! {{Party shading/Federalist}} | [[Federalist Party (United States)|Federalists]] |
|||
! Others |
|||
! Vacancies |
|||
! Total |
|||
! {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | Democratic-<br/>Republicans |
|||
! {{Party shading/Federalist}} | Federalists |
|||
! Others |
|||
! Vacancies |
|||
! President |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[4th United States Congress|4th]] |
|||
| 1795–1797 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 32 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 11 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''21''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 106 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''59''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 47 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| [[George Washington]] |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[5th United States Congress|5th]] |
|||
| 1797–1799 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 32 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 10 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''22''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 106 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 49 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''57''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}}99 rowspan=2 | [[John Adams]] |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[6th United States Congress|6th]] |
|||
| 1799–1801 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 32 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 10 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''22''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 106 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 46 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''60''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[7th United States Congress|7th]] |
|||
| 1801–1803 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''17''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 15 |
|||
| — |
|||
| 2 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 107 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''68''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 38 |
|||
| — |
|||
| 1 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} rowspan=4 | [[Thomas Jefferson]] |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[8th United States Congress|8th]] |
|||
| 1803–1805 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''25''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 9 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 142 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''103''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 39 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[9th United States Congress|9th]] |
|||
| 1805–1807 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''27''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 7 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 142 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''114''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 28 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[10th United States Congress|10th]] |
|||
| 1807–1809 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''28''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 6 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 142 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''116''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 26 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[11th United States Congress|11th]] |
|||
| 1809–1811 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''27''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 7 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 142 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''92''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 50 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} rowspan=4 | [[James Madison]] |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[12th United States Congress|12th]] |
|||
| 1811–1813 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 36 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''30''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 6 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 143 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''107''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 36 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[13th United States Congress|13th]] |
|||
| 1813–1815 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 36 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''28''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 8 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 182 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''114''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 68 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[14th United States Congress|14th]] |
|||
| 1815–1817 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 38 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''26''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 12 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 183 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''119''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 64 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[15th United States Congress|15th]] |
|||
| 1817–1819 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 42 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''30''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 12 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 185 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''146''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 39 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} rowspan=4 | [[James Monroe]] |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[16th United States Congress|16th]] |
|||
| 1819–1821 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 46 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''37''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 9 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 186 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''160''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 26 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[17th United States Congress|17th]] |
|||
| 1821–1823 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 48 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''44''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 4 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 187 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''155''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 32 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[18th United States Congress|18th]] |
|||
| 1823–1825 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 48 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''43''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 5 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 213 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''189''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 24 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- valign=bottom |
|||
! Congress |
|||
! Years |
|||
! Total |
|||
! {{Party shading/Democratic}} | Pro-Jackson |
|||
! {{Party shading/National Republican}} | Pro-Adams |
|||
! Others |
|||
! Vacancies |
|||
! Total |
|||
! {{Party shading/Democratic}}| Pro-Jackson |
|||
! {{Party shading/National Republican}} | Pro-Adams |
|||
! Others |
|||
! Vacancies |
|||
! President |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[19th United States Congress|19th]] |
|||
| 1825–1827 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | 48 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | '''26''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | 22 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | 213 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | 104 |
|||
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | '''109''' |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} rowspan=2 | [[John Quincy Adams]] |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[20th United States Congress|20th]] |
|||
| 1827–1829 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | 48 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | '''27''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | 21 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | 213 |
|||
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | '''113''' |
|||
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | 100 |
|||
| — |
|||
| — |
|||
|- |
|||
! colspan=2 | |
|||
! colspan=5 | Senate |
|||
! colspan=5 | House of Representatives |
|||
! |
|||
|} |
|||
== See also == |
|||
* [[American Enlightenment]] |
|||
* [[Anti-Federalism]] |
|||
* [[History of the Democratic Party (United States)]] |
|||
* [[History of U.S. foreign policy, 1801–1829]] |
|||
* [[Jacksonian democracy]] |
|||
* [[Liberal-Conservative Party]] |
|||
* [[List of political parties in the United States]] |
* [[List of political parties in the United States]] |
||
* [[First Party System]] |
|||
== Explanatory notes == |
|||
==References== |
|||
{{notelist-la}} |
|||
* Henry Adams, ''History of the United States during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson'' (1889; Library of America ed. 1986) |
|||
* Henry Adams, ''History of the United States during the Administrations of James Madison'' (1891; Library of America ed. 1986) |
|||
== References == |
|||
* Banning, Lance. ''The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology'' (1980) |
|||
{{reflist|30em}} |
|||
* Beard, Charles A. ''Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy'' (1915) |
|||
* Brown, Stuart Gerry. ''The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison'' 1954. |
|||
=== Works cited === |
|||
* Chambers, William Nisbet. ''Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776-1809'' (1963) |
|||
{{refbegin|30em}} |
|||
* Cornell, Saul. ''The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 1788-1828'' (1999) (ISBN 0-8078-2503-4) |
|||
*{{Cite book |last=Appleby |first=Joyce Oldham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7hWOpH0d3E8C |title=Thomas Jefferson: The American Presidents Series: The 3rd President, 1801–1809 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |year=2003 |isbn=978-0805069242 }} |
|||
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. ''Jeffersonian Republicans: The formation of Party Organization: 1789-1801'' (1957) |
|||
*{{Cite book |last=Bailey |first=Jeremy D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mWu7GGgkDJUC |title=Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1139466295 |ref=Bailey2007}} |
|||
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. ''The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations 1801-1809'' (1963) |
|||
* {{cite book | last=Banning |first=Lance |title=The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology |year=1978}} [https://archive.org/details/jeffersonianpers0000bann online] |
|||
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. ''The Process of Government Under Jefferson'' (1978) |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Bordewich |first=Fergus M. |title=The First Congress |date=2016 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-45169193-1 |location=New York }} |
|||
* Dawson, Matthew Q. ''Partisanship and the Birth of America's Second Party, 1796-1800: Stop the Wheels of Government.'' Greenwood, 2000. |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=David |date=1999 |title=Jeffersonian Ideology and the Second Party System |journal=Wiley |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=17–30 |jstor=24450533}} |
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* Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick. ''The Age of Federalism'' (1995), detailed political history of 1790s |
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* {{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Ralph A. |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofjohn0000brow |title=The Presidency of John Adams |date=1975 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=0-7006-0134-1 |series=American Presidency Series |url-access=registration}} |
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* Ferling, John. ''Adams Vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800'' (2004)(ISBN 0-19-516771-6) |
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*{{Cite book |last=Chernow |first=Ron |url=https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher |title=Alexander Hamilton |publisher=Penguin Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1594200090 |ref=Chernow04 |author-link=Ron Chernow |url-access=registration}} |
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* Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''[http://www.archive.org/download/prescampaign00gammrich/prescampaign00gammrich.pdf The Presidential Campaign of 1832]'' (1922) |
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* {{Cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Noble |title=The Presidency of James Monroe |date=1996 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=0-7006-0728-5 }} |
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* Gould, Lewis. ''Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans'' (2003) (ISBN 0-375-50741-8) concerns the party founded in 1854 |
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* {{cite book |last=Cunningham | first=Noble E. Jr. |title=The Jeffersonian Republicans: The formation of Party Organization, 1789–1801 |year=1957 |isbn=978-0-835-73909-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/jeffersonianrepu0000cunn | publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina}} |
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* Onuf, Peter S., ed. ''Jeffersonian Legacies.'' (1993) (ISBN 0-8139-1462-0) |
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* {{cite book |last=Cunningham | first=Noble E. Jr. |title=The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations 1801–1809 |year=1963}} |
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* Pasley, Jeffrey L. et al eds. ''Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic'' (2004) |
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* {{Cite book |last=Ferling |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/leapindark00ferl |title=A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-515924-1 |location=New York |author-link=John E. Ferling}} |
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* Risjord, Norman K.; ''The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson'' (1965) on the Randolph faction. |
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* {{Cite book |last=Ferling |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/ascentofgeorgewa00ferl |title=The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon |date=2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Press |isbn=978-1-59691-465-0 |location=New York |author-link=John E. Ferling}} |
|||
* Sharp, James Roger. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis'' (1993) detailed narrative of 1790s |
|||
* {{cite book | last=Gould |first=Lewis |title=Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans |year=2003 |publisher=Random House |isbn=0-375-50741-8}} concerns the party founded in 1854. |
|||
* Smelser, Marshall. ''The Democratic Republic 1801-1815'' (1968), survey of political history |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Howe |first=Daniel Walker |url=https://archive.org/details/whathathgodwroug00howe |title=What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507894-7 |series=Oxford History of the United States |oclc=122701433 |ref={{sfnRef|Howe}} |author-link=Daniel Walker Howe}} |
|||
* Van Buren, Martin. Van Buren, Abraham, Van Buren, John, ed. [http://books.google.com/books?vid=LCCN12023638&id=Y5GUyUj4XY4C&printsec=titlepage ''Inquiry Into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States''] (1867) (ISBN 1-4181-2924-0) |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Fred |title=John Quincy Adams: American Visionary |date=2014 |publisher=HarperCollins }} |
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* Wiltse, Charles Maurice. ''The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy'' (1935) |
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* {{Cite book |last=McDonald |first=Forrest |title=The Presidency of George Washington |date=1974 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0359-6 |series=American Presidency |author-link=Forrest McDonald}} |
|||
* Wilentz, Sean. ''The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln'' (2005), detailed narrative history, 1800-1860 |
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* {{Cite book |last=McDonald |first=Forrest |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofthom0000mcdo |title=The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson |date=1976 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0700603305 |url-access=registration}} |
|||
* Wills, Garry. ''Henry Adams and the Making of America'' (2005), a close reading of Henry Adams (1889-91) |
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* {{Cite book |last=Meacham |first=Jon |url=https://archive.org/details/thomasjeffersona00meac |title=Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power |publisher=Random House LLC |year=2012 |isbn=978-0679645368 |ref=Meacham |url-access=registration}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Nugent |first=Walter |url=https://archive.org/details/habitsofempirehi00nuge |title=Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion |date=2008 |publisher=Knopf |isbn=978-1400042920 |url-access=registration}} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Parsons |first=Lynn H. |url=https://archive.org/details/birthofmodernpol00lynn |title=The Birth of Modern Politics: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-531287-4 |url-access=registration}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Reichley |first=A. James |title=The Life of the Parties: A History of American Political Parties |date=2000 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=0-7425-0888-9 |edition=Paperback |orig-year=1992}} |
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* {{Cite book | last=Rutland |first=Robert A |title=The Presidency of James Madison |publisher=Univ. Press of Kansas |year=1990 |isbn=978-0700604654}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Harry C. |date=1980 |title=The Second Place in Rome: John Adams as Vice President |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=171–178 |jstor=27547562}} |
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* {{cite book | last=Tinkcom |first=Harry M. |title=The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania, 1790–1801 |year=1950}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Wilentz |first=Sean |author-link=Sean Wilentz |date=September 2004 |title=Jeffersonian Democracy and the Origins of Political Antislavery in the United States: The Missouri Crisis Revisited |journal=Journal of the Historical Society |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=375–401 |doi=10.1111/j.1529-921X.2004.00105.x }} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Wilentz |first=Sean |title=The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln |date=2005 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-05820-4}} |
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* {{cite book | last=Wills |first=Garry |title=James Madison: The American Presidents Series: The 4th President, 1809-1817 |publisher=Times Books |year=2002}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon S. |url=https://archive.org/details/empireoflibertyh00wood |title=Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815 |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-503914-6 |series=Oxford History of the United States }} |
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{{refend}} |
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== Further reading == |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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* Beard, Charles A. ''Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy'' (1915). [https://archive.org/details/economicorigins01beargoog online] |
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===Biographies=== |
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* Brown, Stuart Gerry. ''The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison'' 1954. |
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* Cunningham, Noble E. ''In Pursuit of Reason The Life of Thomas Jefferson'' (ISBN 0-345-35380-3) (1987) |
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* Chambers, Wiliam Nisbet. ''Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809'' (1963). [https://archive.org/details/politicalparties0000cham_r7n3 online] |
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* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager," ''William and Mary Quarterly,'' 13 (Jan. 1956), 40-52, in JSTOR |
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* Cornell, Saul. ''The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 1788–1828'' (1999) ({{ISBN|0-8078-2503-4}}). |
|||
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-scale biography |
|||
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. ''The Process of Government Under Jefferson'' (1978). |
|||
* Peterson; Merrill D. ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1975), full-scale biography |
|||
* Dawson, Matthew Q. ''Partisanship and the Birth of America's Second Party, 1796–1800: Stop the Wheels of Government.'' Greenwood, 2000. |
|||
* Remini, Robert. ''Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union'' (1991), a standard biography |
|||
* Dougherty, Keith L. "TRENDS: Creating Parties in Congress: The Emergence of a Social Network." ''Political Research Quarterly'' 73.4 (2020): 759–773. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Keith-Dougherty/publication/342499908_Creating_Parties_in_Congress_The_Emergence_of_a_Social_Network/links/6079ed11881fa114b409faef/Creating-Parties-in-Congress-The-Emergence-of-a-Social-Network.pdf online] |
|||
* Rutland, Robert A., ed. ''James Madison and the American Nation, 1751-1836: An Encyclopedia.'' (1994) |
|||
* [[Stanley Elkins|Elkins, Stanley M.]] and Eric McKitrick. ''The Age of Federalism'' (1995), detailed political history of 1790s. |
|||
* Schachner, Nathan. ''Aaron Burr: A Biography'' (1961),full-scale biography |
|||
* Ferling, John. ''Adams Vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800'' (2004) ({{ISBN|0-19-516771-6}}). |
|||
* Wiltse, Charles Maurice. ''John C. Calhoun, Nationalist, 1782-1828'' (1944) |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Ferling |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/ascentofgeorgewa00ferl |title=The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon |date=2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Press |isbn=978-1-59691-465-0 |location=New York |author-link=John E. Ferling |ref=none}} |
|||
* Goodman, Paul, ed. ''The Federalists vs. the Jeffersonian Republicans'' (1977) [https://archive.org/details/federalistsvsjef0000good/mode/1up online], short excerpts by leading historians |
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* {{Cite book |last=Howe |first=Daniel Walker |url=https://archive.org/details/whathathgodwroug00howe |title=What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America 1815–1848 |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195078947 |url-access=registration}} |
|||
* Klein, Philip Shriver. ''Pennsylvania Politics, 1817–1832: A Game without Rules'' 1940. |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Morison |first=Samuel Eliot |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryof00mori |title=The Oxford History of the American People |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1965 |location=New York |ref={{sfnRef|Morrison}} |author-link=Samuel Eliot Morison |url-access=registration}} |
|||
* Onuf, Peter S., ed. ''Jeffersonian Legacies.'' (1993) ({{ISBN|0-8139-1462-0}}). |
|||
* Pasley, Jeffrey L. et al. eds. ''Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic'' (2004). |
|||
* Ray, Kristofer. "The Republicans Are the Nation? Thomas Jefferson, William Duane, and the Evolution of the Republican Coalition, 1809–1815." ''American Nineteenth Century History'' 14.3 (2013): 283–304. |
|||
* Risjord, Norman K.; ''The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson'' (1965) on the Randolph faction. |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs7GAwwdzyQC |title=The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2002 |isbn=978-1576071885 |ref=Rodriguez}} |
|||
* Sharp, James Roger. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis'' (1993) detailed narrative of 1790s. |
|||
* Smelser, Marshall. ''The Democratic Republic 1801–1815'' (1968), survey of political history. |
|||
* Van Buren, Martin. Van Buren, Abraham, Van Buren, John, ed. [https://archive.org/details/inquiryintoorig00buregoog ''Inquiry Into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States''] (1867) ({{ISBN|1-4181-2924-0}}). |
|||
* Wiltse, Charles Maurice. ''The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy'' (1935). |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Wilentz |first=Sean |author-link=Sean Wilentz |date=September 2004 |title=Jeffersonian Democracy and the Origins of Political Antislavery in the United States: The Missouri Crisis Revisited |journal=Journal of the Historical Society |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=375–401 |doi=10.1111/j.1529-921X.2004.00105.x |ref={{sfnRef|Wilentz, 2004}}}} |
|||
* Wills, Garry. ''Henry Adams and the Making of America'' (2005), a close reading of Henry Adams (1889–1891). |
|||
=== |
=== Biographies === |
||
* {{Cite book |last=Ammon |first=Harry |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesmonroequest00ammo |title=James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=1971 |isbn=9780070015821 |url-access=registration}} |
|||
* Beeman, Richard R. ''The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 1788-1801'' (1972), on Virginia politics |
|||
* |
* Cunningham, Noble E. ''In Pursuit of Reason The Life of Thomas Jefferson'' ({{ISBN|0-345-35380-3}}) (1987). |
||
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager", ''William and Mary Quarterly,'' 13 (January 1956), 40–52, [https://doi.org/10.2307/1923388 online] |
|||
* Gilpatrick, Delbert Harold. ''Jeffersonian Democracy in North Carolina, 1789-1816'' (1931) |
|||
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-scale biography. [https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto0000unse_t5i8/page/n7/mode/2up online] |
|||
* Goodman, Paul. ''The Democratic-Republicans of Massachusetts'' (1964) |
|||
* Peterson; Merrill D. ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1975), full-scale biography. |
|||
* Klein, Philip Shriver. ''Pennsylvania Politics, 1817-1832: A Game without Rules'' 1940. |
|||
* Remini, Robert. ''Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union'' (1991), a standard biography. |
|||
* Prince, Carl E. ''New Jersey’s Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine, 1789-1817'' (1967) |
|||
* Rutland, Robert A., ed. ''James Madison and the American Nation, 1751–1836: An Encyclopedia'' (1994). |
|||
* Risjord; Norman K. ''Chesapeake Politics, 1781-1800'' (1978) on Virginia and Maryland |
|||
* Schachner, Nathan. ''Aaron Burr: A Biography'' (1961), full-scale biography. |
|||
* Tinkcom, Harry M. ''The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania, 1790–1801'' (1950) |
|||
* [[Harlow Unger|Unger, Harlow G]].. "''[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306132439/http://dacapopress.com/book/paperback/the-last-founding-father/9780306819186 The Last Founding Father: James Monroe and a Nation's Call to Greatness]''" (2009) |
|||
* Young, Alfred F. ''The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763-1797'' (167) |
|||
* Wiltse, Charles Maurice. ''John C. Calhoun, Nationalist, 1782–1828'' (1944). |
|||
=== |
=== State studies === |
||
* |
* Beeman, Richard R. ''The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 1788–1801'' (1972), on Virginia politics. |
||
* Formisano, Ronald P. ''The Transformation of Political Culture. Massachusetts Parties, 1790s–1840s'' (1984) ({{ISBN|0-19-503509-7}}). |
|||
* Knudson, Jerry W. ''Jefferson And the Press: Crucible of Liberty'' (2006) how 4 Republican and 4 Federalist papers covered election of 1800; Thomas Paine; Louisiana Purchase; Hamilton-Burr duel; impeachment of Chase; and the embargo |
|||
* Gilpatrick, Delbert Harold. ''Jeffersonian Democracy in North Carolina, 1789–1816'' (1931). |
|||
* Jeffrey L. Pasley. ''"The Tyranny of Printers": Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic'' (2003) (ISBN 0-8139-2177-5) |
|||
* Goodman, Paul. ''The Democratic-Republicans of Massachusetts'' (1964). |
|||
* Stewart, Donald H. ''The Opposition Press of the Federalist Era'' (1968), highly detailed study of Republican newspapers |
|||
* {{cite book|first=Richard P.|last=McCormick|year=1966|title=The Second Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era}} details the collapse state by state. |
|||
* The complete text, searchable, of all early American newspapers are [http://www.newsbank.com/readex/?content=96 online] at Readex America’s Historical Newspapers, available at research libraries. |
|||
* Prince, Carl E. ''New Jersey's Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine, 1789–1817'' (1967). |
|||
* Risjord; Norman K. ''Chesapeake Politics, 1781–1800'' (1978) on Virginia and Maryland. |
|||
* Young, Alfred F. ''The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763–1797'' (1967). |
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=== |
=== Newspapers === |
||
* Adams, John Quincy. [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0836950216&id=LsLzXcnfWWwC&printsec=titlepage ''Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848''] Volume VII (1875) edited by Charles Francis Adams; (ISBN 0-8369-5021-6). Adams, son of the president, switched and became a Republican in 1808 |
|||
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. ''The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809'' (1965) excerpts from primary sources |
|||
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. ''Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents 1789-1829'' (1978), 3 vol; reprints the political newsletters sent out by congressmen |
|||
* Kirk, Russell ed. ''John Randolph of Roanoke: A study in American politics, with selected speeches and letters'', 4th ed., Liberty Fund, 1997, 588 pp. ISBN 0-86597-150-1; Randolph was a leader of the "Old Republican" faction |
|||
* Smith, James Morton, ed. ''The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776-1826'' Volume 2 (1994) |
|||
* Hale, Matthew Rainbow. "On their tiptoes: Political time and Newspapers during the Advent of the Radicalized French Revolution, circa 1792-1793." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 29.2 (2009): 191–218. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40208197 online] |
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==Notes== |
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* Humphrey, Carol Sue ''The Press of the Young Republic, 1783–1833'' (1996). |
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<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags and the tag below --> |
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* Knudson, Jerry W. ''Jefferson And the Press: Crucible of Liberty'' (2006) how 4 Republican and 4 Federalist papers covered election of 1800; Thomas Paine; Louisiana Purchase; Hamilton-Burr duel; impeachment of Chase; and the embargo. |
|||
<div class="references-small"> |
|||
* Laracey, Mel. "The presidential newspaper as an engine of early American political development: The case of Thomas Jefferson and the election of 1800." ''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 11.1 (2008): 7-46. [https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/26/article/240259/summary excerpt] |
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<references/> |
|||
* Pasley, Jeffrey L. "The Two National" Gazettes": Newspapers and the Embodiment of American Political Parties." ''Early American Literature'' 35.1 (2000): 51-86. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25057179 online] |
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</div> |
|||
* Pasley, Jeffrey L. '' 'The Tyranny of Printers': Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic'' (2003) ({{ISBN|0-8139-2177-5}}). [https://archive.org/details/tyrannyofprinter00jeff online] |
|||
* Scherr, Arthur. " 'A Genuine Republican': Benjamin Franklin Bache's Remarks (1797), the Federalists, and Republican Civic Humanism." ''Pennsylvania History'' 80.2 (2013): 243-298. [https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/download/61464/61089 online] |
|||
* Stewart, Donald H. ''The Opposition Press of the Federalist Era'' (1968), highly detailed study of Republican newspapers. |
|||
* The complete text, searchable, of all early American newspapers are [http://www.newsbank.com/readex/?content=96 online] at Readex America's Historical Newspapers, available at research libraries. |
|||
=== Primary sources === |
|||
{{USParty}} |
|||
* Adams, John Quincy. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LsLzXcnfWWwC ''Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848''] Volume VII (1875) edited by Charles Francis Adams; ({{ISBN|0-8369-5021-6}}). Adams, son of the Federalist president, switched and became a Republican in 1808. |
|||
{{American_political_eras}} |
|||
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. ''The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809'' (1965) excerpts from primary sources. |
|||
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. ''Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents 1789–1829'' (1978), 3 vol; reprints the political newsletters sent out by congressmen. |
|||
* Kirk, Russell ed. ''John Randolph of Roanoke: A study in American politics, with selected speeches and letters'', 4th ed., Liberty Fund, 1997, 588 pp. {{ISBN|0-86597-150-1}}; Randolph was a leader of the "Old Republican" faction. |
|||
* McColley, Robert, ed. ''Federalists, Republicans, and foreign entanglements, 1789-1815'' (1969) [https://archive.org/details/federalistsrepub00mcco/mode/thumb online], primary sources on foreign policy |
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* Smith, James Morton, ed. ''The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826'' Volume 2 (1994). |
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{{refend}} |
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== External links == |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080725105911/http://dca.tufts.edu/features/aas/ A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825] |
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* [https://voteview.com/parties/13/democratic-republican-party Democratic-Republican Party ideology over time] |
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{{Democratic-Republican Party}} |
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{{United States political parties}} |
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[[Category:1792 establishments]] |
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{{Thomas Jefferson}} |
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{{James Madison}} |
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[[Category:1792 establishments in the United States]] |
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[[Category:Political parties in the United States]] |
Latest revision as of 06:08, 21 December 2024
Democratic-Republican Party | |
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Other name |
|
Founders | |
Founded | May 13, 1792[1] |
Dissolved | c. 1825 |
Preceded by | Anti-Administration party |
Succeeded by | |
Headquarters | Washington, D.C. |
Newspaper | National Gazette (1791–1793) |
Ideology | Jeffersonian democracy[2]
"Factions" |
Colors | Green (customary) |
This article is part of a series on |
Liberalism in the United States |
---|
The Republican Party, known retrospectively as the Democratic-Republican Party (also referred to by historians as the Jeffersonian Republican Party)[a], was an American political party founded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in the early 1790s. It championed liberalism, republicanism, individual liberty, equal rights, separation of church and state, freedom of religion, decentralization, free markets, free trade, and agrarianism. In foreign policy it was hostile to Great Britain and the Netherlands and in sympathy with the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars. The party became increasingly dominant after the 1800 elections as the opposing Federalist Party collapsed.
Increasing dominance over American politics led to increasing factional splits within the party. Old Republicans, led by John Taylor of Caroline and John Randolph of Roanoke, believed that the administrations of Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe—and the Congresses led by Henry Clay—had in some ways betrayed the republican "Principles of '98" by expanding the size and scope of the national government. The Republicans splintered during the 1824 presidential election. Those calling for a return to the older founding principles of the party were often referred to as "Democratic Republicans" (later Democrats) while those embracing the newer nationalist principles of "The American System" were often referred to as National Republicans (later Whigs).[9][10]
The Republican Party originated in Congress to oppose the nationalist and economically interventionist policies of Alexander Hamilton, who served as Secretary of the Treasury under President George Washington. The Republicans and the opposing Federalist Party each became more cohesive during Washington's second term, partly as a result of the debate over the Jay Treaty. Though he was defeated by Federalist John Adams in the 1796 presidential election, Jefferson and his Republican allies came into power following the 1800 elections. As president, Jefferson presided over a reduction in the national debt and government spending, and completed the Louisiana Purchase with France.
Madison succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809 and led the country during the largely inconclusive War of 1812 with Britain. After the war, Madison and his congressional allies established the Second Bank of the United States and implemented protective tariffs, marking a move away from the party's earlier emphasis on states' rights and a strict construction of the United States Constitution. The Federalists collapsed after 1815, beginning a period known as the Era of Good Feelings. Lacking an effective opposition, the Republicans split into rival groups after the 1824 presidential election: one faction supported President John Quincy Adams, while another faction backed General Andrew Jackson. Jackson's supporters eventually coalesced into the Democratic Party, while supporters of Adams became known as the National Republican Party, which itself later merged into the Whig Party.
Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the aristocratic tendencies of the Federalists. During the 1790s, the party strongly opposed Federalist programs, including the national bank. After the War of 1812, Madison and many other party leaders came to accept the need for a national bank and federally funded infrastructure projects. In foreign affairs, the party advocated western expansion and tended to favor France over Britain, though the party's pro-French stance faded after Napoleon took power. The Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the South and the western frontier, and weakest in New England.
History
[edit]Founding, 1789–1796
[edit]In the 1788–89 presidential election, the first such election following the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788, George Washington won the votes of every member of the Electoral College.[11] His unanimous victory in part reflected the fact that no formal political parties had formed at the national level in the United States prior to 1789, though the country had been broadly polarized between the Federalists, who supported ratification of the Constitution, and the Anti-Federalists, who opposed ratification.[12] Washington selected Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State and Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury,[13] and he relied on James Madison as a key adviser and ally in Congress.[14]
Hamilton implemented an expansive economic program, establishing the First Bank of the United States,[15] and convincing Congress to assume the debts of state governments.[16] Hamilton pursued his programs in the belief that they would foster a prosperous and stable country.[17] His policies engendered an opposition, chiefly concentrated in the Southern United States, that objected to Hamilton's Anglophilia and accused him of unduly favoring well-connected wealthy Northern merchants and speculators. Madison emerged as the leader of the congressional opposition while Jefferson, who declined to publicly criticize Hamilton while both served in Washington's Cabinet, worked behind the scenes to stymie Hamilton's programs.[18] Jefferson and Madison established the National Gazette, a newspaper which recast national politics not as a battle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, but as a debate between aristocrats and republicans.[19] In the 1792 election, Washington effectively ran unopposed for president, but Jefferson and Madison backed New York Governor George Clinton's unsuccessful attempt to unseat Vice President John Adams.[20]
Political leaders on both sides were reluctant to label their respective faction as a political party, but distinct and consistent voting blocs emerged in Congress by the end of 1793. Jefferson's followers became known as the Republicans (or sometimes as the Democratic-Republicans)[21] and Hamilton's followers became the Federalists.[22] While economic policies were the original motivating factor in the growing partisan split, foreign policy became even more important as war broke out between Great Britain (favored by Federalists) and France, which Republicans favored until 1799.[23] Partisan tensions escalated as a result of the Whiskey Rebellion and Washington's subsequent denunciation of the Democratic-Republican Societies, a type of new local political societies that favored democracy and generally supported the Jeffersonian position.[24] Historians use the term "Democratic-Republican" to describe these new organizations, but that name was rarely used at the time. They usually called themselves "Democratic", "Republican", "True Republican", "Constitutional", "United Freeman", "Patriotic", "Political", "Franklin", or "Madisonian".[25] The ratification of the Jay Treaty with Britain further inflamed partisan warfare, resulting in a hardening of the divisions between the Federalists and the Republicans.[26]
By 1795–96, election campaigns—federal, state and local—were waged primarily along partisan lines between the two national parties, although local issues continued to affect elections, and party affiliations remained in flux.[27] As Washington declined to seek a third term, the 1796 presidential election became the first contested president election. Having retired from Washington's Cabinet in 1793, Jefferson had left the leadership of the Democratic-Republicans in Madison's hands. Nonetheless, the Democratic-Republican congressional nominating caucus chose Jefferson as the party's presidential nominee, in the belief that he would be the party's strongest candidate; the caucus chose Senator Aaron Burr of New York as Jefferson's running mate.[28] Meanwhile, an informal caucus of Federalist leaders nominated a ticket of John Adams and Thomas Pinckney.[29] Though the candidates themselves largely stayed out of the fray, supporters of the candidates waged an active campaign; Federalists attacked Jefferson as a Francophile and atheist, while the Democratic-Republicans accused Adams of being an anglophile and a monarchist.[30] Ultimately, Adams won the presidency by a narrow margin, garnering 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson, who became the vice president.[29][b]
Adams and the Revolution of 1800
[edit]Shortly after Adams took office, he dispatched a group of envoys to seek peaceful relations with France, which had begun seizing American merchantmen trading with Britain after the ratification of the Jay Treaty. The failure of talks, and the French demand for bribes in what became known as the XYZ Affair, outraged the American public and led to the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war between France and the United States. The Federalist-controlled Congress passed measures to expand the American military and also pushed through the Alien and Sedition Acts. These acts restricted speech critical of the government while also implementing stricter naturalization requirements.[32] Numerous journalists and other individuals aligned with the Democratic-Republicans were prosecuted under the Sedition Act, sparking a backlash against the Federalists.[33] Meanwhile, Jefferson and Madison drafted the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which held that state legislatures could determine the constitutionality of federal laws.[34]
In the 1800 presidential election, the Democratic-Republicans once again nominated a ticket of Jefferson and Burr. Shortly after a Federalist caucus re-nominated President Adams on a ticket with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Adams dismissed two Hamilton allies from his Cabinet, leading to an open break between the two key figures in the Federalist Party.[35] Though the Federalist Party united against Jefferson's candidacy and waged an effective campaign in many states, the Democratic-Republicans won the election by winning most Southern electoral votes and carrying the crucial state of New York.[36]
A significant element in the party's success in New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore and other east-coast cities were United Irish exiles, and other Irish immigrants, whom the Federalists regarded with distinct suspicion.[37][38] Among these was William Duane who in his newspaper, the Philadelphia Aurora, exposed the details of the Ross Bill, by means of which the Federalist-controlled Congress sought to establish a closed-door Grand Committee with powers to disqualify College electors.[39] Adams was to name Duane one of the three or four men most responsible for his eventual defeat.[40]
Jefferson and Burr both finished with 73 electoral votes, more than Adams or Pinckney, necessitating a contingent election between Jefferson and Burr in the House of Representatives.[b] Burr declined to take his name out of consideration, and the House deadlocked as most Democratic-Republican congressmen voted for Jefferson and most Federalists voted for Burr. Preferring Jefferson to Burr, Hamilton helped engineer Jefferson's election on the 36th ballot of the contingent election.[41] Jefferson would later describe the 1800 election, which also saw Democratic-Republicans gain control of Congress, as the "Revolution of 1800", writing that it was "as real of a revolution in the principles of our government as that of [1776] was in its form."[42] In the final months of his presidency, Adams reached an agreement with France to end the Quasi-War[43] and appointed several Federalist judges, including Chief Justice John Marshall.[44]
Jefferson's presidency, 1801–1809
[edit]Despite the intensity of the 1800 election, the transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans was peaceful.[45] In his inaugural address, Jefferson indicated that he would seek to reverse many Federalist policies, but he also emphasized reconciliation, noting that "every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle".[46] He appointed a geographically balanced and ideologically moderate Cabinet that included Madison as Secretary of State and Albert Gallatin as Secretary of the Treasury; Federalists were excluded from the Cabinet, but Jefferson appointed some prominent Federalists and allowed many other Federalists to keep their positions.[47] Gallatin persuaded Jefferson to retain the First Bank of the United States, a major part of the Hamiltonian program, but other Federalist policies were scrapped.[48] Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican allies eliminated the whiskey excise and other taxes,[49] shrank the army and the navy,[50] repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and pardoned all ten individuals who had been prosecuted under the acts.[51]
With the repeal of Federalist laws and programs, many Americans had little contact with the federal government in their daily lives, with the exception of the postal service.[52] Partly as a result of these spending cuts, Jefferson lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 million between 1801 and 1809.[53] Though he was largely able to reverse Federalist policies, Federalists retained a bastion of power on the Supreme Court; Marshall Court rulings continued to reflect Federalist ideals until Chief Justice Marshall's death in the 1830s.[54] In the Supreme Court case of Marbury v. Madison, the Marshall Court established the power of judicial review, through which the judicial branch had the final word on the constitutionality of federal laws.[55]
By the time Jefferson took office, Americans had settled as far west as the Mississippi River.[56] Many in the United States, particularly those in the west, favored further territorial expansion, and especially hoped to annex the Spanish province of Louisiana.[57] In early 1803, Jefferson dispatched James Monroe to France to join ambassador Robert Livingston on a diplomatic mission to purchase New Orleans.[58] To the surprise of the American delegation, Napoleon offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana for $15 million.[59] After Secretary of State James Madison gave his assurances that the purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution, the Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House immediately authorized funding.[60] The Louisiana Purchase nearly doubled the size of the United States, and Treasury Secretary Gallatin was forced to borrow from foreign banks to finance the payment to France.[61] Though the Louisiana Purchase was widely popular, some Federalists criticized it; Congressman Fisher Ames argued that "We are to spend money of which we have too little for land of which we already have too much."[62]
By 1804, Vice President Burr had thoroughly alienated Jefferson, and the Democratic-Republican presidential nominating caucus chose George Clinton as Jefferson's running mate for the 1804 presidential election. That same year, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel after taking offense to a comment allegedly made by Hamilton; Hamilton died in the subsequent duel. Bolstered by a superior party organization, Jefferson won the 1804 election in a landslide over Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.[63] In 1807, as the Napoleonic Wars continued, the British government announced the Orders in Council, which called for a blockade on French-controlled ports.[64] In response to subsequent British and French searches of American shipping, the Jefferson administration passed the Embargo Act of 1807, which cut off American trade with Europe.[65] The embargo proved unpopular and difficult to enforce, especially in Federalist-leaning New England, and expired at the end of Jefferson's second term.[66] Jefferson declined to seek a third term in the 1808 presidential election, but helped Madison triumph over George Clinton and James Monroe at the party's congressional nominating caucus. Madison won the general election in a landslide over Pinckney.[67]
Madison's presidency, 1809–1817
[edit]As attacks on American shipping continued after Madison took office, both Madison and the broader American public moved towards war.[68] Public resentment towards Britain led to the election of a new generation of Democratic-Republican leaders, including Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, who championed high tariffs, federally funded internal improvements and a jingoistic attitude towards Britain.[69] On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war.[70] The declaration was passed largely along sectional and party lines, with intense opposition coming from the Federalists and some other congressmen from the Northeast.[71] For many who favored war, national honor was at stake; John Quincy Adams wrote that the only alternative to war was "the abandonment of our right as an independent nation."[72] George Clinton's nephew, DeWitt Clinton, challenged Madison in the 1812 presidential election. Though Clinton assembled a formidable coalition of Federalists and anti-Madison Democratic-Republicans, Madison won a close election.[73]
Madison initially hoped for a quick end to the War of 1812, but the war got off to a disastrous start as multiple American invasions of Canada were defeated.[74] The United States had more military success in 1813, and American troops under William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh's confederacy in the Battle of the Thames in 1814, crushing Indian resistance to U.S. expansion. Britain shifted troops to North America in 1814 following Napoleon's abdication, and British forces captured and burnt Washington in August 1814.[75] In early 1815, Madison learned that his negotiators in Europe had signed the Treaty of Ghent, ending the war without major concessions by either side.[76] Though it had no effect on the treaty, Andrew Jackson's victory in the January 1815 Battle of New Orleans ended the war on a triumphant note.[77] Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815 brought a final end to the Napoleonic Wars and European interference with American shipping.[78] With Americans celebrating a successful "second war of independence", the Federalist Party slid towards national irrelevance.[79] The subsequent period of virtually one-party rule by the Democratic-Republican Party is known as the "Era of Good Feelings."[citation needed]
In his first term, Madison and his allies had largely hewed to Jefferson's domestic agenda of low taxes and a reduction of the national debt, and Congress allowed the national bank's charter to expire during Madison's first term.[80] The challenges of the War of 1812 led many Democratic-Republicans to reconsider the role of the federal government.[81] When the 14th Congress convened in December 1815, Madison proposed the re-establishment of the national bank, increased spending on the army and the navy, and a tariff designed to protect American goods from foreign competition. Madison's proposals were strongly criticized by strict constructionists like John Randolph, who argued that Madison's program "out-Hamiltons Alexander Hamilton."[82] Responding to Madison's proposals, the 14th Congress compiled one of the most productive legislative records up to that point in history, enacting the Tariff of 1816 and establishing the Second Bank of the United States.[83] At the party's 1816 congressional nominating caucus, Secretary of State James Monroe defeated Secretary of War William H. Crawford in a 65-to-54 vote.[84] The Federalists offered little opposition in the 1816 presidential election and Monroe won in a landslide election.[85]
Monroe and Era of Good Feelings, 1817–1825
[edit]Monroe believed that the existence of political parties was harmful to the United States,[86] and he sought to usher in the end of the Federalist Party by avoiding divisive policies and welcoming ex-Federalists into the fold.[87] Monroe favored infrastructure projects to promote economic development and, despite some constitutional concerns, signed bills providing federal funding for the National Road and other projects.[88] Partly due to the mismanagement of national bank president William Jones, the country experienced a prolonged economic recession known as the Panic of 1819.[89] The panic engendered a widespread resentment of the national bank and a distrust of paper money that would influence national politics long after the recession ended.[90] Despite the ongoing economic troubles, the Federalists failed to field a serious challenger to Monroe in the 1820 presidential election, and Monroe won re-election essentially unopposed.[91]
During the proceedings over the admission of Missouri Territory as a state, Congressman James Tallmadge, Jr. of New York "tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings" by proposing amendments providing for the eventual exclusion of slavery from Missouri.[92] The amendments sparked the first major national slavery debate since the ratification of the Constitution,[93] and instantly exposed the sectional polarization over the issue of slavery.[94] Northern Democratic-Republicans formed a coalition across partisan lines with the remnants of the Federalist Party in support of the amendments, while Southern Democratic-Republicans were almost unanimously against such the restrictions.[95] In February 1820, Congressman Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois proposed a compromise, in which Missouri would be admitted as a slave state, but slavery would be excluded in the remaining territories north of the parallel 36°30′ north.[96] A bill based on Thomas's proposal became law in April 1820.[97]
By 1824, the Federalist Party had largely collapsed as a national party, and the 1824 presidential election was waged by competing members of the Democratic-Republican Party.[98] The party's congressional nominating caucus was largely ignored, and candidates were instead nominated by state legislatures.[99] Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, former Speaker of the House Henry Clay, Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford, and General Andrew Jackson emerged as the major candidates in the election.[100] The regional strength of each candidate played an important role in the election; Adams was popular in New England, Clay and Jackson were strong in the West, and Jackson and Crawford competed for the South.[100]
As no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote in the 1824 election, the House of Representatives held a contingent election to determine the president.[101] Clay personally disliked Adams but nonetheless supported him in the contingent election over Crawford, who opposed Clay's nationalist policies, and Jackson, whom Clay viewed as a potential tyrant.[c] With Clay's backing, Adams won the contingent election.[102] After Clay accepted appointment as Secretary of State, Jackson's supporters claimed that Adams and Clay had reached a "Corrupt Bargain" in which Adams promised Clay the appointment in return for Clay's support in the contingent election.[101] Jackson, who was deeply angered by the result of the contingent election, returned to Tennessee, where the state legislature quickly nominated him for president in the 1828 election.[103]
Final years, 1825–1829
[edit]Adams shared Monroe's goal of ending partisan conflict, and his Cabinet included individuals of various ideological and regional backgrounds.[104] In his 1825 annual message to Congress, Adams presented a comprehensive and ambitious agenda, calling for major investments in internal improvements as well as the creation of a national university, a naval academy, and a national astronomical observatory.[105] His requests to Congress galvanized the opposition, spurring the creation of an anti-Adams congressional coalition consisting of supporters of Jackson, Crawford, and Vice President Calhoun.[106] Following the 1826 elections, Calhoun and Martin Van Buren (who brought along many of Crawford's supporters) agreed to throw their support behind Jackson in the 1828 election.[107] In the press, the two major political factions were referred to as "Adams Men" and "Jackson Men".[108]
The Jacksonians formed an effective party apparatus that adopted many modern campaign techniques and emphasized Jackson's popularity and the supposed corruption of Adams and the federal government.[109] Though Jackson did not articulate a detailed political platform in the same way that Adams did, his coalition was united in opposition to Adams's reliance on government planning and tended to favor the opening of Native American lands to white settlement.[110] Ultimately, Jackson won 178 of the 261 electoral votes and just under 56 percent of the popular vote.[111] Jackson won 50.3 percent of the popular vote in the free states and 72.6 percent of the vote in the slave states.[112] The election marked the permanent end of the Era of Good Feelings and the start of the Second Party System. The dream of non-partisan politics, shared by Monroe, Adams, and many earlier leaders, was shattered, replaced with Van Buren's ideal of partisan battles between legitimated political parties.[113]
Origins of party name
[edit]In the 1790s, political parties were new in the United States and people were not accustomed to having formal names for them. There was no single official name for the Democratic-Republican Party, but party members generally called themselves Republicans and voted for what they called the "Republican party", "republican ticket" or "republican interest".[114][115] Jefferson and Madison often used the terms "republican" and "Republican party" in their letters.[116] As a general term (not a party name), the word republican had been in widespread usage from the 1770s to describe the type of government the break-away colonies wanted to form: a republic of three separate branches of government derived from some principles and structure from ancient republics; especially the emphasis on civic duty and the opposition to corruption, elitism, aristocracy and monarchy.[117]
The term "Democratic-Republican" was used by contemporaries only occasionally,[21] but is used by modern political scientists.[118] Historians often refer to the "Jeffersonian Republicans".[119][120][121] The term "Democratic Party" was first used pejoratively by Federalist opponents.[122][123] Historians argue that the party died out before the present-day Democratic Party was formed. However, since the days of Franklin Roosevelt Democratic politicians proudly claim Jefferson as their founder.[1]
Ideology
[edit]The Democratic-Republican Party saw itself as a champion of republicanism and denounced the Federalists as supporters of monarchy and aristocracy.[124][page needed] Ralph Brown writes that the party was marked by a "commitment to broad principles of personal liberty, social mobility, and westward expansion."[125] Political scientist James A. Reichley writes that "the issue that most sharply divided the Jeffersonians from the Federalists was not states rights, nor the national debt, nor the national Bank... but the question of social equality."[126] In a world in which few believed in democracy or egalitarianism, Jefferson's belief in political equality stood out from many of the other leaders who held that the wealthy should lead society. His opponents, says Susan Dunn[who?], warned that Jefferson's "Republicans would turn America upside down, permitting the hoi polloi to govern the nation and unseating the wealthy social elite, long accustomed to wielding political power and governing the nation."[127] Jefferson advocated a philosophy that historians call Jeffersonian democracy, which was marked by his belief in agrarianism and strict limits on the national government.[128] Influenced by the Jeffersonian belief in equality, by 1824 all but three states had removed property-owning requirements for voting.[129]
Though open to some redistributive measures, Jefferson saw a strong centralized government as a threat to freedom.[130] Thus, the Democratic-Republicans opposed Federalist efforts to build a strong, centralized state, and resisted the establishment of a national bank, the build-up of the army and the navy, and passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.[131] Jefferson was especially averse to a national debt, which he believed to be inherently dangerous and immoral.[132] After the party took power in 1800, Jefferson became increasingly concerned about foreign intervention and more open to programs of economic development conducted by the federal government. In an effort to promote economic growth and the development of a diversified economy, Jefferson's Democratic-Republican successors would oversee the construction of numerous federally funded infrastructure projects and implement protective tariffs.[133]
While economic policies were the original catalyst to the partisan split between the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists, foreign policy was also a major factor that divided the parties. Most Americans supported the French Revolution prior to the Execution of Louis XVI in 1793, but Federalists began to fear the radical egalitarianism of the revolution as it became increasingly violent.[23] Jefferson and other Democratic-Republicans defended the French Revolution [134] until Napoleon ascended to power.[59] Democratic-Republican foreign policy was marked by support for expansionism, as Jefferson championed the concept of an "Empire of Liberty" that centered on the acquisition and settlement of western territories.[135] Under Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, the United States completed the Louisiana Purchase, acquired Spanish Florida, and reached a treaty with Britain providing for shared sovereignty over Oregon Country.[citation needed] In 1823, the Monroe administration promulgated the Monroe Doctrine, which reiterated the traditional U.S. policy of neutrality with regard to European wars and conflicts, but declared that the United States would not accept the recolonization of any country by its former European master.[136]
Slavery
[edit]From the foundation of the party, slavery divided the Democratic-Republicans. Many Southern Democratic-Republicans, especially from the Deep South, defended the institution. Jefferson and many other Democratic-Republicans from Virginia held an ambivalent view on slavery; Jefferson believed it was an immoral institution, but he opposed the immediate emancipation of all slaves on social and economic grounds. Instead, he favored gradual phasing out of the institution.[137] Meanwhile, Northern Democratic-Republicans often took stronger anti-slavery positions than their Federalist counterparts, supporting measures like the abolition of slavery in Washington. In 1807, with President Jefferson's support, Congress outlawed the international slave trade, doing so at the earliest possible date allowed by the Constitution.[138]
After the War of 1812, Southerners increasingly came to view slavery as a beneficial institution rather than an unfortunate economic necessity, further polarizing the party over the issue.[138] Anti-slavery Northern Democratic-Republicans held that slavery was incompatible with the equality and individual rights promised by the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. They further held that slavery had been permitted under the Constitution only as a local and impermanent exception, and thus, slavery should not be allowed to spread outside of the original thirteen states. The anti-slavery positions developed by Northern Democratic-Republicans would influence later anti-slavery parties, including the Free Soil Party and the Republican Party.[139] Some Democratic-Republicans from the border states, including Henry Clay, continued to adhere to the Jeffersonian view of slavery as a necessary evil; many of these leaders joined the American Colonization Society, which proposed the voluntary recolonization of Africa as part of a broader plan for the gradual emancipation of slaves.[140]
Base of support
[edit]Madison and Jefferson formed the Democratic-Republican Party from a combination of former Anti-Federalists and supporters of the Constitution who were dissatisfied with the Washington administration's policies.[141] Nationwide, Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the South, and many of party's leaders were wealthy Southern slaveowners. The Democratic-Republicans also attracted middle class Northerners, such as artisans, farmers, and lower-level merchants, who were eager to challenge the power of the local elite.[142] Every state had a distinct political geography that shaped party membership; in Pennsylvania, the Republicans were weakest around Philadelphia and strongest in Scots-Irish settlements in the west.[143] The Federalists had broad support in New England, but in other places they relied on wealthy merchants and landowners.[144] After 1800, the Federalists collapsed in the South and West, though the party remained competitive in New England and in some Mid-Atlantic states.[145]
Factions
[edit]Historian Sean Wilentz writes that, after assuming power in 1801, the Democratic-Republicans began to factionalize into three main groups: moderates, radicals, and Old Republicans.[146] The Old Republicans, led by John Randolph, were a loose group of influential Southern plantation owners who strongly favored states' rights and denounced any form of compromise with the Federalists. The radicals consisted of a wide array of individuals from different sections of the country who were characterized by their support for far-reaching political and economic reforms; prominent radicals include William Duane and Michael Leib, who jointly led a powerful political machine in Philadelphia. The moderate faction consisted of many former supporters of the ratification of the Constitution, including James Madison, who were more accepting of Federalist economic programs and sought conciliation with moderate Federalists.[147]
After 1810, a younger group of nationalist Democratic-Republicans, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, rose to prominence. These nationalists favored federally funded internal improvements and high tariffs, positions that would form the basis for Clay's American System.[148] In addition to its base among the leaders of Clay and Calhoun's generation, nationalist policies also proved attractive to many older Democratic-Republicans, including James Monroe.[149] The Panic of 1819 sparked a backlash against nationalist policies, and many of those opposed to the nationalist policies rallied around William H. Crawford until he had a major stroke in 1823.[150] After the 1824 election, most of Crawford's followers, including Martin Van Buren, gravitated to Andrew Jackson, forming a major part of the coalition that propelled Jackson to victory in the 1828 election.[151]
Organizational strategy
[edit]The Democratic-Republican Party invented campaign and organizational techniques that were later adopted by the Federalists and became standard American practice. It was especially effective in building a network of newspapers in major cities to broadcast its statements and editorialize its policies.[152] Fisher Ames, a leading Federalist, used the term "Jacobin" to link members of Jefferson's party to the radicals of the French Revolution. He blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson and wrote they were "an overmatch for any Government.... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition".[153]
As one historian explained: "It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand". Outstanding propagandists included editor William Duane (1760–1835) and party leaders Albert Gallatin, Thomas Cooper and Jefferson himself.[154] Just as important was effective party organization of the sort that John J. Beckley pioneered. In 1796, he managed the Jefferson campaign in Pennsylvania, blanketing the state with agents who passed out 30,000 hand-written tickets, naming all 15 electors (printed tickets were not allowed). Beckley told one agent: "In a few days a select republican friend from the City will call upon you with a parcel of tickets to be distributed in your County. Any assistance and advice you can furnish him with, as to suitable districts & characters, will I am sure be rendered". Beckley was the first American professional campaign manager and his techniques were quickly adopted in other states.[155]
The emergence of the new organizational strategies can be seen in the politics of Connecticut around 1806, which have been well documented by Cunningham. The Federalists dominated Connecticut, so the Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections. Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty". Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total the number of taxpayers and the number of eligible voters, find out how many favored the Republicans and how many the Federalists and to count the number of supporters of each party who were not eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. These highly detailed returns were to be sent to the county manager and in turn were compiled and sent to the state manager. Using these lists of potential voters, the managers were told to get all eligible people to town meetings and help the young men qualify to vote. The state manager was responsible for supplying party newspapers to each town for distribution by town and district managers.[156] This highly coordinated "get-out-the-vote" drive would be familiar to future political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history.
Legacy
[edit]The Federalists collapsed after 1815, beginning a period known as the Era of Good Feelings. After the 1824 presidential election the Democratic-Republicans split into factions. The coalition of Jacksonians, Calhounites, and Crawfordites built by Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren coalesced into the Democratic Party, which dominated presidential politics in the decades prior to the Civil War. Supporters of John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay would form the main opposition to Jackson as the National Republican Party, which in turn eventually formed part of the Whig Party, which was the second major party in the United States between the 1830s and the early 1850s.[113] The diverse and changing nature of the Democratic-Republican Party allowed both major parties to claim that they stood for Jeffersonian principles.[157] Historian Daniel Walker Howe writes that Democrats traced their heritage to the "Old Republicanism of Macon and Crawford", while the Whigs looked to "the new Republican nationalism of Madison and Gallatin."[158]
The Whig Party fell apart in the 1850s due to divisions over the expansion of slavery into new territories. The modern Republican Party was formed in 1854 to oppose the expansion of slavery, and many former Whig Party leaders joined the newly formed anti-slavery party.[159] The Republican Party sought to combine Jefferson and Jackson's ideals of liberty and equality with Clay's program of using an active government to modernize the economy.[160] The Democratic-Republican Party inspired the name and ideology of the Republican Party, but is not directly connected to that party.[161][162]
Fear of a large debt is a major legacy of the party. Andrew Jackson believed the national debt was a "national curse" and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835.[163] Politicians ever since have used the issue of a high national debt to denounce the other party for profligacy and a threat to fiscal soundness and the nation's future.[164]
Electoral history
[edit]Presidential elections
[edit]Election | Ticket | Popular vote | Electoral vote | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Presidential nominee | Running mate | Percentage | Electoral votes | Ranking | |
1796 | Thomas Jefferson[A] | Aaron Burr[B] | 46.6 | 68 / 138
|
2 |
1800 | 61.4 | 73 / 138
|
1 | ||
1804 | George Clinton | 72.8 | 162 / 176
|
1 | |
1808 | James Madison | 64.7 | 122 / 176
|
1 | |
1812 | Elbridge Gerry | 50.4 | 128 / 217
|
1 | |
DeWitt Clinton[C] | Jared Ingersoll | 47.6 | 89 / 217
|
2 | |
1816 | James Monroe | Daniel D. Tompkins | 68.2 | 183 / 217
|
1 |
1820 | 80.6 | 231 / 232
|
1 | ||
1824[D] | Andrew Jackson | John C. Calhoun | 41.4 | 99 / 261
|
1 |
John Quincy Adams | 30.9 | 84 / 261
|
2 | ||
William H. Crawford | Nathaniel Macon | 11.2 | 41 / 261
|
3 | |
Henry Clay | Nathan Sanford | 13 | 37 / 261
|
4 |
- ^ In his first presidential run, Jefferson did not win the presidency, and Burr did not win the vice presidency. However, under the pre-12th Amendment election rules, Jefferson won the vice presidency due to dissension among Federalist electors.
- ^ In their second presidential run, Jefferson and Burr received the same number of electoral votes. Jefferson was subsequently chosen as President by the House of Representatives.
- ^ While commonly labeled as the Federalist candidate, Clinton technically ran as a Democratic-Republican and was not nominated by the Federalist party itself, the latter simply deciding not to field a candidate. This did not prevent endorsements from state Federalist parties (such as in Pennsylvania), but he received the endorsement from the New York state Democratic-Republicans as well.
- ^ William H. Crawford and Albert Gallatin were nominated for president and vice-president by a group of 66 Congressmen that called itself the "Democratic members of Congress".[165] Gallatin later withdrew from the contest. Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay ran as Republicans, although they were not nominated by any national body. While Jackson won a plurality in the electoral college and popular vote, he did not win the constitutionally required majority of electoral votes to be elected president. The contest was thrown to the House of Representatives, where Adams won with Clay's support. The electoral college chose John C. Calhoun for vice president.
Congressional representation
[edit]The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians. The parties were slowly coalescing groups; at first there were many independents. Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives up until 1794 voted with Madison as much as two-thirds of the time and another quarter against him two-thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent.[166]
Congress | Years | Senate[167] | House of Representatives[168] | President | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Anti- Admin |
Pro- Admin |
Others | Vacancies | Total | Anti- Admin |
Pro- Admin |
Others | Vacancies | ||||||
1st | 1789–1791 | 26 | 8 | 18 | — | — | 65 | 28 | 37 | — | — | George Washington | |||
2nd | 1791–1793 | 30 | 13 | 16 | — | 1 | 69 | 30 | 39 | — | — | ||||
3rd | 1793–1795 | 30 | 14 | 16 | — | — | 105 | 54 | 51 | — | — | ||||
Congress | Years | Total | Democratic- Republicans |
Federalists | Others | Vacancies | Total | Democratic- Republicans |
Federalists | Others | Vacancies | President | |||
4th | 1795–1797 | 32 | 11 | 21 | — | — | 106 | 59 | 47 | — | — | George Washington | |||
5th | 1797–1799 | 32 | 10 | 22 | — | — | 106 | 49 | 57 | — | — | John Adams | |||
6th | 1799–1801 | 32 | 10 | 22 | — | — | 106 | 46 | 60 | — | — | ||||
7th | 1801–1803 | 34 | 17 | 15 | — | 2 | 107 | 68 | 38 | — | 1 | Thomas Jefferson | |||
8th | 1803–1805 | 34 | 25 | 9 | — | — | 142 | 103 | 39 | — | — | ||||
9th | 1805–1807 | 34 | 27 | 7 | — | — | 142 | 114 | 28 | — | — | ||||
10th | 1807–1809 | 34 | 28 | 6 | — | — | 142 | 116 | 26 | — | — | ||||
11th | 1809–1811 | 34 | 27 | 7 | — | — | 142 | 92 | 50 | — | — | James Madison | |||
12th | 1811–1813 | 36 | 30 | 6 | — | — | 143 | 107 | 36 | — | — | ||||
13th | 1813–1815 | 36 | 28 | 8 | — | — | 182 | 114 | 68 | — | — | ||||
14th | 1815–1817 | 38 | 26 | 12 | — | — | 183 | 119 | 64 | — | — | ||||
15th | 1817–1819 | 42 | 30 | 12 | — | — | 185 | 146 | 39 | — | — | James Monroe | |||
16th | 1819–1821 | 46 | 37 | 9 | — | — | 186 | 160 | 26 | — | — | ||||
17th | 1821–1823 | 48 | 44 | 4 | — | — | 187 | 155 | 32 | — | — | ||||
18th | 1823–1825 | 48 | 43 | 5 | — | — | 213 | 189 | 24 | — | — | ||||
Congress | Years | Total | Pro-Jackson | Pro-Adams | Others | Vacancies | Total | Pro-Jackson | Pro-Adams | Others | Vacancies | President | |||
19th | 1825–1827 | 48 | 26 | 22 | — | — | 213 | 104 | 109 | — | — | John Quincy Adams | |||
20th | 1827–1829 | 48 | 27 | 21 | — | — | 213 | 113 | 100 | — | — | ||||
Senate | House of Representatives |
See also
[edit]- American Enlightenment
- Anti-Federalism
- History of the Democratic Party (United States)
- History of U.S. foreign policy, 1801–1829
- Jacksonian democracy
- Liberal-Conservative Party
- List of political parties in the United States
Explanatory notes
[edit]- ^ a b Party members generally referred to it as the Republican Party; although the word Republican is not to be confused with the modern Republican Party founded in the 1850s. To distinguish this party from the current Republican Party, political scientists usually use the term "Democratic-Republican".
- ^ a b Prior to the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between electoral votes for president and electoral votes for vice president. Under these rules, an individual who received more votes than any other candidate, and received votes from a majority of the electors, was elected as president. If neither of those conditions were met, the House of Representatives would select the president through a contingent election in which each state delegation received one vote. After the selection of the president, the individual who finished with the most votes was elected as vice president, with the Senate holding a contingent election in the case of a tie.[31]
- ^ Clay himself was not eligible in the contingent election because the House could only choose from the top-three candidates in the electoral vote tally. Clay finished a close fourth to Crawford in the electoral vote.[102]
References
[edit]- ^ a b 102nd Congress (1991), S.2047 – A bill to establish a commission to commemorate the bicentennial of the establishment of the Democratic Party of the United States. "In 1992, the Democratic Party of the United States will celebrate the 200th anniversary of its establishment on May 13, 1792... Thomas Jefferson founded the first political party in the United States, the Democratic Party, which was originally known as the Republican Party."
- ^ Larson, Edward J. (2007). A Magnificent Catastrophe: The Tumultuous Election of 1800, America's First Presidential Campaign. Simon and Schuster. p. 21. ISBN 9780743293174.
The divisions between Adams and Jefferson were exasperated by the more extreme views expressed by some of their partisans, particularly the High Federalists led by Hamilton on what was becoming known as the political right, and the democratic wing of the Republican Party on the left, associated with New York Governor George Clinton and Pennsylvania legislator Albert Gallatin, among others.
- ^ Ohio History Connection. "Democratic-Republican Party". Ohio History Central. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
Democratic-Republicans favored keeping the U.S. economy based on agriculture and said that the U.S. should serve as the agricultural provider for the rest of the world [...]. Economically, the Democratic-Republicans wanted to remain a predominantly agricultural nation, [...].
- ^ Beasley, James R. (1972). "Emerging Republicanism and the Standing Order: The Appropriation Act Controversy in Connecticut, 1793 to 1795". The William and Mary Quarterly. 29 (4): 604. doi:10.2307/1917394. JSTOR 1917394.
- ^ Adams, Ian (2001). Political Ideology Today (reprinted, revised ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 32. ISBN 9780719060205.
Ideologically, all US parties are liberal and always have been. Essentially they espouse classical liberalism, that is a form of democratized Whig constitutionalism plus the free market. The point of difference comes with the influence of social liberalism.
- ^ "Democratic-Republican Party". Encyclopædia Britannica. July 20, 1998. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
The Republicans contended that the Federalists harboured aristocratic attitudes and that their policies placed too much power in the central government and tended to benefit the affluent at the expense of the common man.
- ^ Matthews, Richard K. (1984). The radical politics of Thomas Jefferson: a revisionist view. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. p. 18. ISBN 0-7006-0256-9. OCLC 10605658.
- ^ Wood. The American Revolution. p. 100.
- ^ Olsen, Henry (Summer 2010). "Populism, American Style". National Affairs. Retrieved May 30, 2021.
Amid the passion and the anger, Jefferson and Madison's Republican Party — the forerunner of today's Democrats — won the day; the coalition they built then proceeded to win every national election until 1824... The elections of 1828 and 1832 saw the ruling Republicans break into two factions: The minority faction — headed by incumbent president John Quincy Adams — became the National Republicans (and then the Whigs); it drew its support from the mercantile regions of the country, mainly New England and the large cities of the South. Members of the majority faction, meanwhile, renamed themselves the Democrats under the leadership of Andrew Jackson.
- ^ Cobb, Jelani (March 8, 2021). "What is Happening to the Republicans?". The New Yorker. Retrieved January 27, 2022.
In the uproar that ensued, the Party split, with each side laying claim to a portion of its name: the smaller faction, led by Adams, became the short-lived National Republicans; the larger, led by Jackson, became the Democratic Party.
- ^ Knott, Stephen (October 4, 2016). "George Washington: Campaigns and Elections". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
- ^ Reichley (2000), pp. 25, 29.
- ^ Ferling (2009), pp. 282–284
- ^ Ferling (2009), pp. 292–293
- ^ Ferling (2009), pp. 293–298
- ^ Bordewich (2016), pp. 244–252
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 44–45.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 45–48.
- ^ Wood (2009), pp. 150–151
- ^ Thompson (1980), pp. 174–175.
- ^ a b See The Aurora General Advertiser (Philadelphia), April. 30, 1795, p. 3; New Hampshire Gazette (Portsmouth), October 15, 1796, p. 3; Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser (Philadelphia), October 10, 1797, p. 3; Columbian Centinel (Boston), September 15, 1798, p. 2; Alexandria (VA) Times, October 8, 1798, p. 2; Daily Advertiser (New York), September 22, 1800, p. 2 & November 25, 1800, p. 2; The Oracle of Dauphin (Harrisburg), October 6, 1800, p. 3; Federal Gazette (Baltimore), October 23, 1800, p. 3; The Spectator (New York), October 25, 1800, p. 3; Poulson's American Daily Advertiser (Philadelphia), November 19, 1800, p. 3; Windham (CT) Herald, November 20, 1800, p. 2; City Gazette (Charleston), November 22, 1800, p. 2; The American Mercury (Hartford), November 27, 1800, p. 3; and Constitutional Telegraphe (Boston), November 29, 1800, p. 3.
After 1802, some local organizations slowly began merging "Democratic" into their own name and became known as the "Democratic Republicans". Examples include 1802, 1803, 1804, 1804, 1805, 1806, 1807, 1808, 1809. - ^ Wood (2009), pp. 161–162
- ^ a b Ferling (2009), pp. 299–302, 309–311
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 60, 64–65.
- ^ Foner found only two that used the actual term "Democratic-Republican", including the "Democratic-Republican Society of Dumfries", Virginia, 1794. Philip S. Foner, The Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790-1800: A Documentary Source-book of Constitutions, Declarations, Addresses, Resolutions, and Toasts (1977) pp 350, 370.
- ^ Ferling (2009), pp. 323–328, 338–344
- ^ Ferling (2003), pp. 397–400
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 72–73, 86.
- ^ a b McDonald (1974), pp. 178–181
- ^ Taylor, C. James (October 4, 2016). "John Adams: Campaigns and Elections". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
- ^ Neale, Thomas H. (November 3, 2016), Contingent Election of the President and Vice President by Congress: Perspectives and Contemporary Analysis (PDF), Congressional Research Service
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 77–78.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 80–82.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 78–79.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 85–87.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 86, 91–92.
- ^ Carter, Edward C. (1989). "A "Wild Irishman" under Every Federalist's Bed: Naturalization in Philadelphia, 1789-1806". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 133 (2): 178–189. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 987049.
- ^ Gilmore, Peter; Parkhill, Trevor; Roulston, William (2018). Exiles of '98: Ulster Presbyterians and the United States (PDF). Belfast, UK: Ulster Historical Foundation. pp. 25–37. ISBN 9781909556621. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
- ^ Weisberger, Bernard A. (2011). America Afire: Jefferson, Adams, and the First Contested Election. HarperCollins. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-06-211768-7.
- ^ Phillips, Kim T. (1977). "William Duane, Philadelphia's Democratic Republicans, and the Origins of Modern Politics". The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. 101 (3): (365–387) 368. ISSN 0031-4587. JSTOR 20091178.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 92–94.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 97–98.
- ^ Brown (1975), pp. 165–166
- ^ Brown (1975), pp. 198–200
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 99–100.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 95–97.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 101–102.
- ^ Wood (2009), pp. 291–296.
- ^ Bailey, 2007, p. 216.
- ^ Chernow, 2004, p. 671.
- ^ McDonald (1976), pp. 41–42.
- ^ Wood (2009), p. 293.
- ^ Meacham, 2012, p. 387.
- ^ Appleby, 2003, pp. 65–69
- ^ Appleby, 2003, pp. 7–8, 61–63
- ^ Wood (2009), pp. 357–359.
- ^ Appleby (2003), pp. 63–64.
- ^ Nugent (2008), pp. 61–62.
- ^ a b Wilentz (2005), p. 108.
- ^ Rodriguez, 2002, p. 97.
- ^ Appleby (2003), pp. 64–65.
- ^ Wood (2009), pp. 369–370.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 115–116.
- ^ Rutland (1990), p. 12.
- ^ Rutland (1990), p. 13.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 130–134.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 134–135.
- ^ Wills (2002), pp. 94–96.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 147–148.
- ^ Wills (2002), pp. 95–96.
- ^ Rutland, James Madison: The Founding Father, pp. 217–24
- ^ Wilentz (2005), p. 156.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 156–159.
- ^ Wills (2002), pp. 97–98.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 160–161.
- ^ Rutland (1990), pp. 186–188.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 175–176.
- ^ Rutland (1990), pp. 192, 201.
- ^ Rutland (1990), pp. 211–212.
- ^ Rutland (1990), pp. 20, 68–70.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 181–182.
- ^ Rutland (1990), pp. 195–198.
- ^ Howe (2007), pp. 82–84.
- ^ Cunningham (1996), pp. 15–18.
- ^ Cunningham (1996), pp. 18–19.
- ^ Howe, pp. 93–94.
- ^ Cunningham (1996), pp. 19–21.
- ^ "James Monroe: Domestic Affairs". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. October 4, 2016. Retrieved February 22, 2017.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 206–207.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 209–210, 251–252.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), p. 217.
- ^ Howe (2007), p. 147.
- ^ Cunningham (1996), pp. 28–29.
- ^ Wilentz (2004), p. 376: "[T]he sectional divisions among the Jeffersonian Republicans...offers historical paradoxes...in which hard-line slaveholding Southern Republicans rejected the egalitarian ideals of the slaveholder [Thomas] Jefferson while the antislavery Northern Republicans upheld them – even as Jefferson himself supported slavery's expansion on purportedly antislavery grounds.
- ^ Wilentz (2004), pp. 380, 386.
- ^ Cunningham (1996), pp. 101–103.
- ^ Cunningham (1996), pp. 103–104.
- ^ Parsons (2009), pp. 70–72.
- ^ Parsons (2009), pp. 79–86.
- ^ a b Kaplan (2014), pp. 386–389.
- ^ a b Kaplan (2014), pp. 391–393, 398.
- ^ a b Wilentz (2005), pp. 254–255.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 256–257.
- ^ Parsons (2009), pp. 106–107.
- ^ Kaplan (2014), pp. 402–403.
- ^ Parsons (2009), pp. 114–120.
- ^ Parsons (2009), pp. 127–128.
- ^ Howe (2007), p. 251
- ^ Howe (2007), pp. 275–277
- ^ Howe (2007), pp. 279–280
- ^ Parsons (2009), pp. 181–183.
- ^ Howe (2007), pp. 281–283
- ^ a b Parsons (2009), pp. 185–187, 195.
- ^ For examples of original quotes and documents from various states, see Cunningham, Noble E., Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization: 1789–1801 (1957), pp. 48, 63–66, 97, 99, 103, 110, 111, 112, 144, 151, 153, 156, 157, 161, 163, 188, 196, 201, 204, 213, 218 and 234.
See also "Address of the Republican committee of the County of Gloucester, New-Jersey Archived October 21, 2017, at the Wayback Machine", Gloucester County, December 15, 1800. - ^ Jefferson used the term "republican party" in a letter to Washington in May 1792 to refer to those in Congress who were his allies and who supported the existing republican constitution. "Thomas Jefferson to George Washington, May 23, 1792". Retrieved October 4, 2006. At a conference with Washington a year later, Jefferson referred to "what is called the republican party here". Bergh, ed. Writings of Thomas Jefferson (1907) 1:385, 8:345
- ^ "James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 2, 1794". Retrieved October 14, 2006. "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose." See also: Smith, 832.
"James Madison to William Hayward, March 21, 1809. Address to the Republicans of Talbot Co. Maryland". Retrieved October 27, 2006.
"Thomas Jefferson to John Melish, January 13, 1813". Retrieved October 27, 2006. "The party called republican is steadily for the support of the present constitution"
"James Madison to Baltimore Republican Committee, April 22, 1815". Retrieved October 27, 2006.
"James Madison to William Eustis, May 22, 1823". Retrieved October 27, 2006. Transcript. "The people are now able every where to compare the principles and policy of those who have borne the name of Republicans or Democrats with the career of the adverse party and to see and feel that the former are as much in harmony with the Spirit of the Nation as the latter was at variance with both." - ^ Banning, 79–90.
- ^ Brown (1999), p. 17.
- ^ Onuf, Peter (August 12, 2019). "Thomas Jefferson: Impact and Legacy". Miller Center.
- ^ "Jeffersonian Republican Party". Encyclopedia.com. The Gale Group. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
- ^ Webster, Noah (1843). A Collection of Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects. Webster & Clark. p. 332.
From the time when the anti-federal party assumed the more popular appellation of republican, which was soon after the arrival of the French minister in 1793, that epithet became a powerful instrument in the process of making proselytes to the party. The influence of names on the mass of mankind, was never more distinctly exhibited, than in the increase of the democratic party in the United States.
- ^ Janda, Kenneth; Berry, Jeffrey M.; Goldman, Jerry; Deborah, Deborah (2015). The Challenge of Democracy: American Government in Global Politics 13th ed. Cengage Learning. p. 212. ISBN 9781305537439.
- ^ In a private letter in September 1798, George Washington wrote, "You could as soon as scrub the blackamore white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country." George Washington (1939). The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources 1745-1799 Volume 36 August 4, 1797-October 28, 1798. Best Books on. p. 474. ISBN 9781623764463.
- ^ James Roger Sharp, American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (1993).
- ^ Brown (1999), p. 19.
- ^ Reichley (2000), p. 52.
- ^ Susan Dunn, Jefferson's second revolution: the election crisis of 1800 and the triumph of republicanism (HMH, 2004) p 1.
- ^ Appleby (2003), pp. 1–5.
- ^ Reichley (2000), p. 57.
- ^ Reichley (2000), pp. 55–56.
- ^ Reichley (2000), pp. 51–52.
- ^ McDonald (1976), pp. 42–43.
- ^ Brown (1999), pp. 19–20.
- ^ Reichley (2000), pp. 35–36.
- ^ Wood (2009), pp. 357–358.
- ^ "James Monroe: Foreign Affairs". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. October 4, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 136–137.
- ^ a b Wilentz (2005), pp. 218–221.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 225–227.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 228–229.
- ^ Reichley (2000), pp. 36–37.
- ^ Wood (2009), pp. 166–168.
- ^ Klein, 44.
- ^ Wood (2009), pp. 168–171.
- ^ Reichley (2000), p. 54.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), p. 100.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 105–107.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 144–148.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 202–203.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 241–242.
- ^ Wilentz (2005), pp. 294–296.
- ^ Jeffrey L. Pasley. "The Tyranny of Printers": Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (2003)
- ^ Cunningham (1957), p. 167.
- ^ Tinkcom, 271.
- ^ Cunningham, Noble E. (1956). "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager". The William and Mary Quarterly. 13 (1): 40–52. doi:10.2307/1923388. JSTOR 1923388.
- ^ Cunningham (1963), 129.
- ^ Brown (1999), pp. 18–19.
- ^ Howe (2007), p. 582.
- ^ "The Origin of the Republican Party, A.F. Gilman, Ripon College, 1914". Content.wisconsinhistory.org. Retrieved January 17, 2012.
- ^ Gould (2003), p. 14.
- ^ Howe (2007), pp. 66, 275, 897.
- ^ Lipset, Seymour Martin (1960). Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics. Garden City, N.Y.,: Doubleday. p. 292.
- ^ Remini, Robert V. (2008). Andrew Jackson. Macmillan. p. 180. ISBN 9780230614703.
- ^ Nagel, Stuart (1994). Encyclopedia of Policy Studies (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 503–504. ISBN 9780824791421.
- ^ "Anti-Caucus/Caucus". Washington Republican. February 6, 1824. Archived from the original on August 31, 2017. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
- ^ Cunningham (1957), p. 82.
- ^ "Party Division". United States Senate.
- ^ "Party Divisions of the House of Representatives, 1789 to Present". United States House of Representatives.
Works cited
[edit]- Appleby, Joyce Oldham (2003). Thomas Jefferson: The American Presidents Series: The 3rd President, 1801–1809. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0805069242.
- Bailey, Jeremy D. (2007). Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-1139466295.
- Banning, Lance (1978). The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology. online
- Bordewich, Fergus M. (2016). The First Congress. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-45169193-1.
- Brown, David (1999). "Jeffersonian Ideology and the Second Party System". Wiley. 62 (1): 17–30. JSTOR 24450533.
- Brown, Ralph A. (1975). The Presidency of John Adams. American Presidency Series. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-0134-1.
- Chernow, Ron (2004). Alexander Hamilton. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1594200090.
- Cunningham, Noble (1996). The Presidency of James Monroe. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-0728-5.
- Cunningham, Noble E. Jr. (1957). The Jeffersonian Republicans: The formation of Party Organization, 1789–1801. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-835-73909-2.
- Cunningham, Noble E. Jr. (1963). The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations 1801–1809.
- Ferling, John (2003). A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515924-1.
- Ferling, John (2009). The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon. New York: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-59691-465-0.
- Gould, Lewis (2003). Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans. Random House. ISBN 0-375-50741-8. concerns the party founded in 1854.
- Howe, Daniel Walker (2007). What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. Oxford History of the United States. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507894-7. OCLC 122701433.
- Kaplan, Fred (2014). John Quincy Adams: American Visionary. HarperCollins.
- McDonald, Forrest (1974). The Presidency of George Washington. American Presidency. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0359-6.
- McDonald, Forrest (1976). The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0700603305.
- Meacham, Jon (2012). Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power. Random House LLC. ISBN 978-0679645368.
- Nugent, Walter (2008). Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion. Knopf. ISBN 978-1400042920.
- Parsons, Lynn H. (2009). The Birth of Modern Politics: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-19-531287-4.
- Reichley, A. James (2000) [1992]. The Life of the Parties: A History of American Political Parties (Paperback ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-0888-9.
- Rutland, Robert A (1990). The Presidency of James Madison. Univ. Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0700604654.
- Thompson, Harry C. (1980). "The Second Place in Rome: John Adams as Vice President". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 10 (2): 171–178. JSTOR 27547562.
- Tinkcom, Harry M. (1950). The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania, 1790–1801.
- Wilentz, Sean (September 2004). "Jeffersonian Democracy and the Origins of Political Antislavery in the United States: The Missouri Crisis Revisited". Journal of the Historical Society. 4 (3): 375–401. doi:10.1111/j.1529-921X.2004.00105.x.
- Wilentz, Sean (2005). The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-05820-4.
- Wills, Garry (2002). James Madison: The American Presidents Series: The 4th President, 1809-1817. Times Books.
- Wood, Gordon S. (2009). Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815. Oxford History of the United States. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503914-6.
Further reading
[edit]- Beard, Charles A. Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy (1915). online
- Brown, Stuart Gerry. The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison 1954.
- Chambers, Wiliam Nisbet. Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809 (1963). online
- Cornell, Saul. The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 1788–1828 (1999) (ISBN 0-8078-2503-4).
- Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. The Process of Government Under Jefferson (1978).
- Dawson, Matthew Q. Partisanship and the Birth of America's Second Party, 1796–1800: Stop the Wheels of Government. Greenwood, 2000.
- Dougherty, Keith L. "TRENDS: Creating Parties in Congress: The Emergence of a Social Network." Political Research Quarterly 73.4 (2020): 759–773. online
- Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism (1995), detailed political history of 1790s.
- Ferling, John. Adams Vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800 (2004) (ISBN 0-19-516771-6).
- Ferling, John (2009). The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon. New York: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-59691-465-0.
- Goodman, Paul, ed. The Federalists vs. the Jeffersonian Republicans (1977) online, short excerpts by leading historians
- Howe, Daniel Walker (2007). What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America 1815–1848. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195078947.
- Klein, Philip Shriver. Pennsylvania Politics, 1817–1832: A Game without Rules 1940.
- Morison, Samuel Eliot (1965). The Oxford History of the American People. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Onuf, Peter S., ed. Jeffersonian Legacies. (1993) (ISBN 0-8139-1462-0).
- Pasley, Jeffrey L. et al. eds. Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic (2004).
- Ray, Kristofer. "The Republicans Are the Nation? Thomas Jefferson, William Duane, and the Evolution of the Republican Coalition, 1809–1815." American Nineteenth Century History 14.3 (2013): 283–304.
- Risjord, Norman K.; The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson (1965) on the Randolph faction.
- Rodriguez, Junius (2002). The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1576071885.
- Sharp, James Roger. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (1993) detailed narrative of 1790s.
- Smelser, Marshall. The Democratic Republic 1801–1815 (1968), survey of political history.
- Van Buren, Martin. Van Buren, Abraham, Van Buren, John, ed. Inquiry Into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States (1867) (ISBN 1-4181-2924-0).
- Wiltse, Charles Maurice. The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy (1935).
- Wilentz, Sean (September 2004). "Jeffersonian Democracy and the Origins of Political Antislavery in the United States: The Missouri Crisis Revisited". Journal of the Historical Society. 4 (3): 375–401. doi:10.1111/j.1529-921X.2004.00105.x.
- Wills, Garry. Henry Adams and the Making of America (2005), a close reading of Henry Adams (1889–1891).
Biographies
[edit]- Ammon, Harry (1971). James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780070015821.
- Cunningham, Noble E. In Pursuit of Reason The Life of Thomas Jefferson (ISBN 0-345-35380-3) (1987).
- Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager", William and Mary Quarterly, 13 (January 1956), 40–52, online
- Miller, John C. Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox (1959), full-scale biography. online
- Peterson; Merrill D. Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (1975), full-scale biography.
- Remini, Robert. Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1991), a standard biography.
- Rutland, Robert A., ed. James Madison and the American Nation, 1751–1836: An Encyclopedia (1994).
- Schachner, Nathan. Aaron Burr: A Biography (1961), full-scale biography.
- Unger, Harlow G.. "The Last Founding Father: James Monroe and a Nation's Call to Greatness" (2009)
- Wiltse, Charles Maurice. John C. Calhoun, Nationalist, 1782–1828 (1944).
State studies
[edit]- Beeman, Richard R. The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 1788–1801 (1972), on Virginia politics.
- Formisano, Ronald P. The Transformation of Political Culture. Massachusetts Parties, 1790s–1840s (1984) (ISBN 0-19-503509-7).
- Gilpatrick, Delbert Harold. Jeffersonian Democracy in North Carolina, 1789–1816 (1931).
- Goodman, Paul. The Democratic-Republicans of Massachusetts (1964).
- McCormick, Richard P. (1966). The Second Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era. details the collapse state by state.
- Prince, Carl E. New Jersey's Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine, 1789–1817 (1967).
- Risjord; Norman K. Chesapeake Politics, 1781–1800 (1978) on Virginia and Maryland.
- Young, Alfred F. The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763–1797 (1967).
Newspapers
[edit]- Hale, Matthew Rainbow. "On their tiptoes: Political time and Newspapers during the Advent of the Radicalized French Revolution, circa 1792-1793." Journal of the Early Republic 29.2 (2009): 191–218. online
- Humphrey, Carol Sue The Press of the Young Republic, 1783–1833 (1996).
- Knudson, Jerry W. Jefferson And the Press: Crucible of Liberty (2006) how 4 Republican and 4 Federalist papers covered election of 1800; Thomas Paine; Louisiana Purchase; Hamilton-Burr duel; impeachment of Chase; and the embargo.
- Laracey, Mel. "The presidential newspaper as an engine of early American political development: The case of Thomas Jefferson and the election of 1800." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 11.1 (2008): 7-46. excerpt
- Pasley, Jeffrey L. "The Two National" Gazettes": Newspapers and the Embodiment of American Political Parties." Early American Literature 35.1 (2000): 51-86. online
- Pasley, Jeffrey L. 'The Tyranny of Printers': Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (2003) (ISBN 0-8139-2177-5). online
- Scherr, Arthur. " 'A Genuine Republican': Benjamin Franklin Bache's Remarks (1797), the Federalists, and Republican Civic Humanism." Pennsylvania History 80.2 (2013): 243-298. online
- Stewart, Donald H. The Opposition Press of the Federalist Era (1968), highly detailed study of Republican newspapers.
- The complete text, searchable, of all early American newspapers are online at Readex America's Historical Newspapers, available at research libraries.
Primary sources
[edit]- Adams, John Quincy. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848 Volume VII (1875) edited by Charles Francis Adams; (ISBN 0-8369-5021-6). Adams, son of the Federalist president, switched and became a Republican in 1808.
- Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809 (1965) excerpts from primary sources.
- Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents 1789–1829 (1978), 3 vol; reprints the political newsletters sent out by congressmen.
- Kirk, Russell ed. John Randolph of Roanoke: A study in American politics, with selected speeches and letters, 4th ed., Liberty Fund, 1997, 588 pp. ISBN 0-86597-150-1; Randolph was a leader of the "Old Republican" faction.
- McColley, Robert, ed. Federalists, Republicans, and foreign entanglements, 1789-1815 (1969) online, primary sources on foreign policy
- Smith, James Morton, ed. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826 Volume 2 (1994).
External links
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