Nonverbal learning disorder: Difference between revisions

Nonverbal learning disorder
Nonverbal learning disorder
Other names	Developmental visual–spatial disorder, nonverbal learning difficulties, nonverbal learning disability
Specialty	Neurology,; Psychiatry
Differential diagnosis	Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism, bipolar disorder
Frequency	Currently unknown, estimated to be around 3%

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Nonverbal learning disorder (NVLD or NLD) is a proposed neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by core deficits in nonverbal skills, especially visual-spatial processing. People with this condition have normal or advanced verbal intelligence and significantly lower nonverbal intelligence.^[3] A review of papers found that proposed diagnostic criteria were inconsistent.^[3] Proposed additional diagnostic criteria include intact verbal intelligence, and deficits in the following: visuoconstruction abilities, speech prosody,^[4] fine motor coordination, mathematical reasoning, visuospatial memory, and social skills.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] NVLD is not recognised by the DSM-5 and is not clinically distinct from learning disorders.^[9]

NVLD symptoms can overlap with symptoms of autism, bipolar disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). For this reason, some claim a diagnosis of NVLD is more appropriate in some subset of these cases.^[4]^[10]

Signs and symptoms

Considered to be neurologically based,^[11]^[12] nonverbal learning disorder is characterized by:

impairments in visuospatial processing
discrepancy between average to superior verbal abilities and impaired nonverbal abilities, such as:
- visuoconstruction
- fine motor coordination
- mathematical reasoning
- visuospatial memory
- socioemotional skills^[6]

People with NVLD may have trouble understanding charts, reading maps, assembling jigsaw puzzles, and using an analog clock to tell time. Motor coordination deficits are common in people with NVLD, especially children, and it may take a child with NVLD longer than usual to learn how to tie shoelaces or to ride a bicycle.^[10]

At the beginning of their school careers, children with symptoms of NVLD struggle with tasks that require eye–hand coordination, such as coloring and using scissors, but often excel at memorizing verbal content, spelling, and reading once the shapes of the letters are learned. A child with NVLD's average or superior verbal skills can be misattributed to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, defiant behavior, inattention, or lack of effort.^[10] Early researchers of NVLD, Johnson and Myklebust, characterize how the children appear in a classroom: "An example is the child who fails to learn the meaning of the actions of others [...] We categorize this child as having a deficiency in social perception, meaning that he has an inability which precludes acquiring the significance of basic nonverbal aspects of daily living, though his verbal level of intelligence falls within or above the average."^[13]

In the adolescent years, when schoolwork becomes more abstract and the executive demands for time management, organization, and social interactions increase, students with NVLD begin to struggle. They focus on separate details and struggle to summarize information or to integrate ideas into a coherent whole, and they struggle to apply knowledge to other situations, to infer implicit information, to make predictions, and to organize information logically.^[10]

As adults, tasks such as driving a car or navigating to an unfamiliar location may be difficult. Difficulty with keeping track of responsibilities or managing social interactions may affect job performance.^[10]

People with NVLD may also fit the diagnostic criteria of dyscalculia,^[14]^[15] dysgraphia,^[16]^[17]^[18] or dyspraxia.^[19]^[20]

Cause

Research suggests that there is an association with an imbalance of neural activity in the right hemisphere of the brain connected to the white matter.^[11]

Diagnosis

Assorted diagnoses have been discussed as sharing symptoms with NVLD. In some cases, especially the form of autism previously called Asperger syndrome, the overlap can be significant; a major clinical difference is that NVLD criteria do not mention the presence or absence of either repetitive behaviors or narrow subject-matter interests,^[10] which is part of the diagnostic criteria for autism.^[21] These overlapping conditions include, among others:

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
autism, especially high-functioning autism^[22]
bipolar disorder^[4]
developmental coordination disorder (dyspraxia)^[22]^[23]
dyscalculia^[23]
social communication disorder^[22]
right hemisphere brain damage and developmental right hemisphere syndrome^[10]^[24]^[25]
social-emotional processing disorder^[26]^[27]
Gerstmann syndrome^[28]^[29]

There is diagnostic overlap between nonverbal learning disorder and autism, and some clinicians and researchers consider them to be the same condition.^[10]^[8] Some claim that some diagnoses of ADHD would be more appropriately classified as NVLD.^[10]

History

While various nonverbal learning difficulties were recognized since early studies in child neurology,^[30] there is ongoing debate as to whether (or the extent to which) existing conceptions of NVLD provide a valid diagnostic framework.^[31]^[32]

As presented in 1967, "nonverbal disabilities" (p. 44) or "disorders of nonverbal learning" was a category encompassing non-linguistic learning problems.^[13] "Nonverbal learning disabilities" were further discussed by Myklebust in 1975 as representing a subtype of learning "disability" with a range of presentations involving "mainly visual cognitive processing," social imperception, a gap between higher verbal ability and lower nonverbal processing, as well as difficulty with handwriting.^[33] Later neuropsychologist Byron Rourke^[34] sought to develop consistent criteria with a theory and model of brain functioning that would establish NVLD as a distinct syndrome (1989).^[35]

Questions remain about how best to frame the perceptual, cognitive and motor issues associated with NVLD.^[12]^[36]^[37]^[6]

References

^ Broitman, Jessica; Melcher, Miranda; Margolis, Amy; Davis, John M. (2020). NVLD and developmental visual-spatial disorder in children: clinical guide to assessment and treatment. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-56107-9.
^ Margolis, Amy E.; Broitman, Jessica; Davis, John M.; Alexander, Lindsay; Hamilton, Ava; Liao, Zhijie; Banker, Sarah; Thomas, Lauren; Ramphal, Bruce; Salum, Giovanni A.; Merikangas, Kathleen; Goldsmith, Jeff; Paus, Tomas; Keyes, Katherine; Milham, Michael P. (2020). "Estimated Prevalence of Nonverbal Learning Disability Among North American Children and Adolescents". JAMA Network Open. 3 (4): e202551. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.2551. PMC 7148441. PMID 32275324.
^ ^a ^b Fisher, Prudence W.; Reyes-Portillo, Jazmin A.; Riddle, Mark A.; Litwin, Hillary D. (1 February 2022). "Systematic Review: Nonverbal Learning Disability". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 61 (2): 159–186. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2021.04.003. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 33892110. S2CID 233382776.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Does your patient have a psychiatric illness or nonverbal learning disorder?" (PDF). Current Psychiatry.
^ Mammarella, Irene C.; Cornoldi, Cesare (2014). "An analysis of the criteria used to diagnose children with Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD)". Child Neuropsychology. 20 (3): 255–280. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.796920. hdl:11577/2668053. ISSN 0929-7049. PMID 23705673. S2CID 34107811.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mammarella & Cornoldi 2014, pp. 255–280.
^ Doty, Nathan (2019). "Nonverbal Learning Disability". The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities: Assessing Learning Needs of Children and Adolescents. H. Kent Wilson, Ellen Braaten. Cham, Switzerland: Humana. ISBN 978-3-319-98643-2. OCLC 1080078884.
^ ^a ^b Fine, Jodene Goldenring; Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret; Bledsoe, Jesse C.; Musielak, Kayla A. (March 2013). "A critical review of the literature on NLD as a developmental disorder". Child Neuropsychology. 19 (2): 190–223. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.648923. ISSN 0929-7049. PMID 22385012. S2CID 12655825.
^ Dupaul, George J.; Gormley, Matthew J.; Laracy, Seth D. (2013). "Comorbidity of LD and ADHD". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 46 (1): 43–51. doi:10.1177/0022219412464351. PMID 23144063. S2CID 206423076.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Doty 2019, pp. 103–106.
^ ^a ^b Ramphal, Bruce; Pagliaccio, David; Thomas, Lauren V.; He, Xiaofu; Margolis, Amy E. (15 April 2021). "Contributions of Cerebellar White Matter Microstructure to Social Difficulty in Nonverbal Learning Disability". The Cerebellum. 20 (6) (published December 2021): 931–937, 931. doi:10.1007/s12311-021-01265-4. ISSN 1473-4222. PMC 8530438. PMID 33856654.
^ ^a ^b Fine, Jodene Goldenring; Musielak, Kayla A.; Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret (2014). "Smaller splenium in children with nonverbal learning disability compared to controls, high-functioning autism and ADHD". Child Neuropsychology. 20 (6): 641–61. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.854763. PMID 24215424. S2CID 15495423.
^ ^a ^b Johnson, Doris J.; Myklebust, Helmer R. (1967). "Nonverbal Disorders of Learning". Learning disabilities: educational principles and practices. New York: Grune & Stratton. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-8089-0219-5.
^ Rourke, B. P.; Conway, J. A. (1997). "Disabilities of Arithmetic and Mathematical Reasoning: Perspectives From Neurology and Neuropsychology". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 30 (1): 34–46. doi:10.1177/002221949703000103. PMID 9009877. S2CID 46413188.
^ Geary, David C. (2010). "Mathematical disabilities: Reflections on cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components". Learning and Individual Differences. 20 (2): 130–133. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.10.008. PMC 2821095. PMID 20161681.
^ Tsur, V. G.; Shalev, R. S.; Manor, O.; Amir, N. (1995). "Developmental Right-Hemisphere Syndrome: Clinical Spectrum of the Nonverbal Learning Disability". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 28 (2): 80–6. doi:10.1177/002221949502800202. PMID 7884301. S2CID 46398326.
^ Rourke, Byron P. (1989). "Patterns of Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic". Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model. Guilford Press. pp. 20–9. ISBN 978-0-89862-378-9.
^ Szklut, Stacey E.; Philbert, Darby Breath (2013). "Learning Disabilities and Developmental Coordination Disorder". In Umphred, Darcy A.; Lazaro, Rolando T.; Roller, Margaret L.; et al. (eds.). Neurological Rehabilitation (6th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 379–418. ISBN 978-0-323-26649-9.
^ Clayton, MC; Dodd, JL (2005). "Nonverbal neurodevelopmental dysfunctions". Pediatric Annals. 34 (4): 321–7. doi:10.3928/0090-4481-20050401-13. PMID 15871436.
^ Solodow, William; Sandy, Sandra V.; Leventhal, Fern; Beszylko, Scott; Shepherd, Margaret Jo; Cohen, Jonathan; Goldman, Shoshana; Perry, Richard; Chang, Jennifer J.; Nass, Ruth (Fall 2006). "Frequency and Diagnostic Criteria for Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in a General Learning Disability School Cohort". Thalamus. 24 (1): 17–33.
^ CDC (2 November 2022). "Diagnostic Criteria | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c Doty 2019, p. 110.
^ ^a ^b Dobbins, Mary; Theodore Sunder, M. D.; Stephen Soltys, M. D. (1 August 2007). "Nonverbal Learning Disabilities and Sensory Processing Disorders". Psychiatric Times Vol 24 No 9. 24. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Wilmshurst, Linda (2014). "Sandy Smith: Marching to the Tune of a Different Drummer". Child and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Casebook. Sage. pp. 89–99. ISBN 978-1-4833-2268-1.
^ Riccio, Cynthia A. (2007). "Dyscalculia". In Reynolds, Cecil R.; Fletcher-Janzen, Elaine (eds.). Encyclopedia of Special Education. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 769–70. ISBN 978-0-471-67798-7.
^ Tsatsanis, Katherine (2013). "Right-Hemisphere Syndrome". In Volkmar, Fred R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Springer. pp. 2596–600. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_1587. ISBN 978-1-4419-1698-3.
^ Manoach, Dara Sue; Sandson, Thomas A.; Weintraub, Sandra (April 1995). "The Developmental Social-Emotional Processing Disorder Is Associated with Right Hemisphere Abnormalities". Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neurology. 8 (2): 99–105. INIST 3510330.
^ Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret; Hynd, George W. (1990). "Right hemisphere dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children". Psychological Bulletin. 107 (2): 196–209. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.196. PMID 2181523.
^ Forrest, Bonny J. (2011). "Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome". In Kreutzer, Jeffrey S.; DeLuca, John; Caplan, Bruce (eds.). Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology. Springer. pp. 826–7. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1540. ISBN 978-0-387-79948-3.
^ Gardner-Medwin, David (1990). "John Walton". In Ashwal, Stephen (ed.). The Founders of Child Neurology. Norman. pp. 862–70. ISBN 978-0-930405-26-7.
^ Pollak, Jerrold (July 2011). "Differentiating NLD". Current Psychiatry. 10 (7). Archived from the original on 16 July 2019.
^ Admin, LD I. "DSM-V to Exclude Asperger's, PDD-NOS & NLD in 2013; Wait, What? | Life Development Institute." Life Development Institute. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 06 Sept. 2016.http://discoverldi.com/dsm-v-to-exclude-aspergers-pdd-nos-wait-what/
^ Myklebust, Helmer R. (1975). Myklebust, Helmer R. (ed.). "Nonverbal learning disabilities: Assessment and intervention". Progress in Learning Disabilities. 3. Grune and Stratton: 85–. ISSN 0079-6387.
^ Donders, Jacobus (2011). "Obituary for Dr. Byron Rourke". Child Neuropsychology. 17 (5): 417. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.617105. S2CID 145142840.
^ Rourke, Byron P. (1989). Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-0-89862-378-9.^{[page needed]}
^ Spreen, Otfried (2011). "Nonverbal learning disabilities: A critical review". Child Neuropsychology. 17 (5): 418–43. doi:10.1080/09297049.2010.546778. PMID 21462003. S2CID 31974898.
^ Davis, John M.; Broitman, Jessica (2011). Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children: Bridging the Gap Between Science and Practice. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-8213-1.

External links

NVLD Project

[1] Broitman, Jessica; Melcher, Miranda; Margolis, Amy; Davis, John M. (2020). NVLD and developmental visual-spatial disorder in children: clinical guide to assessment and treatment. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-56107-9.

[2] Margolis, Amy E.; Broitman, Jessica; Davis, John M.; Alexander, Lindsay; Hamilton, Ava; Liao, Zhijie; Banker, Sarah; Thomas, Lauren; Ramphal, Bruce; Salum, Giovanni A.; Merikangas, Kathleen; Goldsmith, Jeff; Paus, Tomas; Keyes, Katherine; Milham, Michael P. (2020). "Estimated Prevalence of Nonverbal Learning Disability Among North American Children and Adolescents". JAMA Network Open. 3 (4): e202551. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.2551. PMC 7148441. PMID 32275324.

[Fisher-3] Fisher, Prudence W.; Reyes-Portillo, Jazmin A.; Riddle, Mark A.; Litwin, Hillary D. (1 February 2022). "Systematic Review: Nonverbal Learning Disability". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 61 (2): 159–186. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2021.04.003. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 33892110. S2CID 233382776.

[MDedge-4] "Does your patient have a psychiatric illness or nonverbal learning disorder?" (PDF). Current Psychiatry.

[5] Mammarella, Irene C.; Cornoldi, Cesare (2014). "An analysis of the criteria used to diagnose children with Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD)". Child Neuropsychology. 20 (3): 255–280. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.796920. hdl:11577/2668053. ISSN 0929-7049. PMID 23705673. S2CID 34107811.

[FOOTNOTEMammarellaCornoldi2014255–280-6] Mammarella & Cornoldi 2014, pp. 255–280.

[7] Doty, Nathan (2019). "Nonverbal Learning Disability". The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities: Assessing Learning Needs of Children and Adolescents. H. Kent Wilson, Ellen Braaten. Cham, Switzerland: Humana. ISBN 978-3-319-98643-2. OCLC 1080078884.

[Fine-8] Fine, Jodene Goldenring; Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret; Bledsoe, Jesse C.; Musielak, Kayla A. (March 2013). "A critical review of the literature on NLD as a developmental disorder". Child Neuropsychology. 19 (2): 190–223. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.648923. ISSN 0929-7049. PMID 22385012. S2CID 12655825.

[9] Dupaul, George J.; Gormley, Matthew J.; Laracy, Seth D. (2013). "Comorbidity of LD and ADHD". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 46 (1): 43–51. doi:10.1177/0022219412464351. PMID 23144063. S2CID 206423076.

[FOOTNOTEDoty2019103–106-10] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Doty 2019, pp. 103–106.

[ramphal_2021-11] Ramphal, Bruce; Pagliaccio, David; Thomas, Lauren V.; He, Xiaofu; Margolis, Amy E. (15 April 2021). "Contributions of Cerebellar White Matter Microstructure to Social Difficulty in Nonverbal Learning Disability". The Cerebellum. 20 (6) (published December 2021): 931–937, 931. doi:10.1007/s12311-021-01265-4. ISSN 1473-4222. PMC 8530438. PMID 33856654.

[pmid24215424-12] Fine, Jodene Goldenring; Musielak, Kayla A.; Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret (2014). "Smaller splenium in children with nonverbal learning disability compared to controls, high-functioning autism and ADHD". Child Neuropsychology. 20 (6): 641–61. doi:10.1080/09297049.2013.854763. PMID 24215424. S2CID 15495423.

[Johnson-13] Johnson, Doris J.; Myklebust, Helmer R. (1967). "Nonverbal Disorders of Learning". Learning disabilities: educational principles and practices. New York: Grune & Stratton. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-8089-0219-5.

[14] Rourke, B. P.; Conway, J. A. (1997). "Disabilities of Arithmetic and Mathematical Reasoning: Perspectives From Neurology and Neuropsychology". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 30 (1): 34–46. doi:10.1177/002221949703000103. PMID 9009877. S2CID 46413188.

[15] Geary, David C. (2010). "Mathematical disabilities: Reflections on cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components". Learning and Individual Differences. 20 (2): 130–133. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.10.008. PMC 2821095. PMID 20161681.

[pmid7884301-16] Tsur, V. G.; Shalev, R. S.; Manor, O.; Amir, N. (1995). "Developmental Right-Hemisphere Syndrome: Clinical Spectrum of the Nonverbal Learning Disability". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 28 (2): 80–6. doi:10.1177/002221949502800202. PMID 7884301. S2CID 46398326.

[17] Rourke, Byron P. (1989). "Patterns of Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic". Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model. Guilford Press. pp. 20–9. ISBN 978-0-89862-378-9.

[18] Szklut, Stacey E.; Philbert, Darby Breath (2013). "Learning Disabilities and Developmental Coordination Disorder". In Umphred, Darcy A.; Lazaro, Rolando T.; Roller, Margaret L.; et al. (eds.). Neurological Rehabilitation (6th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 379–418. ISBN 978-0-323-26649-9.

[19] Clayton, MC; Dodd, JL (2005). "Nonverbal neurodevelopmental dysfunctions". Pediatric Annals. 34 (4): 321–7. doi:10.3928/0090-4481-20050401-13. PMID 15871436.

[20] Solodow, William; Sandy, Sandra V.; Leventhal, Fern; Beszylko, Scott; Shepherd, Margaret Jo; Cohen, Jonathan; Goldman, Shoshana; Perry, Richard; Chang, Jennifer J.; Nass, Ruth (Fall 2006). "Frequency and Diagnostic Criteria for Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in a General Learning Disability School Cohort". Thalamus. 24 (1): 17–33.

[21] CDC (2 November 2022). "Diagnostic Criteria | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 8 April 2023.

[FOOTNOTEDoty2019110-22] Doty 2019, p. 110.

[Dobbins-23] Dobbins, Mary; Theodore Sunder, M. D.; Stephen Soltys, M. D. (1 August 2007). "Nonverbal Learning Disabilities and Sensory Processing Disorders". Psychiatric Times Vol 24 No 9. 24. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[24] Wilmshurst, Linda (2014). "Sandy Smith: Marching to the Tune of a Different Drummer". Child and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Casebook. Sage. pp. 89–99. ISBN 978-1-4833-2268-1.

[25] Riccio, Cynthia A. (2007). "Dyscalculia". In Reynolds, Cecil R.; Fletcher-Janzen, Elaine (eds.). Encyclopedia of Special Education. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 769–70. ISBN 978-0-471-67798-7.

[26] Tsatsanis, Katherine (2013). "Right-Hemisphere Syndrome". In Volkmar, Fred R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Springer. pp. 2596–600. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_1587. ISBN 978-1-4419-1698-3.

[27] Manoach, Dara Sue; Sandson, Thomas A.; Weintraub, Sandra (April 1995). "The Developmental Social-Emotional Processing Disorder Is Associated with Right Hemisphere Abnormalities". Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neurology. 8 (2): 99–105. INIST 3510330.

[pmid2181523-28] Semrud-Clikeman, Margaret; Hynd, George W. (1990). "Right hemisphere dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children". Psychological Bulletin. 107 (2): 196–209. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.196. PMID 2181523.

[29] Forrest, Bonny J. (2011). "Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome". In Kreutzer, Jeffrey S.; DeLuca, John; Caplan, Bruce (eds.). Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology. Springer. pp. 826–7. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1540. ISBN 978-0-387-79948-3.

[30] Gardner-Medwin, David (1990). "John Walton". In Ashwal, Stephen (ed.). The Founders of Child Neurology. Norman. pp. 862–70. ISBN 978-0-930405-26-7.

[31] Pollak, Jerrold (July 2011). "Differentiating NLD". Current Psychiatry. 10 (7). Archived from the original on 16 July 2019.

[32] Admin, LD I. "DSM-V to Exclude Asperger's, PDD-NOS & NLD in 2013; Wait, What? | Life Development Institute." Life Development Institute. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 06 Sept. 2016.http://discoverldi.com/dsm-v-to-exclude-aspergers-pdd-nos-wait-what/

[33] Myklebust, Helmer R. (1975). Myklebust, Helmer R. (ed.). "Nonverbal learning disabilities: Assessment and intervention". Progress in Learning Disabilities. 3. Grune and Stratton: 85–. ISSN 0079-6387.

[34] Donders, Jacobus (2011). "Obituary for Dr. Byron Rourke". Child Neuropsychology. 17 (5): 417. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.617105. S2CID 145142840.

[35] Rourke, Byron P. (1989). Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-0-89862-378-9.^{[page needed]}

[36] Spreen, Otfried (2011). "Nonverbal learning disabilities: A critical review". Child Neuropsychology. 17 (5): 418–43. doi:10.1080/09297049.2010.546778. PMID 21462003. S2CID 31974898.

[37] Davis, John M.; Broitman, Jessica (2011). Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children: Bridging the Gap Between Science and Practice. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-8213-1.

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@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2014}}
 {{Infobox medical condition
-| name          =
+| name = Nonverbal learning disorder
+| synonym = Developmental visual–spatial disorder,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Broitman |first=Jessica |title=NVLD and developmental visual-spatial disorder in children: clinical guide to assessment and treatment |last2=Melcher |first2=Miranda |last3=Margolis |first3=Amy |last4=Davis |first4=John M. |date=2020 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-56107-9 |location=Cham, Switzerland}}</ref> nonverbal learning difficulties, nonverbal learning disability
-| synonym       = Nonverbal learning difficulties
-| image         =
+| image =
-| image_size    =
+| image_size =
-| alt           =
+| alt =
-| caption       =
+| caption =
-| pronounce     =
+| pronounce =
-| specialty     = Neurology/psychiatry
+| specialty = [[Neurology]],<br> [[Psychiatry]]
-| symptoms      =
+| symptoms =
 | complications =
-| onset         =
+| onset =
-| duration      =
+| duration =
-| types         =
+| types =
-| causes        =
+| causes =
-| risks         =
+| risks =
-| diagnosis     =
+| diagnosis =
+| differential = [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]], [[autism]], [[bipolar disorder]]
-| differential  =
-| prevention    =
+| prevention =
-| treatment     =
+| treatment =
-| medication    =
+| medication =
-| prognosis     =
+| prognosis =
+| frequency = Currently unknown, estimated to be around 3%<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2764298 | doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.2551 | title=Estimated Prevalence of Nonverbal Learning Disability Among North American Children and Adolescents | year=2020 | last1=Margolis | first1=Amy E. | last2=Broitman | first2=Jessica | last3=Davis | first3=John M. | last4=Alexander | first4=Lindsay | last5=Hamilton | first5=Ava | last6=Liao | first6=Zhijie | last7=Banker | first7=Sarah | last8=Thomas | first8=Lauren | last9=Ramphal | first9=Bruce | last10=Salum | first10=Giovanni A. | last11=Merikangas | first11=Kathleen | last12=Goldsmith | first12=Jeff | last13=Paus | first13=Tomas | last14=Keyes | first14=Katherine | last15=Milham | first15=Michael P. | journal=JAMA Network Open | volume=3 | issue=4 | pages=e202551 | pmid=32275324 | pmc=7148441 }}</ref>
-| frequency     =
-| deaths        =
+| deaths =
 }}
-'''Nonverbal learning disability''' ('''NVLD''') is a [[neurodevelopmental disorder]] characterized by core deficits in visual-spatial processing in the presence of intact verbal ability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=Prudence W. |last2=Reyes-Portillo |first2=Jazmin A. |last3=Riddle |first3=Mark A. |last4=Litwin |first4=Hillary D. |date=2022-02-01 |title=Systematic Review: Nonverbal Learning Disability |url=https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(21)00234-3/abstract |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry |language=English |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=159–186 |doi=10.1016/j.jaac.2021.04.003 |issn=0890-8567 |pmid=33892110|s2cid=233382776 }}</ref> Additional diagnostic criteria include Average to Superior [[verbal intelligence]] and deficits in visuoconstruction abilities, [[Fine motor coordination|fine-motor coordination]], mathematical reasoning, visuospatial memory and [[social skills]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mammarella|first1=Irene C.|last2=Cornoldi|first2=Cesare|year=2014|title=An analysis of the criteria used to diagnose children with Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD)|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09297049.2013.796920|journal=Child Neuropsychology|language=en|volume=20|issue=3|pages=255–280 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2013.796920|issn=0929-7049|pmid=23705673|hdl=11577/2668053 |s2cid=34107811}}</ref>{{sfn|Mammarella|Cornoldi|2014|pages=255–280}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Doty|first=Nathan|title=The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities: Assessing Learning Needs of Children and Adolescents|date=2019|publisher=Humana|others=H. Kent Wilson, Ellen Braaten|isbn=978-3-319-98643-2|location=Cham, Switzerland|chapter=Nonverbal Learning Disability|oclc=1080078884}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Fine|first1=Jodene Goldenring|last2=Semrud-Clikeman|first2=Margaret|last3=Bledsoe|first3=Jesse C.|last4=Musielak|first4=Kayla A.|date=March 2013|title=A critical review of the literature on NLD as a developmental disorder|journal=Child Neuropsychology|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=190–223|doi=10.1080/09297049.2011.648923|issn=0929-7049|pmid=22385012|s2cid=12655825}}</ref> In clinical settings, some diagnoses of [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] would be more appropriately classified as NVLD.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}
+'''Nonverbal learning disorder''' ('''NVLD''' or '''NLD''') is a proposed [[neurodevelopmental disorder]] characterized by core deficits in nonverbal skills, especially [[Spatial ability|visual-spatial processing]]. People with this condition have normal or advanced [[verbal intelligence]] and significantly lower nonverbal intelligence.<ref name="Fisher">{{Cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=Prudence W. |last2=Reyes-Portillo |first2=Jazmin A. |last3=Riddle |first3=Mark A. |last4=Litwin |first4=Hillary D. |date=2022-02-01 |title=Systematic Review: Nonverbal Learning Disability |url=https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(21)00234-3/abstract |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry |language=English |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=159–186 |doi=10.1016/j.jaac.2021.04.003 |issn=0890-8567 |pmid=33892110|s2cid=233382776 }}</ref> A review of papers found that proposed diagnostic criteria were inconsistent.<ref name="Fisher" /> Proposed additional diagnostic criteria include intact verbal intelligence, and deficits in the following: visuoconstruction abilities, speech [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]],<ref name="MDedge" /> [[Fine motor skill|fine motor coordination]], mathematical reasoning, visuospatial memory, and [[social skills]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mammarella|first1=Irene C.|last2=Cornoldi|first2=Cesare|year=2014|title=An analysis of the criteria used to diagnose children with Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD)|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09297049.2013.796920|journal=Child Neuropsychology|language=en|volume=20|issue=3|pages=255–280 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2013.796920|issn=0929-7049|pmid=23705673|hdl=11577/2668053 |s2cid=34107811|hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Mammarella|Cornoldi|2014|pages=255–280}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Doty|first=Nathan|title=The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities: Assessing Learning Needs of Children and Adolescents|date=2019|publisher=Humana|others=H. Kent Wilson, Ellen Braaten|isbn=978-3-319-98643-2|location=Cham, Switzerland|chapter=Nonverbal Learning Disability|oclc=1080078884}}</ref><ref name="Fine">{{Cite journal|last1=Fine|first1=Jodene Goldenring|last2=Semrud-Clikeman|first2=Margaret|last3=Bledsoe|first3=Jesse C.|last4=Musielak|first4=Kayla A.|date=March 2013|title=A critical review of the literature on NLD as a developmental disorder|journal=Child Neuropsychology|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=190–223|doi=10.1080/09297049.2011.648923|issn=0929-7049|pmid=22385012|s2cid=12655825}}</ref> NVLD is not recognised by the [[DSM-5]] and is not clinically distinct from [[Learning disability|learning disorders]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dupaul |first1=George J. |last2=Gormley |first2=Matthew J. |last3=Laracy |first3=Seth D. |year=2013 |title=Comorbidity of LD and ADHD |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epub/10.1177/0022219412464351 |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=43–51 |doi=10.1177/0022219412464351 |pmid=23144063 |s2cid=206423076}}</ref>
+NVLD symptoms can overlap with symptoms of [[autism]], [[bipolar disorder]], and [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD). For this reason, some claim a diagnosis of NVLD is more appropriate in some subset of these cases.<ref name="MDedge">{{Cite journal |title=Does your patient have a psychiatric illness or nonverbal learning disorder? |url=https://cdn.mdedge.com/files/s3fs-public/Document/September-2017/1005CP_Article3.pdf |journal=Current Psychiatry}}</ref>{{sfn|Doty|2019|pages=103-106}}
-NVLD's symptoms are very similar to both [[Autism Spectrum Disorder]] (ASD), specifically [[high-functioning autism]], and [[ADHD]], with which it shares an exceptionally high comorbidity rate.<ref>Studies cited in the next references cite comorbidity rates ranging between 83% and 100% between NVLD and ADHD diagnoses</ref><ref>https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epub/10.1177/0022219412464351</ref><ref>https://cdn.mdedge.com/files/s3fs-public/Document/September-2017/1005CP_Article3.pdf</ref> For this reason, it has been often the case that NVLD is overlooked in patients in favor of solely ADHD or ASD.<ref>https://cdn.mdedge.com/files/s3fs-public/Document/September-2017/1005CP_Article3.pdf</ref>
 ==Signs and symptoms==
@@ Line 35: / Line 35: @@
 Considered to be neurologically based,<ref name="ramphal 2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Ramphal |first1=Bruce |last2=Pagliaccio |first2=David |last3=Thomas |first3=Lauren V. |last4=He |first4=Xiaofu |last5=Margolis |first5=Amy E. |date=15 April 2021 |title=Contributions of Cerebellar White Matter Microstructure to Social Difficulty in Nonverbal Learning Disability |journal=The Cerebellum |language=en |publication-date=December 2021 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=931–937,931 |doi=10.1007/s12311-021-01265-4 |issn=1473-4222 |pmc=8530438 |pmid=33856654 }}</ref><ref name="pmid24215424">{{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=Jodene Goldenring |last2=Musielak |first2=Kayla A. |last3=Semrud-Clikeman |first3=Margaret |title=Smaller splenium in children with nonverbal learning disability compared to controls, high-functioning autism and ADHD |journal=Child Neuropsychology |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=641–61 |year=2014 |pmid=24215424 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2013.854763 |s2cid=15495423 }}</ref> nonverbal learning disorder is characterized by:
 * impairments in visuospatial processing
-* discrepancy between Average to Superior verbal abilities and impaired nonverbal abilities such as:
+* discrepancy between average to superior verbal abilities and impaired nonverbal abilities, such as:
 ** visuoconstruction
-** [[fine motor coordination]]
+** fine motor coordination
 ** mathematical reasoning
 ** visuospatial memory
 ** socioemotional skills{{sfn|Mammarella|Cornoldi|2014|pages=255–280}}
-People with NVLD may have trouble understanding charts, [[Map reading|reading maps]], assembling [[jigsaw puzzle]]s, and using an [[analog clock]] to tell time. "Clumsiness" is not unusual in people with NVLD, especially children, and it may take a child with NVLD longer than usual to learn how to tie shoelaces or to ride a bicycle.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}
+People with NVLD may have trouble understanding charts, reading maps, assembling [[jigsaw puzzle]]s, and using an [[analog clock]] to tell time. Motor coordination deficits are common in people with NVLD, especially children, and it may take a child with NVLD longer than usual to learn how to tie shoelaces or to ride a bicycle.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}
-At the beginning of their school careers, children with symptoms of NVLD struggle with tasks that require [[eye–hand coordination]], such as coloring and using scissors, but often excel at [[Memorization|memorizing]] verbal content, spelling, and [[reading]] once the shapes of the letters are learned. A child with NVLD's Average or Superior verbal skills can be misattributed to [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]], defiant behavior, inattention, or lack of effort.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}  Early researchers in the syndrome of NVLD Johnson and Myklebust characterize how the children appear in a classroom: "An example is the child who fails to learn the meaning of the actions of others....We categorize this child as having a deficiency in social perception, meaning that he has an inability which precludes acquiring the significance of basic nonverbal aspects of daily living, though his verbal level of intelligence falls within or above the average."<ref name=":1" />
+At the beginning of their school careers, children with symptoms of NVLD struggle with tasks that require [[eye–hand coordination]], such as coloring and using scissors, but often excel at [[Memorization|memorizing]] verbal content, spelling, and reading once the shapes of the letters are learned. A child with NVLD's average or superior verbal skills can be misattributed to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, defiant behavior, inattention, or lack of effort.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}  Early researchers of NVLD, Johnson and Myklebust, characterize how the children appear in a classroom: "An example is the child who fails to learn the meaning of the actions of others [...] We categorize this child as having a deficiency in social perception, meaning that he has an inability which precludes acquiring the significance of basic nonverbal aspects of daily living, though his verbal level of intelligence falls within or above the average."<ref name="Johnson" />
 In the adolescent years, when schoolwork becomes more abstract and the executive demands for [[time management]], organization, and social interactions increase, students with NVLD begin to struggle. They focus on separate details and struggle to summarize information or to integrate ideas into a coherent whole, and they struggle to apply knowledge to other situations, to infer implicit information, to make predictions, and to organize information logically.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}
@@ Line 49: / Line 49: @@
 As adults, tasks such as driving a car or navigating to an unfamiliar location may be difficult.  Difficulty with keeping track of responsibilities or managing social interactions may affect [[job performance]].{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}
-People with NVLD may also fit the diagnostic criteria of [[dyscalculia]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rourke |first1=B. P. |last2=Conway |first2=J. A. |title=Disabilities of Arithmetic and Mathematical Reasoning: Perspectives From Neurology and Neuropsychology |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=34–46 |year=1997 |pmid=9009877 |doi=10.1177/002221949703000103 |s2cid=46413188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geary |first1=David C. |title=Mathematical disabilities: Reflections on cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components |journal=Learning and Individual Differences |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=130–133 |year=2010 |pmid=20161681 |pmc=2821095 |doi=10.1016/j.lindif.2009.10.008 }}</ref> [[dysgraphia]],<ref name="pmid7884301">{{cite journal |last1=Tsur |first1=V. G. |last2=Shalev |first2=R. S. |last3=Manor |first3=O. |last4=Amir |first4=N. |title=Developmental Right-Hemisphere Syndrome: Clinical Spectrum of the Nonverbal Learning Disability |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=80–6 |year=1995 |pmid=7884301 |doi=10.1177/002221949502800202 |s2cid=46398326 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Byron P. |last1=Rourke |year=1989 |chapter=Patterns of Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nonverballearnin00rour/page/20 20–9] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W9ttiC0MvP8C&pg=PA20 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-0-89862-378-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/nonverballearnin00rour/page/20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Stacey E. |last1=Szklut |first2=Darby Breath |last2=Philbert |chapter=Learning Disabilities and Developmental Coordination Disorder |pages=379–418 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA379 |editor1-first=Darcy A. |editor1-last=Umphred |editor2-first=Rolando T. |editor2-last=Lazaro |editor3-first=Margaret L. |editor3-last=Roller |editor4-first=Gordon U. |display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Burton |year=2013 |title=Neurological Rehabilitation |edition=6th |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-323-26649-9 }}</ref> or [[dyspraxia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=MC |last2=Dodd |first2=JL |title=Nonverbal neurodevelopmental dysfunctions |journal=Pediatric Annals |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=321–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15871436 |doi=10.3928/0090-4481-20050401-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=William |last1=Solodow |first2=Sandra V. |last2=Sandy |first3=Fern |last3=Leventhal |first4=Scott |last4=Beszylko |first5=Margaret Jo |last5=Shepherd |first6=Jonathan |last6=Cohen |first7=Shoshana |last7=Goldman |first8=Richard |last8=Perry |first9=Jennifer J. |last9=Chang |first10=Ruth |last10=Nass |date=Fall 2006 |title=Frequency and Diagnostic Criteria for Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in a General Learning Disability School Cohort |journal=Thalamus |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=17–33 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235436248 }}</ref>
+People with NVLD may also fit the diagnostic criteria of [[dyscalculia]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rourke |first1=B. P. |last2=Conway |first2=J. A. |title=Disabilities of Arithmetic and Mathematical Reasoning: Perspectives From Neurology and Neuropsychology |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=34–46 |year=1997 |pmid=9009877 |doi=10.1177/002221949703000103 |s2cid=46413188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geary |first1=David C. |title=Mathematical disabilities: Reflections on cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components |journal=Learning and Individual Differences |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=130–133 |year=2010 |pmid=20161681 |pmc=2821095 |doi=10.1016/j.lindif.2009.10.008 }}</ref> [[dysgraphia]],<ref name="pmid7884301">{{cite journal |last1=Tsur |first1=V. G. |last2=Shalev |first2=R. S. |last3=Manor |first3=O. |last4=Amir |first4=N. |title=Developmental Right-Hemisphere Syndrome: Clinical Spectrum of the Nonverbal Learning Disability |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=80–6 |year=1995 |pmid=7884301 |doi=10.1177/002221949502800202 |s2cid=46398326 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Byron P. |last1=Rourke |year=1989 |chapter=Patterns of Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nonverballearnin00rour/page/20 20–9] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W9ttiC0MvP8C&pg=PA20 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-0-89862-378-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/nonverballearnin00rour/page/20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Stacey E. |last1=Szklut |first2=Darby Breath |last2=Philbert |chapter=Learning Disabilities and Developmental Coordination Disorder |pages=379–418 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA379 |editor1-first=Darcy A. |editor1-last=Umphred |editor2-first=Rolando T. |editor2-last=Lazaro |editor3-first=Margaret L. |editor3-last=Roller |editor4-first=Gordon U. |display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Burton |year=2013 |title=Neurological Rehabilitation |edition=6th |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-323-26649-9 }}</ref> or [[Developmental coordination disorder|dyspraxia]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=MC |last2=Dodd |first2=JL |title=Nonverbal neurodevelopmental dysfunctions |journal=Pediatric Annals |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=321–7 |year=2005 |pmid=15871436 |doi=10.3928/0090-4481-20050401-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=William |last1=Solodow |first2=Sandra V. |last2=Sandy |first3=Fern |last3=Leventhal |first4=Scott |last4=Beszylko |first5=Margaret Jo |last5=Shepherd |first6=Jonathan |last6=Cohen |first7=Shoshana |last7=Goldman |first8=Richard |last8=Perry |first9=Jennifer J. |last9=Chang |first10=Ruth |last10=Nass |date=Fall 2006 |title=Frequency and Diagnostic Criteria for Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in a General Learning Disability School Cohort |journal=Thalamus |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=17–33 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235436248 }}</ref>
 == Cause ==
 Research suggests that there is an association with an imbalance of neural activity in the [[Lateralization of brain function|right hemisphere]] of the brain connected to the [[white matter]].<ref name="ramphal 2021"/>
 ==Diagnosis==
+Assorted diagnoses have been discussed as sharing symptoms with NVLD.  In some cases, especially the form of autism previously called [[Asperger syndrome]], the overlap can be significant; a major clinical difference is that NVLD criteria do not mention the presence or absence of either repetitive behaviors or narrow subject-matter interests,{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}} which is part of the diagnostic criteria for autism.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2022-11-02 |title=Diagnostic Criteria {{!}} Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) {{!}} NCBDDD {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html |access-date=2023-04-08 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref> These overlapping conditions include, among others:
-'''Nonverbal learning disability (NVLD)''' is characterized by core deficits in visualspatial processing in the presence of intact verbal ability.<ref name="ramphal 2021"/>  Additional diagnostic criteria include Average to Superior [[verbal intelligence]] and deficits in visuoconstruction abilities, [[Fine motor coordination|fine-motor coordination]], mathematical reasoning, visuospatial memory and [[social skills]].{{sfn|Mammarella|Cornoldi|2014|pages=255–280}}
-"While NVLD is not classified into any distinct diagnosis in [[DSM-5]] (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) or [[ICD-10]] ([[World Health Organization]], 1992), it does have a robust research base.''"''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brenchley|first1=Celia|last2=Costello|first2=Shane|date=2018-01-02|title=A model of assessment and intervention for Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVLD) in the Australian education system: an educational and developmental psychologist perspective|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19404158.2018.1467936|journal=Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties|language=en|volume=23|issue=1|pages=67–86|doi=10.1080/19404158.2018.1467936|issn=1940-4158|s2cid=150281995}}</ref><ref>Horn, Nnifer L., PhD, HSPP. "An Overview of Learning Disabilities." http://beaconindiana.com/pdfs/OverviewOfLDs.pdf San Mateo, CA: Schwab Learning, 2002. N. pag. Web.</ref>{{sfn|Mammarella|Cornoldi|2014|pages=255–280,256}}  "The majority of researchers and clinicians agree that the profile of NLD clearly exists...but they disagree on the need for a specific clinical category and on the criteria for its identification." (One researcher notes, "just because we cannot reasonably place such children into our present classification scheme does not mean they do not exist."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fine|first1=Jodene Goldenring|last2=Semrud-Clikeman|first2=Margaret|last3=Bledsoe|first3=Jesse C.|last4=Musielak|first4=Kayla A.|date=March 2013|title=A critical review of the literature on NLD as a developmental disorder|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09297049.2011.648923|journal=Child Neuropsychology|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=190–223|doi=10.1080/09297049.2011.648923|issn=0929-7049|pmid=22385012|s2cid=12655825}}</ref>)
-Assorted diagnoses have been discussed as sharing symptoms with NVLD.  In some cases, especially the form of autism previously called [[Asperger syndrome]], the overlap can be so significant as to render NVLD a pointless duplication in the mind of its detractors, with the only difference being that NVLD criteria do not mention the presence or absence of either repetitive behaviors or narrow subject-matter interests.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}  (These are not required for a diagnosis of autism.) These overlapping conditions include, among others:
 * [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD)
-* [[autism spectrum disorder]]s, especially [[high-functioning autism]]{{sfn|Doty|2019| page = 110}}
+* [[autism]], especially [[high-functioning autism]]{{sfn|Doty|2019| page = 110}}
-* [[developmental coordination disorder]]{{sfn|Doty|2019| page = 110}}
+* [[bipolar disorder]]<ref name="MDedge" />
+* [[developmental coordination disorder]] (dyspraxia){{sfn|Doty|2019| page = 110}}<ref name="Dobbins">{{Cite journal |last=Dobbins |first=Mary |last2=Theodore Sunder |first2=M. D. |last3=Stephen Soltys |first3=M. D. |date=2007-08-01 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities and Sensory Processing Disorders |url=https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/nonverbal-learning-disabilities-and-sensory-processing-disorders |series=Psychiatric Times Vol 24 No 9 |language=en |volume=24}}</ref>
+* [[dyscalculia]]<ref name="Dobbins" />
 * [[social communication disorder]]{{sfn|Doty|2019| page = 110}}
 * [[right hemisphere brain damage]] and developmental right hemisphere syndrome{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}<ref>{{cite book |first1=Linda |last1=Wilmshurst |year=2014 |chapter=Sandy Smith: Marching to the Tune of a Different Drummer |pages=89–99 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkcXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 |title=Child and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Casebook |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-4833-2268-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Cynthia A. |last1=Riccio |chapter=Dyscalculia |pages=769–70 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdNpBchvdvQC&pg=PA769 |year=2007 |editor1-first=Cecil R. |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor2-first=Elaine |editor2-last=Fletcher-Janzen |title=Encyclopedia of Special Education |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-67798-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsp0003unse |url-access=limited }}</ref>
 * [[social-emotional processing disorder]]<ref>{{cite book |first1=Katherine |last1=Tsatsanis |chapter=Right-Hemisphere Syndrome |pages=2596–600 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_1587 |editor1-first=Fred R. |editor1-last=Volkmar |year=2013 |title=Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-1698-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manoach |first1=Dara Sue |last2=Sandson |first2=Thomas A. |last3=Weintraub |first3=Sandra |date=April 1995 |title=The Developmental Social-Emotional Processing Disorder Is Associated with Right Hemisphere Abnormalities |journal=Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neurology |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=99–105 |id={{INIST|3510330}} |url=http://journals.lww.com/cogbehavneurol/abstract/1995/04000/the_developmental_social_emotional_processing.3.aspx }}</ref>
 * [[Gerstmann syndrome]]<ref name="pmid2181523">{{cite journal|last1=Semrud-Clikeman|first1=Margaret|last2=Hynd|first2=George W.|year=1990|title=Right hemisphere dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=107|issue=2|pages=196–209|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.196|pmid=2181523}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Bonny J. |last1=Forrest |chapter=Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaclin00kreu/page/n890 826]–7 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1540 |editor1-first=Jeffrey S. |editor1-last=Kreutzer |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=DeLuca |editor3-first=Bruce |editor3-last=Caplan |year=2011 |title=Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaclin00kreu |url-access=limited |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-79948-3 }}</ref>
-There is diagnostic overlap between nonverbal learning disorder and [[autism spectrum disorder]], and some clinicians and researchers consider them to be the same condition.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}<ref name=":3" />  In clinical settings, some diagnoses of [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] would be more appropriately classified as NVLD.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}
+There is diagnostic overlap between nonverbal learning disorder and autism, and some clinicians and researchers consider them to be the same condition.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}<ref name="Fine" />  Some claim that some diagnoses of ADHD would be more appropriately classified as NVLD.{{sfn|Doty|2019| pages = 103-106}}
 == History ==
-While various nonverbal learning difficulties were recognized since early studies in child neurology,<ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Gardner-Medwin |chapter=John Walton |pages=862–70 |editor1-first=Stephen |editor1-last=Ashwal |year=1990 |title=The Founders of Child Neurology |publisher=Norman |isbn=978-0-930405-26-7}}</ref> there is ongoing debate as to whether/or the extent to which existing conceptions of NVLD provide a valid diagnostic framework.<ref>{{cite journal |date=July 2011 |title=Differentiating NLD |journal=Current Psychiatry |volume=10 |issue=7 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190716133751/https://www.mdedge.com/psychiatry/article/64369/practice-management/differentiating-nld| archive-date = 16 July 2019  |last   = Pollak | first   =  Jerrold |url=http://www.currentpsychiatry.com/the-publication/past-issue-single-view/differentiating-nld/e472880479ab8ab0a615bde5b7b35288.html }}</ref><ref>Admin, LD I. "DSM-V to Exclude Asperger's, PDD-NOS & NLD in 2013; Wait, What? | Life Development Institute." Life Development Institute. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 06 Sept. 2016.http://discoverldi.com/dsm-v-to-exclude-aspergers-pdd-nos-wait-what/</ref>
+While various nonverbal learning difficulties were recognized since early studies in child neurology,<ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Gardner-Medwin |chapter=John Walton |pages=862–70 |editor1-first=Stephen |editor1-last=Ashwal |year=1990 |title=The Founders of Child Neurology |publisher=Norman |isbn=978-0-930405-26-7}}</ref> there is ongoing debate as to whether (or the extent to which) existing conceptions of NVLD provide a valid diagnostic framework.<ref>{{cite journal |date=July 2011 |title=Differentiating NLD |journal=Current Psychiatry |volume=10 |issue=7 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190716133751/https://www.mdedge.com/psychiatry/article/64369/practice-management/differentiating-nld| archive-date = 16 July 2019  |last   = Pollak | first   =  Jerrold |url=http://www.currentpsychiatry.com/the-publication/past-issue-single-view/differentiating-nld/e472880479ab8ab0a615bde5b7b35288.html }}</ref><ref>Admin, LD I. "DSM-V to Exclude Asperger's, PDD-NOS & NLD in 2013; Wait, What? | Life Development Institute." Life Development Institute. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 06 Sept. 2016.http://discoverldi.com/dsm-v-to-exclude-aspergers-pdd-nos-wait-what/</ref>
-As presented in 1967, "nonverbal disabilities" (p.&nbsp;44) or "disorders of nonverbal learning" was a category encompassing non-linguistic learning problems.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|last1=Johnson|first=Doris J.|url=https://archive.org/details/learningdisabili00john/page/272|title=Learning disabilities: educational principles and practices|last2=Myklebust|first2=Helmer R.|publisher=Grune & Stratton|year=1967|isbn=978-0-8089-0219-5|location=New York|pages=272|chapter=Nonverbal Disorders of Learning|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/learningdisabili00john}}</ref> "Nonverbal learning disabilities" were further discussed by Myklebust in 1975 as representing a subtype of learning "disability" with a range of presentations involving "mainly visual cognitive processing," social imperception, a gap between higher verbal ability and lower nonverbal processing, as well as difficulty with handwriting.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Helmer R. |last1=Myklebust |year=1975 |title=Nonverbal learning disabilities: Assessment and intervention |pages=85– |editor1-first=Helmer R. |editor1-last=Myklebust |journal=Progress in Learning Disabilities |publisher=Grune and Stratton |volume=3 |issn=0079-6387 }}</ref> Later neuropsychologist Byron Rourke<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Donders |first1=Jacobus |title=Obituary for Dr. Byron Rourke |journal=Child Neuropsychology |volume=17 |issue=5 |year=2011 |pages=417 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2011.617105|s2cid=145142840 }}</ref> sought to develop consistent criteria with a theory and model of brain functioning that would establish NVLD as a distinct syndrome (1989).<ref>{{cite book |first1=Byron P. |last1=Rourke |year=1989 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-0-89862-378-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/nonverballearnin00rour }}{{page needed|date=October 2015}}</ref>
+As presented in 1967, "nonverbal disabilities" (p.&nbsp;44) or "disorders of nonverbal learning" was a category encompassing non-linguistic learning problems.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite book|last1=Johnson|first=Doris J.|url=https://archive.org/details/learningdisabili00john/page/272|title=Learning disabilities: educational principles and practices|last2=Myklebust|first2=Helmer R.|publisher=Grune & Stratton|year=1967|isbn=978-0-8089-0219-5|location=New York|pages=272|chapter=Nonverbal Disorders of Learning|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/learningdisabili00john}}</ref> "Nonverbal learning disabilities" were further discussed by Myklebust in 1975 as representing a subtype of learning "disability" with a range of presentations involving "mainly visual cognitive processing," social imperception, a gap between higher verbal ability and lower nonverbal processing, as well as difficulty with handwriting.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Helmer R. |last1=Myklebust |year=1975 |title=Nonverbal learning disabilities: Assessment and intervention |pages=85– |editor1-first=Helmer R. |editor1-last=Myklebust |journal=Progress in Learning Disabilities |publisher=Grune and Stratton |volume=3 |issn=0079-6387 }}</ref> Later neuropsychologist Byron Rourke<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Donders |first1=Jacobus |title=Obituary for Dr. Byron Rourke |journal=Child Neuropsychology |volume=17 |issue=5 |year=2011 |pages=417 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2011.617105|s2cid=145142840 }}</ref> sought to develop consistent criteria with a theory and model of brain functioning that would establish NVLD as a distinct syndrome (1989).<ref>{{cite book |first1=Byron P. |last1=Rourke |year=1989 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: The Syndrome and the Model |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-0-89862-378-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/nonverballearnin00rour }}{{page needed|date=October 2015}}</ref>
 Questions remain about how best to frame the perceptual, cognitive and motor issues associated with NVLD.<ref name="pmid24215424" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spreen |first1=Otfried |title=Nonverbal learning disabilities: A critical review |journal=Child Neuropsychology |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=418–43 |year=2011 |pmid=21462003 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2010.546778 |s2cid=31974898 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=John M. |last1=Davis |first2=Jessica |last2=Broitman |year=2011 |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities in Children: Bridging the Gap Between Science and Practice |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-8213-1 }}</ref>{{sfn|Mammarella|Cornoldi|2014|pages=255–280}}
@@ Line 89: / Line 88: @@
 * {{cite book |last=Palombo |first=Joseph |title=Nonverbal Learning Disabilities: A Clinical Perspective |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2006 |isbn=9780393704785}}
 * {{cite book |last1=Broitman |first1=Jessica |first2=John M. |last2=Davis |title=Treating NVLD in Children Professional Collaborations for Positive Outcomes |location=New York |publisher=Springer |year=2013 |isbn=978-1461461791}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Whitney |first1=Rondalyn |title=Nonverbal Learning Disorders |location=New York |publisher=Perigee |year=2008|isbn=9780399534676}}
-=== By Authors with NVLD ===
+=== By authors with NVLD ===
 * {{cite book |last=Murphy |first=Michael Brian |title=NLD from the Inside Out: Talking to Parents, Teachers, and Teens about Growing Up with Nonverbal Learning Disabilities |edition=Third |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=2016 |url=http://nldfromtheinsideout.com/}}
 * {{cite book |last=Fast |first=Yvona  |location = London & Philadelphia|others = with other writers |year=2004 |title=Employment for Individuals with Asperger Syndrome or Non-Verbal Learning Disability: Stories and Strategies|publisher = Jessica Kingsley Publishers |oclc = 61493670 | url = https://archive.org/details/employmentforind0000fast|isbn=9781846420153}}
@@ Line 103: / Line 103: @@
 [[Category:Learning disabilities]]
 [[Category:Pervasive developmental disorders]]
+[[Category:Nonverbal communication|*]]
+[[Category:Spatial cognition|*]]

v t e Autism
Main	Causes Diagnosis Epidemiology Epigenetics Heritability History Memory Pathophysiology Sex and gender Societal and cultural aspects Therapies
Diagnoses	Pervasive developmental disorder Autistic disorder Asperger syndrome Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified Childhood disintegrative disorder High-functioning autism
Associated conditions and phenomena	Alexithymia Autism and LGBTQ identities Autistic burnout Autistic catatonia Autistic masking Autistic meltdown Echolalia Echopraxia Emotional dysregulation Hyperlexia Infodumping Late talker Monotropism Nonverbal autism Pathological demand avoidance Pronoun reversal Savant syndrome Special interests Stimming Sensory overload
Comorbid conditions	Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Anxiety disorder obsessive–compulsive disorder Developmental coordination disorder Epilepsy Intellectual disability Sensory processing disorder Global developmental delay Developmental verbal dyspraxia
Associated syndromes	22q13 deletion syndrome Angelman syndrome CHARGE syndrome Cohen syndrome Cornelia de Lange syndrome DiGeorge syndrome Down syndrome Fetal valproate spectrum disorder Fragile X syndrome MECP2 duplication syndrome Neurofibromatosis type I Noonan syndrome Multiple hamartoma syndrome Rett syndrome Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome Timothy syndrome Tuberous sclerosis Williams syndrome
Related issues	Autism rights movement Critical autism studies Discrimination Double empathy problem Employment Multiple complex developmental disorder Neurodiversity TEACCH program Twice exceptional Violence and autism
Controversies	Facilitated communication Lancet MMR autism fraud MMR vaccine Rapid prompting method Thiomersal Chelation Combating Autism Act Autistic supremacism
Diagnostic scales	Autism Diagnostic Interview Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Childhood Autism Rating Scale Gilliam Asperger's disorder scale
Screening scales	Autism-spectrum quotient Childhood Autism Spectrum Test Ritvo Autism and Asperger Diagnostic Scale
Lists	Autism-related topics Fictional characters Schools
Accommodations	Autism-friendly Sensory friendly
Category

Nonverbal learning disorder: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 08:22, 13 December 2024

Signs and symptoms

Cause

Diagnosis

History

See also

References

Further reading

Books

By authors with NVLD

External links