Khirbat Faynan: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|Archaeological site in Jordan}} |
{{short description|Archaeological site in Jordan}} |
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'''Khirbat Faynan''', known in late [[ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Byzantine]] texts as '''Phaino'''<ref name="Surveys"/> or '''Phaeno''',<ref>Megan A. Perry et al., [http://florida.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5744/florida/9780813042299.001.0001/upso-9780813042299-chapter-6 Condemned to Metallum?: Illuminating Life at the Byzantine Mining Camp at Phaeno in Jordan], in ''Bioarchaeology and Behavior'', University Press of Florida, October 2012, {{ISBN|9780813042299}}</ref> is an [[archaeological site]] in [[Wadi Faynan]], southern [[Jordan]]. It lies just south of the [[Dead Sea]] in [[Jordan]]. The site was an ancient copper mine that overlooks two [[Wadi]]s and is the location of one of the best and most well |
'''Khirbat Faynan''', known in late [[ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Byzantine]] texts as '''Phaino'''<ref name="Surveys"/> or '''Phaeno''',<ref>Megan A. Perry et al., [http://florida.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5744/florida/9780813042299.001.0001/upso-9780813042299-chapter-6 Condemned to Metallum?: Illuminating Life at the Byzantine Mining Camp at Phaeno in Jordan], in ''Bioarchaeology and Behavior'', University Press of Florida, October 2012, {{ISBN|9780813042299}}</ref> is an [[archaeological site]] in [[Wadi Faynan]], southern [[Jordan]]. It lies just south of the [[Dead Sea]] in [[Jordan]]. The site was an ancient copper mine that overlooks two [[Wadi]]s and is the location of one of the best and most well-preserved ancient mining and metallurgy districts in the world.<ref name="mine" /> |
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== Site |
== Site description and excavation == |
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=== Site |
=== Site description === |
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Khirbat Faynan is located near [[Wadi Feynan|Wadi Faynan]], 215 kilometres from [[Amman]]. It was built between [[Dana Biosphere Reserve|Wadi Dana]] and Wadi Ghuwayr. The site itself was one of the biggest copper mines in the [[Roman Empire]]. |
Khirbat Faynan is located near [[Wadi Feynan|Wadi Faynan]], 215 kilometres from [[Amman]]. It was built between [[Dana Biosphere Reserve|Wadi Dana]] and Wadi Ghuwayr. The site itself was one of the biggest copper mines in the [[Roman Empire]]. |
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=== Excavation === |
=== Excavation === |
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The [[German Mining Museum]] in [[Bochum]], [[Germany]] |
The [[German Mining Museum]] in [[Bochum]], [[Germany]], conducted the first intensive research on the site in 1983. They were the first excavation to be sent out to the site, and the first ones to record what the site was used for. Upon their findings during the excavation, they recorded that the mining and smelting dated back to the [[Chalcolithic]] period around 4500–3100 BCE. The site had been mined continuously until around the 400 CE; however, archaeological data gathered at the site along with corresponding studies show that there was a final phase of mining during the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] period which took place between 1250 and 1516 CE.<ref name="mine" /> |
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==History and archaeology== |
==History and archaeology== |
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===Bronze and Iron Ages=== |
===Bronze and Iron Ages=== |
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Located at the confluence of Wadi Dana and Wadi Ghuwayr, the settlement was occupied from the Early [[Bronze Age]], with [[carbon dating]] showing activity at the site as early as 10,900 BCE.<ref name="Surveys" /><ref>{{Cite web |url= http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2012/05/29/excavations-at-the-site-of-an-ancient-techno-revolution |title= Excavations at the Site of an Ancient Techno-Revolution |last= Ward |first= Lauren |date= 2012-05-29 |website= National Geographic |access-date=2017-01-09}}</ref> |
Located at the confluence of Wadi Dana and Wadi Ghuwayr, the settlement was occupied from the Early [[Bronze Age]], with [[carbon dating]] showing activity at the site as early as 10,900 BCE.<ref name="Surveys" /><ref>{{Cite web |url= http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2012/05/29/excavations-at-the-site-of-an-ancient-techno-revolution |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120613164401/http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2012/05/29/excavations-at-the-site-of-an-ancient-techno-revolution/ |url-status= dead |archive-date= June 13, 2012 |title= Excavations at the Site of an Ancient Techno-Revolution |last= Ward |first= Lauren |date= 2012-05-29 |website= National Geographic |access-date=2017-01-09}}</ref> |
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The mining and smelting activities intensified during the Iron Age.<ref name="mine">{{Cite news |url= http://www.world-archaeology.com/features/wadi-faynan-copper-mine.htm |title= Wadi Faynan, Copper Mine |date= 2005-09-07 |newspaper= World Archaeology |issue=13 |language=en-GB |access-date=2019-01-14}}</ref> |
The mining and smelting activities intensified during the Iron Age.<ref name="mine">{{Cite news |url= http://www.world-archaeology.com/features/wadi-faynan-copper-mine.htm |title= Wadi Faynan, Copper Mine |date= 2005-09-07 |newspaper= World Archaeology |issue=13 |language=en-GB |access-date=2019-01-14}}</ref> |
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====In the Bible==== |
====In the Bible==== |
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The site has been identified with [[Hebrew Bible|biblical]] [[Punon]], one of the [[stations of the Exodus]] ({{ |
The site has been identified with [[Hebrew Bible|biblical]] [[Punon]], one of the [[stations of the Exodus]] ({{bibleverse|Numbers|33:42–43}}).<ref name="mine"/><ref name="Surveys">{{Cite journal |last1= Novo |first1= Alexandre |last2= Vincent |first2= Matthew L. |last3= Levy |first3= Thomas E. |date=2012-08-29 |title= Geophysical Surveys at Khirbat Faynan, an Ancient Mound Site in Southern Jordan |journal= International Journal of Geophysics |language=en |volume=2012 |pages=1–8 |doi= 10.1155/2012/432823 |issn=1687-885X|doi-access= free }}</ref> |
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===Nabataean period=== |
===Nabataean period=== |
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===Roman and Byzantine periods=== |
===Roman and Byzantine periods=== |
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In the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] periods, it was the center of the area's extensive [[copper mining]] complex, the largest in the [[Southern Levant]].<ref name="mine"/><ref name="Surveys"/> |
In the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] periods, it was the center of the area's extensive [[copper mining]] complex, the largest in the [[Southern Levant]].<ref name="mine"/><ref name="Surveys"/> A cemetery associated with the mining community was also discovered. Examination of the remains found that people had absorbed metal from the mines. Severe arthritis was common amongst the population.<ref name="mine" /> The graves were marked by stones. The layout of the graves in rows is comparable to the broadly contemporary cemeteries at [[Beersheba#Roman and Byzantine periods|Be'er Sheva]] and [[Blakhiya Byzantine cemetery|Blakhiya]].<ref>{{citation |last=Gwiazda |first=Mariusz |title=Burial practices in early Byzantine Syro-Palestine (4th–7th centuries CE) – review article |journal=Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean |volume=31 |year=2022 |pages=296, 302 |doi=10.37343/uw.2083-537X.pam31.01 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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Early Christian authors including [[Eusebius]] and [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] wrote of large numbers of Christians being deported to Phaeno, where they suffered under terrible conditions or suffered [[martyrdom]].<ref>[https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_martyrs.htm The History of the Martyrs in Palestine], Eusebius of Caesarea, translated by William Cureton (1861)</ref><ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2815.htm History of the Arians], Athanasius of Alexandria, translated by M. Atkinson and Archibald Robertson. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.)</ref> |
Early Christian authors including [[Eusebius]] and [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] wrote of large numbers of Christians being deported to Phaeno, where they suffered under terrible conditions or suffered [[martyrdom]].<ref>[https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_martyrs.htm The History of the Martyrs in Palestine], Eusebius of Caesarea, translated by William Cureton (1861)</ref><ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2815.htm History of the Arians], Athanasius of Alexandria, translated by M. Atkinson and Archibald Robertson. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.)</ref> These included [[Silvanus of Gaza (hieromartyr)|Silvanus]], bishop of Gaza, who was beheaded in 311 AD together with 39 other Egyptian Christians after he proved too old for the work.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Watkins |first1=Basil |title=The Book of Saints A Comprehensive Biographical Dictionary |date=November 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=9780567664150 |page=679 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yzqOCgAAQBAJ |access-date=13 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Christensen |first1=Torben |title=Rufinus of Aquileia and the Historia Ecclesiastica, Lib. VIII-IX, of Eusebius |date=1989 |publisher=Kongelige Danske videnskabernes selskab |isbn=87-7304-178-5 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSh4dXugyVUC |access-date=13 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Frend |first1=W. H. C. |title=Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus |date=April 2014 |publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers |isbn=9781625648044 |page=537 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1SOQBAAAQBAJ |access-date=13 December 2023}}</ref> |
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=== Today === |
=== Today === |
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[[Category:Ancient archaeological sites]] |
[[Category:Ancient archaeological sites]] |
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[[Category:Archaeological sites in Jordan]] |
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Jordan]] |
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{{NEast-archaeology-stub}} |
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{{Jordan-stub}} |
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Latest revision as of 21:41, 24 November 2024
Khirbat Faynan, known in late Roman and Byzantine texts as Phaino[1] or Phaeno,[2] is an archaeological site in Wadi Faynan, southern Jordan. It lies just south of the Dead Sea in Jordan. The site was an ancient copper mine that overlooks two Wadis and is the location of one of the best and most well-preserved ancient mining and metallurgy districts in the world.[3]
Site description and excavation
[edit]Site description
[edit]Khirbat Faynan is located near Wadi Faynan, 215 kilometres from Amman. It was built between Wadi Dana and Wadi Ghuwayr. The site itself was one of the biggest copper mines in the Roman Empire.
Excavation
[edit]The German Mining Museum in Bochum, Germany, conducted the first intensive research on the site in 1983. They were the first excavation to be sent out to the site, and the first ones to record what the site was used for. Upon their findings during the excavation, they recorded that the mining and smelting dated back to the Chalcolithic period around 4500–3100 BCE. The site had been mined continuously until around the 400 CE; however, archaeological data gathered at the site along with corresponding studies show that there was a final phase of mining during the Mamluk period which took place between 1250 and 1516 CE.[3]
History and archaeology
[edit]Early Bronze Age
[edit]The environment in Faynan had become increasingly arid around 4,000 BCE, as the settlement expanded out into the main wadi. During the Early Bronze Age which was approximately 3,500 BCE, more structured systems of irrigated farming had been developed due to the aridity of the area. These field systems are still visible and conserve many elements of the earliest irrigation systems and techniques used during this time. While mining for metals as well as ore processing began to intensify in Khirbat Faynan during the Iron Age, both practices in farming and irrigation as well as smelting had become more sophisticated under the Nabatean kingdom.[3]
Bronze and Iron Ages
[edit]Located at the confluence of Wadi Dana and Wadi Ghuwayr, the settlement was occupied from the Early Bronze Age, with carbon dating showing activity at the site as early as 10,900 BCE.[1][4]
The mining and smelting activities intensified during the Iron Age.[3]
In the Bible
[edit]The site has been identified with biblical Punon, one of the stations of the Exodus (Numbers 33:42–43).[3][1]
Nabataean period
[edit]In the time of the Nabataean kingdom, both the farming and smelting activities reached a new degree of sophistication. The site drastically increased in activity when the Roman Empire had successfully annexed the Nabatean Kingdom in 106 CE.[5][3]
Roman and Byzantine periods
[edit]In the Roman and Byzantine periods, it was the center of the area's extensive copper mining complex, the largest in the Southern Levant.[3][1] A cemetery associated with the mining community was also discovered. Examination of the remains found that people had absorbed metal from the mines. Severe arthritis was common amongst the population.[3] The graves were marked by stones. The layout of the graves in rows is comparable to the broadly contemporary cemeteries at Be'er Sheva and Blakhiya.[6]
Early Christian authors including Eusebius and Athanasius of Alexandria wrote of large numbers of Christians being deported to Phaeno, where they suffered under terrible conditions or suffered martyrdom.[7][8] These included Silvanus, bishop of Gaza, who was beheaded in 311 AD together with 39 other Egyptian Christians after he proved too old for the work.[9][10][11]
Today
[edit]Due to Faynan's location, the site is in a dry desert region that barely gets any rainfall. Faynan receives approximately 50mm of every year, which is significantly lower than its neighboring area in the Highlands of Jordan which averages 102-300mm of rainfall each year. This puts Faynan in the category of a hyper-arid zone.[5]
Remains of what used to be a water management and water storage systems are still visible and are located along the south bank of the Wadi Ghuweir, which is opposite of Khirbat Faynan. The remains consist of an open channel, an aqueduct across Wadi Sheger, and includes a large and sunken reservoir.[3]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d Novo, Alexandre; Vincent, Matthew L.; Levy, Thomas E. (2012-08-29). "Geophysical Surveys at Khirbat Faynan, an Ancient Mound Site in Southern Jordan". International Journal of Geophysics. 2012: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2012/432823. ISSN 1687-885X.
- ^ Megan A. Perry et al., Condemned to Metallum?: Illuminating Life at the Byzantine Mining Camp at Phaeno in Jordan, in Bioarchaeology and Behavior, University Press of Florida, October 2012, ISBN 9780813042299
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Wadi Faynan, Copper Mine". World Archaeology. No. 13. 2005-09-07. Retrieved 2019-01-14.
- ^ Ward, Lauren (2012-05-29). "Excavations at the Site of an Ancient Techno-Revolution". National Geographic. Archived from the original on June 13, 2012. Retrieved 2017-01-09.
- ^ a b "The Kingdom of Copper". ArcGIS StoryMaps. Retrieved 2020-07-16.
- ^ Gwiazda, Mariusz (2022), "Burial practices in early Byzantine Syro-Palestine (4th–7th centuries CE) – review article", Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean, 31: 296, 302, doi:10.37343/uw.2083-537X.pam31.01
- ^ The History of the Martyrs in Palestine, Eusebius of Caesarea, translated by William Cureton (1861)
- ^ History of the Arians, Athanasius of Alexandria, translated by M. Atkinson and Archibald Robertson. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892.)
- ^ Watkins, Basil (November 2015). The Book of Saints A Comprehensive Biographical Dictionary. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 679. ISBN 9780567664150. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
- ^ Christensen, Torben (1989). Rufinus of Aquileia and the Historia Ecclesiastica, Lib. VIII-IX, of Eusebius. Kongelige Danske videnskabernes selskab. p. 104. ISBN 87-7304-178-5. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
- ^ Frend, W. H. C. (April 2014). Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus. Wipf & Stock Publishers. p. 537. ISBN 9781625648044. Retrieved 13 December 2023.