Submersible: Difference between revisions
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[[File:Submersible named Star III in front of Scripps Institution of Oceanography.JPG|right|thumb|upright=1.3|Retired modern submersible ''Star III'' of [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]]]] |
[[File:Submersible named Star III in front of Scripps Institution of Oceanography.JPG|right|thumb|upright=1.3|Retired modern submersible ''Star III'' of [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]]]] |
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A '''submersible''' is an underwater |
A '''submersible''' is an [[underwater vehicle]] which needs to be transported and supported by a larger [[ship|watercraft]] or [[dock|platform]]. This distinguishes submersibles from [[submarine]]s, which are self-supporting and capable of prolonged independent operation at sea.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Widder |first=Edith |title=Dr. Edith A. Widder: Video Transcript |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/oceanage/04widder/transcript.html |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=NOAA Ocean Exploration}}</ref> |
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There are many types of submersibles, including both human-occupied vehicles (HOVs) and uncrewed craft,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Observation Platforms: Submersibles |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/subs/subs.html |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=NOAA Ocean Exploration}}</ref> variously known as [[remotely operated vehicle]]s (ROVs) or [[unmanned underwater vehicle]]s (UUVs). Submersibles have many uses including [[oceanography]], [[underwater archaeology]], [[ocean exploration]], |
There are many types of submersibles, including both human-occupied vehicles (HOVs) and uncrewed craft,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Observation Platforms: Submersibles |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/subs/subs.html |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=NOAA Ocean Exploration}}</ref> variously known as [[remotely operated vehicle]]s (ROVs) or [[unmanned underwater vehicle]]s (UUVs). Submersibles have many uses including [[oceanography]], [[underwater archaeology]], [[ocean exploration]], [[tourism]], [[underwater work|equipment maintenance]] and [[underwater search and recovery|recovery]] and [[underwater videography]].<ref>''Ocean Outpost: The Future of Humans Living Underwater'', by Erik Seedhouse. 2010. [https://books.google.com/books?id=eU4wsg-QCxsC Ocean Outpost: The Future of Humans Living Underwater - Erik Seedhouse - Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527031109/https://books.google.com/books?id=eU4wsg-QCxsC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0 |date=2018-05-27 }}</ref> |
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==History== |
==History== |
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{{See also|Submarine#History}} |
{{See also|Submarine#History}} |
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The first recorded self-propelled underwater vessel was a small oar-powered submarine conceived by [[William Bourne (mathematician)|William Bourne]] (c. |
The first recorded self-propelled underwater vessel was a small oar-powered submarine conceived by [[William Bourne (mathematician)|William Bourne]] (c. 1535 – 1582) and designed and built by Dutch inventor [[Cornelis Drebbel]] in 1620, with two more improved versions built in the following four years.<ref name= Konstam>Konstam (2013).</ref> Contemporary accounts state that the final model was demonstrated to [[James VI and I|King James I]] in person, who may even have been taken aboard for a test dive.<ref name="Royal" /><ref name=Konstam/> There do not appear to have been any further recorded submersibles until Bushnell's [[Turtle (submersible)|''Turtle'']]. |
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The first submersible to be used in war was designed and built by American inventor [[David Bushnell]] in 1775 as a means to attach explosive charges to enemy ships during the American Revolutionary War. The device, dubbed Bushnell's ''Turtle'', was an oval-shaped vessel of wood and brass. It had tanks that were filled with water to make it dive and then emptied with the help of a hand pump to make it return to the surface. The operator used two hand-cranked propellers to move vertically or laterally under the water. The vehicle had small glass windows on top and naturally luminescent wood{{clarify|What wood, what instruments|date=January 2023}} affixed to its instruments so that they could be read in the dark.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} |
The first submersible to be used in war was designed and built by American inventor [[David Bushnell]] in 1775 as a means to attach explosive charges to enemy ships during the American Revolutionary War. The device, dubbed Bushnell's ''Turtle'', was an oval-shaped vessel of wood and brass. It had tanks that were filled with water to make it dive and then emptied with the help of a hand pump to make it return to the surface. The operator used two hand-cranked propellers to move vertically or laterally under the water. The vehicle had small glass windows on top and naturally luminescent wood{{clarify|What wood, what instruments|date=January 2023}} affixed to its instruments so that they could be read in the dark.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} |
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Bushnell's ''Turtle'' was first set into action on September 7, 1776, at New York Harbor to attack the British flagship {{HMS|Eagle|1774|6}}. Sergeant [[Ezra Lee]] operated the vehicle at that time. Lee successfully brought ''Turtle'' against the underside of ''Eagle''{{'}}s hull but failed to attach the charge because of the strong water currents.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} |
Bushnell's ''Turtle'' was first set into action on September 7, 1776, at New York Harbor to attack the British flagship {{HMS|Eagle|1774|6}}. Sergeant [[Ezra Lee]] operated the vehicle at that time. Lee successfully brought ''Turtle'' against the underside of ''Eagle''{{'}}s hull but failed to attach the charge because of the strong water currents.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} |
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Manned submersibles are primarily used by [[special forces]], which can use this type of vessel for a range of specialised missions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://euro-sd.com/2024/11/articles/41449/submersible-vessel-programmes/ |title= Submersible vessel programmes |author= Sidney E. Dean |date=11 November 2024|website= European Security & Defence}}</ref> |
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==Operation== |
==Operation== |
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Apart from size, the main technical difference between a "submersible" and a "submarine" is that submersibles are not fully autonomous and may rely on a support facility or vessel for replenishment of power and breathing gases. Submersibles typically have shorter range, and operate primarily underwater, as most have little function at the surface.{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} Some submersibles operate on a "tether" or "umbilical", remaining connected to a [[Ship's tender|tender]] (a submarine, surface vessel or platform). Submersibles have been able to dive to over {{convert|10|km|ft|abbr=on}} below the surface. |
Apart from size, the main technical difference between a "submersible" and a "submarine" is that submersibles are not fully autonomous and may rely on a support facility or vessel for replenishment of power and breathing gases. Submersibles typically have shorter range, and operate primarily underwater, as most have little function at the surface.{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} Some submersibles operate on a "tether" or "umbilical", remaining connected to a [[Ship's tender|tender]] (a submarine, surface vessel or platform). Submersibles have been able to dive to [[full ocean depth]], over {{convert|10|km|ft|abbr=on}} below the surface. |
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Submersibles may be relatively small, hold only a small crew, and have no living facilities. |
Submersibles may be relatively small, hold only a small crew, and have no living facilities.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} |
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A submersible often has very [[dexterous]] mobility, provided by [[ |
A submersible often has very [[dexterous]] mobility, provided by [[marine thruster]]s or [[pump-jet]]s.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}} |
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==Technologies== |
==Technologies== |
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{{unreferenced section|date=October 2024}} |
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{{unreferenced section|<ref name="https://www.divingskeleton.com/">{{cite web |last1=Haider |first1=Muhammad Zayyan |title=The Diving Explorer |url=https://www.divingskeleton.com/ |website=https://www.divingskeleton.com/ |publisher=m z haider |access-date=3 July 2023 |ref=https://www.divingskeleton.com/2023/06/diving-science.html}}</ref>date=April 2022}} |
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Technologies used in the design and construction of submersibles: |
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*[[Buoyancy]] control |
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*[[Marine thruster]]s |
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*[[Pressure vessel]] with external pressure load |
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*[[Life support system]]s |
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*[[Through-water communications]] |
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*[[Manipulator arm]] |
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*[[Submarine navigation]] |
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⚫ | '''Absolute pressure:''' At sea level the atmosphere exerts a pressure of approximately 1 bar, or 103,000 N/m<sup>2</sup>. Underwater, the pressure increases by approximately 0.1 bar for every metre of depth. The total pressure at any given depth is the sum of the pressure of the water at that depth ([[hydrostatic pressure]])and atmospheric pressure. This combined pressure is known as absolute pressure, and the relationship is: |
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Atmospheric Pressure |
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The earth’s atmosphere exerts a pressure on its surface, similar how water exerts pressure due to its weight. Unlike water, however, the atmosphere is compressible because it is composed of gases. Consequently, the density of the atmosphere varies with height, with highest density at sea level. As a result the maximum atmospheric pressure is experienced at sea level, gradually decreasing with increasing altitude. |
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To calculate |
To calculate absolute pressure, add the atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure using the same unit. Working with depth rather than pressure may be convenient in diving calculations. In this context, atmospheric pressure is considered equivalent to a depth of 10 meters. |
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''' |
'''Depth measurement: Pressure monitoring devices''' |
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''' |
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When measuring gas [https://www.divingskeleton.com/2023/06/diving-science.html pressures], including those experienced underwater, gauge pressure and absolute pressure are essential concepts to understand. |
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The pressure the is more important for structural and physiological reasons than linear depth. Pressure at a given depth may vary due to variations in water density. |
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'''a. Gauge Pressure:''' A pressure gauge is typically calibrated to read zero when the gauge is at atmospheric pressure. This gauge records only the “difference of pressure” between the measured pressure and atmospheric pressure. If a diver used such a gauge underwater, it would indicate only the pressure exerted by the water. For example, if the gauge reads 120, the measured pressure is actually 120 bar above atmospheric pressure, equivalent to 121 bar |
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To express the linear depth in water accurately, the measurement should be in meters (m). The unit “meters of sea water” (msw) is a by definition a unit for measurement of pressure. |
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⚫ | ''' |
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To calculate absolute pressure, add the atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure using the same unit. Working with depth rather than pressure is often convenient in diving calculations. In this context, atmospheric pressure is considered equivalent to a depth of 10 meters. |
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'''Depth Measurement: Pressure Monitoring Devices''' |
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it is crucial to consider the pressure the diver experiences rather than the linear measurement of depth. Depth measurement in diving is standardized to overcome variations in water density. |
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===Buoyancy=== |
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To express the depth of a diver in water or in a compression chamber accurately, the measurement should be in meters (m). A change in depth 0f 10 meters corresponds to a change in pressure of 1 bar. The unit “meters of sea water” (msw) should not be used to avoid confusion and ensure consistent depth measurement. |
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{{Main|Buoyancy}} |
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When an object is immersed in a liquid, it displaces the liquid, pushing it out of the way. |
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⚫ | Once the object is partially immersed, pressure forces exerted on the immersed parts are equal to the weight of water displaced, Consequently, objects submerged in liquids appear to weigh less due to this buoyant force. The relationship between the amount of liquid displaced and the resulting up-thrust is known as [[Archimedes' principle]], which states: |
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⚫ | '''Positive Buoyancy:''' when the weight of an object is less than the up-thrust, the object rises and floats. As it reaches the liquid's surface, It partly emerges from the liquid, reducing the weight of the displaced liquid and, consequently, the up-thrust. Eventually, the reduced up-thrust balances the weight of the object, allowing it to float in a state of equilibrium. |
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'''Understand the Science of Floating''' |
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When an object is submerged in a liquid filled container, the level of the liquid rises. This intriguing phenomenon occurs because the object displaces the liquid, pushing it out of the way. Before the object come into contact with the liquid, it exits in a state of equilibrium, with the weight of the liquid above being balanced by an upward force called up-thrust. |
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⚫ | '''Positive Buoyancy:''' when the weight of an object is less than the up-thrust, the object rises and floats. As it reaches the |
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=== Buoyancy control === |
=== Buoyancy control === |
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==Deep-diving crewed submersibles== |
==Deep-diving crewed submersibles== |
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{{update|date=February 2024}} |
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{{Main|Deep-submergence vehicle}} |
{{Main|Deep-submergence vehicle}} |
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[[File:Ictineu 3 submersible.JPG|thumbnail|[[Ictineu 3]] is a crewed submersible with a large semi-spheric [[acrylic glass]] viewport and is capable of reaching depths of {{convert|1,200|m|ft|abbr=on}}.]] |
[[File:Ictineu 3 submersible.JPG|thumbnail|[[Ictineu 3]] is a crewed submersible with a large semi-spheric [[acrylic glass]] viewport and is capable of reaching depths of {{convert|1,200|m|ft|abbr=on}}.]] |
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Some submersibles have been able to dive to great depths. The [[ |
Some submersibles have been able to dive to great depths. The [[bathyscaphe]] ''[[Trieste (bathyscaphe)|Trieste]]'' was the first to reach the deepest part of the ocean, nearly {{convert|11|km|ft|abbr=on}} below the surface, at the bottom of the [[Mariana Trench]] in 1960.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} |
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[[China]], with its [[Jiaolong (submersible)|''Jiaolong'']] project in 2002, was the fifth country to send a person 3,500 meters below sea level, following the US, France, Russia and Japan. On June 22, 2012, the ''Jiaolong'' submersible set a deep-diving record for state-owned vessels when the three-person sub descended {{convert|22,844|ft|m|sp=us|order=flip}} into the Pacific Ocean.<ref>{{cite web|title=China Breaks Deep-Sea Diving Record|url=http://www.livescience.com/31575-china-deep-sea-record.html|author=Andrea Mustain|date=22 June 2012|work=LifeScience|access-date=15 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405173058/http://www.livescience.com/31575-china-deep-sea-record.html|archive-date=5 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> |
[[China]], with its [[Jiaolong (submersible)|''Jiaolong'']] project in 2002, was the fifth country to send a person 3,500 meters below sea level, following the US, France, Russia and Japan. On June 22, 2012, the ''Jiaolong'' submersible set a deep-diving record for state-owned vessels when the three-person sub descended {{convert|22,844|ft|m|sp=us|order=flip}} into the Pacific Ocean.<ref>{{cite web|title=China Breaks Deep-Sea Diving Record|url=http://www.livescience.com/31575-china-deep-sea-record.html|author=Andrea Mustain|date=22 June 2012|work=LifeScience|access-date=15 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405173058/http://www.livescience.com/31575-china-deep-sea-record.html|archive-date=5 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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[[James Cameron]] made a record-setting, crewed submersible dive to the bottom of [[Challenger Deep]], the deepest known point of the [[Mariana Trench]] on March 26, 2012. Cameron's submersible was named ''[[Deepsea Challenger]]'' and reached a depth of {{convert|10908|m|ft}}.<ref name="James Cameron Now at Ocean's Deepest Point">{{cite web|title=Deepsea Challenge Facts at a Glance |url=http://deepseachallenge.com |work=Deepsea Challenge (National Geographic) |access-date=June 29, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625050833/http://deepseachallenge.com/ |archive-date=June 25, 2014}}</ref> |
[[James Cameron]] made a record-setting, crewed submersible dive to the bottom of [[Challenger Deep]], the deepest known point of the [[Mariana Trench]] on March 26, 2012. Cameron's submersible was named ''[[Deepsea Challenger]]'' and reached a depth of {{convert|10908|m|ft}}.<ref name="James Cameron Now at Ocean's Deepest Point">{{cite web|title=Deepsea Challenge Facts at a Glance |url=http://deepseachallenge.com |work=Deepsea Challenge (National Geographic) |access-date=June 29, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625050833/http://deepseachallenge.com/ |archive-date=June 25, 2014}}</ref> |
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[[DSV Limiting Factor]], known as ''Bakunawa'' since its sale in 2022, is a crewed [[deep-submergence vehicle]] (DSV) manufactured by [[Triton Submarines]] and owned and operated since 2022 by [[Gabe Newell]]'s Inkfish ocean-exploration research organization.<ref name="sold_to_inkfish" /> It holds the records for the deepest crewed dives in all five oceans. |
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''Limiting Factor'' was commissioned by [[Victor Vescovo]] for $37 million and operated by his marine research organization, Caladan Oceanic, between 2018-2022.<ref name="Hackaday 2020" /> It is commercially certified by [[DNV]] for dives to full ocean depth, and is operated by a pilot, with facilities for an observer. |
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The vessel was used in the [[Five Deeps Expedition]], becoming the first crewed submersible to reach the deepest point in all five oceans.<ref name="BBC News 2021" /> Over 21 people have visited [[Challenger Deep]], the deepest area on Earth, in the DSV. ''Limiting Factor'' was used to identify the wrecks of the destroyers {{USS|Johnston|DD-557|6}} at a depth of {{cvt|6,469|m}}, and {{USS|Samuel B. Roberts|DE-413|6}} at {{cvt|6,865|m}}, in the [[Philippine Trench]], the deepest dives on wrecks.<ref name="Guinness" /> It has also been used for dives to the [[French submarine Minerve (S647)]] at about {{cvt|2,350|m}} in the Mediterranean sea, and {{RMS|Titanic}} at about {{cvt|3,800|m}} in the Atlantic. |
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==Commercial submersibles== |
==Commercial submersibles== |
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Private firms such as [[Triton Submarines]], LLC. SEAmagine Hydrospace, Sub Aviator Systems (or 'SAS'), and [[Netherlands]]-based U-boat Worx have developed small submersibles for tourism, exploration and adventure travel. A Canadian company in [[British Columbia]] called Sportsub has been building personal recreational submersibles since 1986 with open-floor designs (partially flooded cockpits).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/outdoors/recreation/boating/4298521 |title=3 Contenders in the Race for the Perfect Personal Submarine |author=Jeff Wise |date=18 December 2009 |work=Popular Mechanics |access-date=26 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525085104/http://www.popularmechanics.com/outdoors/recreation/boating/4298521 |archive-date=25 May 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emirates247.com/lifestyle/living/uae-firms-residents-take-fancy-to-1m-mini-submersible-2011-11-26-1.430079 |title=UAE firms, residents take fancy to $1m mini-submersible |author=Parag Deulgaonkar |date=26 November 2011 |work=Emirates 24/7 |access-date=26 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/02/business/02yacht.html |title=For the Yachting Class, the Latest Amenity Can Take Flight |author=Jonathan Tagliabue |date=2 October 2007 |work=New York Times |access-date=26 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204002934/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/02/business/02yacht.html |archive-date=4 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gizmag.com/u-boat-worx-submarine-charters/19936/ |title= |
Private firms such as [[Triton Submarines]], LLC. SEAmagine Hydrospace, Sub Aviator Systems (or 'SAS'), and [[Netherlands]]-based U-boat Worx have developed small submersibles for tourism, exploration and adventure travel. A Canadian company in [[British Columbia]] called Sportsub has been building personal recreational submersibles since 1986 with open-floor designs (partially flooded cockpits).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/outdoors/recreation/boating/4298521 |title=3 Contenders in the Race for the Perfect Personal Submarine |author=Jeff Wise |date=18 December 2009 |work=Popular Mechanics |access-date=26 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525085104/http://www.popularmechanics.com/outdoors/recreation/boating/4298521 |archive-date=25 May 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.emirates247.com/lifestyle/living/uae-firms-residents-take-fancy-to-1m-mini-submersible-2011-11-26-1.430079 |title=UAE firms, residents take fancy to $1m mini-submersible |author=Parag Deulgaonkar |date=26 November 2011 |work=Emirates 24/7 |access-date=26 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/02/business/02yacht.html |title=For the Yachting Class, the Latest Amenity Can Take Flight |author=Jonathan Tagliabue |date=2 October 2007 |work=New York Times |access-date=26 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204002934/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/02/business/02yacht.html |archive-date=4 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gizmag.com/u-boat-worx-submarine-charters/19936/ |title=U-Boat Worx makes its mini-submersibles available for private charter |author=Ben Coxworth |date=10 October 2011 |work=GizMag |access-date=26 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127204937/http://www.gizmag.com/u-boat-worx-submarine-charters/19936/ |archive-date=27 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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A privately owned U.S company, [[OceanGate]], also participated in building submersibles, though the company fell under scrutiny when their newest submersible [[Titan submersible implosion|imploded underwater]] with no survivors.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news/video/debris-from-missing-titanic-submersible-found-passengers-presumed-dead-184186949947|title=Debris from missing Titanic submersible found, passengers presumed dead|work=NBC News}}</ref> |
A privately owned U.S. company, [[OceanGate]], also participated in building submersibles, though the company fell under scrutiny when their newest submersible [[Titan submersible implosion|imploded underwater]] with no survivors.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news/video/debris-from-missing-titanic-submersible-found-passengers-presumed-dead-184186949947|title=Debris from missing Titanic submersible found, passengers presumed dead|work=NBC News}}</ref> |
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==Marine remotely operated vehicles== |
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==MROVs== |
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{{unreferenced section|date=April 2022}} |
{{unreferenced section|date=April 2022}} |
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{{main|Remotely operated underwater vehicle}} |
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Small uncrewed submersibles called "marine remotely operated vehicles" or |
Small uncrewed submersibles called "marine remotely operated vehicles," (MROVs),{{cn|date=June 2024}} or 'remotely operated underwater vehicles' (ROUVs) are widely used to work in water too deep or too dangerous for divers, or when it is economically advantageous. |
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Remotely operated vehicles ([[Remotely operated underwater vehicle|ROV]]s) repair [[Oil platform|offshore oil platforms]] and attach cables to sunken ships to hoist them. Such remotely operated vehicles are attached by an [[umbilical cable]] (a thick cable providing power and communications) to a control center on a ship. Operators on the ship see video and/or sonar images sent back from the ROV and remotely control its [[Marine thruster|thrusters]] and manipulator arm. The wreck of the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'' was explored by such a vehicle, as well as by a crewed vessel.{{ |
Remotely operated vehicles ([[Remotely operated underwater vehicle|ROV]]s) repair [[Oil platform|offshore oil platforms]] and attach cables to sunken ships to hoist them. Such remotely operated vehicles are attached by an [[umbilical cable]] (a thick cable providing power and communications) to a control center on a ship. Operators on the ship see video and/or sonar images sent back from the ROV and remotely control its [[Marine thruster|thrusters]] and manipulator arm. The wreck of the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'' was explored by such a vehicle, as well as by a crewed vessel.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} |
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==Autonomous underwater vehicles== |
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{{main|Autonomous underwater vehicle}} |
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[[File:Blackghost.jpg|thumb|The Blackghost AUV is designed to undertake an underwater assault course autonomously with no outside control.]] |
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An autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) is a [[robot]] that travels underwater without requiring continuous input from an operator. AUVs constitute part of a larger group of undersea systems known as [[unmanned underwater vehicle]]s, a classification that includes non-autonomous [[remotely operated underwater vehicle]]s (ROVs) – controlled and powered from the surface by an operator/pilot via an umbilical or using remote control. In military applications an AUV is more often referred to as an unmanned undersea vehicle (UUV). [[Underwater glider]]s are a subclass of AUVs. |
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==Diver lock-out submersible== |
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Class of submersible which has an [[airlock]] and an integral [[diving chamber]] from which underwater divers can be deployed, such as: |
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* {{annotated link|Deep Diver}} |
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* {{annotated link|Antipodes (submersible)}} |
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{{expand section|date=June 2024}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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<ref name=davis1955>{{cite book |author=Davis, RH |title=Deep Diving and Submarine Operations |year=1955 |edition=6th |publisher=[[Siebe Gorman|Siebe Gorman & Company Ltd]] |location=Tolworth, Surbiton, Surrey |page=693 |author-link=Robert Davis (inventor) }}</ref> |
<ref name=davis1955>{{cite book |author=Davis, RH |title=Deep Diving and Submarine Operations |year=1955 |edition=6th |publisher=[[Siebe Gorman|Siebe Gorman & Company Ltd]] |location=Tolworth, Surbiton, Surrey |page=693 |author-link=Robert Davis (inventor) }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Gray>{{cite book |title=Disasters of the Deep A Comprehensive Survey of Submarine Accidents & Disasters |last=Gray |first=Edwyn |author-link=Edwyn Gray |year=2003|publisher=Leo Cooper|isbn=0-85052-987-5 |page=18}}</ref> --> |
<ref name=Gray>{{cite book |title=Disasters of the Deep A Comprehensive Survey of Submarine Accidents & Disasters |last=Gray |first=Edwyn |author-link=Edwyn Gray |year=2003|publisher=Leo Cooper|isbn=0-85052-987-5 |page=18}}</ref> --> |
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<ref name="BBC News 2021" >{{Cite news |date=2021-05-11 |title=Oceans' extreme depths measured in precise detail |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57063396 |access-date=2022-08-14 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=Guinness>{{cite web |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/666354-deepest-shipwreck-dive-by-a-crewed-vessel |title=Deepest shipwreck dive by a crewed vessel |work=guinnessworldrecords.com |year=2022 |access-date=24 January 2023 }}</ref> |
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<ref name="Hackaday 2020" >{{Cite web |last= |date=2020-04-22 |title=Limiting Factor Submersible Is In A League Of Its Own |url=https://hackaday.com/2020/04/22/limiting-factor-submersible-is-in-a-league-of-its-own/ |access-date=2022-08-14 |website=Hackaday }}</ref> |
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<ref name="Royal" >{{cite web|url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/OutPut/Page1673.asp |title=King James VI and I |publisher=Royal.gov.uk |access-date=2010-08-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203023633/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1673.asp |archive-date=December 3, 2008 }}</ref> |
<ref name="Royal" >{{cite web|url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/OutPut/Page1673.asp |title=King James VI and I |publisher=Royal.gov.uk |access-date=2010-08-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203023633/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1673.asp |archive-date=December 3, 2008 }}</ref> |
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<ref name=sold_to_inkfish>{{cite web |url=https://divernet.com/scuba-news/deepest-diver-vescovo-sells-up-to-inkfish/ |title=Deepest diver Vescovo sells up to Inkfish |work=divernet.com |date=2022-11-03 |access-date=24 January 2023 }}</ref> |
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* [https://shipvideos.net/video/seabourn_venture_2023/submersible/ Video of a dive with a tourist submersible], shipvideos.net |
Latest revision as of 10:51, 13 November 2024
A submersible is an underwater vehicle which needs to be transported and supported by a larger watercraft or platform. This distinguishes submersibles from submarines, which are self-supporting and capable of prolonged independent operation at sea.[1]
There are many types of submersibles, including both human-occupied vehicles (HOVs) and uncrewed craft,[2] variously known as remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) or unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs). Submersibles have many uses including oceanography, underwater archaeology, ocean exploration, tourism, equipment maintenance and recovery and underwater videography.[3]
History
[edit]The first recorded self-propelled underwater vessel was a small oar-powered submarine conceived by William Bourne (c. 1535 – 1582) and designed and built by Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel in 1620, with two more improved versions built in the following four years.[4] Contemporary accounts state that the final model was demonstrated to King James I in person, who may even have been taken aboard for a test dive.[5][4] There do not appear to have been any further recorded submersibles until Bushnell's Turtle.
The first submersible to be used in war was designed and built by American inventor David Bushnell in 1775 as a means to attach explosive charges to enemy ships during the American Revolutionary War. The device, dubbed Bushnell's Turtle, was an oval-shaped vessel of wood and brass. It had tanks that were filled with water to make it dive and then emptied with the help of a hand pump to make it return to the surface. The operator used two hand-cranked propellers to move vertically or laterally under the water. The vehicle had small glass windows on top and naturally luminescent wood[clarification needed] affixed to its instruments so that they could be read in the dark.[citation needed]
Bushnell's Turtle was first set into action on September 7, 1776, at New York Harbor to attack the British flagship HMS Eagle. Sergeant Ezra Lee operated the vehicle at that time. Lee successfully brought Turtle against the underside of Eagle's hull but failed to attach the charge because of the strong water currents.[citation needed]
Manned submersibles are primarily used by special forces, which can use this type of vessel for a range of specialised missions.[6]
Operation
[edit]Apart from size, the main technical difference between a "submersible" and a "submarine" is that submersibles are not fully autonomous and may rely on a support facility or vessel for replenishment of power and breathing gases. Submersibles typically have shorter range, and operate primarily underwater, as most have little function at the surface.[citation needed] Some submersibles operate on a "tether" or "umbilical", remaining connected to a tender (a submarine, surface vessel or platform). Submersibles have been able to dive to full ocean depth, over 10 km (33,000 ft) below the surface.
Submersibles may be relatively small, hold only a small crew, and have no living facilities.[citation needed]
A submersible often has very dexterous mobility, provided by marine thrusters or pump-jets.[citation needed]
Technologies
[edit]Technologies used in the design and construction of submersibles:
- Buoyancy control
- Marine thrusters
- Pressure vessel with external pressure load
- Life support systems
- Through-water communications
- Manipulator arm
- Submarine navigation
Absolute pressure: At sea level the atmosphere exerts a pressure of approximately 1 bar, or 103,000 N/m2. Underwater, the pressure increases by approximately 0.1 bar for every metre of depth. The total pressure at any given depth is the sum of the pressure of the water at that depth (hydrostatic pressure)and atmospheric pressure. This combined pressure is known as absolute pressure, and the relationship is:
Absolute pressure (bar abs) = gauge pressure(bar) + atmospheric pressure (about 1 bar)
To calculate absolute pressure, add the atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure using the same unit. Working with depth rather than pressure may be convenient in diving calculations. In this context, atmospheric pressure is considered equivalent to a depth of 10 meters. Absolute depth (m) = gauge depth (m) + 10 m.
Depth measurement: Pressure monitoring devices
The pressure the is more important for structural and physiological reasons than linear depth. Pressure at a given depth may vary due to variations in water density.
To express the linear depth in water accurately, the measurement should be in meters (m). The unit “meters of sea water” (msw) is a by definition a unit for measurement of pressure.
Note: A change in depth of 10 meters for a change in pressure of 1 bar equates to a water density of 1012.72 kg/m3[citation needed]
Single-atmosphere submersibles have a pressure hull with internal pressure maintained at surface atmospheric pressure. This requires the hull to be capable of withstanding the ambient hydrostatic pressure from the water outside, which can be many times greater than the internal pressure.
Ambient pressure submersibles maintain the same pressure both inside and outside the vessel. The interior is air-filled, at a pressure to balance the external pressure, so the hull does not have to withstand a pressure difference.
A third technology is the "wet sub", which refers to a vehicle that may or may not be enclosed, but in either case, water floods the interior, so underwater breathing equipment is used by the crew. This may be scuba carried by the divers, or a breathing gas supply carried by the vessel.
Buoyancy
[edit]When an object is immersed in a liquid, it displaces the liquid, pushing it out of the way.
Once the object is partially immersed, pressure forces exerted on the immersed parts are equal to the weight of water displaced, Consequently, objects submerged in liquids appear to weigh less due to this buoyant force. The relationship between the amount of liquid displaced and the resulting up-thrust is known as Archimedes' principle, which states:
"when an object is wholly or partially immersed in a liquid, the up-thrust it receives is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced."[citation needed]
Buoyancy and weight determine whether an object floats or sinks in a liquid. The relative magnitudes of weight and buoyancy determine the outcome, leading to three possible scenarios.
Negative Buoyancy: when the weight of an object is greater than the up-thrust it experiences due to the weight of the liquid displaced, the object sinks.
Neutral Buoyancy: if the weight of an object equals the up-thrust, the object remains stable in its current position, neither sinking or floating.
Positive Buoyancy: when the weight of an object is less than the up-thrust, the object rises and floats. As it reaches the liquid's surface, It partly emerges from the liquid, reducing the weight of the displaced liquid and, consequently, the up-thrust. Eventually, the reduced up-thrust balances the weight of the object, allowing it to float in a state of equilibrium.
Buoyancy control
[edit]During underwater operation a submersible will generally be neutrally buoyant, but may use positive or negative buoyancy to facilitate vertical motion. Negative buoyancy may also be useful at times to settle the vessel on the bottom, and positive buoyancy is necessary to float the vessel at the surface. Fine buoyancy adjustments may be made using one or more variable buoyancy pressure vessels as trim tanks, and gross changes of buoyancy at or near the surface may use ambient pressure ballast tanks, which are fully flooded during underwater operations. Some submersibles use high density external ballast which may be released at depth in an emergency to make the vessel sufficiently buoyant to float back to the surface even if all power is lost, or to travel faster vertically.
Deep-diving crewed submersibles
[edit]This article needs to be updated.(February 2024) |
Some submersibles have been able to dive to great depths. The bathyscaphe Trieste was the first to reach the deepest part of the ocean, nearly 11 km (36,000 ft) below the surface, at the bottom of the Mariana Trench in 1960.[citation needed]
China, with its Jiaolong project in 2002, was the fifth country to send a person 3,500 meters below sea level, following the US, France, Russia and Japan. On June 22, 2012, the Jiaolong submersible set a deep-diving record for state-owned vessels when the three-person sub descended 6,963 meters (22,844 ft) into the Pacific Ocean.[7]
Among the most well-known and longest-in-operation submersibles is the deep-submergence research vessel DSV Alvin, which takes 3 people to depths of up to 4,500 metres (14,800 ft). Alvin is owned by the United States Navy and operated by WHOI, and as of 2011 had made over 4,400 dives.[8]
James Cameron made a record-setting, crewed submersible dive to the bottom of Challenger Deep, the deepest known point of the Mariana Trench on March 26, 2012. Cameron's submersible was named Deepsea Challenger and reached a depth of 10,908 metres (35,787 ft).[9]
DSV Limiting Factor, known as Bakunawa since its sale in 2022, is a crewed deep-submergence vehicle (DSV) manufactured by Triton Submarines and owned and operated since 2022 by Gabe Newell's Inkfish ocean-exploration research organization.[10] It holds the records for the deepest crewed dives in all five oceans. Limiting Factor was commissioned by Victor Vescovo for $37 million and operated by his marine research organization, Caladan Oceanic, between 2018-2022.[11] It is commercially certified by DNV for dives to full ocean depth, and is operated by a pilot, with facilities for an observer.
The vessel was used in the Five Deeps Expedition, becoming the first crewed submersible to reach the deepest point in all five oceans.[12] Over 21 people have visited Challenger Deep, the deepest area on Earth, in the DSV. Limiting Factor was used to identify the wrecks of the destroyers USS Johnston at a depth of 6,469 m (21,224 ft), and USS Samuel B. Roberts at 6,865 m (22,523 ft), in the Philippine Trench, the deepest dives on wrecks.[13] It has also been used for dives to the French submarine Minerve (S647) at about 2,350 m (7,710 ft) in the Mediterranean sea, and RMS Titanic at about 3,800 m (12,500 ft) in the Atlantic.
Commercial submersibles
[edit]Private firms such as Triton Submarines, LLC. SEAmagine Hydrospace, Sub Aviator Systems (or 'SAS'), and Netherlands-based U-boat Worx have developed small submersibles for tourism, exploration and adventure travel. A Canadian company in British Columbia called Sportsub has been building personal recreational submersibles since 1986 with open-floor designs (partially flooded cockpits).[14][15][16][17]
A privately owned U.S. company, OceanGate, also participated in building submersibles, though the company fell under scrutiny when their newest submersible imploded underwater with no survivors.[18]
Marine remotely operated vehicles
[edit]Small uncrewed submersibles called "marine remotely operated vehicles," (MROVs),[citation needed] or 'remotely operated underwater vehicles' (ROUVs) are widely used to work in water too deep or too dangerous for divers, or when it is economically advantageous.
Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) repair offshore oil platforms and attach cables to sunken ships to hoist them. Such remotely operated vehicles are attached by an umbilical cable (a thick cable providing power and communications) to a control center on a ship. Operators on the ship see video and/or sonar images sent back from the ROV and remotely control its thrusters and manipulator arm. The wreck of the Titanic was explored by such a vehicle, as well as by a crewed vessel.[citation needed]
Autonomous underwater vehicles
[edit]An autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) is a robot that travels underwater without requiring continuous input from an operator. AUVs constitute part of a larger group of undersea systems known as unmanned underwater vehicles, a classification that includes non-autonomous remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) – controlled and powered from the surface by an operator/pilot via an umbilical or using remote control. In military applications an AUV is more often referred to as an unmanned undersea vehicle (UUV). Underwater gliders are a subclass of AUVs.
Diver lock-out submersible
[edit]Class of submersible which has an airlock and an integral diving chamber from which underwater divers can be deployed, such as:
- Deep Diver – Research submersible
- Antipodes (submersible) – Commercial submarine built in 1973
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2024) |
See also
[edit]- Bathyscaphe – Free-diving self-propelled deep-sea submersible
- Bathysphere – Unpowered spherical deep-sea observation submersible lowered on a cable
- Benthoscope – Unpowered spherical deep-sea observation submersible lowered on a cable
- Diving bell – Chamber for transporting divers vertically through the water
- Diving chamber – Hyperbaric pressure vessel for human occupation used in diving operations
- Hawkes Ocean Technologies – American marine engineering firm
- Midget submarine – Submarine under 150 tons
- Narco-submarine – Submersible used by drug smugglers
- Personal Submersibles Organization
- CSS David – Confederate States Navy torpedo boat
- Pisces V – Deep-submergence vehicle
- Remotely operated underwater vehicle – A tethered underwater mobile device operated by a remote crew
- Semi-submersible – type of vessel which can partially submerge
- Submersible drilling rig – Vessel floated to site and lowered onto the seabed for drilling
- Timeline of diving technology – Chronological list of notable events in the history of underwater diving equipment
- Titan submersible implosion – 2023 maritime disaster
- Underwater acoustic positioning system – System for tracking and navigation of underwater vehicles or divers using acoustic signals
- Welfreighter – British midget submarine of the Second World War
Sources
[edit]- ^ Widder, Edith. "Dr. Edith A. Widder: Video Transcript". NOAA Ocean Exploration. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
- ^ "Observation Platforms: Submersibles". NOAA Ocean Exploration. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
- ^ Ocean Outpost: The Future of Humans Living Underwater, by Erik Seedhouse. 2010. Ocean Outpost: The Future of Humans Living Underwater - Erik Seedhouse - Google Books Archived 2018-05-27 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Konstam (2013).
- ^ "King James VI and I". Royal.gov.uk. Archived from the original on December 3, 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
- ^ Sidney E. Dean (11 November 2024). "Submersible vessel programmes". European Security & Defence.
- ^ Andrea Mustain (22 June 2012). "China Breaks Deep-Sea Diving Record". LifeScience. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
- ^ "Human Occupied Vehicle Alvin". NDSF Vehicles. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Archived from the original on 3 January 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
- ^ "Deepsea Challenge Facts at a Glance". Deepsea Challenge (National Geographic). Archived from the original on June 25, 2014. Retrieved June 29, 2014.
- ^ "Deepest diver Vescovo sells up to Inkfish". divernet.com. 2022-11-03. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
- ^ "Limiting Factor Submersible Is In A League Of Its Own". Hackaday. 2020-04-22. Retrieved 2022-08-14.
- ^ "Oceans' extreme depths measured in precise detail". BBC News. 2021-05-11. Retrieved 2022-08-14.
- ^ "Deepest shipwreck dive by a crewed vessel". guinnessworldrecords.com. 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
- ^ Jeff Wise (18 December 2009). "3 Contenders in the Race for the Perfect Personal Submarine". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
- ^ Parag Deulgaonkar (26 November 2011). "UAE firms, residents take fancy to $1m mini-submersible". Emirates 24/7. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
- ^ Jonathan Tagliabue (2 October 2007). "For the Yachting Class, the Latest Amenity Can Take Flight". New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
- ^ Ben Coxworth (10 October 2011). "U-Boat Worx makes its mini-submersibles available for private charter". GizMag. Archived from the original on 27 November 2011. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
- ^ "Debris from missing Titanic submersible found, passengers presumed dead". NBC News.
- Polmar, Norman (2008). "Bathyscaph". World Book Online Reference Center. Retrieved 26 Jan 2008.[permanent dead link ]
External links
[edit]- Video of a dive with a tourist submersible, shipvideos.net