Tabernacle: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|Temporary dwelling used by Israelites in the biblical Book of Exodus}} |
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{{other uses}} |
{{other uses}} |
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{{short description|Portable earthly dwelling place of Yahweh from the Exodus until the conquest of Canaan}} |
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[[Image:Stiftshuette Modell Timnapark.jpg|thumb|Model of the tabernacle in [[Timna Valley#Timna Valley Park|Timna Valley Park]], Israel]] |
[[Image:Stiftshuette Modell Timnapark.jpg|thumb|Model of the tabernacle in [[Timna Valley#Timna Valley Park|Timna Valley Park]], Israel]] |
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[[File:The works of Josephus (1683) (14781191601).jpg|thumb|The tabernacle, engraving from [[Robert Arnauld d'Andilly]]'s 1683 translation of [[Josephus]].]] |
[[File:The works of Josephus (1683) (14781191601).jpg|thumb|The tabernacle, engraving from [[Robert Arnauld d'Andilly]]'s 1683 translation of [[Josephus]].]] |
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According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], the '''tabernacle''' ({{ |
According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], the '''tabernacle''' ({{langx|he|מִשְׁכַּן|miškan|residence, dwelling place}}), also known as the '''Tent of the Congregation''' ({{langx|he|link=no|אֹהֶל מוֹעֵד|ʔōhel mōʕēḏ}}, also '''Tent of Meeting'''), was the portable earthly dwelling of God used by the [[Israelites]] from [[the Exodus]] until the conquest of [[Canaan]]. [[Moses]] was instructed at [[biblical Mount Sinai|Mount Sinai]] to construct and transport the tabernacle<ref>{{bibleverse||Numbers|4:1-35|HE}}.</ref> with the Israelites on their journey through the wilderness and their subsequent conquest of the [[Promised Land]]. After 440 years, [[Solomon's Temple]] in [[Jerusalem]] superseded it as the dwelling-place of God. |
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The main source describing the tabernacle is the biblical [[Book of Exodus]], specifically Exodus 25–31 and 35–40. Those passages describe an inner sanctuary, the [[Holy of Holies]], created by the veil suspended by four pillars. This sanctuary contained the [[Ark of the Covenant]], with its [[cherub]]im-covered [[mercy seat]]. An outer sanctuary (the "Holy Place") contained a gold lamp-stand or candlestick. On the north side stood a table, on which lay the [[showbread]]. On the south side was the [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]], holding seven oil lamps to give light. On the west side, just before the veil, was the golden [[Altar (Bible)#Altar of Incense|altar of incense]].<ref name="ODCC self"/> It was constructed of 4 woven layers of curtains and 48 15-foot tall standing wood boards overlaid in gold and held in place by its bars and silver sockets and was richly furnished with valuable materials taken from Egypt at God's command. |
The main source describing the tabernacle is the biblical [[Book of Exodus]], specifically Exodus 25–31 and 35–40. Those passages describe an inner sanctuary, the [[Holy of Holies]], created by the veil suspended by four pillars. This sanctuary contained the [[Ark of the Covenant]], with its [[cherub]]im-covered [[mercy seat]]. An outer sanctuary (the "Holy Place") contained a gold lamp-stand or candlestick. On the north side stood a table, on which lay the [[showbread]]. On the south side was the [[Menorah (Temple)|Menorah]], holding seven oil lamps to give light. On the west side, just before the veil, was the golden [[Altar (Bible)#Altar of Incense|altar of incense]].<ref name="ODCC self"/> It was constructed of 4 woven layers of curtains and 48 15-foot tall standing wood boards overlaid in gold and held in place by its bars and silver sockets and was richly furnished with valuable materials taken from Egypt at God's command. |
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This description is generally identified as part of the [[Priestly source]] ("P"),<ref name="ODCC self">{{cite news |title=Tabernacle |editor-last=Cross |editor-first=F. L. |work=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2005}}</ref> written in the sixth or fifth century BCE. However, while the first Priestly source takes the form of instructions, the second is largely a repetition of the first in the past tense, i.e., it describes the execution of the instructions.<ref name="EncJewish">{{Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Tabernacle |edition=2nd |volume=19 |page=419 |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14184-tabernacle |no-prescript=1}}</ref> Many scholars contend that it is of a far later date than the time of Moses, and that the description reflects the structure of Solomon's Temple, while some hold that the description derives from memories of a real [[Outline of Judaism#Pre-monarchic period|pre-monarchic]] shrine, perhaps the sanctuary at [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]].<ref name="ODCC self"/> Traditional scholars contend that it describes an actual tabernacle used in the time of Moses and thereafter.<ref name=CathEn/> According to [[historical criticism]], an earlier, pre-exilic source, the [[Elohist]] ("E"), describes the tabernacle as a simple tent-sanctuary.<ref name="ODCC self"/> |
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==Meaning== |
==Meaning== |
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The English word ''tabernacle'' |
The English word ''tabernacle'' derives from the [[Latin]] [[Glossary of ancient Roman religion#auguraculum |''tabernāculum'']] (meaning "tent" or "hut"), which in [[Religion in ancient Rome|ancient Roman religion]] was a ritual structure.<ref>{{cite book |first= William Warde |last= Fowler |author-link= William Warde Fowler |title= The Religious Experience of the Roman People |location= London |date= 1922 |page= 209}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first= John |last=Scheid |author-link=John Scheid |title=An Introduction to Roman Religion |url-access= registration |publisher= Indiana University Press |date= 2003|url= https://archive.org/details/introductiontoro00sche/page/113 |pages= 113–114}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Linderski |first= Jerzy|title= The Augural Law |work= Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt |volume= II |number= 16 |date= 1986 |pages= 2164–2288}}</ref> The Hebrew word ''mishkan'' implies "dwell", "rest", or "to live in".<ref name=CathEn>{{Catholic Encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14424b.htm |title= Tabernacle |first=Charles Léon |last=Souvay}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.eliyah.com/cgi-bin/strongs.cgi?file=hebrewlexicon&isindex=mishkan |title=Mishkan |work=Strong's Concordance |access-date=11 October 2018}}</ref> In [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]], including the [[Septuagint]], the Hebrew is translated σκηνή (''[[Skene (theatre)|skēnē]]''), itself a [[Semitic languages |Semitic]] loanword meaning "tent".<ref> |
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{{Cite OED|term = skene | id = 242211 | access-date= 24 October 2021 | publisher = Oxford University Press}} |
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</ref> |
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==Description== |
==Description== |
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[[File:Tabernacle Mishkan Tent.jpg|thumbnail|Tabernacle Mishkan Tent – The desert tabernacle]] |
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[[Historical criticism]] has identified two accounts of the tabernacle in Exodus, a briefer Elohist account and a longer Priestly one. Traditional scholars believe the briefer account describes a different structure, perhaps Moses' personal tent.<ref name= CathEn /> The Hebrew nouns in the two accounts differ, one is most commonly translated as "tent of meeting," while the other is usually translated as "tabernacle." |
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===Elohist account=== |
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{{bibleverse||Exodus|33:7–10|9}} refers to "the tabernacle of the congregation" (in some translations, such as the [[King James Version]]) or "the tent of meeting" (in most modern translations),<ref>{{cite web|title=Exodus 33:7|url=https://biblehub.com/exodus/33-7.htm|access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref> which was set up outside of camp, with the [[pillars of fire and cloud]] visible at its door when God spoke to [[Moses]]. The people directed their worship toward this center.<ref name="ODCC self" /> |
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Historical criticism attributes this description to the [[Elohist]] source (E),<ref name="ODCC self"/> which is believed to have been written about 850 BCE or later.<ref>{{cite book |author-link= Stephen L Harris |last=Harris |first=Stephen L. |title= Understanding the Bible |location=Palo Alto |publisher= Mayfield |date= 1985 |page= 48}}</ref> |
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⚫ | A detailed description of a tabernacle, located in [[:s:Bible (King James)/Exodus#25|Exodus chapters 25–27]] and [[:s:Bible (King James)/Exodus#35|Exodus chapters 35–40]], refers to an inner shrine, the [[Holy of Holies]], housing the ark, and an outer chamber with the six-branch seven-lamp [[Temple menorah]], table for [[showbread]], and an [[altar of incense]].<ref name="ODCC self">{{cite news |title=Tabernacle |editor-last=Cross |editor-first=F. L. |work=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2005}}</ref> An enclosure containing the sacrificial altar and [[bronze laver]] for the priests to wash surrounded these chambers.<ref name= "ODCC self" /> |
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===Priestly account=== |
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Some scholars believe the description is of a far later date than Moses' time, and that it reflects the structure of the Temple of Solomon; others hold that the passage describes a real pre-monarchic shrine, perhaps the sanctuary at [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]],<ref name="ODCC self" /> while traditional scholars contend that it describes an actual tabernacle used in the time of Moses and thereafter.<ref name=CathEn/> This view is based on Exodus 36, 37, 38 and 39 that describe in full detail how the actual construction of the tabernacle took place during the time of Moses.<ref>{{cite book |last= Miller |first=Rabbi Avigdor |title= A Nation is Born: Comments and Notes on Shmos |year=1991 |publisher=Israel Bookshop Publications |oclc=25242329 |page=231}}</ref> |
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Traditional scholars contend that it describes an actual tabernacle used in the time of Moses and thereafter.<ref name=CathEn/> This view is based on the existence of significant parallels between the biblical Tabernacle and similar structures from ancient Egypt during the Late Bronze Age.<ref>{{Cite book |title=On the Reliability of the Old Testament |last=Kitchen |first=Kenneth A. |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8028-0396-2 |pages=275–283}}</ref> |
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The detailed outlines for the tabernacle and its priests are enumerated in the Book of Exodus: |
The detailed outlines for the tabernacle and its priests are enumerated in the Book of Exodus: |
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==Tent of the Presence== |
==Tent of the Presence== |
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Some interpreters assert the Tent of the Presence was a special meeting place outside the camp, unlike the Tabernacle which was placed in the center of the camp.<ref>Clements, Ronald E.(1972). Exodus. New York |
Some interpreters assert the Tent of the Presence was a special meeting place outside the camp, unlike the Tabernacle which was placed in the center of the camp.<ref>Clements, Ronald E. (1972). Exodus. New York: Cambridge University Press. Series: The Cambridge Bible Commentary: New English Bible. pp. 212–213.</ref><ref>Berlin, Adele and Brettler, Marc Zvi., editors. (2014). The Jewish Study Bible. New York: Oxford University Press. 2nd edition. {{ISBN|9780190263898}}. p. 178.</ref> According to [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus+33&version=NRSV Exodus 33:7–11], this tent was for communion with [[Yahweh]], to receive oracles and to understand the divine will.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgenstern |first=Julian |date=1918 |title=The Tent of Meeting |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/592593 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=38 |pages=125–139 |doi=10.2307/592593 |jstor=592593 |issn=0003-0279}}</ref> The [[Elder (administrative title)|people's elders]] were the subject of a remarkable prophetic event at the site of this tent in [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=numbers+11&version=NRSV Numbers 11:24–30].<ref>Executive Committee of the Editorial Board, Eduard König. (1906). "Tabernacle". in the Kopelman Foundation's [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14184-tabernacle JewishEncyclopedia.com website] Retrieved 18 November 2019.</ref> |
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[[Elder (administrative title)|people's elders]] were the subject of a remarkable prophetic event at the site of this tent in [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=numbers+11&version=NRSV Numbers 11:24-30].<ref>Executive Committee of the Editorial Board., Eduard König. (1906). "Tabernacle". in the Kopelman Foundation's [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14184-tabernacle JewishEncyclopedia,com website] Retrieved 18 November 2019.</ref> |
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==Builders== |
==Builders== |
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[[File:Figures The erection of the Tabernacle and the Sacred vessels.jpg|thumb|The erection of the tabernacle and the Sacred vessels, as in Exodus 40:17–19; from the 1728 ''Figures de la Bible'']] |
[[File:Figures The erection of the Tabernacle and the Sacred vessels.jpg|thumb|The erection of the tabernacle and the Sacred vessels, as in Exodus 40:17–19; from the 1728 ''Figures de la Bible'']] |
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In Exodus 31, the main builder and maker of the [[High Priest of Israel#Vestments|priestly vestments]] is specified as [[Bezalel]], son of Uri son of [[Hur (Bible)|Hur]] of the [[tribe of Judah]], who was assisted by [[Oholiab]] and a number of skilled artisans.<ref name= |
In Exodus 31, the main builder and maker of the [[High Priest of Israel#Vestments|priestly vestments]] is specified as [[Bezalel]], son of Uri son of [[Hur (Bible)|Hur]] of the [[tribe of Judah]], who was assisted by [[Oholiab]] and a number of skilled artisans.<ref name="EncJewish">{{Jewish Encyclopedia |title=Tabernacle |edition=2nd |volume=19 |page=419 |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14184-tabernacle |no-prescript=1}}</ref> |
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==Plan== |
==Plan== |
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During the [[The Exodus|Exodus]], the [[Moses#The years in the wilderness|wandering in the desert]] and the [[Book of Joshua#Entry into the land and conquest (chapters 2–12)|conquest of Canaan]] the Tabernacle was in part a portable tent, and in part a wooden enclosure draped with ten curtains, of |
During the [[The Exodus|Exodus]], the [[Moses#The years in the wilderness|wandering in the desert]] and the [[Book of Joshua#Entry into the land and conquest (chapters 2–12)|conquest of Canaan]], the Tabernacle was in part a portable tent, and in part a wooden enclosure draped with ten curtains, of blue (''[[tekhelet]]'' תְּכֵלֶת), purple (''’argāmān'' אַרְגָּמָן), and scarlet (''šānî'' שָׁנִי) fabric. It had a rectangular, perimeter fence of fabric, poles and staked cords. This rectangle was always erected when the Israelite tribes would camp, oriented to the east as the east side had no frames. In the center of this enclosure was a rectangular sanctuary draped with goat-hair curtains, with the roof coverings made from rams' skins.<ref name="EncJewish" /> |
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===Holy of Holies=== |
===Holy of Holies=== |
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Beyond this curtain was the cube-shaped inner room, the '' |
Beyond this curtain was the cube-shaped inner room, the ''Kodesh Hakedashim'' ([[Holy of Holies]]). This area housed the [[Ark of the Covenant]], inside which were the two stone tablets brought down from Mount Sinai by Moses on which were written the [[Ten Commandments]], a golden urn holding the ''[[manna]]'', and [[Aaron]]'s rod which had budded and borne ripe almonds ({{bibleverse||Exodus|16:33–34|ESV}}, {{bibleverse||Numbers|17:1–11|ESV}}, {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|10:1–5|ESV}}; {{bibleverse||Hebrews|9:2–5|ESV}}). |
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===Tachash=== |
===Tachash=== |
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''Tachash'' is referred to fifteen times in the [[Hebrew Bible]];<ref>{{cite web |title=Parsha in depth: You shall make a covering ... of tachash skins |url=https://www.chabad.org/parshah/in-depth/plainBody_cdo/AID/1315 |website=Chabad}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Solomon (Dr. Rabbi) |first=Norman |title=What Was the Tachash Covering in the Tabernacle? |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/what-was-the-tachash-covering-the-tabernacle |website=TheTorah.com}}</ref> 13 of these refer to the roof coverings. |
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''Tachash'' is referred to fifteen times in the [[Hebrew Bible]];<ref>{{cite web |website=Chabad |
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|url=https://www.chabad.org/parshah/in-depth/plainBody_cdo/AID/1315 |
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|title=Parsha in depth: You shall make a covering . . . of tachash skins}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |website=TheTorah.com |
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|url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/what-was-the-tachash-covering-the-tabernacle |
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|title=What Was the Tachash Covering in the Tabernacle? |
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|author=Dr. Rabbi Norman Solomon}}</ref> 13 of these refer to the roof coverings. |
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<gallery> |
<gallery> |
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==Restrictions== |
==Restrictions== |
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{{Expand section|date=September 2020}} |
{{Expand section|date=September 2020}} |
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* Wine forbidden to priests in the tabernacle: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0310.htm#8 Leviticus 10: |
* Wine forbidden to priests in the tabernacle: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0310.htm#8 Leviticus 10:8–15] |
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* Individuals with the [[Tzaraat]] skin affliction were not permitted entry to the tabernacle |
* Individuals with the [[Tzaraat]] skin affliction were not permitted entry to the tabernacle: Leviticus 22:4 |
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* Sacrifice only at the tabernacle: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0317.htm Leviticus 17] |
* Sacrifice only at the tabernacle: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0317.htm Leviticus 17] |
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* Priests could only enter into the third room of the tent once a year |
* Priests could only enter into the third room of the tent once a year: Leviticus 16 |
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There is a strict set of rules to be followed for transporting the tabernacle laid out in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. For example: |
There is a strict set of rules to be followed for transporting the tabernacle laid out in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. For example: |
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{{ |
{{Blockquote|You must put the Levites in charge of the tabernacle of the Covenant, along with its furnishings and equipment. They must carry the tabernacle and its equipment as you travel, and they must care for it and camp around it. Whenever the Tabernacle is moved, the Levites will take it down and set it up again. Anyone else who goes too near the tabernacle will be executed.|{{bibleref2|Numbers|1:48-51 NLT}}}} |
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==Rituals== |
==Rituals== |
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* Octave of Ordination: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0309.htm Leviticus 9] |
* Octave of Ordination: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0309.htm Leviticus 9] |
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* [[Yom Kippur]]: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0316 Leviticus 16] |
* [[Yom Kippur]]: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0316 Leviticus 16] |
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* [[Ordeal of the bitter water]] for suspected adulteresses: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0405.htm#11 Numbers 5: |
* [[Ordeal of the bitter water]] for suspected adulteresses: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0405.htm#11 Numbers 5:11–29] |
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* Dedication of [[Nazirite]]s: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0406.htm Numbers 6: |
* Dedication of [[Nazirite]]s: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0406.htm Numbers 6:1–21] |
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* Preparation of the ashes of a [[red heifer]] for the [[water of lustration|water of purification]]: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0419.htm Numbers 19] |
* Preparation of the ashes of a [[red heifer]] for the [[water of lustration|water of purification]]: [https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0419.htm Numbers 19] |
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An Israelite healed of ''[[tzaraath]]'' would be presented by the priest who had confirmed his healing "at the door of the tabernacle of meeting",<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|14:11|NKJV}}</ref> and a woman healed of prolonged [[menstruation]] would present her offering (two turtledoves or two young pigeons) to the priest "at the door of the tabernacle of meeting".<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|15:29|NKJV}}</ref> |
An Israelite healed of ''[[tzaraath]]'' would be presented by the priest who had confirmed his healing "at the door of the tabernacle of meeting",<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|14:11|NKJV}}.</ref> and a woman healed of prolonged [[menstruation]] would present her offering (two turtledoves or two young pigeons) to the priest "at the door of the tabernacle of meeting".<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|15:29|NKJV}}.</ref> |
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It was at the door of the tabernacle that the community wept in sorrow when all the chiefs of the people were [[Impalement|impaled]] and the men who had joined in worship to the [[Heresy of Peor|Baal of Peor]] were killed on God's orders.<ref>{{bibleverse |
It was at the door of the tabernacle that the community wept in sorrow when all the chiefs of the people were [[Impalement|impaled]] and the men who had joined in worship to the [[Heresy of Peor|Baal of Peor]] were killed on God's orders.<ref>{{bibleverse||Numbers|25:6}}.</ref> |
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==Subsequent history== |
==Subsequent history== |
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During the conquest of [[Canaan]], the main Israelite camp was at [[Gilgal]] ({{bibleverse ||Joshua|4:19|ESV}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Joshua|5:8–10|ESV}}) and the tabernacle was probably erected within the camp: {{bibleverse||Joshua|10:43ESV}} "…and returned into the camp" (''see'' {{bibleverse ||Numbers|1:52–2:34|ESV}} "…they shall camp facing the tent of meeting on every side"). |
During the conquest of [[Canaan]], the main Israelite camp was at [[Gilgal]] ({{bibleverse ||Joshua|4:19|ESV}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Joshua|5:8–10|ESV}}) and the tabernacle was probably erected within the camp: {{bibleverse||Joshua|10:43ESV}} "…and returned into the camp" (''see'' {{bibleverse ||Numbers|1:52–2:34|ESV}} "…they shall camp facing the tent of meeting on every side"). |
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After the conquest and [[Tribal allotments of Israel|division of the land]] among the tribes, the tabernacle was moved to [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]] in [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraimite]] territory (Joshua's tribe) to avoid disputes among the other tribes ({{bibleverse||Joshua|18:1|ESV}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Joshua|19:51|ESV}}; {{bibleverse-nb ||Joshua|22:9|ESV}}; {{bibleverse ||Psalm|78:60|ESV}}). It remained there during |
After the conquest and [[Tribal allotments of Israel|division of the land]] among the tribes, the tabernacle was moved to [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]] in [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraimite]] territory (Joshua's tribe) to avoid disputes among the other tribes ({{bibleverse||Joshua|18:1|ESV}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Joshua|19:51|ESV}}; {{bibleverse-nb ||Joshua|22:9|ESV}}; {{bibleverse ||Psalm|78:60|ESV}}). It remained there during most of the [[biblical judges|rule of the Judges]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The New American Bible, Old Testament |publisher=Catholic Book Publishing Company |year=1987 |editor=Confraternity of Christian Doctrine |location=New York, New York |page=236 |language=en-us}}, ''[[The Book of Judges]]'', prefatory notes: "…The twelve judges of the present book, however, very probably exercised their authority, sometimes simultaneously, over one or another tribe of Israel, never over the entire nation."</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary |publisher=Holman Bible Publishers |year=2003 |editor=Brand |editor-first=Chad |location=Nashville, Tennessee |pages=961–965 "Judges, Book of" |language=en-us |editor2=Draper |editor-first2=Charles |editor3=England |editor-first3=Archie}} "Because of the theological nature of the narrative and the author's selective use of data, it is difficult to reconstruct the history of Israel during the period of the judges from the accounts in the heart of the book (3:7–16:31)."</ref> According to a possible translation of {{bibleverse||Judges|20:26-28|ESV}}, the Ark, and thus the tabernacle, was at [[Bethel]] while Phinehas, grandson of Aaron, was alive. |
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After the Ark of the Covenant was captured by the [[Philistines]], the subsequent history of the tabernacle is separate from that of the Ark, even after the latter was returned. Under King [[Saul]], the tabernacle was eventually moved to [[Nob, Israel|Nob]], near Saul's his home town of [[Gibeah]], but after he massacred the priests there ({{bibleverse|1|Samuel|21-22|HE}}), it was moved to [[Gibeon (ancient city)|Gibeon]], a hill-shrine ({{bibleverse|1|Chronicles|16:39|HE}}; {{bibleverse-nb|1|Chronicles|21:29|HE}}; {{bibleverse |2|Chronicles|1:2–6|HE}}, 13).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eichrodt |first=Walther |url=http://archive.org/details/theologyofoldtes01eich |title=Theology of the Old Testament |date=1961 |publisher=Westminster Press |others=Internet Archive |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |page=111 |language=en-us}}</ref> Just prior to [[David]]'s moving the ark to Jerusalem, the ark was located in [[Kiriath-Jearim]] ({{bibleverse |1|Chronicles|13:5-6|HE}}). |
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The Ark was eventually brought to Jerusalem, where it was placed "inside the tent David had pitched for it" ({{bibleverse|2|Samuel|6:17|HE}}; {{bibleverse |1|Chronicles|15:1|HE}}), not in the tabernacle, which remained at Gibeon. The altar of the tabernacle at Gibeon was used for sacrificial worship ({{bibleverse |1|Chronicles|16:39|HE}}; {{bibleverse-nb|1|Chronicles|21:29|HE}}; {{bibleverse |1|Kings|3:2-4|HE}}), until Solomon |
The Ark was eventually brought to Jerusalem, where it was placed "inside the tent David had pitched for it" ({{bibleverse|2|Samuel|6:17|HE}}; {{bibleverse |1|Chronicles|15:1|HE}}), not in the tabernacle, which remained at Gibeon. The altar of the tabernacle at Gibeon was used for sacrificial worship ({{bibleverse |1|Chronicles|16:39|HE}}; {{bibleverse-nb|1|Chronicles|21:29|HE}}; {{bibleverse |1|Kings|3:2-4|HE}}), until Solomon brought the structure and its furnishings to Jerusalem to furnish and dedicate the Temple ({{bibleverse|1|Kings|8:4|HE}}).<ref> Compare Guy Darshan, [https://www.academia.edu/107318854/The_Tent_of_Meeting_in_Samuel_and_Kings “The Tent of Meeting in Samuel and Kings,”] in: The Pentateuch and Its Readers, Tübingen 2023, 123–143 </ref> |
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There is no mention of the tabernacle in the Tanakh after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple]] by the Babylonians in c. 587 BCE. |
There is no mention of the tabernacle in the Tanakh after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple]] by the Babylonians in c. 587 BCE. |
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==Relationship to the golden calf== |
==Relationship to the golden calf== |
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Some rabbis have commented on the proximity of the narrative of the tabernacle with that of the episode known as the sin of the [[golden calf]] recounted in {{bibleref2|Exodus|32:1-6}}. [[Maimonides]] asserts that the tabernacle and its accoutrements, such as the golden Ark of the Covenant and the golden Menorah were meant as "alternates" to the human weakness and needs for physical idols as seen in the golden calf episode.<ref>Maimonides (Rambam) Rabbi Mosheh ben Maimon (c. 1190) ''Delalatul Ha'yreen (Arabic), Moreh Nevukhim (Hebrew), Guide for the Perplexed'', Part 3:32, Part 11:39, Part 111:46.</ref> Other scholars, such as [[Nahmanides|Nachmanides]] disagree and maintain that the tabernacle's meaning is not tied in with the golden calf, but instead symbolizes higher mystical lessons that symbolize God's constant closeness to the Children of Israel.<ref>Naḥmanides (Ramban) Rabbi Moses ben Naḥman Girondi Bonastruc ça (de) Porta (c. 1242) ''Bi'ur'', or ''Perush 'al ha-Torah, Commentary on the Torah, Exodus 25:1'' and ''[[Exodus Rabbah]]'' 35a.</ref> |
Some rabbis have commented on the proximity of the narrative of the tabernacle with that of the episode known as the sin of the [[golden calf]] recounted in {{bibleref2|Exodus|32:1-6}}. [[Maimonides]] asserts that the tabernacle and its accoutrements, such as the golden Ark of the Covenant and the golden Menorah were meant as "alternates" to the human weakness and needs for physical idols as seen in the golden calf episode.<ref>Maimonides (Rambam) Rabbi Mosheh ben Maimon (c. 1190) ''Delalatul Ha'yreen (Arabic), Moreh Nevukhim (Hebrew), Guide for the Perplexed'', Part 3:32, Part 11:39, Part 111:46.</ref> Other scholars, such as [[Nahmanides|Nachmanides]], disagree and maintain that the tabernacle's meaning is not tied in with the golden calf, but instead symbolizes higher mystical lessons that symbolize God's constant closeness to the Children of Israel.<ref>Naḥmanides (Ramban) Rabbi Moses ben Naḥman Girondi Bonastruc ça (de) Porta (c. 1242) ''Bi'ur'', or ''Perush 'al ha-Torah, Commentary on the Torah, Exodus 25:1'' and ''[[Exodus Rabbah]]'' 35a.</ref> |
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==Blueprint for synagogues== |
==Blueprint for synagogues== |
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[[Image:Shilo centr synagogue.jpg|thumb|right|The ''Mishkan Shilo'' synagogue in [[Shilo, Mateh Binyamin|Shilo]] is a [[Replicas of the Jewish Temple|replica of the Jewish Temple]]]] |
[[Image:Shilo centr synagogue.jpg|thumb|right|The ''Mishkan Shilo'' synagogue in [[Shilo, Mateh Binyamin|Shilo]] is a [[Replicas of the Jewish Temple|replica of the Jewish Temple]]]] |
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[[Synagogue]] construction over the last two thousand years has followed the outlines of the original tabernacle.<ref>{{Catholic|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14379b.htm |title=Synagogue |author=Walter Drum}}</ref><ref> |
[[Synagogue]] construction over the last two thousand years has followed the outlines of the original tabernacle.<ref>{{Catholic|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14379b.htm |title=Synagogue |author=Walter Drum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Synagogues, Shuls and Temples – Judaism 101 (JewFAQ) |url=https://www.jewfaq.org/shul.htm |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=www.jewfaq.org}}</ref> Every synagogue has at its front an ark, ''aron kodesh'', containing the [[Torah]] scrolls, comparable to the Ark of the Covenant which contained the tablets with Ten Commandments. This is the holiest spot in a synagogue, equivalent to the Holy of Holies. |
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There is also usually a constantly lighted lamp, ''[[Sanctuary lamp|Ner tamid]]'', or a candelabrum, lighted during services, near a spot similar to the position of the original Menorah. At the center of the synagogue is a large elevated area, known as the ''bimah'', where the Torah is read. This is equivalent to the tabernacle's altars upon which incense and animal sacrifices were offered. On the main holidays the [[Kohen|priests]] |
There is also usually a constantly lighted lamp, ''[[Sanctuary lamp|Ner tamid]]'', or a candelabrum, lighted during services, near a spot similar to the position of the original Menorah. At the center of the synagogue is a large elevated area, known as the ''bimah'', where the Torah is read. This is equivalent to the tabernacle's altars upon which incense and animal sacrifices were offered. On the main holidays the [[Kohen|priests]] gather at the front of the synagogue to bless the congregation as did their priestly ancestors in the tabernacle from Aaron onwards ({{bibleverse||Numbers|6:22-27}}).<ref>{{Catholic|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12407b.htm|title=High Priest|prescript=|author= John J. Tierney}}</ref> |
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==Inspiration for churches== |
==Inspiration for churches== |
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==New Testament references== |
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The tabernacle is mentioned several times in the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] in the [[New Testament]]. For example, according to {{bibleverse||Hebrews|8:2–5|ESV}} and {{bibleverse-nb ||Hebrews|9:2–26|ESV}} [[Jesus]] serves as the true climactic [[Kohen Gadol|high priest]] in [[Heaven (Christianity)|heaven]], the true tabernacle, to which its counterpart on earth was a symbol and foreshadow of what was to come ({{bibleverse||Hebrews|8:5|ESV}}). |
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==Mandaeism== |
==Mandaeism== |
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{{main|Mandi (Mandaeism)}} |
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[[File:Mandaean-Mandi-Nasiriya-Iraq.jpg|thumb|Mandaean Mashkhanna (Beth Manda) in Nasiriya, Iraq]] |
[[File:Mandaean-Mandi-Nasiriya-Iraq.jpg|thumb|Mandaean Mashkhanna (Beth Manda) in Nasiriya, Iraq]] |
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A '' |
A ''mashkhanna'' {{lang|myz|ࡌࡀࡔࡊࡍࡀ}} {{transliteration|myz|maškna}} (hebrew cognate {{lang|he|מִשְׁכַּן}} {{transliteration|he|mishkān}}),<ref>Secunda, Shai, and Steven Fine. {{cite book |last1=Secunda |first1=Shai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QdjGEVo0bVEC&pg=PA1 |title=Shoshannat Yaakov. |last2=Fine |first2=Steven |date=3 September 2012 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004235441}} p. 345.</ref> ''Beth Manda'' {{lang|myz|ࡁࡉࡕ ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀ}}, ''Beit Manda'', or [[Mandi (Mandaeism)|''Mandi'']] ('house of knowledge'),<ref name="Buckley 2002">{{cite book|last=Buckley|first=Jorunn Jacobsen|title=The Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern people|publisher=Oxford University Press|publication-place=New York|year=2002|isbn=0-19-515385-5|oclc=65198443}}</ref> is a cultic hut and place of worship for followers of [[Mandaeism]]. A ''Mashkhanna'' must be built beside a river in order to perform [[maṣbuta]] ([[Baptism#Mandaean Baptism|baptism]]) and other ceremonies because [[Living Water]] is an essential element in the [[Mandaeans|Mandaean]] faith.<ref name="Buckley 2002"/> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{Ark of the Covenant}} |
{{Ark of the Covenant}} |
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[[Category:Tabernacle and Temples in Jerusalem| ]] |
[[Category:Tabernacle and Temples in Jerusalem| ]] |
Latest revision as of 17:01, 4 November 2024
According to the Hebrew Bible, the tabernacle (Hebrew: מִשְׁכַּן, romanized: miškan, lit. 'residence, dwelling place'), also known as the Tent of the Congregation (Hebrew: אֹהֶל מוֹעֵד, romanized: ʔōhel mōʕēḏ, also Tent of Meeting), was the portable earthly dwelling of God used by the Israelites from the Exodus until the conquest of Canaan. Moses was instructed at Mount Sinai to construct and transport the tabernacle[1] with the Israelites on their journey through the wilderness and their subsequent conquest of the Promised Land. After 440 years, Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem superseded it as the dwelling-place of God.
The main source describing the tabernacle is the biblical Book of Exodus, specifically Exodus 25–31 and 35–40. Those passages describe an inner sanctuary, the Holy of Holies, created by the veil suspended by four pillars. This sanctuary contained the Ark of the Covenant, with its cherubim-covered mercy seat. An outer sanctuary (the "Holy Place") contained a gold lamp-stand or candlestick. On the north side stood a table, on which lay the showbread. On the south side was the Menorah, holding seven oil lamps to give light. On the west side, just before the veil, was the golden altar of incense.[2] It was constructed of 4 woven layers of curtains and 48 15-foot tall standing wood boards overlaid in gold and held in place by its bars and silver sockets and was richly furnished with valuable materials taken from Egypt at God's command.
Meaning
[edit]The English word tabernacle derives from the Latin tabernāculum (meaning "tent" or "hut"), which in ancient Roman religion was a ritual structure.[3][4][5] The Hebrew word mishkan implies "dwell", "rest", or "to live in".[6][7] In Greek, including the Septuagint, the Hebrew is translated σκηνή (skēnē), itself a Semitic loanword meaning "tent".[8]
Description
[edit]A detailed description of a tabernacle, located in Exodus chapters 25–27 and Exodus chapters 35–40, refers to an inner shrine, the Holy of Holies, housing the ark, and an outer chamber with the six-branch seven-lamp Temple menorah, table for showbread, and an altar of incense.[2] An enclosure containing the sacrificial altar and bronze laver for the priests to wash surrounded these chambers.[2]
Traditional scholars contend that it describes an actual tabernacle used in the time of Moses and thereafter.[6] This view is based on the existence of significant parallels between the biblical Tabernacle and similar structures from ancient Egypt during the Late Bronze Age.[9]
The detailed outlines for the tabernacle and its priests are enumerated in the Book of Exodus:
- Exodus 25: Materials needed: the Ark, the table for 12 showbread, the menorah.
- Exodus 26: The tabernacle, the bars, partitions.
- Exodus 27: The copper altar, the enclosure, oil.
- Exodus 28: Vestments for the priests, ephod garment, ring settings, the breastplate, robe, head-plate, tunic, turban, sashes, pants.
- Exodus 29: Consecration of priests and altar.
- Exodus 30: Incense altar, washstand, anointing oil, incense.
Tent of the Presence
[edit]Some interpreters assert the Tent of the Presence was a special meeting place outside the camp, unlike the Tabernacle which was placed in the center of the camp.[10][11] According to Exodus 33:7–11, this tent was for communion with Yahweh, to receive oracles and to understand the divine will.[12] The people's elders were the subject of a remarkable prophetic event at the site of this tent in Numbers 11:24–30.[13]
Builders
[edit]In Exodus 31, the main builder and maker of the priestly vestments is specified as Bezalel, son of Uri son of Hur of the tribe of Judah, who was assisted by Oholiab and a number of skilled artisans.[14]
Plan
[edit]During the Exodus, the wandering in the desert and the conquest of Canaan, the Tabernacle was in part a portable tent, and in part a wooden enclosure draped with ten curtains, of blue (tekhelet תְּכֵלֶת), purple (’argāmān אַרְגָּמָן), and scarlet (šānî שָׁנִי) fabric. It had a rectangular, perimeter fence of fabric, poles and staked cords. This rectangle was always erected when the Israelite tribes would camp, oriented to the east as the east side had no frames. In the center of this enclosure was a rectangular sanctuary draped with goat-hair curtains, with the roof coverings made from rams' skins.[14]
Holy of Holies
[edit]Beyond this curtain was the cube-shaped inner room, the Kodesh Hakedashim (Holy of Holies). This area housed the Ark of the Covenant, inside which were the two stone tablets brought down from Mount Sinai by Moses on which were written the Ten Commandments, a golden urn holding the manna, and Aaron's rod which had budded and borne ripe almonds (Exodus 16:33–34, Numbers 17:1–11, Deuteronomy 10:1–5; Hebrews 9:2–5).
Tachash
[edit]Tachash is referred to fifteen times in the Hebrew Bible;[15][16] 13 of these refer to the roof coverings.
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Top view, parallel projection of tabernacle.
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Tabernacle Tent dimensions according to the Book of Exodus
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Tabernacle Tent and Courtyard dimensions according to the Book of Exodus
Restrictions
[edit]This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2020) |
- Wine forbidden to priests in the tabernacle: Leviticus 10:8–15
- Individuals with the Tzaraat skin affliction were not permitted entry to the tabernacle: Leviticus 22:4
- Sacrifice only at the tabernacle: Leviticus 17
- Priests could only enter into the third room of the tent once a year: Leviticus 16
There is a strict set of rules to be followed for transporting the tabernacle laid out in the Hebrew Bible. For example:
You must put the Levites in charge of the tabernacle of the Covenant, along with its furnishings and equipment. They must carry the tabernacle and its equipment as you travel, and they must care for it and camp around it. Whenever the Tabernacle is moved, the Levites will take it down and set it up again. Anyone else who goes too near the tabernacle will be executed.
Rituals
[edit]Twice a day, a priest would stand in front of the golden prayer altar and burn fragrant incense.[17] Other procedures were also carried out in the tabernacle:
- The daily meal offering: Leviticus 6:8–30
- Guilt offerings and peace offerings: Leviticus 7
- Ceremony of Ordination: Leviticus 8
- Octave of Ordination: Leviticus 9
- Yom Kippur: Leviticus 16
- Ordeal of the bitter water for suspected adulteresses: Numbers 5:11–29
- Dedication of Nazirites: Numbers 6:1–21
- Preparation of the ashes of a red heifer for the water of purification: Numbers 19
An Israelite healed of tzaraath would be presented by the priest who had confirmed his healing "at the door of the tabernacle of meeting",[18] and a woman healed of prolonged menstruation would present her offering (two turtledoves or two young pigeons) to the priest "at the door of the tabernacle of meeting".[19]
It was at the door of the tabernacle that the community wept in sorrow when all the chiefs of the people were impaled and the men who had joined in worship to the Baal of Peor were killed on God's orders.[20]
Subsequent history
[edit]This section uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that critically analyze them. (September 2020) |
During the conquest of Canaan, the main Israelite camp was at Gilgal (Joshua 4:19; 5:8–10) and the tabernacle was probably erected within the camp: Joshua 10:43ESV "…and returned into the camp" (see Numbers 1:52–2:34 "…they shall camp facing the tent of meeting on every side").
After the conquest and division of the land among the tribes, the tabernacle was moved to Shiloh in Ephraimite territory (Joshua's tribe) to avoid disputes among the other tribes (Joshua 18:1; 19:51; 22:9; Psalm 78:60). It remained there during most of the rule of the Judges.[21][22] According to a possible translation of Judges 20:26–28, the Ark, and thus the tabernacle, was at Bethel while Phinehas, grandson of Aaron, was alive.
After the Ark of the Covenant was captured by the Philistines, the subsequent history of the tabernacle is separate from that of the Ark, even after the latter was returned. Under King Saul, the tabernacle was eventually moved to Nob, near Saul's his home town of Gibeah, but after he massacred the priests there (1 Samuel 21–22), it was moved to Gibeon, a hill-shrine (1 Chronicles 16:39; 21:29; 2 Chronicles 1:2–6, 13).[23] Just prior to David's moving the ark to Jerusalem, the ark was located in Kiriath-Jearim (1 Chronicles 13:5–6).
The Ark was eventually brought to Jerusalem, where it was placed "inside the tent David had pitched for it" (2 Samuel 6:17; 1 Chronicles 15:1), not in the tabernacle, which remained at Gibeon. The altar of the tabernacle at Gibeon was used for sacrificial worship (1 Chronicles 16:39; 21:29; 1 Kings 3:2–4), until Solomon brought the structure and its furnishings to Jerusalem to furnish and dedicate the Temple (1 Kings 8:4).[24]
There is no mention of the tabernacle in the Tanakh after the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple by the Babylonians in c. 587 BCE.
Relationship to the golden calf
[edit]Some rabbis have commented on the proximity of the narrative of the tabernacle with that of the episode known as the sin of the golden calf recounted in Exodus 32:1–6. Maimonides asserts that the tabernacle and its accoutrements, such as the golden Ark of the Covenant and the golden Menorah were meant as "alternates" to the human weakness and needs for physical idols as seen in the golden calf episode.[25] Other scholars, such as Nachmanides, disagree and maintain that the tabernacle's meaning is not tied in with the golden calf, but instead symbolizes higher mystical lessons that symbolize God's constant closeness to the Children of Israel.[26]
Blueprint for synagogues
[edit]Synagogue construction over the last two thousand years has followed the outlines of the original tabernacle.[27][28] Every synagogue has at its front an ark, aron kodesh, containing the Torah scrolls, comparable to the Ark of the Covenant which contained the tablets with Ten Commandments. This is the holiest spot in a synagogue, equivalent to the Holy of Holies.
There is also usually a constantly lighted lamp, Ner tamid, or a candelabrum, lighted during services, near a spot similar to the position of the original Menorah. At the center of the synagogue is a large elevated area, known as the bimah, where the Torah is read. This is equivalent to the tabernacle's altars upon which incense and animal sacrifices were offered. On the main holidays the priests gather at the front of the synagogue to bless the congregation as did their priestly ancestors in the tabernacle from Aaron onwards (Numbers 6:22–27).[29]
Inspiration for churches
[edit]Some Christian churches are built like a tent, to symbolize the tent of God with men, including St. Matthew Cathedral, São Mateus, Brazil, Zu den heiligen Engeln (To the Holy Angels), Hanover, Germany and the Cardboard Cathedral, Christchurch, New Zealand.[30]
Mandaeism
[edit]A mashkhanna ࡌࡀࡔࡊࡍࡀ maškna (hebrew cognate מִשְׁכַּן mishkān),[31] Beth Manda ࡁࡉࡕ ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀ, Beit Manda, or Mandi ('house of knowledge'),[32] is a cultic hut and place of worship for followers of Mandaeism. A Mashkhanna must be built beside a river in order to perform maṣbuta (baptism) and other ceremonies because Living Water is an essential element in the Mandaean faith.[32]
See also
[edit]- Church tabernacle
- Priestly covenant
- Replicas of the Jewish Temple
- Tabernacle (LDS Church)
- Tabernacle (Methodist)
References
[edit]- ^ Numbers 4:1–35.
- ^ a b c Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). "Tabernacle". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Fowler, William Warde (1922). The Religious Experience of the Roman People. London. p. 209.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Scheid, John (2003). An Introduction to Roman Religion. Indiana University Press. pp. 113–114.
- ^ Linderski, Jerzy (1986). "The Augural Law". Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. II, no. 16. pp. 2164–2288.
- ^ a b This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Souvay, Charles Léon (1913). "Tabernacle". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ "Mishkan". Strong's Concordance. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
- ^ "skene". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 October 2021. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ Kitchen, Kenneth A. (2006). On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 275–283. ISBN 978-0-8028-0396-2.
- ^ Clements, Ronald E. (1972). Exodus. New York: Cambridge University Press. Series: The Cambridge Bible Commentary: New English Bible. pp. 212–213.
- ^ Berlin, Adele and Brettler, Marc Zvi., editors. (2014). The Jewish Study Bible. New York: Oxford University Press. 2nd edition. ISBN 9780190263898. p. 178.
- ^ Morgenstern, Julian (1918). "The Tent of Meeting". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 38: 125–139. doi:10.2307/592593. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 592593.
- ^ Executive Committee of the Editorial Board, Eduard König. (1906). "Tabernacle". in the Kopelman Foundation's JewishEncyclopedia.com website Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ a b Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Tabernacle". The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 19 (2nd ed.). New York: Funk & Wagnalls. p. 419.
- ^ "Parsha in depth: You shall make a covering ... of tachash skins". Chabad.
- ^ Solomon (Dr. Rabbi), Norman. "What Was the Tachash Covering in the Tabernacle?". TheTorah.com.
- ^ Exodus 30:7–10.
- ^ Leviticus 14:11.
- ^ Leviticus 15:29.
- ^ Numbers 25:6.
- ^ Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, ed. (1987). The New American Bible, Old Testament. New York, New York: Catholic Book Publishing Company. p. 236., The Book of Judges, prefatory notes: "…The twelve judges of the present book, however, very probably exercised their authority, sometimes simultaneously, over one or another tribe of Israel, never over the entire nation."
- ^ Brand, Chad; Draper, Charles; England, Archie, eds. (2003). Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Nashville, Tennessee: Holman Bible Publishers. pp. 961–965 "Judges, Book of". "Because of the theological nature of the narrative and the author's selective use of data, it is difficult to reconstruct the history of Israel during the period of the judges from the accounts in the heart of the book (3:7–16:31)."
- ^ Eichrodt, Walther (1961). Theology of the Old Testament. Internet Archive. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Westminster Press. p. 111.
- ^ Compare Guy Darshan, “The Tent of Meeting in Samuel and Kings,” in: The Pentateuch and Its Readers, Tübingen 2023, 123–143
- ^ Maimonides (Rambam) Rabbi Mosheh ben Maimon (c. 1190) Delalatul Ha'yreen (Arabic), Moreh Nevukhim (Hebrew), Guide for the Perplexed, Part 3:32, Part 11:39, Part 111:46.
- ^ Naḥmanides (Ramban) Rabbi Moses ben Naḥman Girondi Bonastruc ça (de) Porta (c. 1242) Bi'ur, or Perush 'al ha-Torah, Commentary on the Torah, Exodus 25:1 and Exodus Rabbah 35a.
- ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Walter Drum (1913). "Synagogue". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ "Synagogues, Shuls and Temples – Judaism 101 (JewFAQ)". www.jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2024-02-14.
- ^ John J. Tierney (1913). "High Priest". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ Anders, Johanna (2014). Neue Kirchen in der Diaspora (in German). Kassel University Press. pp. 102–103. ISBN 978-3-86-219682-1.
- ^ Secunda, Shai, and Steven Fine. Secunda, Shai; Fine, Steven (3 September 2012). Shoshannat Yaakov. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004235441. p. 345.
- ^ a b Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2002). The Mandaeans: ancient texts and modern people. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515385-5. OCLC 65198443.