Low German: Difference between revisions

Low German
Low German
Low Saxon
Plattdütsch, Plattdüütsch, Plattdütsk, Plattdüütsk, Plattduitsk (South-Westphalian), Plattduitsch (Eastphalian), Plattdietsch (Low Prussian); Neddersassisch; Nedderdüütsch
Native to	Northern and western Germany; Eastern Netherlands; Southern Denmark;
Ethnicity	Dutch; Germans; Frisians; Russian Mennonites; Historically Saxons;
Native speakers	Estimated 4.35–7.15 million; Up to 10 million second-language speakers (2001)
Language family	Indo-European Germanic West Germanic North Sea Germanic Low German; ; ; ;
Early forms	Old Saxon Middle Low German ;
Dialects	Low Saxon; East Low German;
Official status
Recognised minority; language in	Netherlands Germany Schleswig-Holstein; Hamburg; Lower Saxony; Saxony-Anhalt; Mecklenburg-Vorpommern; Brandenburg; Bolivia (70,000) Paraguay (30,000) Brazil (8,000)
Language codes
ISO 639-2	nds
ISO 639-3	nds (Dutch varieties and Westphalian have separate codes)
Glottolog	lowg1239 Low German
Linguasphere	52-ACB
	Present-day Low German language area in Europe
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Low German^[b] is a West Germanic language^[12]^[13] spoken mainly in Northern Germany and the northeastern Netherlands. The dialect of Plautdietsch is also spoken in the Russian Mennonite diaspora worldwide. "Low" refers to the altitude of the areas where it is typically spoken.

Low German is most closely related to Frisian and English, with which it forms the North Sea Germanic group of the West Germanic languages. Like Dutch, it has historically been spoken north of the Benrath and Uerdingen isoglosses, while forms of High German (of which Standard German is a standardized example) have historically been spoken south of those lines. Like Frisian, English, Dutch and the North Germanic languages, Low German has not undergone the High German consonant shift, as opposed to Standard High German, which is based on High German dialects. Low German evolved from Old Saxon (Old Low German), which is most closely related to Old Frisian and Old English (Anglo-Saxon).

The Low German dialects spoken in the Netherlands are mostly referred to as Low Saxon, those spoken in northwestern Germany (Lower Saxony, Westphalia, Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, and Saxony-Anhalt west of the Elbe) as either Low German or Low Saxon, and those spoken in northeastern Germany (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Saxony-Anhalt east of the Elbe) mostly as Low German, not being part of Low Saxon. This is because northwestern Germany and the northeastern Netherlands were the area of settlement of the Saxons (Old Saxony), while Low German spread to northeastern Germany through eastward migration of Low German speakers into areas with an originally Slavic-speaking population. This area is known as Germania Slavica, where the former Slavic influence is still visible in the names of settlements and physiogeographical features.^[c]

It has been estimated that Low German has approximately 2–5 million speakers in Germany, primarily Northern Germany (ranging from well to very well),^[14] and 2.15 million in the Netherlands (ranging from reasonable to very well).^[1]^: 88

Geographical extent

Inside Europe

Germany

It has been estimated that Low German has approximately two to five million speakers (depending on the definition of 'native speaker') in Germany, primarily in Northern Germany.^[15]

Variants of Low German are spoken in most parts of Northern Germany, for instance in the states of Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg, Bremen, Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony-Anhalt, and Brandenburg. Small portions of northern Hesse and northern Thuringia are traditionally Low Saxon-speaking too. Historically, Low German was also spoken in formerly German parts of Poland (e.g., Pomerania and Silesia), as well as in East Prussia and the Baltic provinces (modern Estonia and Latvia. The Baltic Germans spoke a distinct Low German dialect, which has influenced the vocabulary and phonetics of both Estonian and Latvian. The historical sprachraum of Low German also included contemporary northern Poland, East Prussia (the modern Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia), a part of western Lithuania, and the German communities in Estonia and Latvia, most notably their Hanseatic cities. German speakers in this area fled the Red Army or were forcibly expelled after the border changes at the end of World War II.

The language was also formerly spoken in the outer areas of what is now the city-state of Berlin, but in the course of urbanisation and national centralisation in that city, the language has vanished (the Berlin dialect itself is a northern outpost of High German, though it has some Low German features).

Today, there are still speakers outside Germany to be found in the coastal areas of present-day Poland (minority of ethnic German East Pomeranian speakers who were not expelled from Pomerania, as well as the regions around Braniewo).^{[citation needed]} In the Southern Jutland region of Denmark there may still be some Low German speakers in some German minority communities, but the Low German dialects of Denmark can be considered moribund at this time.^{[citation needed]}

Low German-speaking area before the expulsion of almost all Low German- and German-speakers from east of the Oder–Neisse line in 1945. Low German-speaking provinces of Germany east of the Oder, before 1945, were Pomerania with its capital *Stettin* (now Szczecin, Poland), where east of the Oder East Pomeranian dialects were spoken, and East Prussia with its capital *Königsberg* (now Kaliningrad, Russia), where Low Prussian dialects were spoken. *Danzig* (now Gdańsk, Poland) was also a Low German-speaking city before 1945, and its former dialect Danzig German is also classified as Low Prussian.

Self-reported Low German speakers
State	'Well' or 'very well'^[16]		'Very well' only^[16]
State	% of pop.	Numbers	% of pop.	Numbers
Schleswig-Holstein	24.5%	694,085	16.5%	467,445
North Rhine-Westphalia	11.8%	2,103,940	5.2%	927,160
Lower Saxony	15.4%	1,218,756	4.7%	371,958
Hamburg	9.5%	169,860	3.2%	57,216
Bremen	17.6%	116,336	9.9%	65,439
Brandenburg	2.8%	70,000	2.6%	65,000
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	20.7%	339,273	5.9%	96,701
Saxony-Anhalt	11.8%	275,058	2.2%	51,282
Entire Low German dialect area	15.7%	4,987,308	6.2%	2,197,205

The Netherlands

Dialects of Low German are spoken in the northeastern area of the Netherlands (Dutch Low Saxon) by approximately 1.6 million speakers.^[1] These dialects are written with an unstandardized orthography based on Standard Dutch orthography. The position of the language is, according to UNESCO, vulnerable.^[17] Between 1995 and 2011 the numbers of parent speakers dropped from 34% in 1995 to 15% in 2011. Numbers of child speakers dropped from 8% to 2% in the same period.^[18] According to a 2005 study 53% speak Low Saxon or Low Saxon and Dutch at home and 71% could speak it in the researched area.^[1] The total number of speakers is estimated at 1.7 million speakers.^[3] There are speakers in the Dutch north and eastern provinces of Groningen, Drenthe, Stellingwerf (part of Friesland), Overijssel, Gelderland, Utrecht and Flevoland, in several dialect groups per province.

Outside Europe and the Mennonites

There are also immigrant communities where Low German is spoken in the Western hemisphere, including Canada, the United States, Mexico, Belize, Venezuela, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. In some of these countries, the language is part of the Mennonite religion and culture.^[19] There are Mennonite communities in Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Kansas and Minnesota which use Low German in their religious services and communities. These Mennonites are descended from primarily Dutch settlers that had initially settled in the Vistula delta region of Prussia in the 16th and 17th centuries before moving to newly acquired Russian territories in Ukraine in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and then to the Americas in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The types of Low German spoken in these communities and in the Midwest region of the United States have diverged since emigration. The survival of the language is tenuous in many places, and has died out in many places where assimilation has occurred. Members and friends of the Historical Society of North German Settlements in western New York (Bergholz, New York), a community of Lutherans who trace their immigration from Pomerania in the 1840s, hold quarterly "Plattdeutsch lunch" events, where remaining speakers of the language gather to share and preserve the dialect. Mennonite colonies in Paraguay, Belize, and Chihuahua, Mexico, have made Low German a "co-official language" of the community.^{[citation needed]}

A public school in Witmarsum Colony (Paraná, Southern Brazil) teaches in the Portuguese language and in *Plautdietsch*.^[20]

East Pomeranian is also spoken in parts of southern and southeastern Brazil, in the latter especially in the state of Espírito Santo, being official in five municipalities, and spoken among its ethnically European migrants elsewhere, primarily in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Rondônia. East Pomeranian-speaking regions of Southern Brazil are often assimilated into the general German Brazilian population and culture, for example celebrating the Oktoberfest, and there can even be a language shift from it to Riograndenser Hunsrückisch in some areas. In Espírito Santo, nevertheless, Pomeranian Brazilians are more often proud of their language, and particular religious traditions and culture,^[21] and not uncommonly inheriting the nationalism of their ancestors, being more likely to accept marriages of its members with Brazilians of origins other than a Germanic Central European one than to assimilate with Brazilians of Swiss, Austrian, Czech, and non-East Pomeranian-speaking German and Prussian heritage^{[clarification needed]} – that were much more numerous immigrants to both Brazilian regions (and whose language almost faded out in the latter, due to assimilation and internal migration)^{[clarification needed]}, by themselves less numerous than the Italian ones (with only Venetian communities in areas of highly Venetian presence conserving Talian, and other Italian languages and dialects fading out elsewhere).^{[clarification needed]}

Speakers of low German outside Europe

Approximate distribution of native speakers of German or a German variety outside Europe
(according to Ethnologue 2016 unless referenced otherwise)
Numbers of speakers should not be summed up per country, as they most likely overlap considerably.
Table includes varieties with disputed statuses as separate language.
	Standard German	Hunsrik/Hunsrückisch	Low German & Plautdietsch	Pennsylvania Dutch	Hutterite
Argentina	400,000	—	4,000	—	—
Australia	79,000	—	—	—	—
Belize	—	—	9,360	—	—
Bolivia	160,000	—	60,000	—	—
Brazil	1,500,000	3,000,000	8,000	—	—
Canada	430,000	—	80,000	15,000	23,200
Chile	35,000	—	—	—	—
Costa Rica	—	—	2,000	—	—
Israel	200,000	—	—	—	—
Kazakhstan	30,400	—	100,000	—	—
Mexico	—	—	40,000	—	—
Namibia	22,500	—	—	—	—
New Zealand	36,000	—	—	—	—
Paraguay	166,000	—	40,000	—	—
Peru	2,000	—	5,000	—	—
Russia	—	—	—	—	—
South Africa	12,000	—	—	—	—
Uruguay	28,000	—	2,000	—	—
United States	1,104,354^[22]	—	12,000	118,000	10,800
Sum	4,599,392	3,000,000	362,360	133,000	34,000

Nomenclature

The language grouping of Low German is referred to, in the language itself as well as in its umbrella languages of German and Dutch, in several different ways, ranging from official names such as Niederdeutsche and Nederduits to more general characterisations such as "dialect". The proliferation of names or characterisations is due in part to the grouping stretching mainly across two different countries and to it being a collection of varieties rather than a standardised language.

There are different uses of the term "Low German":

A specific name of any West Germanic varieties that neither have taken part in the High German consonant shift nor classify as Low Franconian or Anglo-Frisian; this is the scope discussed in this article.
A broader term for the closely related, continental West Germanic languages unaffected by the High German consonant shift, nor classifying as Anglo-Frisian, and thus including Low Franconian varieties.

In Germany, native speakers of Low German call their language Platt, Plattdütsch, Plattdüütsch, Plattdütsk, Plattdüütsk, Plattduitsk (South-Westphalian), Plattduitsch (Eastphalian), Plattdietsch (Low Prussian), or Nedderdüütsch. In the Netherlands, native speakers refer to their language as dialect, plat, Nedersaksisch, or the name of their village, town or district.

Officially, Low German is called niederdeutsche Sprache or plattdeutsche Sprache (Nether or Low German language), Niederdeutsch or Plattdeutsch (Nether or Low German) in High German by the German authorities, nedderdüütsche Spraak (Nether or Low German language), Nedderdüütsch or Plattdüütsch (Nether or Low German) in Low German by the German authorities and Nedersaksisch (Nether or Low Saxon) by the Dutch authorities. Plattdeutsch, Niederdeutsch and Platduits, Nedersaksisch are seen in linguistic texts from the German and Dutch linguistic communities respectively.

In Danish it is called Plattysk, Nedertysk or, rarely, Lavtysk. Mennonite Low German is called Plautdietsch.

"Low" refers to the flat plains and coastal area of the northern European lowlands, contrasted with the mountainous areas of central and southern Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, where High German (Highland German) is spoken.^[23]

The colloquial term Platt denotes both Low German dialects and any non-standard Western variety of German; this use is chiefly found in northern and Western Germany and is not considered to be linguistically correct.^[24]

The ISO 639-2 language code for Low German has been nds (niedersächsisch or nedersaksisch, neddersassisch) since May 2000.

Classification

Low German is a part of the continental West Germanic dialect continuum. To the West, it blends into the Low Franconian languages, including Dutch. A distinguishing feature between the Low Franconian varieties and Low German varieties is the plural of the verbs. Low German varieties have a common verbal plural ending, whereas Low Franconian varieties have a different form for the second person plural. This is complicated in that in most Low Franconian varieties, including standard Dutch, the original second-person plural form has replaced the singular. Some dialects, including again standard Dutch, innovated a new second-person plural form in the last few centuries, using the other plural forms as the source.

To the South, Low German blends into the High German dialects of Central German that have been affected by the High German consonant shift. The division is usually drawn at the Benrath line that traces the maken – machen isogloss.

To the East, it abuts the Kashubian language (the only remnant of the Pomeranian language) and, since the expulsion of nearly all Germans from the Polish part of Pomerania following the Second World War, also by the Polish language. East Pomeranian and Central Pomeranian are dialects of Low German.

To the North and Northwest, it abuts the Danish and the Frisian languages. In Germany, Low German has replaced the Danish and Frisian languages in many regions. Saterland Frisian is the only remnant of East Frisian language and is surrounded by Low German, as are the few remaining North Frisian varieties, and the Low German dialects of those regions have influences from Frisian substrates.

Most linguists classify the dialects of Low German together with English and Frisian as the North Sea Germanic or Ingvaeonic languages. However, most exclude Low German from the group often called Anglo-Frisian languages because some distinctive features of that group of languages are only partially preserved in Low German, for instance the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law (some dialects have us, os for "us" whereas others have uns, ons), and because other distinctive features almost do not occur in Low German at all, for instance the palatalization and assibilation of /k/ (compare palatalized forms such as English cheese, Frisian tsiis to non-palatalized forms such as Low German Kees or Kaise, Dutch kaas, German Käse but Low German Sever/Sebber while German Käfer^[25]) However, since Anglo-Frisian features occur in Low German and especially in its older language stages, there is a tendency to prefer the Ingvaeonic classification instead of the Anglo-Frisian one, which also takes Low German into account. Because Old Saxon came under strong Old High German and Old Low Franconian influence early on and therefore lost many Ingvaeonic features that were to be found much more extensively in earlier language states.^[26]

Language or dialect

The question of whether today's Low German should be considered a separate language or a dialect of German or even Dutch has been a point of contention. Although Low German is mostly regarded as an independent language^[27] linguistics offers no simple, generally accepted criterion to decide the question.

Scholarly arguments have been put forward for classifying Low German as a German dialect.^[28] As stated above, the arguments are not linguistic but rather sociopolitical and revolve mainly around the fact that Low German has no official standard form or use in sophisticated media. The situation of Low German may thus be considered a "pseudo-dialectized abstand language" ("scheindialektisierte Abstandsprache").^[29] In contrast, Old Saxon and Middle Low German are generally considered separate languages in their own right. Since Low German has strongly declined since the 18th century, the perceived similarities with High German or Dutch may often be direct adaptations from the dominating standard language, resulting in a growing inability by speakers to speak correctly what was once Low German proper.^[30]

Others have argued for the independence of today's Low German dialects, taken as continuous outflow of the Old Saxon and Middle Low German tradition.^[31] Glottolog classifies six varieties of Low German as distinct languages based on a low degree of mutual intelligibility. Eastern Low German and Plautdietsch are classified as part of Greater East Low German, while Eastphalian, Westphalic, and the North Low Saxon languages, German Northern Low Saxon and Gronings, are classified as part of West Low German.^[32]

Legal status

Low German has been recognized by the Netherlands and by Germany (since 1999) as a regional language according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Within the official terminology defined in the charter, this status would not be available to a dialect of an official language (as per article 1a), and hence not to Low German in Germany if it were considered a dialect of German. Advocates of the promotion of Low German have expressed considerable hope that this political development will at once lend legitimacy to their claim that Low German is a separate language, and help mitigate the functional limits of the language that may still be cited as objective criteria for a mere dialect (such as the virtually complete absence from legal and administrative contexts, schools, the media, etc.).^[33]

At the request of Schleswig-Holstein, the German government has declared Low German as a regional language. German offices in Schleswig-Holstein are obliged to accept and handle applications in Low German on the same footing as Standard High German applications.^[34] The Bundesgerichtshof ruled in a case that this was even to be done at the patent office in Munich, in a non–Low German region, when the applicant then had to pay the charge for a translator,^[35]^{[self-published source?]} because applications in Low German are considered not to be written in the German language.

Varieties of Low German

Low Saxon or West Low German
- East Frisian Low Saxon
- Northern Low Saxon
- Westphalian (Westfälisch)
  - Westmünsterländisch
  - Münsterländisch
  - South Westphalian (Südwestfälisch)
  - East Westphalian (Ostwestfälisch)
  - Stellingwerfs
  - Drents
    - Midden-Drents
    - Zuid-Drents
  - Twents
    - Twents-Graafschaps
    - Twents
  - Gelders-Overijssels
    - Achterhoeks
    - Sallands
    - Oost-Veluws (partly classified as Veluws)
    - Urkers
  - Veluws
    - Oost-Veluws (partly classified as Gelders-Overijssels)
    - West-Veluws
- Eastphalian (Ostfälisch)
East Low German
- Brandenburgisch
- Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
- Central Pomeranian (Mittelpommersch)
- East Pomeranian (Ostpommersch)
- Low Prussian (Niederpreußisch)
- Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low German, used also in many other countries)

History

Old Saxon

Old Saxon (Altsächsisch), also known as Old Low German (Altniederdeutsch), is a West Germanic language. It is documented from the 9th century until the 12th century, when it evolved into Middle Low German. It was spoken on the north-west coast of Germany by Saxon peoples. It is closely related to Old Anglo-Frisian (Old Frisian, Old English), partially participating in the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law.

Only a few texts survive, predominantly in baptismal vows the Saxons were required to perform at the behest of Charlemagne. The only literary texts preserved are Heliand and the Old Saxon Genesis.

"Altniederdeutsch" – Old Saxon; "Mittelniederdeutsch" - Middle Low German; "Niederdeutsch" – Modern Low German
Old Saxon speaking area (purple)
Heliand – fragment, one of the most important testimonies of Old Saxon








Old Saxon			Modern Low German




Fadar usa firiho barno,			Vadder van us, (...)


thu bist an them hohon himila rikea,			Du bist an den hogen himmlischen Riek,


geuuihid si thin namo uuordo gehuuilico,			Hiligt wees dien naam in elk Woord,


Cuma thin craftag riki.			Kaam dien mächtig Riek.


UUerða thin uuilleo oƀar thesa werold alla,			Warr dien Wille över düsse Werld allerwegens,


so sama an erðo, so thar uppa ist			so up de Eerd, as dat it is dor baven


an them hohon himilo rikea.			in den hogen himmlischen Riek.


Gef us dag gehuuilikes rad, drohtin the godo,			Giff us elk Dag Raad, Herr de Gode,


thina helaga helpa, endi alat us,			Dine hilige Hölp, un laat us free,


heƀenes uuard,			Beschermer van de Heven,


managoro mensculdio,			us männje Schullen,


al so uue oðrum mannum doan.			ust so as wi doot mit anneren Minschen.


Ne lat us farledean leða uuihti			Laat lege Wichten nich us verschünnen


so forð an iro uuileon, so uui uuirðige sind,			jümehr Willen to doon, as wi würdig sind,


ac help us uuiðar allun uƀilon dadiun.			man hölp us twingen tegen alle öveln Daden.

Middle Low German

The Middle Low German language (Mittelniederdeutsch) is an ancestor of modern Low German. It was spoken from about 1100 to 1600. The neighbouring languages within the dialect continuum of the West Germanic languages were Middle Dutch in the West and Middle High German in the South, later substituted by Early New High German. Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League, spoken all around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.^[36] It had a significant influence on the Scandinavian languages and other languages around the Baltic Sea. Based on the language of Lübeck, a standardized written language was developing, though it was never codified.

Hanseatic main area
Reyneke de Vos is the most important Middle Low German animal epic in verse.
Inscription in Middle Low German on a house at Hameln. Translation: All the world's magnificence is like a flower that grows today and vanishes tomorrow; the Lord's word remains in eternity.



















Middle Low German										Modern Low German




Van deme thunkonnynck										Van dên niëtelkuönînk




Yd gheschach vp eynen voryarsdach,										Et geschooich up eenen vruijaorsdag
Alze grone men bomen vnde haghen sach										Asse gruinen mên buime on hagen saoch
Vnde manck de krüder vele schone blomen,										Un mank de kruder viêle schuine blooumen,
Men horde ghesangen wyde van bomen,										Men horde ghesangen wyde van bomen,
Do boeden voghelen grote vnde kleyne										Doar bowweden vuëgel, graaute on kleeine,
Nester vp dat se nicht leuen alleyne.										Nester, op dat ze nich liêwen alleeîne.
Eyn thunkonnynck wonede wol tho vreden										Eein niëtelkuönînk woeönde wul touvriêr
Myt wyff vnde kyndere in eyner steden										Met wiew un kînners în eeine stiehe,
Waghenschune wol aff gheleghen,										În ’ne waogenschoer woal afgeliêgen,
Dar balken vogheles nester dreghen.										Dar balken vogheles nester dreghen.
Eyns weren vth ghevloghen de olden,										Eeins wören oetvloeögen de aaulen,
Wente se vödynge vynden wolden										Wieldat ze voder vînnen wollen
Vor ere yungen tho huß in deme neste,										Veur iêre jongen touhoes în dên neste,
Dat se gud ethen vnde wassen vpt beste.										Dat ze gout iêten on wassen op’t beste.
Men do se vth ghevloghen tho tweyne,										Mên wiel ze oetvloeögen weuren tou tweeine,
Weren de yungen gantz alleyne.										Weuren de jongen gaans aleeine.
Alzo de vader quam wedder thom nest,										As dên de vaoder toun nest wier kwam,
Is dar eyn gantz arg gheluth ghewest.										Was doar eein arget geloete aan gaang.
Was doar eein arget geloete aan gaang.										Doa sproik he »Worumme dat, kînners mien,
We dede yw an solke wee vnde pyn?«										Wêr dêe joe aan sokke laiden on pien?«
»Leue vader,« repen se, »horet gy!										»Lêiwe vaoder,« roipen ze, »heuëret Jie!
Eyn groue vnwycht quam hyr vor by.										Eein groawe onwicht kwam hier veurbie.
Seer greselyk sach he vth vnde slym.										Zêêr greeslik saoch hei oet on slim.
Syne oghen glvpeden quad vnde grym										Ziene aaugen gloepkeden kwaaud on met grîm
Wo kvnden wy dar ane anxte syn?«										Woe konnen wi doar aaune aangste zien?«
»Wanne, kyndere myn,« sus sprack he do,										»Waorhen, kînnerken mien,« zaau sproik hei doar,
»War is de vnwycht ghebleuen? Secht tho!«										»Waor is de onwicht bliewen? Zegget tou!«
»Leue vader,« he do tho antwort krech,										»Lêiwe vader,« hêw hei tou aantwoort krieëgen
»He ghynck van hyr vp dennen wech.«										»Hei göng van hier op dênne wiêgen.«
Alzo sprack de vader »Wachtet gy hyr!										Aal voart sproik de vaoder » Tuiwet gie hier!
Syd gy schon stylle! Bewyset fyn tzyr!										Ziët gie schuîn stîlle! Bewiezet vien sier!
Ick wyl en volgen vnde sal en wol kryghen.										Ik wil em volgen on zal em woal kriegen.
Dar vmme möthen gy schulen vnde swyghen.										Doarumme muëtet gie schoelen on swiegen.
Gy dorven nu nicht vruchten meer.										Gie druëwet noe nich vruchten mêêr.
Ik wyl drade komen wedder heer.«										Ik wîl gawwe koeömen wier hiêr.«
De thunkonnynck is vp den wech ghevloghen,										De niëtelkuönînk is op den wiêge vloeögen,
Vnde alze he quam vmme eynen boghen,										On as hei kwaim ümme eeinen boeögen,
Sach he dar eynen lauen ghaen										Sach he dar eynen lauen ghaen
Myt breydem rugge vnde langer maen.										Met breeiden rugge on laanke maon.
Men de luttyke voghel was vnvorverd,										Mên de lutke voagel was onvervêrt,
Alze sy des lauen kraft weynich werd.										Asse weur den löwwen zien kraft weeinig wêrt.
He vloch vp des lauen rugge myt hast,										Hei vloig op den löwwen zien rugge met hast,
He sette de klouen dar ynne vast										Hei zett’de de klaauen doar înne vast
Vnde vunck eyn seer luth schelden an,										On vöng eein zêêr loetet schênnen aan,
Alze luth eyn voghel ok schelden kan.										Asse loet eein vuagel aauk schênnen kaan.
Men de laue horde nicht den luttyken ryder										Mên de löwwe hêörde nich den lutken rieder
Vnde ghynck synen wech gantz stylle wyder.										On göng zienen wiêge gaans stille wieder.
Do worde des kerlkens torn noch slymmer.										Doar weurde dat kêrlken zien torn naau slîmmer.
Syn moth worde dryster, syn vlöken grymmer.										Zien moout weurde driester, sien vluiken grîmmer.
»Ick segge dy, slumpe bözewycht,										»Ik zegge die, slompe buizewicht,
Myne kynder vorveren vorloue ick nicht!										Miene kînners vervêren verluiwe ik nicht!
Vnde kumpst du wedder tho mynem nest,										On kümps du wier tou mienen nest,
Is yd eyn myßdat, dat du doest tho lest.										Is et eein misdaaut, deei doe dois toulest.
Ick wyl yd nicht gherne doen. O neyn!«										Ik wîl et nich gêren doun. O neeîn!«
Vnde he lüftede an eyn van syn beyn,										On hei luftede aan eein van zien beeîn,
»Nochtan dede ick yd – god möthe my wreken:										»Doach daon dê ik et – God mogte mie vriêken:
Myt mynem beyn dyn rugge thobreken.«										Met mienen beeîn dien rugge toubriêken.«
Sus vloch he tho rugge tho synem huß,										Zaau vloig hei tourugge tou zienen hoes,
War de kyndere wachten, elk styl alze eyn muß,										Wao de kînnerken tuiw’den, êlk stîl as eein moes,
Vnde sprack »horet, kynder! Ick gaff deme syn leer.										On sproik »Hêöret, kînner! Ik gaaif dêm zien lêêr.
He kumpt nu nicht wedder.										Heei kump noe nich wier.
Neyn, nummer meer!«										Neei, nummer mêêr!«

^[37]^[38]^[39]

Contemporary

There is a distinction between the German and the Dutch Low Saxon/Low German situation.

Germany

After mass education in Germany in the 19th and 20th centuries, the slow decline which Low German had been experiencing since the end of the Hanseatic League turned into a free fall. The decision to exclude Low German in formal education was not without controversy, however. On one hand, proponents of Low German advocated that since it had a strong cultural and historical value and was the native language of students in northern Germany, it had a place in the classroom. On the other hand, High German was considered the language of education, science, and national unity, and since schools promoted these values, High German was seen as the best candidate for the language of instruction.^[40]

Initially, regional languages and dialects were thought to limit the intellectual ability of their speakers. When historical linguists illustrated the archaic character of certain features and constructions of Low German, this was seen as a sign of its "backwardness". It was not until the efforts of proponents such as Klaus Groth that this impression changed. Groth's publications demonstrated that Low German was a valuable language in its own right, and he was able to convince others that Low German was suitable for literary arts and was a national treasure worth keeping.^[40]

Through the works of advocates like Groth, both proponents and opponents of Low German in formal education saw the language's innate value as the cultural and historical language of northern Germany. Nevertheless, opponents claimed that it should simply remain a spoken and informal language to be used on the street and in the home, but not in formal schooling. In their opinion, it simply did not match the nationally unifying power of High German. As a result, while Low German literature was deemed worthy of being taught in school, High German was chosen as the language of scholarly instruction. With High German the language of education and Low German the language of the home and daily life, a stable diglossia developed in Northern Germany.^[40] Various Low German dialects are understood by 10 million people, but many fewer are native speakers. Total users of Low German (nds) are approximately 2.5 million, with 300,000 native speakers in Brazil and 1,000 in Germany as of 2016.^[41]

The KDE project supports Low German (nds) as a language for its computer desktop environment,^[42] as does the GNOME Desktop Project. Open-source software has been translated into Low German; this used to be coordinated via a page on SourceForge,^[43] but as of 2015, the most active project is that of KDE.^[44]

Netherlands

In the early 20th century, scholars in the Netherlands argued that speaking dialects hindered language acquisition, and it was therefore strongly discouraged. As education improved, and mass communication became more widespread, the Low Saxon dialects further declined, although decline has been greater in urban centres of the Low Saxon regions. When in 1975 dialect folk and rock bands such as Normaal and Boh Foi Toch [nl] became successful with their overt disapproval of what they experienced as "misplaced Dutch snobbery" and the Western Dutch contempt for (speakers of) Low Saxon dialects, they gained a following among the more rurally oriented inhabitants, launching Low Saxon as a sub-culture. They inspired contemporary dialect artists and rock bands, such as Daniël Lohues [nl], Mooi Wark [Nl], Jovink en de Voederbietels [Nl], Hádiejan [Nl] Nonetheless, the position of the language is vulnerable according to UNESCO.^[17] Low Saxon is still spoken more widely than in Northern Germany. Efforts are made in Germany and in the Netherlands to protect Low German as a regional language.

Phonetic and grammatical changes

High German consonant shift

As with the Anglo-Frisian and North Germanic languages, Low German has not been influenced by the High German consonant shift except for old /ð/ having shifted to /d/. Therefore, a lot of Low German words sound similar to their English counterparts. One feature that does distinguish Low German from English generally is final devoicing of obstruents, as exemplified by the words 'good' and 'wind' below. This is a characteristic of Dutch and German as well and involves positional neutralization of voicing contrast in the coda position for obstruents (i.e. t = d at the end of a syllable.) This is not used in English except in the Yorkshire dialect, where there is a process known as Yorkshire assimilation.^[45]

For instance: water [wɒtɜ, ˈwatɜ, ˈwætɜ], later [ˈlɒːtɜ, ˈlaːtɜ, ˈlæːtɜ], bit [bɪt], dish [dis, diʃ], ship [ʃɪp, skɪp, sxɪp], pull [pʊl], good [ɡou̯t, ɣɑu̯t, ɣuːt], clock [klɔk], sail [sɑi̯l], he [hɛi̯, hɑi̯, hi(j)], storm [stoːrm], wind [vɪˑnt], grass [ɡras, ɣras], hold [hoˑʊl(t)], old [oˑʊl(t)]. The table below shows the relationship between Low German consonants which were unaffected by this chain shift and their equivalents in other West Germanic languages. Contemporary Swedish and Icelandic shown for comparison; Eastern and Western North Germanic languages, respectively.

The table below shows the relationship between Low German consonants which were unaffected by this chain shift and their equivalents in other West Germanic languages. Contemporary Swedish and Icelandic shown for comparison; Eastern and Western North Germanic languages, respectively.

Proto-Germanic	High German	Northern Low German	Dutch	English	High German	West Frisian	Swedish	Icelandic
-k-	-ch-	maken	maken	make	machen	meitsje	maka (arch.)
k-	k-	Keerl (Kerl) (fellow)	kerel	churl	Kerl *	tsjirl (arch.)	karl	karl
d-	t-	Dag	dag	day	Tag	dei	dag	dagur
-t-	-ss-	eten (ȩten, äten) [Westphalian: iäten]	eten	eat	essen	ite	äta	eta
t-	z- (/t͡s/)	teihn (tein)	tien	ten	zehn	tsien	tio	tíu
-tt-	-tz-, -z- (/t͡s/)	sitten	zitten	sit	sitzen	sitte	sitta	sitja
-p	-f, -ff	Schipp, Schepp, Schüpp and Skipp	schip	ship	Schiff	skip	skepp ***	skip
p-	pf-	Peper	peper	pepper	Pfeffer	piper	peppar	pipar
-β-	-b-	Wiew, Wiewer; Wief, Wiewer; Wief, Wiever; Wief, Wieber	wijf, wijven **	wife, wives	Weib, Weiber **	wiif, wiven	viv **	víf

Notes:

* High German Kerl is a loanword from Low German.

** The series Wief–wijf, etc. are cognates, not semantic equivalents. The meanings of some of these words have shifted over time. For example, the correct equivalent term for "wife" in modern Dutch, German and Swedish is vrouw, Frau and fru respectively; using wijf, Weib or viv for a human is considered archaic in Swedish and nowadays derogatory in Dutch and German, comparable to "wicked girl". No cognate to Frau / vrouw / fru has survived in English (compare Old English frōwe "lady"; the English word frow "woman, lady" rather being a borrowing of the Middle Dutch word).

*** Pronounced shepp since the 17th century

Ingvaeonisms

Like English and Frisian, Low German is often recognized as a North Sea Germanic language and therefore has so-called Ingvaonisms. However, these are not distributed equally regionally everywhere. Some dialects have more and others fewer of these features, while some only occur in older forms of language and only leave relics in modern Low German.

^[46]^[47]
Ingvaonic development		Low German (different dialects)	English	Westfrisian	Dutch	German

Nasal-Spirant-Law		küüt^[48]	could	koed	gekund	gekonnt
		us	us	ús	ons	uns
		wöösken	to wish	winskje	wensen	wünschen
		gais	goose	goes	gans	Gans
		wy stödden^[49]	we stood	wy stiene	we stonden	wir standen
		toeggede^[50]	tenth	tsiende	tiende	zehnte
		fiewe	five	fif	vijf	fünf
		määske	-	minske	mens	Mensch
		süss	-	-	zus (obj.)	sonst

R-Metathesis		beort^[50]	board	board	bord	Brett
		däärde	third	tredde	derde	dritter
		dartehn	thirteen	trettjin	dertien	dreizehn
		dartig	thirty	tritich	dertig	dreißig
		borste	breast	boarst	borst	Brust
		forsk	frosk	froask	kikvors	Frosch
		hors^[51]	horse	hoars	ros	Ross
		born^[52]	bourn	boarne	bron	Brunnen
		dröwwen	thair (dialectal)	doarre	durven	dürfen

Loss of persons distincions in plural forms of verbs		wi doot	OE: wē dōþ	wy dogge	wij doen	wir tun
		ji doot	OE: ġē dōþ	jim dogge	julie doen	ihr tut
		ji doot	OE: ġē dōþ	jim dogge	jij doet	ihr tut
		se doot	OE: hīe dōþ	sy dogge	zij doen	sie tun

No "t" in 3rd person singular of "to be"		is ~ es	is	is	is	ist

No "r" in 1st person plural pronoun		wi	we	wy	wij	wir

Future tense formation with the auxiliary verb "shall"		schallen/sallen	shall	sille	zullen	werden

No distinction between dative and accusative		objective (East Frisian dialect)	objective	objective	objective	accusative	dative
		den^[53]	-	-	-	den	dem
		dessen^[54]	this	dizze	deze	diesen	diesem
		mi^[55]	me	my	mij	mich	mir
		di^[56]	you (thee)	dy	jou	dich	dir
		hüm^[57]	him	him	hem	ihn	ihm
		hör^[58]	her	har	haar	sie	ihr
		dat^[59]	it	it	het	es	ihm
		u(n)s^[60]^[61]	us	ús	ons	uns	uns
		jo^[62]	you	jo	jullie	euch	euch
		hör^[58]	them	harren	hen ~ hun	sie	ihnen

Using other personal pronouns		he	he	hy	hij	er
		se, he (In Twente,^[63] Western Overijssel and North Gelderland)	OE: hēo	sy, hja	zij	sie
		ji	you	jim	jullie	ihr
		se	OE: hīe	sy, hja	zij	sie

No ge-prefix		maakt	made	makke	gemaakt	gemacht
		daon	done	dien	gedaan	getan
		sehn	seen	sjoen	gezien	gesehen
		gaone	gone	gien	gegaan	gegangen
		lääsen, leest^[64]	read	lêzen	gelezen	gelesen

Assibilization or palatalization of velar consonants		OS: kiennan^[65]	OE: cunnan	kenne	kennen	kennen
		OS: kiesur^[66]	OE: caser	keizer	keizer	Kaiser
		MLG: zint^[67]	child	-	Kind	Kind
		Northern Low German: Sebber/Sever^[68]	OE: ċeafor	krobbe	kever	Käfer
		OS: ieldan^[65]	yield	jild	geld	Geld

Palatalization of Germanic "a"		OS: therf^[69]	OE: thearf	?	?	darf
		OS: deg^[70]	day OE: dæg	dei	dag	Tag
		OS: gles^[71]	glas OE: glæs	glês	glas	Glas

Loss reflexive pronoun in 3rd person singular plural	3rd p. s. m.	sik/sey,^[72] um (for example in Vriezenveen)^[73]	himself	him	zich	sich
	3rd p. s. f.	sik/ierk,^[72] eer (for example in Vriezenveen)^[73]	herself	har	zich	sich
	3rd p. p.	sik/ierk,^[72] eer ( for example in Vriezenveen)^[73]	themself	harren	zich	sich

Other changes

In addition, there are of course numerous other changes that are not related to Ingwaonic phenomena, but that arose in exchange with other languages or something else. The table below reflects some of these developments insofar as they affect several dialects and are therefore not exceptional phenomena.

^[74]^[75]
Sound change	German	Frisian	Dutch	Low German	Swedish	English
ks → ss	wachsen	waakse	wassen	wassen	växa	(to grow)
	Fuchs	voks	vos	foss	fux	fox
	Ochse	okse	ose	osse	oxe	ox
	sechs	seis	zes	sess	sex	six
	Wachs	waaks	was	was	vax	wax

intervocalic /d/ cluster	alt - älter	âld- âlder	oud - ouder	old - oller	gammal - äldre	old - older
	kalt - kälter	kâld - kâlder	koud - kouder	kold - koller	kallt - kallare	cold - colder
	wild - wilder	wyld - wylder	wild - wilder	wild - willer	vild - vildare	wild- wilder
	unter	ûnder	onder	unner	under	under
	Schulter	skouder	schouder	schuller	skuldra	shoulder

Grammar

Generally speaking, Low German grammar shows similarities with the grammars of Dutch, Frisian, English, and Scots, but the dialects of Northern Germany share some features (especially lexical and syntactic features) with German dialects.

Personal pronouns

The following table tries to reflect the linguistic situation of the individual dialects as diverse as possible and to name as many case forms of the respective pronouns, but it is not able to do justice to every dialect. So the pronoun of the third person singular feminine can be pronounced as follows: se(e), sey, soi, etc. Only one of these variants can be found in the table. This also applies to all other pronouns.

Personal pronouns^[76]^[77]^[78]^[72]^[79]
Case	1st person		2nd person		3rd person
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular			Plural
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Plural
Nominative	ik(ke) ek(ke)	wy	du (j)y	(j)y/ (j)it	he	it/(h)et/öt dat/det	se/ he (just in Twente used)	se/ süm
Accusative/Objective	my/ mik/mek	u(n)s/üsk	dy/ dik/dek/ ju	(j)u(ch)/jük/ ink/ jem/jüm	iänne/öne/ (h)em/hüm/him	it/(h)et/öt dat/det	(h)er/(h)ör/ se	jem/jüm/ (h)er/(h)ör/ se/ süm
Dative (Assinghausen)	mey	us	dey	uch	iämme	iämme	iär	iänne

Reflexive pronouns

While Old Saxon has lost the Germanic reflexive pronouns such as Old English and Old Frisian and instead resorts to the relevant third-person personal pronoun, modern Low German borrows reflexive pronouns from German. In Sauerland, it is conjugated as in Proto-Germanic and Icelandic. In addition, a distinction is made between the individual genders as well as individual and multiple people.

^[80]^[81]^[82]

Person	Objective	Accusative	Dative	Objektive	Accusative	Dative	Genetive
Person	East Frisian LG	Southern Westphalian		Vriezenveen	Islandic
1. Singular	mi	miëck	mey	mii	meg	mér	mín
2. Singular	di	diëck	dey	dii	þig	þér	þín
3. Singular, Masculin	sük	siëck	sey	um	sig	sér	sín
3. Singular, Feminin	sük	siëck	sey/iärk	eer	sig	sér	sín
3. Singular, Neutral	sük	siëck	sey	um	sig	sér	sín

1. Plural	us	us	us	oons	okkur	okkur	okkar
2. Plural	ju	ugg	ugg	ůů	ykkur	ykkur	ykkar
3. Plural	sük	iärk	iärk	eer	sig	sér	sín

Examples:

The respective translations consist only of cognates of the same origins. The sentences do not necessarily have to correspond semantically.


English	East Frisian LG	Southern Westphalian	Vjens
He washes himself the hands.	He wasket sük de hannen.	Hai wäsket sey dei hänne.	Hei wasket um de handen.
She washes herself.	Se wasket sük.	Sei wäsket iärk.	Zei wasket eer.
He washes himself.	He wasket sük.	Hai wasket siëck.	Hei wasket um.
They wash themselves.	Se wasken sük.	Sei wasket iärk.	Zei wasket eer.

Verbs

In Low German verbs are conjugated for person, number, and tense. There are five tenses in Low German:^{[citation needed]} present tense, preterite, perfect, and pluperfect, and in Mennonite Low German the present perfect which signifies a remaining effect from a past finished action. For example, "Ekj sie jekomen", "I am come", means that the speaker came and he is still at the place to which he came as a result of his completed action.

Unlike Dutch, High German, and southern Low German, the northern dialects form the past participle without the prefix ge-, like the Scandinavian languages, Frisian and English. Compare northern Low German slapen to the German past participle geschlafen. This past participle is used with the auxiliary verbs hewwen/hebben "to have" and wesen/sin/sien "to be". When the past participle ends with -en or in a few oft-used words like west (been).

The conjugation patterns can vary greatly depending on the dialect. The more northern dialects are strongly influenced by German, while East Westphalian and especially Vjens have retained many ancient features.

East-Westphalian conjugation examples^[83]
verbs				briäken, "to break"	täin "to pull"	doun, "to do"	gaun, "to go"	helpen, "to help"	küren, "to speak"	willen, "to want/ to become"	kwuomen, "to come"	haulen, "to hold"	skräggen, "to shout"	skäilen, "to scold"	beskriieben, "to describe"	wasken, "to wash"
Infinitive				briäken	täin	doun	gaun	helpen	küren	willen	kwuomen	haulen	skräggen	skäilen	beskriieben	wasken
Participle	Present			briäken	täin	doun	gaun	helpen	küren	willen	kwuomen	haulen	skräggen	skäilen	beskriieben	wasken
Participle	Past			bruoken	tuogen	daun	gaun	holpen	kürt	wolt	kwuom	haulen	skrägget	skuolen	beskriben	wasken
Indicative	Present	Singular	1st person	briäke	tee	doo	goo	helpe	küre	will	kwuome	haule	skrägge	skäile	beskriiewe	waske
			2nd person	bräks	tüss	döss	gäis	helps	kürs	wüss	kümms	hölts	skrägges	skäils	beskrifs	waskes
			3rd person	briäk	tüt	dött	gäit	helpet	kürt	will	kümmp	hölt	skrägget	skäilt	beskrif	wasket
		Plural		briäket	teet	doot	goot	helpet	kürt	willt	kwuomet	hault	skrägget	skäilt	beskriiewet	wasket
	Past	Singular	1st person	broik	toig	dää	göng	hölp	kürede	woll	kweimp	hoilt	skräggede	skoilt	beskreif	waskede
			2nd person	broiks	toigs	dääs	göngs	hölpes	küredes	woss	kweimps	hoilts	skräggedes	skoils	beskreifs	waskedes
			3rd person	broik	toig	dää	göng	hölp	kürede	woll	kweimp	hoilt	skräggede	skoilt	beskreif	waskede
		Plural		broiken	toigen	dään	göngen	hölpen	küreden	wollen	kweimen	hoilen	skräggeden	skoilen	beskreiwen	waskeden
Imperative		Singular		briäk	tee	dot	gong	help	kür	wuss	kwumm	haul	skrägge	skäil	beskriiew	waske
Imperative		Plural		briäket	teet	doot	goot	helpet	kürt	willt	kwuomet	hault	skrägget	skäilt	beskriiewet	wasket

Northern Low German conjugation examples^[84]
verbs				breken, "to break"	tehn"to pull"	doon, "to do"	gahn, "to go"	helpen, "to help"	snacken, "to speak"	willen, "to want/ to become"	kamen, "to come"	holen, "to carry"	schre'en, "to shout"	schellen, "to scold"	beschrieven, "to describe"	waschen, "to wash"
Infinitive				breken	tehn	doon	gahn	helpen	snacken	willen	kamen	holen	schre'en	schellen	beschrieven	waschen
Participle	Present			breken	tehn	doon	gahn	helpen	snacken	willen	kamen	holen	schre'en	schellen	beschrieven	waschen
Participle	Past			braken	tagen	dahn	gahn	hulpen	snackt	wullt	kamen	holen	schreet	schlellt	beschreven	wuschen
Indicative	Present	Singular	1st person	breek	teh	do	gah	help	snack	will	kaam	hool	schree	schell	beschriev	wasch
			2nd person	brickst	tühst	deist	geihst	helpst	snackst	willst	kummst	höllst	schreest	schellst	beschriffst	waschst
			3rd person	brickt	tüht	deit	geiht	helpt	snackt	will	kummt	höllt	schreet	schellt	beschrifft	wascht
		Plural		breekt	teht	doon	gaht	helpt	snackt	wölt	kaamt	hoolt	schreet	schellt	beschrievt	wascht
	Past	Singular	1st person	bröök	töög	deed	güng	hölp	snack	wull	keem	höölen	schree	schell	beschreev	wüsch
			2nd person	bröökst	töögst	deedst	güngst	hölpst	snackst	wullst	keemst	höölst	schreest	schellst	beschreevst	wüschst
			3rd person	bröök	töög	deed	güng	hölp	snack	wull	keem	hööl	schree	schell	beschreev	wüsch
		Plural		bröken	tögen	deden	güngen	hölpen	snacken	wullen	kemen	hölen	schreen	schellen	beschreven	wüschen
Imperative		Singular		breek	teh	do	gah	help	snack	will	kaam	hool	schree	schell	beschriev	wasch
Imperative		Plural		breekt	teht	doot	gaht	helpt	snackt	wöölt	kamt	hoolt	schreet	schellt	beschrievt	wascht

Vjens conjugation examples^[83]
verbs				bräken, "to break"	dòůn, "to do"	góón, "to go"	helpen, "to help"	wilen, "to want; to become"	hoolen, "to carry"	wasken, "to wash"	biiten, " to bite"	baigen, "to salvage"	waiken, "to work"	biieven, "to quake"	visken, "to fish"
Infinitive				bräken	dòůn	góón	helpen	wilen	hoolen	wasken	biiten	baigen	waiken	biieven	visken
Participle	Present			bräkend	dòůnd	góónd	helpend	wilend	hoolend	waskend	biitend	baigend	waikend	biievend	viskend
Participle	Past			ebräken	edòòn	egóón	ehölpen	ewilt	ehoolen	ewösken	ebjiten	ebjörgen	ewaiket	ebiievet	evisket
Indicative	Present	Singular	1st person	bräke	dòůe	góó	helpe	wil	hoole	waske	biite	baige	waike	biieve	viske
			2nd person	brekst	dòůst	geist	helpst	wist	hóólst	waskest	bitst	baigst	waikst	biievst	viskest
			3rd person	brekt	dòůn	geiht	helpt	wil	hóólt	wasket	bit	baigt	waikt	biievt	visket
		Plural		bräkt	dòůt	góót	helpt	wilt	hoolt	wasket	biitt	baigt	waikt	biievt	visket
	Past	Singular	1st person	brak	dee	göng	hölp	wól	höül	wöske	bjet	björg	waiken	biievde	viskede
			2nd person	brakst	deest	göngst	hölpst	wóst	höülst	wöskest	bjetst	björgst	waikenst	biievdest	viskedest
			3rd person	brak	dee	göng	hölp	wól	höül	wöske	bjet	bjrörg	waiken	biievde	viskede
		Plural		brakken	deen	göngen	hölpen	wólen	höülen	wösken	bjeten	björgen	waiken	biievden	viskeden
Imperative		Singular		bräk	dòůe	góó	help	?	hoole	waske	biite	baige	waike	biieve	viske
Imperative		Plural		bräkt	dòůt	góót	helpt	wilt	hoolt	wasket	biitet	baigt	waikt	biievt	visket

East Pomeranian conjugation examples^[85]
verbs				breeka, to break"	häwa, "to have"	wila, "to want/ to become"	måka, "to male"	bruuka, "to need"	raupa, "to call/ to shout"	srijga "to scream"
Infinitive				breeka	häwa	wila	måka	bruuka	raupa	srijga
Participle	Past			brooka	hat	wud	måkt	bruukt	roopa	sreega
Indicative	Present	Singular	1st person	breek	häw	wil	måk	bruuk	raup	srijg
			2nd person	breekst	häst	wist	mökst	bruukst	raupst	srigst
			3rd person	breekt	hät	wil	mök	bruukt	raupt	srijgt
		Plural		breeka	häwa	wila	måka	bruuka	raupa	srijga
	Past	Singular	1st person	braik	haar	wu	maik	brüükt	raip	sreig
			2nd person	braikst	haast	wust	maikst	brüükst	raipst	sreigst
			3rd Person	braik	haar	wu	maik	brüükt	raip	sreigt
		Plural		braika	haara	wula	maika	brüüka	raipa	sreiga

Synthetic subjunctive verb forms are mostly identical to the indicative forms of the past tense and the pluperfect tense - much like Dutch and English. It is thus only recognizable from the context of a sentence.^[86] It is often formed periphrastically by using the helping verbs woor, schull, wull, and dee: "Ik woor/wöör/worr/wurr mi freuen, wenn Vader noch lang leev" (I would be glad if father still lived for a long time).^[87]


	Low German subjunctive 1/ English reported speech		Low German subjunctive 2
	Low German subjunctive 1/ English reported speech		English Conditional 2	English Conditional 3
Low German	He see to mi, he kaam nu.	He see to mi, he harr al eten.	Weer ik riek, deed ik ju en Pony köpen,	Harr ik de tied hat, harr ik ju hulpen.
English	He said to me, he came now.	He said to me, he had already eaten.	If I were rich, I would buy you a Pony.	If I had had the time, I would have helped you.

However, compared to most other dialects, the Westphalian dialect has preserved an extremely complex conjugation of strong verbs with subjunctive:^[88]^[89]


Infinitive	Simple Past	Westphalian subjunctive 2
suin (to be)	Ik was (I was)	ik wöre (I would be)
bluiven (to stay)	he blaiw (he stayed)	he bliewe (he would stay)
kriupen (to crawl)	he kraup (he crawled)	he krüäpe (he would crawl)
soöken (to search)	he sochte (he searched)	he söchte (he would search)
wieten (to know)	he wus (he knew)	he wüsse (he would know)

There is also a progressive form of verbs in present, corresponding to the same in the Dutch language. It is formed with wesen (to be), the preposition an (at) and dat (the/it).

	Low German	Dutch	English
Main form	Ik bün an't Maken.	Ik ben aan het maken.	I am making.
Main form 2	Ik do maken.¹	–	–
Alternative form	Ik bün an'n Maken.²	Ik ben aan het maken.	–
Alternative form 2	Ik bün maken.³	Ik ben makende.	I am making.

¹ Instead of wesen, sien (to be) Saxon uses doon (to do) to make to present continuous.

² Many see the 'n as an old dative ending of dat which only occurs when being shortened after prepositions. This is actually the most frequently-used form in colloquial Low German.

³ This form is archaic and mostly unknown to Low German speakers. It is the same pattern as in the English example "I am making." The present participle has the same form as the infinitive: maken is either "to make" or "making".

In the very south of the East Westphalian language area, the original gerund of the West Germanic languages has been preserved:^[90]


Infinitiv form	Gerund form
maken (to make)	to makene
kuoken (to cook)	to kuokene
schniggen (to snow)	to schniggene

Adjectives

The forms of Low German's adjectives are distinct from other closely related languages such as German and English. These forms fall somewhere in between these two languages. As in German, the adjectives in Low German may make a distinction between singular and plural to agree with the nouns that they modify,^[91] as well as between the three genders, between the nominative and oblique cases and between indefinite (weak) and definite (strong) forms.^[92] However, there is a lot of variation in that respect and some or all of these distinctions may also be absent, so that a single undeclined form of the adjective can occur in all cases, as in English. This is especially common in the neuter.^[92] If the adjective is declined, the pattern tends to be as follows:

Gender		Nominative	Oblique	Gloss
Masculine	indefinite singular	en starke(n) Kerl	en(en) starke(n) Kerl	'a strong man'
	indefinite plural	starke Kerls	starke Kerls	'strong men'
	definite singular	de starke Kerl	den starken Kerl	'the strong man'
	definite plural	de starken Kerls	de starken Kerls	'the strong men'
Feminine	indefinite singular	en(e) smucke Deern	en(e) smucke Deern	'a pretty girl'
	indefinite plural	smucke Deerns	smucke Deerns	'pretty girls'
	definite singular	de smucke Deern	de smucke Deern	'the pretty girl'
	definite plural	de smucken Deerns	de smucken Deerns	'the pretty girls'
Neuter	indefinite singular	en lütt((e)t) Land	en lütt((e)t) Land	'a little country'
	indefinite plural	lütt Lannen	lütt Lannen	'little countries'
	definite singular	dat lütte Land	dat lütte Land	'the little country'
	definite plural	de lütten Lannen	de lütten Lannen	'the little countries'

As mentioned above, alternative undeclined forms such as dat lütt Land, de lütt Lannen, en stark Kerl, de stark Kerl, stark Kerls, de stark Kerls etc. can occur.

Nouns

The Westphalian and Eastphalian dialects have also preserved the so-called dative -e, adding a final -e to masculine and neuter nouns in the dative case.^[93]


English	Proto-westgermanic	East Westphalian	Münster Westphalian	Westfrisian	Dutch	German
the desk	diskē	den diske	den disk	-	-	dem Tisch
the summer	sumarē	den summere	den summer	de simer	de zomer	dem Sommer
the day	dagē	den dage	den dag	de dei	de dag	dem Tag
the market	markatē	den markede	den market	de merk	de markt	dem Markt
the swine	swīnē	den swiene	dat swien	it swyn	het zwijn	dem Schwein
the water	watarē	den watere	dat water	it wetter	het water	dem Wasser

Phonology

Consonants

		Labial	Alveolar	Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar/ Uvular	Glottal
Stop	voiceless	p	t	(tʃ)		k
Stop	voiced	b	d			ɡ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	ʃ	(ç)	x	h
Fricative	voiced	v	z	(ʒ)		(ɣ)
Nasal		m	n			ŋ
Trill			r			(ʀ)
Approximant	lateral		l
Approximant	plain				j

A common feature of the Low German speaking dialects, is the retraction of /s z/ to [s̠ z̠].^[94]^[95]
The sound [ɣ] can occur as an allophone of /ɡ/ among dialects.
/r/ and /x/ can have allophones as [ɾ] and [ç].
/r/ can be articulated as uvular [ʀ] among Northern dialects and younger speakers.
The sound /j/ can also be realized as fricative or affricate sounds [ʝ~ʑ~ʒ], [dʒ], in word-initial position.^[96]^[97]

Vowels

	Front				Central		Back
	unrounded		rounded		Central		Back
	short	long	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	ɪ	iː	ʏ	yː			ʊ	uː
Close-mid		eː		øː	ə			oː
Open-mid	ɛ	ɛː	œ	œː	(ɐ)		ɔ	ɔː
Open					a	aː	(ɑ)	(ɒː)

[ɒ] and [ɐ] can occur as allophones of /a/ and /r/.^[96]
Vowel backness of /a/ to [ɑ] may also occur among dialects.^[98]

Diphthongs
	Front		Back
Close	ia, iɛ, iə		ua, uɛ, uɔ
Close-mid	eˑi, ea	øˑi, (øa)	oˑu, oa
Open-mid	ɛɪ	œɪ	ɔʊ, ɔˑi, ɔˑy
Open	aˑɪ, aˑi		aˑʊ, aˑu

[ɑ] can be heard as an allophone of /a/ within diphthongs.
Long phonemes /eː/, /øː/, /oː/, occur mostly in the Geest dialects, while in other dialects, they may be realized as diphthongs.^[99]^[97]

Writing system

Low German is written using the Latin alphabet. There is no official standard orthography, though there are several locally more or less accepted orthographic guidelines. Those in the Netherlands are mostly based on Dutch orthography and may vary per dialect region, and those in Germany mostly follow German orthography. To the latter group belongs the orthography devised by Johannes Sass. It is mostly used by modern official publications and internet sites, especially the Low German Wikipedia. This diversity, a result of centuries of official neglect and suppression, has a very fragmenting and thus weakening effect on the language as a whole, since it has created barriers that do not exist on the spoken level.^[100] This severely hampers interregional and interdialectal written communication.^{[citation needed]} Most of these systems aim at representing the phonetic (allophonic) output rather than underlying (phonemic) representations.^{[citation needed]}

A commonly voiced idea on both sides of the border on the topic of spelling is 'Write it as you say it', which results in semi-phonetic spellings based on either German or Dutch spelling conventions. This seriously affects international legibility, as pronunciation can vary wildly, resulting in many different written forms of what are essentially the same words. An attempt to unify the dialects in spelling was created by Reinhard Franz Hahn, a German-American linguist. He created the Algemeyne Schryvwys on etymological principles. He however restricted his spelling's focus mostly to the northern German dialects. A group of enthusiasts from both sides of the border took his principles and expanded them for the majority of the Low German dialects in both the Netherlands and Germany. This reworked version is called the Nysassiske Skryvwyse (New Saxon Spelling).^[101]

Spoken examples

	Holsteinisch dialect
	Holsteinisch dialect
	Holsteinisch dialect











	Southern Westphalian












	East Westphalian
	East Westphalian











	East Frisian Low German
	East Frisian Low German
	East Frisian Low German










	East - Pomeranian
	East Pomeranian
	East Pomeranian
	East Pomeranian










	Plautdietsch
	Plautdietsch
	Plautdietsch

Notable Low German writers and performers

Heinrich Bandlow
Hans-Friedrich Blunck
John Brinckman
De fofftig Penns
Gorch Fock
Friedrich Wilhelm Grimme (Westphalian: Sauerländisch)
Klaus Groth (Dithmarsisch)
August Hermann
Joachim Mähl
Johann Meyer (Dithmarsisch)
Martha Müller-Grählert
Fritz Reuter (Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch)
Willem Schröder
Julius Stinde
Rudolf Tarnow
Augustin Wibbelt (Westphalian: Münsterländisch)
Wilhelm Wieben
Hans-Jürgen Massaquoi
Normaal
Daniël Lohues

Middle Low German authors:

Plautdietsch authors:

Low German culture

As an important identity-forming element, the Low German language has been taught in schools in northern Germany for several years. In 2023, for example, the first class in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania graduated in the subject Low German.^[102] The social position of Low German has improved significantly in recent years and enjoys a high level of prestige, especially in modern cities such as Hamburg and Bremen.^[103]

Numerous formats in Low German are also offered on Norddeutscher Rundfunk.^[104]

The television moderator Yared Dibaba has been campaigning for the preservation of Low German languages for years.^[105]

The internet magazine Wearldspråke (alternatively also: Wearldsproake) is run by the musician and language activist Martin ter Denge.^[106]

In 2020 the film "The Marriage Escape" was released, which is mostly in Tweants.^[107]

Linguistically, historically and culturally there are close contacts with the Netherlands, Denmark and other predominantly Protestant inhabitants of the North and Baltic Seas such as Great Britain, the rest of Scandinavia and the Baltic states. In German usage, for example on Norddeutscher Rundfunk, northern Germany is occasionally viewed as part of Northern Europe, while the remaining part of Germany is less questioned as belonging to Central Europe.^[108] Close relationships also existed in the field of literature and poetry, for example the Norwegian Thidrekssaga (13th century) is based, according to its own information, on "Low German" and "Saxon" templates.^[109]

However, there are numerous other cultural and historical features that are common to the entire Low German-speaking area, such as the special architectural style of the "Low German hall house".^[110] These houses are often provided with traditional gable decorations, which are also known under the terms "Hengst" and "Hors".^[111]

The Germanic tribe of the Saxons, along with numerous other influencing factors like Slavic people, is considered one of the cultural and historical ancestors of the Northern Germans, so that there are still many points of connection to the Anglo-Saxons in folklore. The name of the city Bünde ("Bund": German for alliance) is said to allude to the alliance the brothers Hengest and Horsa once made there and then settled in what is now England. Modern scholars regard Hengest and Horsa as mythical figures.^[112]

Coat of Arms of Bünde

Low German House in Insernhagen
Gable jewelry
Low German House in Rastede

Since the Brothers Grimm were friends with the von Haxterhausen family, numerous fairy tales by the Grimm children and household tales come from the Westphalian and thus Low German cultural area. However, there are a remarkable number of Grimm's fairy tales that are written in Low German in their original version, which is evidence of the high level of identification that North Germans have with their language.^[113]^[114]

“Dat Erdmänneken“, „The Gnome“
“Dat Wettlopen twischen den Hasen un den Swinegel up de lütje Heide bi Buxtehude“; “The race between the Hare and the hedgehog“
“Von den Fischer und siine Fru“, “The Fisherman and his wife"
“Oll Rinkrank“, “Old Rinkrank“
“Van den Machandelboom“, “The Juniper Tree“

There are also numerous fairy tales by the Brothers Grimm, which come from northern Germany, but are not or only partially in the original version in Low German.^[115]

“Sneewittchen“, “Snow White“
“Die Bremer Stadtmusikanten“, “Town musicians of Bremen“
“König Drosselbart“, “King Thrushbeard“
“Die goldene Gans“, “The golden Goose“

Even in Schleswig-Holstein, in the former settlement area of the Angles, one finds solitude in the storytelling tradition. “Grendel” is a Schleswig-Holstein dialect expression for a monster living in swamps, as it appears in the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf poem .^[116]

Although there are no secession efforts in northern Germany, some are making efforts to strengthen northern German identity. In the 80s a flag was designed for Lower Germany, which is more or less widespread in northern Germany and is very heavily criticized, because their design is similar to the official flag of the Vepsians in Russia.^[117]

Noordlandflagg “Flag of the Northern Lands“

Notes

^ 2.2–5 million in northern Germany and 2.15 million in eastern Netherlands
^ "Low German" is known by the following other names in other languages. It is known in the Low German of Germany as Plattdütsch, Plattdüütsch, Plattdütsk, Plattdüütsk, Plattduitsk (South-Westphalian), Plattduitsch (Eastphalian), Plattdietsch (Low Prussian), or Neddersassisch, or Nedderdüütsch; in the Low Saxon of the Netherlands as Nedersaksisch; in (Standard) High German as Plattdeutsch, Niedersächsisch, Niederdeutsch (in a stricter sense) or Platt, pronounced [plat] (which can also mean dialect and refer to non-Low German varieties); in Dutch as Saksisch, Nedersaksisch, Platduits, Nederduits [ˈneːdərdœyts] (in a stricter sense); in Danish as Plattysk; plus, other dialectal variants exist.
^ Almost all settlements and physiogeographical features in East Germany have a Slavic etymology, e.g. cities like Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden, Rostock, Lübeck and Schwerin, rivers like the Ryck or the Recknitz, or islands like Fehmarn.

References

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^ Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016 Archived 16 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine, A. Adler, C. Ehlers, R. Goltz, A. Kleene, A. Plewnia (2016)
^ ^a ^b The Other Languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic, and Educational Perspectives by Guus Extra, Durk Gorter; Multilingual Matters, 2001 – 454; page 10.
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^ Hubertus Menke: "Niederdeutsch: Eigenständige Sprache oder Varietät einer Sprache?", in: Eva Schmitsdorf et al. (edd.), Lingua Germanica. Studien zur deutschen Philologie. Jochen Splett zum 60. Geburtstag, Waxmann, Münster et al. 1998, pp. 171–184, in particular p. 180.
^ Hubertus Menke: "Niederdeutsch: Eigenständige Sprache oder Varietät einer Sprache?", in: Eva Schmitsdorf et al. (edd.), Lingua Germanica. Studien zur deutschen Philologie. Jochen Splett zum 60. Geburtstag, Waxmann, Münster et al. 1998, pp. 171–184, in particular p. 183f.
^ Hammarström, Harald; Forke, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2020). "Low German". Glottolog 4.3.
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^ Sprachenchartabericht of the regional government of Schleswig-Holstein for 2016 Archived 11 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 14 f.
^ Cf. the German Wikipedia article on Niederdeutsche Sprache.
^ Sanders, W. (1982) Sachsensprache, Hansesprache, Plattdeutsch. Sprachgeschichtliche Grundzüge des Niederdeutschen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Rupprecht.
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^ ^a ^b "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
^ "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
^ "Suche nach uns(de>frs) - Oostfräisk woordenbauk - Ostfriesisches Wörterbuch". oostfraeisk.org. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
^ "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
^ "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
^ Tweants Learn 5 - Verbs, 18 September 2011, retrieved 29 September 2023
^ "lesen auf Plattdeutsch". Plattmakers (in German). Retrieved 29 September 2023.
^ ^a ^b Fulk, R. D. (15 September 2018). A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages. John Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-6313-1.
^ "Ostfalenpost - Archiv". www.ostfalenpost.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
^ Lasch, Agathe (1914). Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik (in German). Halle: Max Niemeyer Verlag. ASIN B00416B8PU. LCCN 15008211. OCLC 3145389. OL 6575768M. Wikidata Q131355367. Retrieved 29 December 2024.
^ "Sebber auf Plattdeutsch". Plattmakers (in German). Retrieved 29 September 2023.
^ John, Hines; Ijssenagger, Nelleke. "Frisians and their North Sea Germanic Neighbours" (PDF). The Boydell Press.
^ John, Hines; Ijssenagger, Nelleke. "Frisians and their North Sea Germanic Neighbours" (PDF). The Boydell Press.
^ John, Hines; Ijssenagger, Nelleke. "Frisians and their North Sea Germanic Neighbours" (PDF). The Boydell Press.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Grimme, Hubert (1922). Plattdeutsche Mundarten. PIMS - University of Toronto. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter.
^ ^a ^b ^c Entjes, H. (1970). Die Mundart des Dorfes Vriezenveen - in der niederländischen Provinz Overijssel (in German). Sasland Groningen.
^ "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 7 November 2023.
^ Postma, Gertjan (15 March 2019). A Contrastive Grammar of Brazilian Pomeranian. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-6353-7.
^ "2.4.1 Personale Pronomen (persönliche Fürwörter) - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik". sass-platt.de. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
^ "Sassen | Sassisk voot voer voot". www.sassen.land. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
^ "Atlaskarten – DMW". www.dmw-projekt.de. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
^ "Suche nach "Euch"". plattmakers.de. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
^ "Die 5 wichtigsten sauerländischen grammatikalischen Erscheinungen". WOLL-Magazin Sauerland (in German). 1 October 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ Entjes., H. (1970). Die Mundart des Dorfes Vriezenveen - in der niederländischen Provinz Overijssel (in German). Sasland Groningen.
^ "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
^ ^a ^b Ahlert, Lucildo (2021). Gramática da língua Westfaliana Brasiliera: expressões do cotidiano das westfalianos (in Portuguese). Brazil: Ahlert, Lucildo. pp. 125–183.
^ "Plattmakers – Das Plattdeutsche Wörterbuch". Plattmakers (in German). Retrieved 3 November 2023.
^ Postma, Gertjan (15 March 2019). A Contrastive Grammar of Brazilian Pomeranian. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-6353-7.
^ "2.1.7.1.3 Konjunktiv mit Indikativformen - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik". sass-platt.de. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
^ "2.1.7.1.4 Umschreibung des Konjunktivs (der Möglichkeitsform) mit woor/schull/wull/dee - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik". sass-platt.de. Retrieved 27 August 2024.
^ "Ravensberger Platt - Wörterverzeichnis Hochdeutsch-Plattdeutsch". www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
^ "Merkmale des Westfälischen". www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
^ "Atlaskarten – DMW". www.dmw-projekt.de. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
^ Biddulph, Joseph (2003). Platt and Old Saxon: Plattdeutsch (Low German) in its Modern and Historical Forms. Wales: Cyhoeddwr JOSEPH BIDDULPH Publisher.
^ ^a ^b SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik 2.5.2. Deklination der Adjektive
^ "Merkmale des Westfälischen". www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
^ R.E. Keller, German Dialects. Phonology and Morphology, Manchester 1960
^ Adams (1975:289)
^ ^a ^b Höder, Steffen (2013). Low German. A profile of a word language. Syllable and word languages; Chapter: Low German: de Gruyter.
^ ^a ^b Goltz, Reinhard H.; Walker, Alastair G.H. (1990). North Saxon. The Dialects of Modern German: A Linguistic Survey: Routledge. pp. 31–58.
^ Prehn, Maike (2012). Vowel quantity and the fortis-lenis distinction in North Low Saxon (PDF). Amsterdam: LOT.
^ Lindow, Wolfgang (1998). Niederdeutsche Grammatik. Leer: Schuster. pp. 25–45.
^ Dieter Stellmacher: Niederdeutsche Grammatik – Phonologie und Morphologie. In: Gerhard Cordes & Dieter Möhn: Handbuch zur niederdeutschen Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag 1983, p.239.
^ "Nysassiske Skryvwyse - Eyn spräke, eyn skrywyse". Skryvwyse.eu. Retrieved 11 September 2024.
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^ "Lesen Sie zeit.de mit Werbung oder im PUR-Abo. Sie haben die Wahl". www.zeit.de. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
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^ "Die Welt der Giebelzeichen" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 December 2015. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
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Bibliography

Adams, Douglas Q. (1975), "The Distribution of Retracted Sibilants in Medieval Europe", Language, 51 (2), Linguistic Society of America: 282–292, doi:10.2307/412855, JSTOR 412855

External links

Online dictionaries

Plattmakers dictionary with more than 20,000 word entries, with translations and interface available in several languages (English too)
Dictionary of the Drents dialect (Dutch)
Mennonite Low German-English Dictionary Archived 15 August 2000 at the Wayback Machine
Dictionary in the Sass Orthography (German)

Information

Nu is de Welt platt! International resources in and about Low German
Building Blocks of Low Saxon (Low German), an introductory grammar in English and German
Niederdeutsch/Plattdeutsch in Westfalen, by Olaf Bordasch
Mönsterlänner Plat, by Klaus-Werner Kahl
Plattdeutsch heute

Organisations

IJsselacademie (Overijssel and Veluwe, the Netherlands)
Staring Instituut (Achterhoek, the Netherlands)
Stichting Stellingwarver Schrieversronte (Friesland, the Netherlands)
SONT (General, the Netherlands)
Oostfreeske Taal (Eastern Friesland, Germany)
Diesel – dat oostfreeske Bladdje (Eastern Friesland, Germany)
Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache e.V. (General, Germany)

[1] 2.2–5 million in northern Germany and 2.15 million in eastern Netherlands

[13] "Low German" is known by the following other names in other languages. It is known in the Low German of Germany as Plattdütsch, Plattdüütsch, Plattdütsk, Plattdüütsk, Plattduitsk (South-Westphalian), Plattduitsch (Eastphalian), Plattdietsch (Low Prussian), or Neddersassisch, or Nedderdüütsch; in the Low Saxon of the Netherlands as Nedersaksisch; in (Standard) High German as Plattdeutsch, Niedersächsisch, Niederdeutsch (in a stricter sense) or Platt, pronounced [plat] ^ⓘ (which can also mean dialect and refer to non-Low German varieties); in Dutch as Saksisch, Nedersaksisch, Platduits, Nederduits [ˈneːdərdœyts] ^ⓘ (in a stricter sense); in Danish as Plattysk; plus, other dialectal variants exist.

[16] Almost all settlements and physiogeographical features in East Germany have a Slavic etymology, e.g. cities like Berlin, Leipzig, Dresden, Rostock, Lübeck and Schwerin, rivers like the Ryck or the Recknitz, or islands like Fehmarn.

[blo05-2] Bloemhoff, Henk (2005). Taaltelling Nedersaksisch. Een enquête naar het gebruik en de beheersing van het Nedersaksisch in Nederland [Lower Saxon Language Census. A survey of the use and proficiency of Low Saxon in the Netherlands] (PDF). Nedersaksisch Instituut (Report) (in Dutch). Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen. ISBN 90-6466-1324. LCCN 2006364430. OCLC 230137295. OL 31709135M. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2024.

[Status&Gebrauch_2016-3] Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016 Archived 16 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine, A. Adler, C. Ehlers, R. Goltz, A. Kleene, A. Plewnia (2016)

[TOLoE-4] The Other Languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic, and Educational Perspectives by Guus Extra, Durk Gorter; Multilingual Matters, 2001 – 454; page 10.

[ndsethnologue-5] Saxon, Low Ethnologue.

[6] Maas, Sabine (2014). Twents op sterven na dood? : een sociolinguïstisch onderzoek naar dialectgebruik in Borne. Münster New York: Waxmann. p. 19. ISBN 978-3830980339.

[7] German: § 23 Absatz 1 Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz (Bund).
Die Frage, ob unter deutsch rechtlich ausschließlich die hochdeutsche oder auch die niederdeutsche Sprache subsumiert wird, wird juristisch uneinheitlich beantwortet: Während der BGH in einer Entscheidung zu Gebrauchsmustereinreichung beim Deutschen Patent- und Markenamt in plattdeutscher Sprache das Niederdeutsche einer Fremdsprache gleichstellt („Niederdeutsche (plattdeutsche) Anmeldeunterlagen sind im Sinn des § 4a Abs. 1 Satz 1 GebrMG nicht in deutscher Sprache abgefaßt.“ – BGH-Beschluss vom 19. November 2002, Az. X ZB 23/01), ist nach dem Kommentar von Foerster/Friedersen/Rohde zu § 82a des Landesverwaltungsgesetzes Schleswig-Holstein unter Verweis auf Entscheidungen höherer Gerichte zu § 184 des Gerichtsverfassungsgesetzes seit 1927 (OLG Oldenburg, 10. Oktober 1927 – K 48, HRR 1928, 392) unter dem Begriff deutsche Sprache sowohl Hochdeutsch wie auch Niederdeutsch zu verstehen.

[8] Unterschiedliche Rechtsauffassungen, ob Niederdeutsch in Deutschland insgesamt Amtssprache ist – siehe dazu: Amtssprache (Deutschland); zumindest aber in Schleswig-Holstein und Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

[9] Verein für niederdeutsche Sprachen in Brandenburg

[10] Bundesrat für niederdeutsche Sprache, Neuigkeiten aus Brandenburg

[11] Los Menonitas en Bolivia Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine CNN en Español

[12] "El Comercio: Menonitas cumplen 85 años en Paraguay con prosperidad sin precedentes". Archived from the original on 10 April 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2013.

[14] "Regionalsprache Niederdeutsch". Beauftragte für Aussiedlerfragen und nationale Minderheiten (in German). Retrieved 25 August 2023.

[15] Hubertus Menke: Niederdeutsch: Eigenständige Sprache oder Varietät einer Sprache? In: Schmitsdorf et al. (Hrsgg.): Lingua Germanica. Studien zur deutschen Philologie. Jochen Splett zum 60. Geburtstag. Münster 1998, S. 171–184.

[17] "Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016" (PDF). ins-bremen.de. p. 40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 13 March 2021.

[Gechattet_wird_auf_Plattdeusch-18] "Gechattet wird auf Plattdeusch". Noz.de. 21 August 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2014.

[ins-bremen.de-19] Based on figures cited in Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016 Archived 13 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine, page 15.

[:2-20] "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger". www.unesco.org.

[:3-21] Driessen, Geert (2012). "Ontwikkelingen in het gebruik van Fries, streektalen en dialecten in de periode 1995–2011" (PDF). Radboud University Nijmegen. Retrieved 29 April 2017.

[22] "Platdietsch". 27 January 2008. Retrieved 29 February 2008.

[colw-23] "O trilinguismo no Colégio Fritz Kliewer de Witmarsum. (Paraná) [The trilingualism the College of Fritz Kliewer Witmarsum (Paraná)]" (PDF) (in Portuguese). Elvine Siemens Dück. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 23 September 2012.

[24] (in Portuguese) Claudio Vereza, Espírito Santo's state assemblyman by the Workers' Party | The Pomeranian people in Espírito Santo Archived 21 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine

[25] Shin, Hyon B.; Kominski, Robert A. (1 April 2010). Language Use in the United States: 2007 (Report). USCB.

[26] Cf. the definition of high in the Oxford English Dictionary (Concise Edition): "[…] situated far above ground, sea level, etc; upper, inland, as […] High German".

[27] "Mundart/Platt". www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de. Retrieved 6 June 2018.

[28] "Plattdeutsches Wörterbuch". www.ndr.de (in German). Retrieved 5 August 2023.

[29] Nielsen, Hans Frede (31 December 2001), "48. Frisian and the Grouping of the Older Germanic Languages", Handbuch des Friesischen / Handbook of Frisian Studies, DE GRUYTER, pp. 512–523, doi:10.1515/9783110946925.512, ISBN 978-3-484-73048-9, retrieved 5 August 2023

[30] "Niederdeutsch". www.mundart-kommission.lwl.org (in German). Retrieved 5 August 2023.

[31] J. Goossens: "Niederdeutsche Sprache. Versuch einer Definition", in: J. Goossens (ed.), Niederdeutsch. Sprache und Literatur, vol. 1, Neumünster 1973.

[32] W. Sanders: Sachsensprache — Hansesprache — Plattdeutsch. Sprachgeschichtliche Grundzüge des Niederdeutschen, Göttingen 1982, p. 32, paraphrasing Heinz Kloss: "Abstandsprachen und Ausbausprachen", in: J. Göschel et al. (edd.), Zur Theorie des Dialekts, Wiesbaden 1976, pp. 301–322.

[33] Hubertus Menke: "Niederdeutsch: Eigenständige Sprache oder Varietät einer Sprache?", in: Eva Schmitsdorf et al. (edd.), Lingua Germanica. Studien zur deutschen Philologie. Jochen Splett zum 60. Geburtstag, Waxmann, Münster et al. 1998, pp. 171–184, in particular p. 180.

[34] Hubertus Menke: "Niederdeutsch: Eigenständige Sprache oder Varietät einer Sprache?", in: Eva Schmitsdorf et al. (edd.), Lingua Germanica. Studien zur deutschen Philologie. Jochen Splett zum 60. Geburtstag, Waxmann, Münster et al. 1998, pp. 171–184, in particular p. 183f.

[35] Hammarström, Harald; Forke, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2020). "Low German". Glottolog 4.3.

[36] Cf. Institut für niederdeutsche Sprache – Sprachenpolitik Archived 11 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine

[37] Sprachenchartabericht of the regional government of Schleswig-Holstein for 2016 Archived 11 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, p. 14 f.

[38] Cf. the German Wikipedia article on Niederdeutsche Sprache.

[39] Sanders, W. (1982) Sachsensprache, Hansesprache, Plattdeutsch. Sprachgeschichtliche Grundzüge des Niederdeutschen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Rupprecht.

[40] "Sassen | Sassisk voot vôer voot". sassen.land. Retrieved 25 October 2023.

[41] "Reynke de Vos, Book 1". www.dodedans.com. Retrieved 25 October 2023.

[42] "Lowlands-L Anniversary Celebration". www.lowlands-l.net. Retrieved 25 October 2023.

[:0-43] Langer, Nils and Robert Langhanke (2013). "How to Deal with Non-Dominant Languages – Metalingusitic Discourses on Low German in the Nineteenth Century". Linguistik Online. 58 (1). doi:10.13092/lo.58.240.

[44] "Low Saxon". Ethnologue. Retrieved 28 April 2022.

[45] ttp://l10n.kde.org/stats/gui/trunk-kde4/nds/ ^{[dead link‍]}

[46] "Linux op Platt". 1 July 2012. Archived from the original on 1 July 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2018.

[47] "Hartlich willkamen bi KDE op Platt". nds.i18n.kde.org. Retrieved 6 June 2018.

[48] See John Wells, Accents of English, pages 366–7, Cambridge University Press, 1981

[49] "Westmünsterländische Dialekte :: Niederländische Philologie FU Berlin". neon.niederlandistik.fu-berlin.de. Retrieved 28 September 2023.

[50] Goltz, Reinhard (2022). Plattdeutsch -Vom Klönen und Schnacken (in German). Berlin: GoltzReinhard. pp. 74–75.

[51] Postma, Gertjan (15 March 2019). A Contrastive Grammar of Brazilian Pomeranian. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-6353-7.

[52] Berens, Franz (1986). Wey witt dät Plattdöütske nich vermuten loten (in German). Germany: BerensFranz. p. 28.

[plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net-53] "Ravensberger Platt - Wörterverzeichnis Hochdeutsch-Plattdeutsch". www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net. Retrieved 28 September 2023.

[men29-54] Mensing, Otto, ed. (1929). Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wörterbuch: F bis J (in German). Vol. 2. Neumünster: Wachholtz Verlag. OCLC 163382434. Wikidata Q131604049.

[55] "Netzwörterbuch (SASS Plattdeutsch)". netz.sass-platt.de. Retrieved 28 September 2023.

[56] "2.2.2.1.2 Zwei Fälle - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik". sass-platt.de. Retrieved 30 September 2023.

[57] "Sassen | Sassisk voot vôer voot". www.sassen.land. Retrieved 6 November 2023.

[58] "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[59] "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 30 September 2023.

[60] "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[platt-wb.de-61] "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[62] "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[63] "Suche nach uns(de>frs) - Oostfräisk woordenbauk - Ostfriesisches Wörterbuch". oostfraeisk.org. Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[64] "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[65] "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[66] Tweants Learn 5 - Verbs, 18 September 2011, retrieved 29 September 2023

[67] "lesen auf Plattdeutsch". Plattmakers (in German). Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[Fulk-68] Fulk, R. D. (15 September 2018). A Comparative Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages. John Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-6313-1.

[69] "Ostfalenpost - Archiv". www.ostfalenpost.de. Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[las14-70] Lasch, Agathe (1914). Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik (in German). Halle: Max Niemeyer Verlag. ASIN B00416B8PU. LCCN 15008211. OCLC 3145389. OL 6575768M. Wikidata Q131355367. Retrieved 29 December 2024.

[71] "Sebber auf Plattdeutsch". Plattmakers (in German). Retrieved 29 September 2023.

[72] John, Hines; Ijssenagger, Nelleke. "Frisians and their North Sea Germanic Neighbours" (PDF). The Boydell Press.

[73] John, Hines; Ijssenagger, Nelleke. "Frisians and their North Sea Germanic Neighbours" (PDF). The Boydell Press.

[74] John, Hines; Ijssenagger, Nelleke. "Frisians and their North Sea Germanic Neighbours" (PDF). The Boydell Press.

[:6-75] Grimme, Hubert (1922). Plattdeutsche Mundarten. PIMS - University of Toronto. Berlin : Walter de Gruyter.

[Entjes_1970-76] Entjes, H. (1970). Die Mundart des Dorfes Vriezenveen - in der niederländischen Provinz Overijssel (in German). Sasland Groningen.

[77] "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 7 November 2023.

[78] Postma, Gertjan (15 March 2019). A Contrastive Grammar of Brazilian Pomeranian. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-6353-7.

[79] "2.4.1 Personale Pronomen (persönliche Fürwörter) - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik". sass-platt.de. Retrieved 5 September 2023.

[80] "Sassen | Sassisk voot voer voot". www.sassen.land. Retrieved 5 September 2023.

[81] "Atlaskarten – DMW". www.dmw-projekt.de. Retrieved 5 September 2023.

[82] "Suche nach "Euch"". plattmakers.de. Retrieved 5 September 2023.

[83] "Die 5 wichtigsten sauerländischen grammatikalischen Erscheinungen". WOLL-Magazin Sauerland (in German). 1 October 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[84] Entjes., H. (1970). Die Mundart des Dorfes Vriezenveen - in der niederländischen Provinz Overijssel (in German). Sasland Groningen.

[85] "Plattdeutsch-Hochdeutsches Wörterbuch für Ostfriesland". www.platt-wb.de. Retrieved 2 November 2023.

[Ahlert_2021_125–183-86] Ahlert, Lucildo (2021). Gramática da língua Westfaliana Brasiliera: expressões do cotidiano das westfalianos (in Portuguese). Brazil: Ahlert, Lucildo. pp. 125–183.

[87] "Plattmakers – Das Plattdeutsche Wörterbuch". Plattmakers (in German). Retrieved 3 November 2023.

[88] Postma, Gertjan (15 March 2019). A Contrastive Grammar of Brazilian Pomeranian. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-6353-7.

[89] "2.1.7.1.3 Konjunktiv mit Indikativformen - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik". sass-platt.de. Retrieved 28 September 2023.

[90] "2.1.7.1.4 Umschreibung des Konjunktivs (der Möglichkeitsform) mit woor/schull/wull/dee - SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik". sass-platt.de. Retrieved 27 August 2024.

[91] "Ravensberger Platt - Wörterverzeichnis Hochdeutsch-Plattdeutsch". www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net. Retrieved 27 September 2023.

[92] "Merkmale des Westfälischen". www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net. Retrieved 27 September 2023.

[93] "Atlaskarten – DMW". www.dmw-projekt.de. Retrieved 5 October 2023.

[:1-94] Biddulph, Joseph (2003). Platt and Old Saxon: Plattdeutsch (Low German) in its Modern and Historical Forms. Wales: Cyhoeddwr JOSEPH BIDDULPH Publisher.

[SASS-95] SASS Plattdeutsche Grammatik 2.5.2. Deklination der Adjektive

[96] "Merkmale des Westfälischen". www.plattdeutsch-niederdeutsch.net. Retrieved 5 October 2023.

[97] R.E. Keller, German Dialects. Phonology and Morphology, Manchester 1960

[Adams1975-98] Adams (1975:289)

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[:4-100] Goltz, Reinhard H.; Walker, Alastair G.H. (1990). North Saxon. The Dialects of Modern German: A Linguistic Survey: Routledge. pp. 31–58.

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Authority control databases
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Latest revision as of 03:36, 7 January 2025

Geographical extent

Inside Europe

Germany

The Netherlands

Outside Europe and the Mennonites

Nomenclature

Classification

Language or dialect

Legal status

Varieties of Low German

History

Old Saxon

Middle Low German

Contemporary

Germany

Netherlands

Phonetic and grammatical changes

High German consonant shift

Ingvaeonisms

Other changes

Grammar

Personal pronouns

Verbs

Adjectives

Nouns

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Writing system

Spoken examples

Notable Low German writers and performers

Low German culture

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

Online dictionaries

Information

Organisations