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The '''fight-or-flight''' or the '''fight-flight-or-freeze'''<ref name="fawn">{{cite book |last=Walker |first=Peter |url= |title=Complex PTSD: From Surviving to Thriving : a Guide and Map for Recovering from Childhood Trauma |date=2013 |publisher= |isbn=9781492871842 |location= |page= |author-link=}}</ref> (also called '''hyperarousal''' or the '''acute stress response''') is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived [[Psychological trauma|harmful event]], [[Trauma (medicine)|attack]], or threat to survival.<ref name="Cannon - Fight or Flight Response">{{cite book |last=Cannon |first=Walter |title=Wisdom of the Body |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |year=1932 |isbn=978-0393002058 |location=United States}}</ref> It was first described by [[Walter Bradford Cannon]].{{efn|Cannon referred to "the necessities of fighting or flight." in the first edition of ''Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage'' (1915), p. 211. Some references say he first described the response in 1914 in ''[[The American Journal of Physiology]]''.}}<ref name="Walter Bradford Cannon 1915 211">{{Cite book |author=[[Walter Bradford Cannon]] |title=Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage |publisher=[[Appleton-Century-Crofts]] |year=1915 |location=New York |pages=211}}</ref> His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the [[sympathetic nervous system]], preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing.<ref name="Jansen - Intro fight or flight physiology">{{cite journal |last=Jansen |first=A |author2=Nguyen, X |author3=Karpitsky, V |author4=Mettenleiter, M |date=27 October 1995 |title=Central Command Neurons of the Sympathetic Nervous System: Basis of the Fight-or-Flight Response |journal=Science Magazine |volume=5236 |issue=270 |pages=644–6 |bibcode=1995Sci...270..644J |doi=10.1126/science.270.5236.644 |pmid=7570024 |s2cid=38807605}}</ref> More specifically, the [[adrenal medulla]] produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of [[catecholamines]], especially [[norepinephrine]] and [[epinephrine]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Walter Bradford Cannon |title=Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement |publisher=[[Appleton-Century-Crofts]] |year=1915}}</ref> The hormones [[estrogen]], [[testosterone]], and [[cortisol]], as well as the neurotransmitters [[dopamine]] and [[serotonin]], also affect how organisms react to stress.<ref>{{cite news |date=April 19, 2014 |title=Adrenaline, Cortisol, Norepinephrine: The Three Major Stress Hormones, Explained |work=Huffington Post |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/04/19/adrenaline-cortisol-stress-hormones_n_3112800.html |access-date=16 August 2014}}</ref> The hormone [[osteocalcin]] might also play a part.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kwon |first=Diana |title=Fight or Flight May Be in Our Bones |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fight-or-flight-may-be-in-our-bones/ |access-date=2020-06-22 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bone, not adrenaline, drives fight or flight response |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-09-bone-adrenaline-flight-response.html |access-date=2020-06-22 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref>
The '''fight-or-flight''' or the '''fight-flight-or-freeze'''<ref name="fawn">{{cite book |last=Walker |first=Peter |url= |title=Complex PTSD: From Surviving to Thriving : a Guide and Map for Recovering from Childhood Trauma |date=2013 |publisher= |isbn=9781492871842 |location= |page= |author-link=}}</ref> (also called '''hyperarousal''' or the '''acute stress response''') is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived [[Psychological trauma|harmful event]], [[Trauma (medicine)|attack]], or threat to survival.<ref name="Cannon - Fight or Flight Response">{{cite book |last=Cannon |first=Walter |title=Wisdom of the Body |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |year=1932 |isbn=978-0393002058 |location=United States}}</ref> It was first described by [[Walter Bradford Cannon]].{{efn|Cannon referred to "the necessities of fighting or flight." in the first edition of ''Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage'' (1915), p. 211. Some references say he first described the response in 1914 in ''[[The American Journal of Physiology]]''.}}<ref name="Walter Bradford Cannon 1915 211">{{Cite book |author=[[Walter Bradford Cannon]] |title=Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage |publisher=[[Appleton-Century-Crofts]] |year=1915 |location=New York |pages=211}}</ref> His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the [[sympathetic nervous system]], preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing.<ref name="Jansen - Intro fight or flight physiology">{{cite journal |last=Jansen |first=A |author2=Nguyen, X |author3=Karpitsky, V |author4=Mettenleiter, M |date=27 October 1995 |title=Central Command Neurons of the Sympathetic Nervous System: Basis of the Fight-or-Flight Response |journal=Science Magazine |volume=5236 |issue=270 |pages=644–6 |bibcode=1995Sci...270..644J |doi=10.1126/science.270.5236.644 |pmid=7570024 |s2cid=38807605}}</ref> More specifically, the [[adrenal medulla]] produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of [[catecholamines]], especially [[norepinephrine]] and [[epinephrine]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Walter Bradford Cannon |title=Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement |publisher=[[Appleton-Century-Crofts]] |year=1915}}</ref> The hormones [[estrogen]], [[testosterone]], and [[cortisol]], as well as the neurotransmitters [[dopamine]] and [[serotonin]], also affect how organisms react to stress.<ref>{{cite news |date=April 19, 2014 |title=Adrenaline, Cortisol, Norepinephrine: The Three Major Stress Hormones, Explained |work=Huffington Post |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/04/19/adrenaline-cortisol-stress-hormones_n_3112800.html |access-date=16 August 2014}}</ref> The hormone [[osteocalcin]] might also play a part.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kwon |first=Diana |title=Fight or Flight May Be in Our Bones |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fight-or-flight-may-be-in-our-bones/ |access-date=2020-06-22 |website=Scientific American |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bone, not adrenaline, drives fight or flight response |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-09-bone-adrenaline-flight-response.html |access-date=2020-06-22 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref>


This response is recognised as the first stage of the [[Stress (biology)#General adaptation syndrome|general adaptation syndrome]] that regulates [[Stress (biological)|stress]] responses among [[Vertebrate|vertebrates]] and other [[Organism|organisms]].<ref name="Pathology - Theory Medical Student's Library">{{cite book |last=Gozhenko |first=A |title=PATHOLOGY – Theory. Medical Student's Library |author2=Gurkalova, I.P. |author3=Zukow, W |author4=Kwasnik, Z |publisher=Radom |year=2009 |pages=270–275}}</ref>
This response is recognized as the first stage of the [[Stress (biology)#General adaptation syndrome|general adaptation syndrome]] that regulates [[Stress (biological)|stress]] responses among [[Vertebrate|vertebrates]] and other [[Organism|organisms]].<ref name="Pathology - Theory Medical Student's Library">{{cite book |last=Gozhenko |first=A |title=PATHOLOGY – Theory. Medical Student's Library |author2=Gurkalova, I.P. |author3=Zukow, W |author4=Kwasnik, Z |publisher=Radom |year=2009 |pages=270–275}}</ref>


=== Article body ===
=== Article body ===
Line 18: Line 18:
==== Sympathetic nervous system ====
==== Sympathetic nervous system ====
{{See also|Sympathetic nervous system}}
{{See also|Sympathetic nervous system}}
The sympathetic nervous system originates in the [[spinal cord]] and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. The sympathetic nervous system transfers signals from the dorsal hypothalamus, which activates the heart, increases vascular resistance, and increases blood flow, especially to the muscle, heart, and brain tissues. It activates the adrenal medulla, releasing catecholamines that amplify the sympathetic response. Additionally, this component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of [[norepinephrine]] in by the adrenal glands in the reaction.<ref name="Autonomic Nervous System - Chudler2">{{cite web |last=Chudler |first=Eric |title=Neuroscience For Kids |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/auto.html |access-date=19 April 2013 |publisher=University of Washington}}</ref>
The sympathetic nervous system originates in the [[spinal cord]] and its main function is to activate the arousal responses that occur during the fight-or-flight response.<ref name=":2" /> The sympathetic nervous system transfers signals from the dorsal hypothalamus, which activates the heart, increases vascular resistance, and increases blood flow, especially to the muscle, heart, and brain tissues.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Kozlowska |first=Kasia |last2=Walker |first2=Peter |last3=McLean |first3=Loyola |last4=Carrive |first4=Pascal |date=2015 |title=Fear and the Defense Cascade: Clinical Implications and Management |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4495877/ |journal=[[Harvard Review of Psychiatry]] |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=263–287 |doi=10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065 |issn=1067-3229 |pmc=4495877 |pmid=26062169}}</ref> It activates the adrenal medulla, releasing catecholamines that amplify the sympathetic response. Additionally, this component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of [[norepinephrine]] by the adrenal glands in the reaction.<ref name="Autonomic Nervous System - Chudler2">{{cite web |last=Chudler |first=Eric |title=Neuroscience For Kids |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/auto.html |access-date=19 April 2013 |publisher=University of Washington}}</ref>


==== Parasympathetic nervous system ====
==== Parasympathetic nervous system ====
{{See also|Parasympathetic nervous system}}
{{See also|Parasympathetic nervous system}}


The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and [[Medulla oblongata|medulla]], physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to [[homeostasis]] after the fight or flight response. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter [[acetylcholine]].<ref name="Autonomic Nervous System - Chudler">{{cite web |last=Chudler |first=Eric |title=Neuroscience For Kids |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/auto.html |access-date=19 April 2013 |publisher=University of Washington}}</ref>
The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and [[Medulla oblongata|medulla]], physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. It is known as the calming portion of the autonomic nervous system<ref name=":2" />. While the sympathetic nervous system is activated, the parasympathetic nervous system decreases its response. Efferent [[Vagus nerve|vagal fibers]] originating from the nucleus ambiguous fire in parallel to the respiratory system, decreasing the vagal cardiac parasympathetic tone.<ref name=":0" /> After the fight or flight response, the parasympathetic system's main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to [[homeostasis]]. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter [[acetylcholine]].<ref name="Autonomic Nervous System - Chudler">{{cite web |last=Chudler |first=Eric |title=Neuroscience For Kids |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/auto.html |access-date=19 April 2013 |publisher=University of Washington}}</ref>


=== Reaction ===
The reaction begins in the [[amygdala]], which triggers a neural response in the [[hypothalamus]]. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the [[pituitary gland]] and secretion of the hormone [[Adrenocorticotropic hormone|ACTH]].<ref name="ACTH Action">{{cite web |last=Margioris |first=Andrew |author2=Tsatsanis, Christos |date=April 2011 |title=ACTH Action on the Adrenal |url=http://www.endotext.org/adrenal/adrenal5/adrenal5.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306182338/http://www.endotext.org/adrenal/adrenal5/adrenal5.htm |archive-date=6 March 2013 |access-date=18 April 2013 |publisher=Endotext.org}}</ref> The [[adrenal gland]] is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone [[epinephrine]]. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone [[cortisol]], which increases [[blood pressure]], [[blood sugar]], and suppresses the [[immune system]].<ref name="physiological reactions - Padgett & Glaser">{{cite journal |last=Padgett |first=David |author2=Glaser, R |date=August 2003 |title=How stress influences the immune response |journal=Trends in Immunology |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=444–448 |citeseerx=10.1.1.467.1386 |doi=10.1016/S1471-4906(03)00173-X |pmid=12909458}}</ref>

The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to [[Cells (biology)|liver cells]] and the subsequent production of [[glucose]].<ref name="Glycogen Metabolism - King">{{cite web |last=King |first=Michael |title=PATHWAYS: GLYCOGEN & GLUCOSE |url=http://neuromuscular.wustl.edu/pathol/diagrams/glycogen.htm |publisher=[[Washington University in St. Louis]]}}</ref> Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn [[fatty acids]] into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response.<ref name="Cell Communication in Fight or Flight">{{cite web |title=HOW CELLS COMMUNICATE DURING THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE |url=http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/cells/fight_flight/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808004906/http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/cells/fight_flight/ |archive-date=8 August 2013 |access-date=18 April 2013 |publisher=University of Utah}}</ref>

Catecholamine hormones, such as [[Epinephrine|adrenaline]] ([[epinephrine]]) or [[noradrenaline]] (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent [[muscular]] action and:<ref name="gleitman">{{Cite book |author=[[Henry Gleitman]], Alan J. Fridlund and [[Daniel Reisberg]] |title=Psychology |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-393-97767-7 |edition=6}}</ref>

=== Function of physiological changes ===
The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:<ref name="Physiological Changes - Tripod">{{cite web |last=Stress Management for Health Course |title=The Fight Flight Response |url=http://stresscourse.tripod.com/id11.html |access-date=19 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="The Science of Stress - Olpin">{{cite web |last=Olpin |first=Michael |title=The Science of Stress |url=http://faculty.weber.edu/molpin/healthclasses/1110/bookchapters/stressphysiologychapter.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171120215838/http://faculty.weber.edu/molpin/healthclasses/1110/bookchapters/stressphysiologychapter.htm |archive-date=2017-11-20 |access-date=2013-04-25 |publisher=Weber State University}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Myers |first=David G. |title=Psychology |last2=DeWall |first2=C. Nathan |publisher=MacMillan Publishing |year=2021 |edition=13 |pages=422}}</ref>

* Increased [[blood flow]] to the muscles activated by diverting blood flow from other parts of the body to make taking quick action easier.
* Increased blood pressure and heart rate enhance cardiac output in order to supply the body with more energy.
* Increased blood sugar (glucose) and fats secreted by the liver to provide the body with extra fuel.
* Increased respiration to supply the oxygen necessary to help burn the extra glucose.
* The [[Coagulation|blood clotting]] function of the body speeds up in order to prevent [[Bleeding|excessive blood loss]] in the event of an injury sustained during the response.
* Increased [[Muscle tone|muscle tension]] in order to provide the body with extra speed and strength, which can result in trembling or shaking until the tension is released.
* The pupils dilate to let in more light, allowing for better vision of the body's surroundings.

== Other animals[edit] ==


=== Evolutionary perspective[edit] ===
=== Evolutionary perspective[edit] ===
An [[evolutionary psychology]] explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.
An [[evolutionary psychology]] explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves<ref name=":1" />. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.


=== Examples[edit] ===
=== Examples[edit] ===
A typical example of the stress response is a grazing [[zebra]]. If the zebra sees a [[lion]] closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its [[Predatory imminence continuum|predator]]. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body's systems. The [[sympathetic nervous system]]'s activation provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, [[piloerection]] (hair standing on end), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. Note that the zebra and cat still maintain [[homeostasis]] in all states.
A typical example of the stress response is a grazing [[zebra]]. If the zebra sees a [[lion]] closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its [[Predatory imminence continuum|predator]]. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body's systems<ref name=":1" />. The [[sympathetic nervous system]]'s activation provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, [[piloerection]] (hair standing on end), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. Note that the zebra and cat still maintain [[homeostasis]] in all states.


In July 1992, ''[[Behavioral Ecology (journal)|Behavioral Ecology]]'' published experimental research conducted by biologist Lee A. Dugatkin where [[Guppy|guppies]] were sorted into "bold", "ordinary", and "timid" groups based upon their reactions when confronted by a [[smallmouth bass]] (i.e. inspecting the predator, hiding, or swimming away) after which the guppies were left in a tank with the bass. After 60 hours, 40 percent of the timid guppies and 15 percent of the ordinary guppies survived while none of the bold guppies did.
In July 1992, ''[[Behavioral Ecology (journal)|Behavioral Ecology]]'' published experimental research conducted by biologist Lee A. Dugatkin where [[Guppy|guppies]] were sorted into "bold", "ordinary", and "timid" groups based upon their reactions when confronted by a [[smallmouth bass]] (i.e. inspecting the predator, hiding, or swimming away) after which the guppies were left in a tank with the bass. After 60 hours, 40 percent of the timid guppies and 15 percent of the ordinary guppies survived while none of the bold guppies did.



=== References ===
=== References ===
Adamo, S. A. (2014). The Effects of Stress Hormones on Immune Function May be Vital for the Adaptive Reconfiguration of the Immune System During Fight-or-Flight Behavior. ''Integrative and Comparative Biology'', ''54''(3), 419–426. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icu005</nowiki><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Adamo |first=S. A. |date=2014-09-01 |title=The Effects of Stress Hormones on Immune Function May be Vital for the Adaptive Reconfiguration of the Immune System During Fight-or-Flight Behavior |url=https://academic.oup.com/icb/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/icb/icu005 |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |language=en |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=419–426 |doi=10.1093/icb/icu005 |issn=1540-7063}}</ref>
Adamo, S. A. (2014). The Effects of Stress Hormones on Immune Function May be Vital for the Adaptive Reconfiguration of the Immune System During Fight-or-Flight Behavior. ''Integrative and Comparative Biology'', ''54''(3), 419–426. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icu005</nowiki><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Adamo |first=S. A. |date=2014-09-01 |title=The Effects of Stress Hormones on Immune Function May be Vital for the Adaptive Reconfiguration of the Immune System During Fight-or-Flight Behavior |url=https://academic.oup.com/icb/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/icb/icu005 |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |language=en |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=419–426 |doi=10.1093/icb/icu005 |issn=1540-7063}}</ref>
[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]]
[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]]
<references />
<references />

Latest revision as of 22:09, 2 December 2023

Article Draft

[edit]

Lead

[edit]

The fight-or-flight or the fight-flight-or-freeze[1] (also called hyperarousal or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival.[2] It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon.[a][3] His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing.[4] More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine.[5] The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress.[6] The hormone osteocalcin might also play a part.[7][8]

This response is recognized as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.[9]

Article body

[edit]

Physiology

[edit]

Autonomic nervous system

[edit]
See also: Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.[10]

Sympathetic nervous system

[edit]
See also: Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the arousal responses that occur during the fight-or-flight response.[11] The sympathetic nervous system transfers signals from the dorsal hypothalamus, which activates the heart, increases vascular resistance, and increases blood flow, especially to the muscle, heart, and brain tissues.[12] It activates the adrenal medulla, releasing catecholamines that amplify the sympathetic response. Additionally, this component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of norepinephrine by the adrenal glands in the reaction.[13]

Parasympathetic nervous system

[edit]
See also: Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. It is known as the calming portion of the autonomic nervous system[11]. While the sympathetic nervous system is activated, the parasympathetic nervous system decreases its response. Efferent vagal fibers originating from the nucleus ambiguous fire in parallel to the respiratory system, decreasing the vagal cardiac parasympathetic tone.[12] After the fight or flight response, the parasympathetic system's main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.[14]

Reaction

[edit]

The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH.[15] The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system.[16]

The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose.[17] Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response.[18]

Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and:[19]

Function of physiological changes

[edit]

The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:[20][21][11]

  • Increased blood flow to the muscles activated by diverting blood flow from other parts of the body to make taking quick action easier.
  • Increased blood pressure and heart rate enhance cardiac output in order to supply the body with more energy.
  • Increased blood sugar (glucose) and fats secreted by the liver to provide the body with extra fuel.
  • Increased respiration to supply the oxygen necessary to help burn the extra glucose.
  • The blood clotting function of the body speeds up in order to prevent excessive blood loss in the event of an injury sustained during the response.
  • Increased muscle tension in order to provide the body with extra speed and strength, which can result in trembling or shaking until the tension is released.
  • The pupils dilate to let in more light, allowing for better vision of the body's surroundings.

Other animals[edit]

[edit]

Evolutionary perspective[edit]

[edit]

An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves[22]. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.

Examples[edit]

[edit]

A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body's systems[22]. The sympathetic nervous system's activation provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.

In July 1992, Behavioral Ecology published experimental research conducted by biologist Lee A. Dugatkin where guppies were sorted into "bold", "ordinary", and "timid" groups based upon their reactions when confronted by a smallmouth bass (i.e. inspecting the predator, hiding, or swimming away) after which the guppies were left in a tank with the bass. After 60 hours, 40 percent of the timid guppies and 15 percent of the ordinary guppies survived while none of the bold guppies did.


References

[edit]

Adamo, S. A. (2014). The Effects of Stress Hormones on Immune Function May be Vital for the Adaptive Reconfiguration of the Immune System During Fight-or-Flight Behavior. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 54(3), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icu005[22]

  1. ^ Walker, Peter (2013). Complex PTSD: From Surviving to Thriving : a Guide and Map for Recovering from Childhood Trauma. ISBN 9781492871842.
  2. ^ Cannon, Walter (1932). Wisdom of the Body. United States: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393002058.
  3. ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1915). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. p. 211.
  4. ^ Jansen, A; Nguyen, X; Karpitsky, V; Mettenleiter, M (27 October 1995). "Central Command Neurons of the Sympathetic Nervous System: Basis of the Fight-or-Flight Response". Science Magazine. 5236 (270): 644–6. Bibcode:1995Sci...270..644J. doi:10.1126/science.270.5236.644. PMID 7570024. S2CID 38807605.
  5. ^ Walter Bradford Cannon (1915). Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
  6. ^ "Adrenaline, Cortisol, Norepinephrine: The Three Major Stress Hormones, Explained". Huffington Post. April 19, 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
  7. ^ Kwon, Diana. "Fight or Flight May Be in Our Bones". Scientific American. Retrieved 2020-06-22.
  8. ^ "Bone, not adrenaline, drives fight or flight response". phys.org. Retrieved 2020-06-22.
  9. ^ Gozhenko, A; Gurkalova, I.P.; Zukow, W; Kwasnik, Z (2009). PATHOLOGY – Theory. Medical Student's Library. Radom. pp. 270–275.
  10. ^ Schmidt, A; Thews, G (1989). "Autonomic Nervous System". In Janig, W (ed.). Human Physiology (2 ed.). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. pp. 333–370.
  11. ^ a b c Myers, David G.; DeWall, C. Nathan (2021). Psychology (13 ed.). MacMillan Publishing. p. 422.
  12. ^ a b Kozlowska, Kasia; Walker, Peter; McLean, Loyola; Carrive, Pascal (2015). "Fear and the Defense Cascade: Clinical Implications and Management". Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 23 (4): 263–287. doi:10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065. ISSN 1067-3229. PMC 4495877. PMID 26062169.
  13. ^ Chudler, Eric. "Neuroscience For Kids". University of Washington. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  14. ^ Chudler, Eric. "Neuroscience For Kids". University of Washington. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  15. ^ Margioris, Andrew; Tsatsanis, Christos (April 2011). "ACTH Action on the Adrenal". Endotext.org. Archived from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  16. ^ Padgett, David; Glaser, R (August 2003). "How stress influences the immune response". Trends in Immunology. 24 (8): 444–448. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.467.1386. doi:10.1016/S1471-4906(03)00173-X. PMID 12909458.
  17. ^ King, Michael. "PATHWAYS: GLYCOGEN & GLUCOSE". Washington University in St. Louis.
  18. ^ "HOW CELLS COMMUNICATE DURING THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE". University of Utah. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
  19. ^ Henry Gleitman, Alan J. Fridlund and Daniel Reisberg (2004). Psychology (6 ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-97767-7.
  20. ^ Stress Management for Health Course. "The Fight Flight Response". Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  21. ^ Olpin, Michael. "The Science of Stress". Weber State University. Archived from the original on 2017-11-20. Retrieved 2013-04-25.
  22. ^ a b c Adamo, S. A. (2014-09-01). "The Effects of Stress Hormones on Immune Function May be Vital for the Adaptive Reconfiguration of the Immune System During Fight-or-Flight Behavior". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 54 (3): 419–426. doi:10.1093/icb/icu005. ISSN 1540-7063.


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