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Coordinates: 29°16′37″S 177°55′24″W / 29.27694°S 177.92333°W / -29.27694; -177.92333
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{{Short description|Subtropical island arc in the South Pacific Ocean}}
{{Short description|Subtropical island arc in the South Pacific Ocean}}
{{EngvarB|date=November 2017}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=April 2024}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2008}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2008}}
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| highest_mount =
| highest_mount =
| elevation_m = 516
| elevation_m = 516
| population = about 6<ref name="cbs 20060316">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/new-zealand-volcano-erupts/ |title=New Zealand Volcano Erupts |date=16 March 2006 |publisher=[[CBS News]]|access-date=18 June 2020 |archive-date=18 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618190803/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/new-zealand-volcano-erupts/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
| population = 0 <ref name="cbs 20060316">{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/new-zealand-volcano-erupts/ |title=New Zealand Volcano Erupts |date=16 March 2006 |publisher=[[CBS News]]|access-date=18 June 2020 |archive-date=18 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618190803/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/new-zealand-volcano-erupts/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
| population_as_of =
| population_as_of = 2006
| density_km2 =
| density_km2 =
| ethnic_groups =
| ethnic_groups =
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}}
}}


The '''Kermadec Islands''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɜːr|m|ə|d|ɛ|k}}; {{lang-mi|Rangitāhua}})<ref>{{cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/kermadec-islands |title=Kermadec Islands |website=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=1 November 2022}}</ref> are a [[subtropical]] [[island arc]] in the South Pacific Ocean {{convert|800|-|1000|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of [[New Zealand]]'s [[North Island]], and a similar distance southwest of [[Tonga]]. The islands are part of New Zealand. They are {{convert|33.6|km2|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.linz.govt.nz/layer/53564-protected-areas/data/91349/|title=Data Table – Protected Areas – LINZ Data Service (recorded area 3359.9864 ha)|publisher=[[Land Information New Zealand]]|access-date=2019-08-27}}</ref> in total area and uninhabited, except for the permanently staffed [[Raoul Island]] Station, the northernmost outpost of New Zealand.
The '''Kermadec Islands''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɜːr|m|ə|d|ɛ|k}} {{respell|KUR|mə|dek}}; {{langx|mi|Rangitāhua}})<ref>{{cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/kermadec-islands |title=Kermadec Islands |website=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=1 November 2022}}</ref> are a [[subtropical]] [[island arc]] in the South Pacific Ocean {{cvt|800|-|1000|km|mi nmi}} northeast of [[New Zealand]]'s [[North Island]], and a similar distance southwest of [[Tonga]]. The islands are part of New Zealand. They are {{convert|33.6|km2|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.linz.govt.nz/layer/53564-protected-areas/data/91349/|title=Data Table – Protected Areas – LINZ Data Service (recorded area 3359.9864 ha)|publisher=[[Land Information New Zealand]]|access-date=2019-08-27}}</ref> in total area and uninhabited, except for the permanently staffed [[Raoul Island]] Station, the northernmost outpost of New Zealand.


The islands are listed with the [[New Zealand outlying islands]]. The islands are an immediate part of New Zealand, but not part of any [[Regions of New Zealand|region]] or [[Territorial Authorities of New Zealand|district]], but instead an ''Area Outside Territorial Authority''.
The islands are listed with the [[New Zealand outlying islands]]. The islands are an immediate part of New Zealand, but not part of any [[Regions of New Zealand|region]] or [[Territorial Authorities of New Zealand|district]], but instead an ''Area Outside Territorial Authority''.
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==History==
==History==
As indicated by their name for the Islands, Rangitahua – the Stopping-off Place, [[Polynesia]]n people "stopped off" on the Kermadec Islands in around the 14th century (and perhaps previously in the 10th century).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Raoul & the Kermadecs: New Zealand's Northernmost Islands, a History |first=Steven |last=Gentry |isbn=978-1-927242-02-5 |year=2013|chapter=2: Rangitahua – the Stopping-off Place |pages=37–51}}</ref> However the first Europeans to reach the area{{snd}}arriving onboard the ''[[Lady Penrhyn (1786 ship)|Lady Penrhyn]]'' in May 1788{{snd}}found no inhabitants on these volcanic islands.
As indicated by their name for the islands, Rangitāhua ({{lit|the stopping-off place}}), [[Polynesia]]n people "stopped off" on the Kermadec islands in around the 14th century (and perhaps previously in the 10th century).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Raoul & the Kermadecs: New Zealand's Northernmost Islands, a History |first=Steven |last=Gentry |isbn=978-1-927242-02-5 |year=2013|chapter=2: Rangitahua – the Stopping-off Place |pages=37–51|publisher=Steele Roberts Aotearoa }}</ref> Their arrival is also evident in the presence of [[canoe plants|introduced]] [[taro]] and [[candlenut]] growing wild in certain areas of Raoul Island supported by its relatively warm climate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sykes |first1=William Russell |title=Kermadec Islands flora: a compilation of modern material about the flora of the Kermadec Islands |date=2000 |publisher=Manaaki Whenua Press |location=Lincoln, Canterbury, NZ |isbn=0-478-09339-X |page=104-5 |edition=special}}</ref> However, the first Europeans to reach the area{{snd}}arriving on board the ''[[Lady Penrhyn (1786 ship)|Lady Penrhyn]]'' in May 1788{{snd}}found no inhabitants on these volcanic islands since.


British, American and Australian [[whaling]] vessels cruised offshore in the 19th century and often visited the islands in search of water, wood and food. The first such vessel on record was the whaler ''Fanny'' that visited Raoul Island in 1823.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Robert |editor-last=Langdon |title=Where the whalers went: an index to the Pacific ports and islands visited by American whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th century |location=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Manuscripts Bureau |page=145 |isbn=0-86784-471-X}}</ref>
British, American and Australian [[whaling]] vessels cruised offshore in the 19th century and often visited the islands in search of water, wood and food. The first such vessel on record was the whaler ''Fanny'' that visited Raoul Island in 1823.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Robert |editor-last=Langdon |title=Where the whalers went: an index to the Pacific ports and islands visited by American whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th century |date=1984 |location=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Manuscripts Bureau |page=145 |isbn=0-86784-471-X}}</ref>


On 1 August 1886, [[HMS Diamond (1874)|HMS ''Diamond'']] [[annexed]] the islands for the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite news |title=Annexation of the Kermadec Islands |work=The Cornishman |issue=425 |date=2 September 1886 |page=3}}</ref> European settlers have lived on the island for varying lengths of time, from the early nineteenth century until 1937, growing food for the whalers.<ref name=ENZ1966 /> The Thomas Bell family settled on the island from 1878 to 1914. One of the Bell daughters, Bessie Dyke, recounted the family's experience to writer [[Elsie K. Morton]] who published their story in 1957 as ''Crusoes of Sunday Island''.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-MorCrus-t1-front1-d3.html |title=Crusoes of Sunday Island |chapter=Author's Note |first=Elsie|last=Morton|year=1957}}</ref>
On 1 August 1886, [[HMS Diamond (1874)|HMS ''Diamond'']] [[annexed]] the islands for the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite news |title=Annexation of the Kermadec Islands |work=The Cornishman |issue=425 |date=2 September 1886 |page=3}}</ref> European settlers have lived on the island for varying lengths of time, from the early nineteenth century until 1937, growing food for the whalers.<ref name=ENZ1966 /> The Thomas Bell family settled on the island from 1878 to 1914. One of the Bell daughters, Bessie Dyke, recounted the family's experience to writer [[Elsie K. Morton]] who published their story in 1957 as ''Crusoes of Sunday Island''.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-MorCrus-t1-front1-d3.html |title=Crusoes of Sunday Island |chapter=Author's Note |first=Elsie|last=Morton|year=1957}}</ref>
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[[File:Raoul Island, New Zealand (STS008-36-1403, cropped rotated).jpg|thumb|Raoul Island from space]]
[[File:Raoul Island, New Zealand (STS008-36-1403, cropped rotated).jpg|thumb|Raoul Island from space]]


The Station consists of a government [[meteorology|meteorological]] and radio station, and a hostel for [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] officers and volunteers, that has been maintained since 1937. It lies on the northern terraces of Raoul Island, at an elevation of about {{convert|50|m|ft|abbr=on}}, above the cliffs of Fleetwood Bluff. It is the northernmost inhabited outpost of New Zealand.
The Raoul Island Station consists of a government [[meteorology|meteorological]] and radio station, and a hostel for [[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)|Department of Conservation]] officers and volunteers, that has been maintained since 1937.<ref name="nzg">{{cite web |title=Island of dreams |first=Bruce |last=Gabites |url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/island-of-dreams/ |website=New Zealand Geographic |access-date=28 May 2024 |date=July–September 1993}}</ref> It lies on the northern terraces of Raoul Island, at an elevation of about {{convert|50|m|ft|abbr=on}}, above the cliffs of Fleetwood Bluff. It is the northernmost inhabited outpost of New Zealand.


===Nuclear testing proposals===
===Nuclear testing proposals===
In 1955, the British Government required a large site remote from population centres to test the new [[Thermonuclear weapon|thermonuclear]] devices it was developing. Various islands in the South Pacific and Southern Oceans were considered, along with Antarctica. The Admiralty suggested the [[Antipodes Islands]] may be suitable.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Lorna |last1=Arnold |first2=Katherine |last2=Pyne |title=Britain and the H-bomb |location=Basingstoke |publisher=Palgrave |year=2001 |page=96 |isbn=978-0-333-94742-5 }}</ref> In May 1955, the Minister for Defence, Selwyn Lloyd, on advice from the Admiralty report, concluded that the Kermadec Islands would be suitable. As the island group are part of New Zealand, [[Anthony Eden]], who had recently become the Prime Minister of the UK, wrote to the Prime Minister of New Zealand, [[Sidney Holland]], to ask for permission to use the islands. Holland refused, fearing an adverse public reaction in the upcoming 1957 general election in New Zealand. Despite reassurances and pressure from the British government, Holland remained firm.<ref>{{cite book |first=Rebecca |last=Priestley |title=Mad on radium – New Zealand in the atomic age |chapter=Cold War and Red Hot Science |location=Auckland |publisher=Auckland University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1869407278 }}</ref>
In 1955, the British Government required a large site remote from population centres to test the new [[Thermonuclear weapon|thermonuclear]] devices it was developing. Various islands in the South Pacific and Southern Oceans were considered, along with Antarctica.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Lorna |last1=Arnold |first2=Katherine |last2=Pyne |title=Britain and the H-bomb |location=Basingstoke |publisher=Palgrave |year=2001 |page=96 |isbn=978-0-333-94742-5 }}</ref> In May 1955, the Minister for Defence, [[Selwyn Lloyd]], on advice from the Admiralty report, concluded that the Kermadec Islands would be suitable. As the island group was part of New Zealand, [[Anthony Eden]], who had recently become the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, wrote to the Prime Minister of New Zealand, [[Sidney Holland]], to ask for permission to use the islands. Holland refused, fearing an adverse public reaction in the upcoming [[1957 New Zealand general election|1957 general election]]. Despite reassurances and pressure from the British government, Holland remained firm.<ref>{{cite book |first=Rebecca |last=Priestley |title=Mad on radium – New Zealand in the atomic age |chapter=Cold War and Red Hot Science |location=Auckland |publisher=Auckland University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1869407278 }}</ref>


==Geography==
==Geography==
The islands lie within 29° to 31.5° south latitude and 178° to 179° west longitude, {{convert|800|-|1000|km|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of New Zealand's [[North Island]], and a similar distance southwest of [[Tonga]]. The total area of the islands is {{convert|33.6|km2|sqmi|2|abbr=on}}.
The islands lie within 29° to 31.5° south latitude and 178° to 179° west longitude, {{cvt|800|-|1000|km|mi nmi}} northeast of New Zealand's [[North Island]], and a similar distance southwest of [[Tonga]]. The total area of the islands is {{convert|33.6|km2|sqmi|2|abbr=on}}.


===Climate===
===Climate===
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The group includes four main islands as well as some isolated rocks. These are:
The group includes four main islands as well as some isolated rocks. These are:
* [[Raoul Island]] or Sunday Island is by far the largest of the islands. It lies {{convert|900|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southwest of [['Ata]], the southernmost island of Tonga, and {{convert|1100|km|mi|abbr=on}} north-northeast of New Zealand. Raoul Island has an area of {{convert|29.38|km2|sqmi|2|abbr=on}} with numerous smaller satellite islands; its highest point, Moumoukai peak, is {{convert|516|m|ft|abbr=on}} high
* [[Raoul Island]] or Sunday Island is by far the largest of the islands. It lies {{cvt|900|km|mi nmi}} south-southwest of [['Ata]], the southernmost island of Tonga, and {{cvt|1100|km|mi nmi}} north-northeast of New Zealand. Raoul Island has an area of {{convert|29.38|km2|sqmi|2|abbr=on}} with numerous smaller satellite islands; its highest point, Moumoukai peak, is {{convert|516|m|ft|abbr=on}} high
* [[Macauley Island]], the second largest, is located {{convert|110|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southwest of Raoul Island. Together with neighbouring Haszard Island, its area is {{convert|3.06|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.
* [[Macauley Island]], the second largest, is located {{cvt|110|km|mi nmi}} south-southwest of Raoul Island. Together with neighbouring Haszard Island, its area is {{convert|3.06|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.
** Macdonald Rock is about {{convert|4|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} north of Macauley Island.<ref name="NZ2225">[http://www.hydro.linz.govt.nz/charts/catalogue/catalogue.asp?chart=2225&page=index.asp Chart NZ 2225] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012150311/http://www.hydro.linz.govt.nz/charts/catalogue/catalogue.asp?chart=2225&page=index.asp |date=12 October 2007 }}, Hydrographic Office, Royal New Zealand Navy, 1994. Retrieved 7 May 2007.</ref>
** Macdonald Rock is about {{cvt|4|km|mi nmi|1}} north of Macauley Island.<ref name="NZ2225">[http://www.hydro.linz.govt.nz/charts/catalogue/catalogue.asp?chart=2225&page=index.asp Chart NZ 2225] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012150311/http://www.hydro.linz.govt.nz/charts/catalogue/catalogue.asp?chart=2225&page=index.asp |date=12 October 2007 }}, Hydrographic Office, Royal New Zealand Navy, 1994. Retrieved 7 May 2007.</ref>
* [[Curtis Island, New Zealand|Curtis Island]], the third largest, lies {{convert|35|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} south-southwest of Macauley Island. It reaches a height of {{convert|137|m|ft|abbr=on}} and has an area of {{convert|0.59|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} with neighbouring [[Cheeseman Island]].
* [[Curtis Island, New Zealand|Curtis Island]], the third largest, lies {{cvt|35|km|mi nmi|0}} south-southwest of Macauley Island. It reaches a height of {{convert|137|m|ft|abbr=on}} and has an area of {{convert|0.59|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} with neighbouring [[Cheeseman Island]].
* [[Nugent Island]] is the northernmost island. It is approximately {{convert|100|m|yd|0}} across.
* [[Nugent Island]] is the northernmost island. It is approximately {{convert|100|m|yd|0}} across.
* [[L'Esperance Rock]], formerly French Rock, is {{convert|80|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southwest of Curtis Island. It is {{convert|250|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter, {{convert|0.05|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in area, and {{convert|70|m|ft|abbr=on}} high.
* [[L'Esperance Rock]], formerly French Rock, is {{cvt|80|km|mi nmi}} south-southwest of Curtis Island. It is {{convert|250|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter, {{convert|0.05|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in area, and {{convert|70|m|ft|abbr=on}} high.
* L'Havre Rock, about {{convert|8|km|mi|abbr=on}} north-northwest of L'Esperance Rock, is submerged except at low tide.
* L'Havre Rock, about {{cvt|8|km|mi nmi}} north-northwest of L'Esperance Rock, is submerged except at low tide.


[[Seamount]]s north and south of the Kermadec Islands are an extension of the ridge running from Tonga to New Zealand (see [[#Geology|Geology]]). Star of Bengal Bank, {{convert|103|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southwest of L'Esperance Rock, has a [[least depth]] of {{convert|48|m|ft}}.
[[Seamount]]s north and south of the Kermadec Islands are an extension of the ridge running from Tonga to New Zealand (see [[#Geology|Geology]]). Star of Bengal Bank, {{convert|103|km|mi|abbr=on}} south-southwest of L'Esperance Rock, has a [[least depth]] of {{convert|48|m|ft}}.
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==Environment==
==Environment==
===Flora===
===Flora===
The islands are recognised by ecologists as a distinct [[ecoregion]], the Kermadec Islands subtropical moist forests. It is a [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]] ecoregion, part of the [[Oceanian realm]]. The forests are dominated by the red-flowering [[Metrosideros kermadecensis|Kermadec pōhutukawa]], related to the [[Metrosideros excelsa|pōhutukawa]] of New Zealand. The islands are home to 113 native species of [[vascular plant]]s, of which 23 are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]], along with mosses (52 native species), lichens and fungi (89 native species). Most of the plant species are derived from New Zealand, with others from the tropical Pacific. 152 human-[[introduced species]] of plants have become established on the islands.
The islands are recognised by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] as a distinct [[ecoregion]], the Kermadec Islands subtropical moist forests.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=From Theory to Practice |title=Plant Conservation: The Role of Habitat Restoration |date=2019 |pages=306–354 |doi=10.1017/9781108648677.009|isbn=978-1-108-64867-7 }}</ref> It is a [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]] ecoregion, part of the [[Oceanian realm]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kermadec Islands Subtropical Moist Forests |url=https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/kermadec-islands-subtropical-moist-forests/ |website=One Earth |date=6 December 2023 |access-date=17 September 2024 |language=en}}</ref> The forests are dominated by the red-flowering [[Metrosideros kermadecensis|Kermadec pōhutukawa]], related to the [[Metrosideros excelsa|pōhutukawa]] of New Zealand.<ref name="muellerdombois"/> The islands are home to 113 native species of [[vascular plant]]s, of which 23 are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]], along with mosses (52 native species), lichens and fungi (89 native species).<ref name="muellerdombois">{{cite book |last1=Mueller-Dombois |first1=Dieter |last2=Fosberg |first2=F. R. |title=Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands |date=26 November 2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-1-4419-8686-3 |language=en|series=Ecological Studies| volume =132}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beever |first1=Jessica E. |last2=Fife |first2=Allan J. |last3=West |first3=Carol J. |title=Mosses of the Kermadec Islands, northern New Zealand |journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany |date=December 1996 |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=463–471 |doi=10.1080/0028825X.1996.10410127|bibcode=1996NZJB...34..463B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Fungi of the Kermadec Islands |journal= Mycotaxon |date=1992 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=149–170}}</ref> Most of the plant species are derived from New Zealand, with others having travelled over the Pacific.<ref name="nathan">{{cite web |last1=Nathan |first1=Simon |title=Kermadec Islands Page 2. Plants and animals |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/kermadec-islands/page-2 |website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |publisher=[[New Zealand Government]] |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref> 152 human-[[introduced species]] of plants have become established on the islands.<ref name="muellerdombois"/>


Dense subtropical forests cover most of Raoul, and formerly covered Macauley. ''[[Metrosideros kermadecensis]]'' is the dominant forest tree, forming a 10 – 15-metre (30 – 50-foot) high canopy. A native [[Rhopalostylis|nīkau palm]] (''[[Rhopalostylis baueri]]'') is another important canopy tree. The forests had a rich understory of smaller trees, shrubs, ferns, and herbs, including ''[[Myrsine|Myrsine kermadecensis]]''; ''[[Lobelia anceps]]'', ''[[Poa|Poa polyphylla]]'', ''[[Coprosma acutifolia]]'', and ''[[Coriaria arborea]]''. Two endemic [[tree fern]]s, ''[[Alsophila (plant)|Alsophila milnei]]'' and the rare and endangered ''[[Alsophila kermadecensis]]'', are also found in the forests.
Dense subtropical forests cover most of Raoul, and formerly covered Macauley.<ref name="muellerdombois"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barkla |first1=J. W. |last2=Dilks |first2=P. J. |last3=Greene |first3=T. C. |last4=Griffiths |first4=R. |title=<i>Homalanthus polyandrus</i>(Euphorbiaceae) on Macauley Island, southern Kermadec Islands, with notes on that island's vascular flora |journal=New Zealand Journal of Botany |date=September 2008 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=373–379 |doi=10.1080/00288250809509775|bibcode=2008NZJB...46..373B }}</ref> ''[[Metrosideros kermadecensis]]'' is the dominant forest tree, forming a 10 – 15-metre (30 – 50-foot) high canopy. A native [[Rhopalostylis|nīkau palm]] (''[[Rhopalostylis baueri]]'') is another important canopy tree. The forests have an understory of smaller trees, shrubs, ferns, and herbs, including ''[[Myrsine|Myrsine kermadecensis]]''; ''[[Lobelia anceps]]'', ''[[Poa|Poa polyphylla]]'', ''[[Coprosma acutifolia]]'', and ''[[Coriaria arborea]]''.<ref name="muellerdombois"/> Two endemic [[tree fern]]s, ''[[Alsophila (plant)|Alsophila milnei]]'' and the rare and endangered ''[[Alsophila kermadecensis]]'', are also found in the forests.<ref>{{cite web |title=Subtropical tree fern challenge |url=https://blog.tepapa.govt.nz/2014/09/26/subtropical-tree-fern-challenge/ |website=Te Papa’s Blog |publisher=[[Te Papa Tongarewa]] |access-date=17 September 2024 |language=en-NZ |date=25 September 2014}}</ref>


Areas near the seashore and exposed to salt spray are covered by a distinct community of shrubs and ferns, notably ''[[Myoporum obscurum]]'', ''[[Coprosma|Coprosma petiolata]]'', ''[[Asplenium|Asplenium obtusatum]]'', ''[[Cyperus ustulatus]]'', ''[[Disphyma australe]]'', and ''[[Ficinia nodosa]]''.
Areas near the seashore and exposed to salt spray are covered by a distinct community of shrubs and ferns, notably ''[[Myoporum obscurum]]'', ''[[Coprosma|Coprosma petiolata]]'', ''[[Asplenium|Asplenium obtusatum]]'', ''[[Cyperus ustulatus]]'', ''[[Disphyma australe]]'', and ''[[Ficinia nodosa]]''.<ref name="muellerdombois"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Ficinia nodosa |url=https://www.nzpcn.org.nz/flora/species/ficinia-nodosa/ |website=New Zealand Plant Conservation Network |access-date=17 September 2024 |language=en}}</ref>


===Fauna===
===Fauna===
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The islands have no native land mammals. An endemic bird subspecies is the [[Kermadec red-crowned parakeet]]. The group has been identified as an [[Important Bird Area]] (IBA) by [[BirdLife International]] because of its significance as a breeding site for several species of seabirds, including [[white-necked petrel|white-necked]] and [[black-winged petrel]]s, [[wedge-tailed shearwater|wedge-tailed]] and [[little shearwater]]s, [[sooty tern]]s and [[blue noddy|blue noddies]].<ref>BirdLife International. (2012). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Kermadec Islands. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 3 February 2012.</ref> The area also hosts rich habitats for cetaceans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.svfalcongt.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/The-Kermadec-Whale-Project1.pdf |title=The Kermadec Whale Project |last=Baird |first=Karen |date=July 2010 |access-date=2016-03-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311071336/http://www.svfalcongt.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/The-Kermadec-Whale-Project1.pdf |archive-date=11 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In recent years, increased presences of [[humpback whale]]s indicate Kermadec Islands functioning as migratory corridors, and varieties of baleen (not in great numbers) and toothed whales including [[minke whale]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.listener.co.nz/current-affairs/science/a-surprise-encounter-while-sailing-to-the-kermadecs/|title=A surprise encounter while sailing to the Kermadecs Islands – The Listener|access-date=26 December 2016|archive-date=4 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504012918/http://www.listener.co.nz/current-affairs/science/a-surprise-encounter-while-sailing-to-the-kermadecs/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[sperm whale]]s, less known [[beaked whale]]s, [[killer whale]]s, and dolphins frequent in adjacent waters.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/research/publications/bulletin/volume-20/observation-and-identification-of-marine-mammals |title=Observation and identification of marine mammals during two recent expeditions to the Kermadec Islands, New Zealand |last1=Duffy |first1=Clinton A.J. |last2=Baker |first2=C. Scott |last3=Constantine |first3=Rochelle |journal=Bulletin of the Auckland Museum |volume=20 |year=2015 |pages=501–510 |language=en |publisher=Auckland War Memorial Museum - Tāmaki Paenga Hira}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.forestandbird.org.nz/files/file/KermadecsSantuarybooklet_2014.pdf |title=The Kermadecs |year=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218164018/https://www.forestandbird.org.nz/files/file/KermadecsSantuarybooklet_2014.pdf |archive-date=18 February 2018 |language=en}}</ref> In late September 2015, satellite tags were attached to 25 [[humpback whale]]s around Raoul Island, which were tracked to feeding grounds in Antarctica and across to the Antarctic Peninsula.<ref>{{Cite web|last=The Kermadec Expedition Team|date=25 Oct 2016|title=Raoul Island whales|url=https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/stories/blog/2016/raoul-island-whales|access-date=11 May 2021|website=Auckland Museum}}</ref> Vast numbers of [[southern right whale]]s were historically seen in southwestern areas although only a handful of recent confirmations exist around [[Raoul Island]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youthenviroleadersforum.org/young-blake-expeditions/kermadecs-expedition-2013/learn-about-the-kermadecs/the-kermadecs-science/whales-and-dolphins/|title=Sir Peter Blake Trust|access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> The deep sea [[hydrothermal vents]] along the Kermadec ridge support diverse [[extremophile]] communities including the [[Gandalfus puia|New Zealand blind vent crab]].<ref>McLay, Colin. "New crabs from hydrothermal vents of the Kermadec Ridge submarine volcanoes, New Zealand: Gandalfus gen. nov.(Bythograeidae) and Xenograpsus (Varunidae)(Decapoda: Brachyura)." Zootaxa 1524 (2007): 1–22.</ref> Three new records of tropical reef fishes were recorded from the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve in 2015 after researchers examined hundreds of hours of unused documentary film footage,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liggins|first1=Libby|last2=Sweatman|first2=Jenny Ann|last3=Trnski|first3=Thomas|last4=Duffy|first4=Clinton A. J.|last5=Eddy|first5=Tyler D.|last6=Aguirre|first6=J. David|date=2020|title=Natural history footage provides new reef fish biodiversity information for a pristine but rarely visited archipelago|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|page=3159|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-60136-w|pmid=32081990|pmc=7035361|bibcode=2020NatSR..10.3159L|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2020/03/16/1079198?slug=new-species-accidentally-discovered-on-film|title=New species accidentally discovered on film|last=Hancock|first=Farah|date=16 March 2020|website=Newsroom|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> and in 2016, a red [[velvet whalefish]] and an angler fish (''[[Ceratias tentaculatus]]'') were found around the waters of the Kermadec Islands by a research partnership between [[Ngāti Kurī]], [[University of Auckland]], [[Massey University]], [[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research|NIWA]], [[Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research|Manaaki Whenua]], and the [[University of Waikato]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=The Kermadec Expedition Team|date=27 October 2016|title=It's a bit fishy up here in the Kermadecs|url=https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/stories/blog/2016/its-a-bit-fishy-up-here-in-the-kermadecs|access-date=5 May 2021|website=Auckland Museum}}</ref>
The islands have no native land mammals. An endemic bird subspecies is the [[Kermadec red-crowned parakeet]]. The group has been identified as an [[Important Bird Area]] (IBA) by [[BirdLife International]] because of its significance as a breeding site for several species of seabirds, including [[white-necked petrel|white-necked]] and [[black-winged petrel]]s, [[wedge-tailed shearwater|wedge-tailed]] and [[little shearwater]]s, [[sooty tern]]s and [[blue noddy|blue noddies]].<ref>BirdLife International. (2012). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Kermadec Islands. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 3 February 2012.</ref> The area also hosts rich habitats for cetaceans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.svfalcongt.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/The-Kermadec-Whale-Project1.pdf |title=The Kermadec Whale Project |last=Baird |first=Karen |date=July 2010 |access-date=2016-03-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311071336/http://www.svfalcongt.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/The-Kermadec-Whale-Project1.pdf |archive-date=11 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In recent years, increased presences of [[humpback whale]]s indicate Kermadec Islands functioning as migratory corridors, and varieties of baleen (not in great numbers) and toothed whales including [[minke whale]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.listener.co.nz/current-affairs/science/a-surprise-encounter-while-sailing-to-the-kermadecs/|title=A surprise encounter while sailing to the Kermadecs Islands – The Listener|access-date=26 December 2016|archive-date=4 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504012918/http://www.listener.co.nz/current-affairs/science/a-surprise-encounter-while-sailing-to-the-kermadecs/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[sperm whale]]s, less known [[beaked whale]]s, [[killer whale]]s, and dolphins frequent in adjacent waters.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/research/publications/bulletin/volume-20/observation-and-identification-of-marine-mammals |title=Observation and identification of marine mammals during two recent expeditions to the Kermadec Islands, New Zealand |last1=Duffy |first1=Clinton A.J. |last2=Baker |first2=C. Scott |last3=Constantine |first3=Rochelle |journal=Bulletin of the Auckland Museum |volume=20 |year=2015 |pages=501–510 |language=en |publisher=Auckland War Memorial Museum - Tāmaki Paenga Hira}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.forestandbird.org.nz/files/file/KermadecsSantuarybooklet_2014.pdf |title=The Kermadecs |year=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218164018/https://www.forestandbird.org.nz/files/file/KermadecsSantuarybooklet_2014.pdf |archive-date=18 February 2018 |language=en}}</ref> In late September 2015, satellite tags were attached to 25 [[humpback whale]]s around Raoul Island, which were tracked to feeding grounds in Antarctica and across to the Antarctic Peninsula.<ref>{{Cite web|last=The Kermadec Expedition Team|date=25 Oct 2016|title=Raoul Island whales|url=https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/stories/blog/2016/raoul-island-whales|access-date=11 May 2021|website=Auckland Museum}}</ref> Vast numbers of [[southern right whale]]s were historically seen in southwestern areas although only a handful of recent confirmations exist around [[Raoul Island]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youthenviroleadersforum.org/young-blake-expeditions/kermadecs-expedition-2013/learn-about-the-kermadecs/the-kermadecs-science/whales-and-dolphins/|title=Sir Peter Blake Trust|access-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> The deep sea [[hydrothermal vents]] along the Kermadec ridge support diverse [[extremophile]] communities including the [[Gandalfus puia|New Zealand blind vent crab]].<ref>McLay, Colin. "New crabs from hydrothermal vents of the Kermadec Ridge submarine volcanoes, New Zealand: Gandalfus gen. nov.(Bythograeidae) and Xenograpsus (Varunidae)(Decapoda: Brachyura)." Zootaxa 1524 (2007): 1–22.</ref> Three new records of tropical reef fishes were recorded from the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve in 2015 after researchers examined hundreds of hours of unused documentary film footage,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liggins|first1=Libby|last2=Sweatman|first2=Jenny Ann|last3=Trnski|first3=Thomas|last4=Duffy|first4=Clinton A. J.|last5=Eddy|first5=Tyler D.|last6=Aguirre|first6=J. David|date=2020|title=Natural history footage provides new reef fish biodiversity information for a pristine but rarely visited archipelago|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|page=3159|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-60136-w|pmid=32081990|pmc=7035361|bibcode=2020NatSR..10.3159L|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2020/03/16/1079198?slug=new-species-accidentally-discovered-on-film|title=New species accidentally discovered on film|last=Hancock|first=Farah|date=16 March 2020|website=Newsroom|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> and in 2016, a red [[velvet whalefish]] and an angler fish (''[[Ceratias tentaculatus]]'') were found around the waters of the Kermadec Islands by a research partnership between [[Ngāti Kurī]], [[University of Auckland]], [[Massey University]], [[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research|NIWA]], [[Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research|Manaaki Whenua]], and the [[University of Waikato]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=The Kermadec Expedition Team|date=27 October 2016|title=It's a bit fishy up here in the Kermadecs|url=https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/stories/blog/2016/its-a-bit-fishy-up-here-in-the-kermadecs|access-date=5 May 2021|website=Auckland Museum}}</ref>


In 2016, Koha, a [[Hawksbill sea turtle|hawksbill turtle]], which was originally found injured near [[Dargaville]] in September 2014, was released around the waters of Raoul Island and nursed back to health at [[Kelly Tarlton's Sea Life Aquarium]]. The release was from the deck of the [[RV Tangaroa]], with land in sight to enable Koha to orientate itself to prevent the risk of getting lost in the open ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 Oct 2016|title=Releasing Koha the turtle at Raoul Island|url=https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/stories/blog/2016/releasing-koha-the-turtle-at-raoul-island|access-date=11 May 2021|website=Auckland Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bath|first=Brooke|date=2016-10-19|title=Endangered Hawksbill Sea Turtle's long journey home|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/auckland/85541617/endangered-hawksbill-sea-turtle-set-free-from-aucklands-kelly-tarltons|access-date=2021-05-14|website=Stuff|language=en}}</ref>
In 2016, Koha, a [[Hawksbill sea turtle|hawksbill turtle]], which was originally found injured near [[Dargaville]] in September 2014, was released around the waters of Raoul Island and nursed back to health at [[Kelly Tarlton's Sea Life Aquarium]]. The release was from the deck of the [[RV Tangaroa]], with land in sight to enable Koha to orientate itself to prevent the risk of getting lost in the open ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 Oct 2016|title=Releasing Koha the turtle at Raoul Island|url=https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/stories/blog/2016/releasing-koha-the-turtle-at-raoul-island|access-date=11 May 2021|website=Auckland Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bath|first=Brooke|date=2016-10-19|title=Endangered Hawksbill Sea Turtle's long journey home|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/auckland/85541617/endangered-hawksbill-sea-turtle-set-free-from-aucklands-kelly-tarltons|access-date=2021-05-14|website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |language=en}}</ref>


===Conservation===
===Conservation===
The introduction of cats, [[rat]]s, and goats devastated the forests and seabirds.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Courchamp | first1 = F. | last2 = Chapuis | first2 = J. L. | last3 = Pascal | first3 = M. | doi = 10.1017/S1464793102006061 | title = Mammal invaders on islands: Impact, control and control impact | journal = Biological Reviews | volume = 78 | issue = 3 | pages = 347–383 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14558589| citeseerx = 10.1.1.507.8446 | s2cid = 8308951 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Towns | first1 = D. R. | last2 = Broome | first2 = K. G. | doi = 10.1080/03014223.2003.9518348 | title = From small Maria to massive Campbell: Forty years of rat eradications from New Zealand islands | journal = New Zealand Journal of Zoology | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 377 | year = 2003 | s2cid = 85693432 }}</ref> Overgrazing by goats eliminated the forests of Macauley Island, leaving open grasslands, and altered the understory of Raoul Island. Predation by rats and cats reduced the seabird colonies on the main islands from millions of birds to tens of thousands. The New Zealand government has been working for the last few decades to restore the islands. New Zealand declared the islands a [[nature reserve]] in 1937, and the sea around them a [[marine reserves of New Zealand|marine reserve]] in 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/northland/places/kermadec-islands/|title=Kermadec Islands: Places to go|publisher=[[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)]]|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref> The marine reserve surrounds each of the islands and is one of New Zealand's largest at a total area of {{convert|7480|km2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.linz.govt.nz/layer/53564-protected-areas/data/91350/|title=Data Table – Protected Areas – LINZ Data Service (recorded area 748000 ha)|publisher=Land Information New Zealand|access-date=2019-08-27}}</ref>
The introduction of cats, [[rat]]s, and goats devastated the forests and seabirds.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Courchamp | first1 = F. | last2 = Chapuis | first2 = J. L. | last3 = Pascal | first3 = M. | doi = 10.1017/S1464793102006061 | title = Mammal invaders on islands: Impact, control and control impact | journal = Biological Reviews | volume = 78 | issue = 3 | pages = 347–383 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14558589| citeseerx = 10.1.1.507.8446 | s2cid = 8308951 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Towns | first1 = D. R. | last2 = Broome | first2 = K. G. | doi = 10.1080/03014223.2003.9518348 | title = From small Maria to massive Campbell: Forty years of rat eradications from New Zealand islands | journal = New Zealand Journal of Zoology | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 377 | year = 2003 | s2cid = 85693432 }}</ref> [[Overgrazing]] by goats eliminated the forests of Macauley Island, leaving open grasslands, and altered the understory of Raoul Island. Predation by rats and cats reduced the seabird colonies on the main islands from millions of birds to tens of thousands. The New Zealand government has been working for the last few decades to restore the islands. New Zealand declared the islands a [[nature reserve]] in 1937, and the sea around them a [[marine reserves of New Zealand|marine reserve]] in 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/northland/places/kermadec-islands/|title=Kermadec Islands: Places to go|publisher=[[Department of Conservation (New Zealand)]]|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref> The marine reserve surrounds each of the islands and is one of New Zealand's largest at a total area of {{convert|7480|km2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.linz.govt.nz/layer/53564-protected-areas/data/91350/|title=Data Table – Protected Areas – LINZ Data Service (recorded area 748000 ha)|publisher=Land Information New Zealand|access-date=2019-08-27}}</ref>


Goats were removed from Macauley in 1970 and from Raoul in 1984, and the forests have begun to recover. The islands are still known for their bird life, and seabird colonies presently inhabit offshore islets, which are safe from introduced rats and cats. Efforts are currently underway to remove the rats and cats from the islands, as well as some of the invasive exotic plants.
Goats were removed from Macauley in 1970 and from Raoul in 1984, and the forests have begun to recover. The islands are still known for their bird life, and seabird colonies presently inhabit offshore islets, which are safe from introduced rats and cats. Efforts are currently underway to remove the rats and cats from the islands, as well as some of the invasive exotic plants.


Visits to the islands are restricted by the Department of Conservation. The Department allows visits to Raoul by volunteers assisting in environmental restoration or monitoring projects, and other visitors engaged in nature study. Visits to the other islands are generally restricted to those engaged in scientific study of the islands.
Visits to the islands are restricted by the Department of Conservation. The department allows visits to Raoul by volunteers assisting in environmental restoration or monitoring projects, and other visitors engaged in nature study. Visits to the other islands are generally restricted to those engaged in scientific study of the islands.


On 29 September 2015, the New Zealand Prime Minister [[John Key]] announced the creation of the [[Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary]], a {{convert|620000|km²|0|abbr=on}} [[protected area]] in the Kermadec Islands region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/72497269/|title=John Key announces one of the world's largest ocean sanctuaries|author=Tracy Watkins|publisher=[[Stuff.co.nz]]|date=29 September 2015|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref> However, subsequently, fishing companies and [[iwi]] bodies filed legal action opposing it, and a coalition deal with the [[New Zealand First]] Party<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/98122008/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary-put-on-ice-by-nz-first-catching-greens-unaware|title=Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary put on ice by NZ First, catching Greens unaware|author=Simon Maude and Jonathan Milne|publisher=[[Sunday Star-Times]]|date=22 October 2017|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref> has led to the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/media/Marine/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary_updated.pdf|title=Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary|publisher=[[Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)]]|date=September 2015|access-date=2019-08-28|archive-date=15 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215070112/https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/media/Marine/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary_updated.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> not passing its second reading as of 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/pb/bills-and-laws/bills-proposed-laws/document/00DBHOH_BILL68514_1/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary-bill|title=Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill |publisher=[[New Zealand Parliament]]|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref>
On 29 September 2015, the New Zealand Prime Minister [[John Key]] announced the creation of the [[Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary]], a {{convert|620000|km2|0|abbr=on}} [[protected area]] in the Kermadec Islands region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/72497269/|title=John Key announces one of the world's largest ocean sanctuaries|author=Tracy Watkins|publisher=[[Stuff.co.nz]]|date=29 September 2015|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref> However, subsequently, fishing companies and [[iwi]] bodies filed legal action opposing it, and a coalition deal with the [[New Zealand First]] Party<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/98122008/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary-put-on-ice-by-nz-first-catching-greens-unaware|title=Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary put on ice by NZ First, catching Greens unaware|author=Simon Maude and Jonathan Milne|publisher=[[Sunday Star-Times]]|date=22 October 2017|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref> has led to the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/media/Marine/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary_updated.pdf|title=Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary|publisher=[[Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)]]|date=September 2015|access-date=2019-08-28|archive-date=15 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190215070112/https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/media/Marine/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary_updated.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> not passing its second reading as of 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/pb/bills-and-laws/bills-proposed-laws/document/00DBHOH_BILL68514_1/kermadec-ocean-sanctuary-bill|title=Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill |publisher=[[New Zealand Parliament]]|access-date=2019-08-28}}</ref> In late March 2024, the Government halted work on the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill.<ref>{{cite news |title=Government halts plans for Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/512889/government-halts-plan-for-kermadec-ocean-sanctuary |access-date=2 April 2024 |work=[[Radio New Zealand]] |date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131627/https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/political/512889/government-halts-plan-for-kermadec-ocean-sanctuary |archive-date=31 March 2024|url-status=live}}</ref>


In October–November 2016, a collaborative team of researchers from [[Auckland War Memorial Museum|Auckland Museum]], [[University of Auckland]], [[Massey University]], [[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research|NIWA]] and [[Te Papa]] undertook research around Kermadec Islands aboard [[RV Tangaroa|RV ''Tangaroa'']]. The multi-disciplinary team investigated the biodiversity of organisms living on the ocean floor and at midwater. The marine mammal populations were examined to determine what animal and plant species are shared between mainland New Zealand and the Kermadec region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kermadec Expedition |url= https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/collections-research/research/research-projects/kermadec-expedition |website=Auckland Museum |access-date=2 November 2022}}</ref>
In October–November 2016, a collaborative team of researchers from [[Auckland War Memorial Museum|Auckland Museum]], [[University of Auckland]], [[Massey University]], [[National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research|NIWA]] and [[Te Papa]] undertook research around Kermadec Islands aboard [[RV Tangaroa|RV ''Tangaroa'']]. The multi-disciplinary team investigated the biodiversity of organisms living on the ocean floor and at midwater. The marine mammal populations were examined to determine what animal and plant species are shared between mainland New Zealand and the Kermadec region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kermadec Expedition |url= https://www.aucklandmuseum.com/collections-research/research/research-projects/kermadec-expedition |website=Auckland Museum |access-date=2 November 2022}}</ref>

Latest revision as of 08:29, 13 December 2024

Kermadec Islands
Rangitāhua
Location (in green rectangle) in the Pacific Ocean
Geography
Coordinates29°16′37″S 177°55′24″W / 29.27694°S 177.92333°W / -29.27694; -177.92333
Total islandsaround 16
Area33.6 km2 (13.0 sq mi)
Highest elevation516 m (1693 ft)
Administration
Demographics
Population0 [1] (2006)

The Kermadec Islands (/ˈkɜːrmədɛk/ KUR-mə-dek; Māori: Rangitāhua)[2] are a subtropical island arc in the South Pacific Ocean 800–1,000 km (500–620 mi; 430–540 nmi) northeast of New Zealand's North Island, and a similar distance southwest of Tonga. The islands are part of New Zealand. They are 33.6 km2 (13.0 sq mi)[3] in total area and uninhabited, except for the permanently staffed Raoul Island Station, the northernmost outpost of New Zealand.

The islands are listed with the New Zealand outlying islands. The islands are an immediate part of New Zealand, but not part of any region or district, but instead an Area Outside Territorial Authority.

Toponymy

[edit]

The islands were named after the Breton captain Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec, who visited the islands as part of the d'Entrecasteaux expedition in the 1790s. The topographic particle "Kermadec" is of Breton origin and is a lieu-dit in Pencran in Finistère where ker means village, residence and madec a proper name derived from mad (which means 'good') with the suffix -ec, used to form adjectives indicating a property.

The Māori name is Rangitāhua which is also used for Raoul island.

History

[edit]

As indicated by their name for the islands, Rangitāhua (lit. 'the stopping-off place'), Polynesian people "stopped off" on the Kermadec islands in around the 14th century (and perhaps previously in the 10th century).[4] Their arrival is also evident in the presence of introduced taro and candlenut growing wild in certain areas of Raoul Island supported by its relatively warm climate.[5] However, the first Europeans to reach the area – arriving on board the Lady Penrhyn in May 1788 – found no inhabitants on these volcanic islands since.

British, American and Australian whaling vessels cruised offshore in the 19th century and often visited the islands in search of water, wood and food. The first such vessel on record was the whaler Fanny that visited Raoul Island in 1823.[6]

On 1 August 1886, HMS Diamond annexed the islands for the United Kingdom.[7] European settlers have lived on the island for varying lengths of time, from the early nineteenth century until 1937, growing food for the whalers.[8] The Thomas Bell family settled on the island from 1878 to 1914. One of the Bell daughters, Bessie Dyke, recounted the family's experience to writer Elsie K. Morton who published their story in 1957 as Crusoes of Sunday Island.[9]

The islands were annexed to New Zealand in 1887 according to one source.[10] However the Encyclopaedia of New Zealand states the annexation happened in 1886.[8]

Raoul Island Station

[edit]
Raoul Island from space

The Raoul Island Station consists of a government meteorological and radio station, and a hostel for Department of Conservation officers and volunteers, that has been maintained since 1937.[11] It lies on the northern terraces of Raoul Island, at an elevation of about 50 m (160 ft), above the cliffs of Fleetwood Bluff. It is the northernmost inhabited outpost of New Zealand.

Nuclear testing proposals

[edit]

In 1955, the British Government required a large site remote from population centres to test the new thermonuclear devices it was developing. Various islands in the South Pacific and Southern Oceans were considered, along with Antarctica.[12] In May 1955, the Minister for Defence, Selwyn Lloyd, on advice from the Admiralty report, concluded that the Kermadec Islands would be suitable. As the island group was part of New Zealand, Anthony Eden, who had recently become the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, wrote to the Prime Minister of New Zealand, Sidney Holland, to ask for permission to use the islands. Holland refused, fearing an adverse public reaction in the upcoming 1957 general election. Despite reassurances and pressure from the British government, Holland remained firm.[13]

Geography

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The islands lie within 29° to 31.5° south latitude and 178° to 179° west longitude, 800–1,000 km (500–620 mi; 430–540 nmi) northeast of New Zealand's North Island, and a similar distance southwest of Tonga. The total area of the islands is 33.6 km2 (12.97 sq mi).

Climate

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The climate of the islands is subtropical, with a mean monthly temperature of 22.4 °C (72.3 °F) in February and 16.0 °C (60.8 °F) in August. Rainfall is approximately 1,500 mm (60 in) annually, with lower rainfall from October to January.

Islands

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View from Raoul Island

The group includes four main islands as well as some isolated rocks. These are:

  • Raoul Island or Sunday Island is by far the largest of the islands. It lies 900 km (560 mi; 490 nmi) south-southwest of 'Ata, the southernmost island of Tonga, and 1,100 km (680 mi; 590 nmi) north-northeast of New Zealand. Raoul Island has an area of 29.38 km2 (11.34 sq mi) with numerous smaller satellite islands; its highest point, Moumoukai peak, is 516 m (1,693 ft) high
  • Macauley Island, the second largest, is located 110 km (68 mi; 59 nmi) south-southwest of Raoul Island. Together with neighbouring Haszard Island, its area is 3.06 km2 (1.18 sq mi).
    • Macdonald Rock is about 4 km (2.5 mi; 2.2 nmi) north of Macauley Island.[14]
  • Curtis Island, the third largest, lies 35 km (22 mi; 19 nmi) south-southwest of Macauley Island. It reaches a height of 137 m (449 ft) and has an area of 0.59 km2 (0.23 sq mi) with neighbouring Cheeseman Island.
  • Nugent Island is the northernmost island. It is approximately 100 metres (109 yd) across.
  • L'Esperance Rock, formerly French Rock, is 80 km (50 mi; 43 nmi) south-southwest of Curtis Island. It is 250 m (820 ft) in diameter, 0.05 km2 (0.019 sq mi) in area, and 70 m (230 ft) high.
  • L'Havre Rock, about 8 km (5.0 mi; 4.3 nmi) north-northwest of L'Esperance Rock, is submerged except at low tide.

Seamounts north and south of the Kermadec Islands are an extension of the ridge running from Tonga to New Zealand (see Geology). Star of Bengal Bank, 103 km (64 mi) south-southwest of L'Esperance Rock, has a least depth of 48 metres (157 ft).

Geology

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Bathymetry of the Kermadec volcanic island arc and surrounding areas

The islands are a volcanic island arc, formed at the convergent boundary where the Pacific Plate subducts under the Indo-Australian Plate. The subducting Pacific Plate created the Kermadec Trench, an 8 km deep submarine trench, to the east of the islands. The islands lie along the undersea Kermadec Ridge, which runs southwest from the islands towards the North Island of New Zealand and northeast towards Tonga (Kermadec-Tonga Arc).

The four main islands are the peaks of volcanoes that rise high enough from the seabed to project above sea level. There are several other volcanoes in the chain that do not reach sea level, but form seamounts with between 65 and 1500 m of water above their peaks. Monowai Seamount, with a depth of 120 m over its peak, is midway between Raoul Island and Tonga. 100 km south of L'Esperance Rock is the little-explored Star of Bengal Bank, probably with submarine volcanoes.

Further south are the South Kermadec Ridge Seamounts, the southernmost of which, Rumble IV Seamount, is just 150 km North of the North Island of New Zealand. The ridge eventually connects to White Island in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty, at the northern end of the Taupo Volcanic Zone. The islands experience many earthquakes from plate movement and volcanism.

Raoul and Curtis are both active volcanoes. The volcanoes on the other islands are currently inactive, and the smaller islands are the eroded remnants of extinct volcanoes.

From 18 to 21 July 2012, Havre Seamount (near Havre Rock) erupted, breaching the ocean surface from a depth of more than 1100 m and producing a large raft of pumice floating northwest of the volcano. The eruption was not directly observed, but it was located using earthquake and remote sensing data after the pumice raft was spotted by aircraft and encountered by HMNZS Canterbury.[15][16]

The islands are seismically active. An 8.1 magnitude earthquake occurred in the early hours of 5 March 2021, leading to several strong aftershocks and a tsunami advisory on the North Coast of North Island and other Pacific islands, including Norfolk Island, Australia. Other magnitude 8 earthquakes have struck near the islands in 1917[17] and 1976.[18]

Environment

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Flora

[edit]

The islands are recognised by the World Wildlife Fund as a distinct ecoregion, the Kermadec Islands subtropical moist forests.[19] It is a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregion, part of the Oceanian realm.[20] The forests are dominated by the red-flowering Kermadec pōhutukawa, related to the pōhutukawa of New Zealand.[21] The islands are home to 113 native species of vascular plants, of which 23 are endemic, along with mosses (52 native species), lichens and fungi (89 native species).[21][22][23] Most of the plant species are derived from New Zealand, with others having travelled over the Pacific.[24] 152 human-introduced species of plants have become established on the islands.[21]

Dense subtropical forests cover most of Raoul, and formerly covered Macauley.[21][25] Metrosideros kermadecensis is the dominant forest tree, forming a 10 – 15-metre (30 – 50-foot) high canopy. A native nīkau palm (Rhopalostylis baueri) is another important canopy tree. The forests have an understory of smaller trees, shrubs, ferns, and herbs, including Myrsine kermadecensis; Lobelia anceps, Poa polyphylla, Coprosma acutifolia, and Coriaria arborea.[21] Two endemic tree ferns, Alsophila milnei and the rare and endangered Alsophila kermadecensis, are also found in the forests.[26]

Areas near the seashore and exposed to salt spray are covered by a distinct community of shrubs and ferns, notably Myoporum obscurum, Coprosma petiolata, Asplenium obtusatum, Cyperus ustulatus, Disphyma australe, and Ficinia nodosa.[21][27]

Fauna

[edit]
The Kermadec scalyfin – part of the rich marine biota of the Kermadecs

The islands have no native land mammals. An endemic bird subspecies is the Kermadec red-crowned parakeet. The group has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because of its significance as a breeding site for several species of seabirds, including white-necked and black-winged petrels, wedge-tailed and little shearwaters, sooty terns and blue noddies.[28] The area also hosts rich habitats for cetaceans.[29] In recent years, increased presences of humpback whales indicate Kermadec Islands functioning as migratory corridors, and varieties of baleen (not in great numbers) and toothed whales including minke whales,[30] sperm whales, less known beaked whales, killer whales, and dolphins frequent in adjacent waters.[31][32] In late September 2015, satellite tags were attached to 25 humpback whales around Raoul Island, which were tracked to feeding grounds in Antarctica and across to the Antarctic Peninsula.[33] Vast numbers of southern right whales were historically seen in southwestern areas although only a handful of recent confirmations exist around Raoul Island.[34] The deep sea hydrothermal vents along the Kermadec ridge support diverse extremophile communities including the New Zealand blind vent crab.[35] Three new records of tropical reef fishes were recorded from the Kermadec Islands Marine Reserve in 2015 after researchers examined hundreds of hours of unused documentary film footage,[36][37] and in 2016, a red velvet whalefish and an angler fish (Ceratias tentaculatus) were found around the waters of the Kermadec Islands by a research partnership between Ngāti Kurī, University of Auckland, Massey University, NIWA, Manaaki Whenua, and the University of Waikato.[38]

In 2016, Koha, a hawksbill turtle, which was originally found injured near Dargaville in September 2014, was released around the waters of Raoul Island and nursed back to health at Kelly Tarlton's Sea Life Aquarium. The release was from the deck of the RV Tangaroa, with land in sight to enable Koha to orientate itself to prevent the risk of getting lost in the open ocean.[39][40]

Conservation

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The introduction of cats, rats, and goats devastated the forests and seabirds.[41][42] Overgrazing by goats eliminated the forests of Macauley Island, leaving open grasslands, and altered the understory of Raoul Island. Predation by rats and cats reduced the seabird colonies on the main islands from millions of birds to tens of thousands. The New Zealand government has been working for the last few decades to restore the islands. New Zealand declared the islands a nature reserve in 1937, and the sea around them a marine reserve in 1990.[43] The marine reserve surrounds each of the islands and is one of New Zealand's largest at a total area of 7,480 km2 (2,890 sq mi).[44]

Goats were removed from Macauley in 1970 and from Raoul in 1984, and the forests have begun to recover. The islands are still known for their bird life, and seabird colonies presently inhabit offshore islets, which are safe from introduced rats and cats. Efforts are currently underway to remove the rats and cats from the islands, as well as some of the invasive exotic plants.

Visits to the islands are restricted by the Department of Conservation. The department allows visits to Raoul by volunteers assisting in environmental restoration or monitoring projects, and other visitors engaged in nature study. Visits to the other islands are generally restricted to those engaged in scientific study of the islands.

On 29 September 2015, the New Zealand Prime Minister John Key announced the creation of the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary, a 620,000 km2 (239,383 sq mi) protected area in the Kermadec Islands region.[45] However, subsequently, fishing companies and iwi bodies filed legal action opposing it, and a coalition deal with the New Zealand First Party[46] has led to the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill[47] not passing its second reading as of 2019.[48] In late March 2024, the Government halted work on the Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill.[49]

In October–November 2016, a collaborative team of researchers from Auckland Museum, University of Auckland, Massey University, NIWA and Te Papa undertook research around Kermadec Islands aboard RV Tangaroa. The multi-disciplinary team investigated the biodiversity of organisms living on the ocean floor and at midwater. The marine mammal populations were examined to determine what animal and plant species are shared between mainland New Zealand and the Kermadec region.[50]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "New Zealand Volcano Erupts". CBS News. 16 March 2006. Archived from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
  2. ^ "Kermadec Islands". Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 1 November 2022.
  3. ^ "Data Table – Protected Areas – LINZ Data Service (recorded area 3359.9864 ha)". Land Information New Zealand. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
  4. ^ Gentry, Steven (2013). "2: Rangitahua – the Stopping-off Place". Raoul & the Kermadecs: New Zealand's Northernmost Islands, a History. Steele Roberts Aotearoa. pp. 37–51. ISBN 978-1-927242-02-5.
  5. ^ Sykes, William Russell (2000). Kermadec Islands flora: a compilation of modern material about the flora of the Kermadec Islands (special ed.). Lincoln, Canterbury, NZ: Manaaki Whenua Press. p. 104-5. ISBN 0-478-09339-X.
  6. ^ Langdon, Robert, ed. (1984). Where the whalers went: an index to the Pacific ports and islands visited by American whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th century. Canberra: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau. p. 145. ISBN 0-86784-471-X.
  7. ^ "Annexation of the Kermadec Islands". The Cornishman. No. 425. 2 September 1886. p. 3.
  8. ^ a b Jobberns, George (1966). "Kermadec Islands". In McLintock, A. H. (ed.). An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, Te Ara. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  9. ^ Morton, Elsie (1957). "Author's Note". Crusoes of Sunday Island.
  10. ^ Tikkanen, Amy (31 December 2019). "Kermadec Islands". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
  11. ^ Gabites, Bruce (July–September 1993). "Island of dreams". New Zealand Geographic. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
  12. ^ Arnold, Lorna; Pyne, Katherine (2001). Britain and the H-bomb. Basingstoke: Palgrave. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-333-94742-5.
  13. ^ Priestley, Rebecca (2013). "Cold War and Red Hot Science". Mad on radium – New Zealand in the atomic age. Auckland: Auckland University Press. ISBN 978-1869407278.
  14. ^ Chart NZ 2225 Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Hydrographic Office, Royal New Zealand Navy, 1994. Retrieved 7 May 2007.
  15. ^ "NASA Satellites Pinpoint Volcanic Eruption". NASA Earth Observatory. NASA. 14 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  16. ^ Noted. "'Massive' Kermadec volcanic eruption rivalled Mt St Helens". Noted. Retrieved 19 June 2019.[permanent dead link‍]
  17. ^ "M 8.2 - Kermadec Islands region". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
  18. ^ "M 8.0 - Kermadec Islands region". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
  19. ^ "From Theory to Practice". Plant Conservation: The Role of Habitat Restoration. 2019. pp. 306–354. doi:10.1017/9781108648677.009. ISBN 978-1-108-64867-7.
  20. ^ "Kermadec Islands Subtropical Moist Forests". One Earth. 6 December 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2024.
  21. ^ a b c d e f Mueller-Dombois, Dieter; Fosberg, F. R. (26 November 2013). Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Ecological Studies. Vol. 132. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4419-8686-3.
  22. ^ Beever, Jessica E.; Fife, Allan J.; West, Carol J. (December 1996). "Mosses of the Kermadec Islands, northern New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Botany. 34 (4): 463–471. Bibcode:1996NZJB...34..463B. doi:10.1080/0028825X.1996.10410127.
  23. ^ "Fungi of the Kermadec Islands". Mycotaxon. 45 (1): 149–170. 1992.
  24. ^ Nathan, Simon. "Kermadec Islands Page 2. Plants and animals". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. New Zealand Government. Retrieved 17 September 2024.
  25. ^ Barkla, J. W.; Dilks, P. J.; Greene, T. C.; Griffiths, R. (September 2008). "Homalanthus polyandrus(Euphorbiaceae) on Macauley Island, southern Kermadec Islands, with notes on that island's vascular flora". New Zealand Journal of Botany. 46 (3): 373–379. Bibcode:2008NZJB...46..373B. doi:10.1080/00288250809509775.
  26. ^ "Subtropical tree fern challenge". Te Papa’s Blog. Te Papa Tongarewa. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2024.
  27. ^ "Ficinia nodosa". New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Retrieved 17 September 2024.
  28. ^ BirdLife International. (2012). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Kermadec Islands. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 3 February 2012.
  29. ^ Baird, Karen (July 2010). "The Kermadec Whale Project" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 March 2016. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
  30. ^ "A surprise encounter while sailing to the Kermadecs Islands – The Listener". Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  31. ^ Duffy, Clinton A.J.; Baker, C. Scott; Constantine, Rochelle (2015). "Observation and identification of marine mammals during two recent expeditions to the Kermadec Islands, New Zealand". Bulletin of the Auckland Museum. 20. Auckland War Memorial Museum - Tāmaki Paenga Hira: 501–510.
  32. ^ "The Kermadecs" (PDF). 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2018.
  33. ^ The Kermadec Expedition Team (25 October 2016). "Raoul Island whales". Auckland Museum. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
  34. ^ "Sir Peter Blake Trust". Retrieved 26 December 2016.
  35. ^ McLay, Colin. "New crabs from hydrothermal vents of the Kermadec Ridge submarine volcanoes, New Zealand: Gandalfus gen. nov.(Bythograeidae) and Xenograpsus (Varunidae)(Decapoda: Brachyura)." Zootaxa 1524 (2007): 1–22.
  36. ^ Liggins, Libby; Sweatman, Jenny Ann; Trnski, Thomas; Duffy, Clinton A. J.; Eddy, Tyler D.; Aguirre, J. David (2020). "Natural history footage provides new reef fish biodiversity information for a pristine but rarely visited archipelago". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 3159. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.3159L. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-60136-w. PMC 7035361. PMID 32081990.
  37. ^ Hancock, Farah (16 March 2020). "New species accidentally discovered on film". Newsroom. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
  38. ^ The Kermadec Expedition Team (27 October 2016). "It's a bit fishy up here in the Kermadecs". Auckland Museum. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  39. ^ "Releasing Koha the turtle at Raoul Island". Auckland Museum. 23 October 2016. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
  40. ^ Bath, Brooke (19 October 2016). "Endangered Hawksbill Sea Turtle's long journey home". Stuff. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
  41. ^ Courchamp, F.; Chapuis, J. L.; Pascal, M. (2003). "Mammal invaders on islands: Impact, control and control impact". Biological Reviews. 78 (3): 347–383. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.507.8446. doi:10.1017/S1464793102006061. PMID 14558589. S2CID 8308951.
  42. ^ Towns, D. R.; Broome, K. G. (2003). "From small Maria to massive Campbell: Forty years of rat eradications from New Zealand islands". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 30 (4): 377. doi:10.1080/03014223.2003.9518348. S2CID 85693432.
  43. ^ "Kermadec Islands: Places to go". Department of Conservation (New Zealand). Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  44. ^ "Data Table – Protected Areas – LINZ Data Service (recorded area 748000 ha)". Land Information New Zealand. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
  45. ^ Tracy Watkins (29 September 2015). "John Key announces one of the world's largest ocean sanctuaries". Stuff.co.nz. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  46. ^ Simon Maude and Jonathan Milne (22 October 2017). "Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary put on ice by NZ First, catching Greens unaware". Sunday Star-Times. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  47. ^ "Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary" (PDF). Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand). September 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2019. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  48. ^ "Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary Bill". New Zealand Parliament. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  49. ^ "Government halts plans for Kermadec Ocean Sanctuary". Radio New Zealand. 28 March 2024. Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 2 April 2024.
  50. ^ "Kermadec Expedition". Auckland Museum. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
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