Demographics of the Philippines: Difference between revisions

Demographics of the Philippines
Demographics of the Philippines
	Philippines population pyramid in 2020
Population	109,033,245 (2020 census)
Growth rate	1.63% (2015–2020)
Birth rate	12.4 births/1,000 population; (2021)
Death rate	8.0 deaths/1,000 population (2021)
Life expectancy	72.66 years
• male	68.72 years
• female	74.74 years (2011 est.)
Fertility rate	1.9 children born/woman (2022 est.)
Infant mortality rate	11.0 deaths/1,000 live births
Net migration rate	−1.29 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2011 est.)
Age structure
0–14 years	29.98%; (male 17,006,677/female 16,036,437)
15–64 years	64.22%; (male 35,879,693/female 34,885,763)
65 and over	5.80%; (male 2,754,813/female 3,635,271) (2021 est.)
Sex ratio
Total	1 male(s)/female
At birth	1.05 male(s)/female
Under 15	1.04 male(s)/female
15–64 years	1 male(s)/female
65 and over	0.76 male(s)/female
Nationality
Nationality	Filipinos
Major ethnic	Visayan (Cebuano, Waray, Hiligaynon/Ilonggo, Karay-a, Aklanon, Masbatenyo, Romblomanon) 31.6%, Tagalog 28.1% (2000 census)
Minor ethnic	Ilocano 9%, Bikol 6%, Kapampangan 3%, Pangasinan 2%, Zamboangueño 1.5% & others 23.3% (2000 census)
Language
Official	Filipino and English
Spoken	Recognized regional languages: Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Bicolano, Waray, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Maranao, Maguindanao, Zamboangueño Chavacano and Tausug; Protected auxiliary languages: Spanish and Arabic

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Demography of the Philippines records the human population, including its population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects. The Philippines annualized population growth rate between the years 2015–2020 was 1.53%.^[6] According to the 2020 census, the population of the Philippines is 109,033,245.^[7] The first census in the Philippines was held in the year 1591 which counted 667,612 people.^[8]

The majority of Filipinos are lowland^{[broken anchor]} Austronesians,^[9] while the Aetas (Negritos), as well as other highland groups form a minority. The indigenous population is related to the indigenous populations of the Malay Archipelago. Some ethnic groups that have been in the Philippines for centuries before Spanish and American colonial rule have assimilated or intermixed. 600,000 people from the United States live in the Philippines.^[10] They represent 0.56% of the total population. The ethnic groups include Han Chinese, Arabs, Indians and Japanese which form parts of the population.^[11]

The most commonly spoken indigenous languages are Tagalog and Cebuano, with 23.8 million (45 million speakers as Filipino) and 16 million speakers, respectively. Nine other indigenous languages have at least one million native speakers: Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Bicolano, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Maranao, Maguindanao, and Tausug. One or more of these are spoken as a mother tongue by more than 93% of the population. Filipino and English are the official languages but there are between 120 and 170 distinct indigenous Philippine languages (depending on expert classifications).

Population history

The first census in the Philippines was in 1591, based on tributes collected. The tributes counted the total founding population of the Spanish-Philippines as 667,612 people.^[12]^: 177^[13]^[14] 20,000 were Chinese migrant traders,^[15] at different times: around 15,600 individuals were Latino soldier-colonists who were cumulatively sent from Peru and Mexico and they were shipped to the Philippines annually,^[16]^[17] 3,000 were Japanese residents,^[18] and 600 were pure Spaniards from Europe.^[19] There was a large but unknown number of South Asian Filipinos, as the majority of the slaves imported into the archipelago were from Bengal and India,^[20] adding Dravidian and Indo-Aryan speaking South Indians and Indo-European speaking Bengalis into the ethnic mix.

The rest were Austronesians and Negritos. With 667,612 people, during this era, the Philippines was among the most sparsely populated lands in Asia. In contrast, Japan during that era (the 1500s) had a population of 8 Million or Mexico had a population of 4 million, which was huge compared to the Philippine's 600,000. In 1600, the method of population counting was revamped by the Spanish officials, who then based the counting of the population through church records.

Stephanie J. Mawson, by rummaging through records in the archives of Mexico^[21] discovered that the Spaniards were not the only immigrant group to the Philippines; Peru and Mexico too sent soldiers to the islands,^[21] and in fact outnumbered the Spaniards who immigrated to the Philippines.^[21]

Geographic distribution and year of settlement of the Latin-American immigrant soldiers assigned to the Philippines in the 1600s.^[21]
Location	1603	1636	1642	1644	1654	1655	1670	1672
Manila^[21]	900	446	—	407	821	799	708	667
Fort Santiago^[21]	—	22	—	—	50	—	86	81
Cavite^[21]	—	70	—	—	89	—	225	211
Cagayan^[21]	46	80	—	—	—	—	155	155
Calamianes^[21]	—	—	—	—	—	—	73	73
Caraga^[21]	—	45	—	—	—	—	81	81
Cebu^[21]	86	50	—	—	—	—	135	135
Formosa^[21]	—	180	—	—	—	—	—	—
Moluccas^[21]	80	480	507	—	389	—	—	—
Otón^[21]	66	50	—	—	—	—	169	169
Zamboanga^[21]	—	210	—	—	184	—	—	—
Other^[21]	255	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
^[21]	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Total Reinforcements^[21]	1,533	1,633	2,067	2,085	n/a	n/a	1,632	1,572

In 1798, the population of Luzon or Luconia was estimated to be around 600,000 with the other islands, unknown. 200,000 of the 600,000 population were of mixed-raced descent of either Spanish, Chinese or Latin-American admixture. 5,000 enlisted soldiers on that year, were of South American descent, while 2,500 were pure Spanish officers. There were 20,000 new Chinese immigrants.^[22] The book, "Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 By Paula C. Park" citing "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756–1808)" gave a higher number of later Mexican soldier-immigrants to the Philippines, pegging the number at 35,000 immigrants in the 1700s in a population of only 1.5 Million thus forming 2.33% of the population.^[23]^[24]

In 1799, Friar Manuel Buzeta estimated the population of all the Philippine islands as 1,502,574.^[25] Despite the number of Mixed Spanish-Filipino descent being the lowest, they may be more common than expected as many Spaniards often had Filipino concubines and mistresses and they frequently produced children out of wedlock.^[26]^: 272

In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas"^[27]^[28] compiled a census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (Which represented an average family of seven to ten children^[29] and two parents, per tribute)^[30] and came upon the following statistics:

Data reported for the 1800 as divided by ethnicity and province^[27]^[28]
Province	Native Tributes	Spanish Mestizo Tributes	All Tributes^[a]
Tondo^[27]^: 539	14,437-1/2	3,528	27,897-7
Cavite^[27]^: 539	5,724-1/2	859	9,132-4
Laguna^[27]^: 539	14,392-1/2	336	19,448-6
Batangas^[27]^: 539	15,014	451	21,579-7
Mindoro^[27]^: 539	3,165	3-1/2	4,000-8
Bulacan^[27]^: 539	16,586-1/2	2,007	25,760-5
Pampanga^[27]^: 539	16,604-1/2	2,641	27,358-1
Bataan^[27]^: 539	3,082	619	5,433
Zambales^[27]^: 539	1,136	73	4,389
Ilocos^[28]^: 31	44,852-1/2	631	68,856
Pangasinan^[28]^: 31	19,836	719-1/2	25,366
Cagayan^[28]^: 31	9,888	0	11,244-6
Camarines^[28]^: 54	19,686-1/2	154-1/2	24,994
Albay^[28]^: 54	12,339	146	16,093
Tayabas^[28]^: 54	7,396	12	9,228
Cebu^[28]^: 113	28,112-1/2	625	28,863
Samar^[28]^: 113	3,042	103	4,060
Leyte^[28]^: 113	7,678	37-1/2	10,011
Caraga^[28]^: 113	3,497	0	4,977
Misamis^[28]^: 113	1,278	0	1,674
Negros Island^[28]^: 113	5,741	0	7,176
Iloilo^[28]^: 113	29,723	166	37,760
Capiz^[28]^: 113	11,459	89	14,867
Antique^[28]^: 113	9,228	0	11,620
Calamianes^[28]^: 113	2,289	0	3,161
TOTAL	299,049	13,201	424,992-16

The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province ^[27]^: 539 (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%,^[27]^: 539 Cavite at 13%,^[27]^: 539 Laguna 2.28%,^[27]^: 539 Batangas 3%,^[27]^: 539 Bulacan 10.79%,^[27]^: 539 Bataan 16.72%,^[27]^: 539 Ilocos 1.38%,^[28]^: 31 Pangasinan 3.49%,^[28]^: 31 Albay 1.16%,^[28]^: 54 Cebu 2.17%,^[28]^: 113 Samar 3.27%,^[28]^: 113 Iloilo 1%,^[28]^: 113 Capiz 1%,^[28]^: 113 Bicol 20%,^[31] and Zamboanga 40%.^[31] According to the data, in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was Spanish-Filipino.^[27]^: 539 Summing up all the provinces including those with no Spanish Filipinos, all in all, in the total population of the Philippines, Spanish Filipinos composed 5% of the population.^[27]^[28]

The first official census was in 1878, when the population as of midnight on December 31, 1877, was counted. This was followed by the 1887 census, with the 1898 census not completed. The 1887 census yielded a count of 5,984,727 excluding non-Christians.^[32]

In the 1860s to 1890s, in the urban areas of the Philippines, especially at Manila, according to burial statistics, as much as 3.3% of the population were pure European Spaniards and the pure Chinese were as high as 9.9%.^[33] The Spanish-Filipino and Chinese-Filipino mestizo populations may have fluctuated. Eventually, everybody belonging to these non-native categories diminished because they were assimilated into and chose to self-identify as pure Filipinos.^[33]^: 82 Since during the Philippine Revolution, the term "Filipino" included anybody born in the Philippines coming from any race.^[34]^[35] That would explain the abrupt drop of otherwise high Chinese, Spanish and mestizo percentages across the country by the time of the first American census in 1903.^[33]

1903 census

In 1903 the population of the Philippines was recounted by American authorities to fulfill Act 467. The survey yielded 7,635,426 people, including 56,138 who were foreign-born.^[36]

1920 census

According to the 1920 United States Census, there were 10,314,310 people in the Philippines.^[37] 99 percent were Filipino; 51,751 were either Chinese or Japanese; 34,563 were of mixed race; 12,577 were Caucasian; and 7,523 were African.^[37]

1939

The 1939 census was undertaken in conformity with Section 1 of Commonwealth Act 170.^[38] The Philippine population figure was 16,000,303.^[39]

1941

In 1941 the estimated population of the Philippines reached 17,000,000.^[40] Manila's population was 684,000.^[41]

By then, some 27% of the population could speak English as a second language, while the number of Spanish speakers as first language had further fallen to 3% from 10 to 14% at the beginning of the century. In 1936, Tagalog was selected to be the basis for a national language.^[42]^{[unreliable source]} In 1987, the Filipino language, a standard language based on Tagalog, was imposed as the national language and as one of the two official languages alongside English.^[43]

1966

The country ranks 18th in the world with 33,704,749 people, an increase of 899,211 people compared to 1965 data.^[44] Comparing the 1941 population of 17,000,000, the increase nearly doubled, reaching 16,704,749 in 25 years.

Philippine census surveys

Census Population 1960–2020^[45]
1960	1970	1975	1980	1990	1995	2000	2007	2010	2015	2020
27,087,685	36,684,486	42,070,660	48,098,460	60,703,206	68,616,536	76,506,928	88,566,732	92,337,852	100,981,437	109,033,245

In 1960, the government of the Philippines conducted a survey on both population, and housing. The population was pegged at 27,087,685. Successive surveys were again conducted in 1970, 1975, 1980, and 1990, which gave the population as 36,684,948, 42,070,660, 48,098,460, and 60,703,206 respectively. In 1995, the POPCEN was launched, undertaken at the month of September, The data provided the bases for the Internal Revenue Allocation to local government units, and for the creation of new legislative areas. The count was made official by then President Fidel Ramos by Proclamation No, 849 on August 14, 1995, The population was 68,616,536.

Vital statistics

Registered births and deaths

Source: Philippine Statistics Authority^[46]^[47] ^[48]

	Average population	Live births	Deaths	Natural change	Crude birth rate (per 1000)	Crude death rate (per 1000)	Natural change (per 1000)	Total fertility rate	Infant mortality rate (per 1000 births)
1903	7,635,000	284,000	329,671	-44,871	37.3	43.2	-5.9
1904	7,659,000	216,176	146,894	69,282	28.2	19.2	9.0
1905	7,699,000	244,586	166,555	78,031	31.8	21.6	10.2
1906	7,761,000	215,296	143,284	72,012	27.7	18.5	9.2
1907	7,844,000	258,010	138,464	119,546	32.9	17.7	15.2
1908	7,964,000	278,369	190,495	87,874	35.0	23.9	11.1
1909	8,095,000	234,726	179,355	55,371	29.0	22.2	6.8
1910	8,220,000	290,210	191,576	98,634	35.3	23.3	12.0
1911	8,387,000	302,855	188,412	114,443	36.1	22.5	13.6
1912	8,576,000	290,995	185,185	105,810	33.9	21.6	12.3
1913	8,786,000	316,056	154,086	161,970	36.0	17.5	18.5
1914	9,017,000	347,337	163,943	183,394	38.5	18.2	20.3
1915	9,269,000	327,206	176,313	150,893	35.3	19.0	16.3
1916	9,542,000	340,269	195,970	144,659	35.7	20.5	15.2
1917	9,836,000	353,283	212,334	140,949	35.9	21.6	14.3
1918	10,314,000	345,751	367,106	-21,355	33.5	35.6	-2.1
1919	10,324,000	306,832	326,716	-19,884	29.7	31.6	-1.9
1920	10,445,000	351,195	200,690	150,505	33.6	19.2	14.4
1921	10,673,000	364,432	205,654	158,778	34.1	19.3	14.8
1922	10,908,000	373,506	203,237	170,269	34.2	18.6	15.6
1923	11,152,000	385,418	202,981	182,437	34.6	18.2	16.4
1924
1925
1926	11,935,000	400,439	229,928	170,511	33.6	19.3	14.3		156.7
1927	12,212,000	414,357	229,328	185,029	33.9	18.8	15.1		152.5
1928	12,498,000	422,716	218,096	204,620	33.8	17.5	16.3		150.1
1929	12,792,000	428,996	237,733	191,263	33.5	18.6	14.9		161.6
1930	13,094,000	429,245	252,988	176,257	32.8	19.3	13.5		165.0
1931	13,405,000	440,159	240,825	199,334	32.8	18.0	14.8		155.1
1932	13,724,000	446,940	211,809	235,131	32.6	15.4	17.1		137.6
1933	14,051,000	459,682	227,594	232,088	32.7	16.2	16.5		145.8
1934	14,387,000	447,738	239,703	208,035	31.1	16.7	14.4		160.8
1935	14,731,000	461,410	257,181	204,229	31.3	17.5	13.8		153.4
1936	15,084,000	485,126	239,107	246,019	32.2	15.9	16.3		134.0
1937	15,445,000	513,760	254,740	259,020	33.3	16.5	16.8		137.3
1938	15,814,000	512,389	261,848	250,541	32.4	16.6	15.8		139.0
1939	16,000,000	522,432	273,141	249,291	32.7	16.9	15.8		146.2
1940	16,460,000	535,117	273,480	261,637	32.5	16.6	15.9		135.8
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946	18,434,000	533,283	278,546	254,737	28.9	15.1	13.8		125.5
1947	18,786,000	272,226	238,527	33,699	14.5	12.7	1.8		234.4
1948	19,234,000	602,415	243,467	358,948	31.3	12.7	18.6		114.4
1949	19,509,000	609,138	231,151	377,987	31.2	11.8	19.4		108.5
1950	19,881,000	642,472	226,505	415,967	32.3	11.4	20.9	2.792	101.6
1951	20,260,000	637,264	237,937	399,327	31.5	11.7	19.8	2.733	105.5
1952	20,646,000	650,725	241,020	409,705	31.5	11.7	19.8	3.080	101.2
1953	21,039,000	468,489	239,988	228,501	22.3	11.4	10.9	3.140	148.8
1954	22,869,000	702,662	217,650	485,012	30.7	9.5	21.2		94.2
1955	23,568,000	734,761	212,798	521,963	31.2	9.0	22.2		84.3
1956	24,288,000	542,249	205,581	336,668	22.3	8.5	13.8	3.364	110.9
1957	25,030,000	514,202	199,919	314,283	20.5	8.0	12.5	3.139	112.9
1958	25,795,000	484,592	185,437	299,155	18.6	7.2	11.4		109.2
1959	26,584,000	616,893	176,448	440,445	23.2	6.6	16.6	3.074	93.4
1960	27,088,000	649,651	196,544	453,107	24.0	7.3	16.7	3.676	84.6
1961	28,214,000	647,846	207,436	440,410	23.0	7.3	15.7	3.201	88.4
1962	29,064,000	775,146	169,880	605,266	26.7	5.9	20.8	3.679	58.6
1963	29,937,000	786,698	214,412	572,286	26.3	7.2	19.1	3.622	72.8
1964	30,841,000	802,648	222,097	580,551	26.0	7.2	18.8	3.683	70.5
1965	31,770,000	795,415	234,935	560,480	25.0	7.4	17.6	3.734	72.9
1966	32,727,000	823,342	236,396	586,946	25.2	7.2	18.0	3.542	72.0
1967	33,713,000	840,302	240,122	600,180	24.9	7.1	17.8	3.487	72.2
1968	34,728,000	898,570	261,893	636,677	25.9	7.5	18.4	3.612	71.0
1969	35,774,000	946,753	241,678	705,075	26.5	6.8	19.7	3.870	67.3
1970	36,684,000	966,762	234,038	732,724	26.4	6.4	20.0	3.631	60.0
1971	37,902,000	963,749	250,139	713,610	25.4	6.6	18.8	3.475	62.0
1972	38,991,000	968,385	285,761	682,624	24.8	7.3	17.5	3.366	67.9
1973	40,123,000	1,049,290	283,475	765,815	26.2	7.1	19.1	3.466	64.7
1974	41,279,000	1,081,073	283,975	797,098	26.2	6.9	19.3	3.495	58.7
1975	42,071,000	1,223,837	271,136	952,701	29.1	6.4	22.7	3.891	53.3
1976	43,338,000	1,314,860	299,861	1,014,999	30.3	6.9	23.4	4.049	56.9
1977	44,417,000	1,344,836	308,904	1,035,932	30.3	7.0	23.3	4.072	56.8
1978	45,498,000	1,387,588	297,034	1,090,554	30.5	6.5	24.0	4.165	53.1
1979	46,592,000	1,429,814	306,427	1,123,387	30.7	6.6	24.1	4.179	50.2
1980	48,098,000	1,456,860	298,006	1,158,854	30.3	6.2	24.1	4.026	45.1
1981	49,536,000	1,461,204	301,117	1,160,087	29.5	6.1	23.4	3.874	44.1
1982	50,783,000	1,474,491	308,758	1,165,733	29.0	6.1	22.9	3.775	41.8
1983	52,055,000	1,506,356	327,260	1,179,096	28.9	6.3	22.6	3.733	42.7
1984	53,351,000	1,478,205	313,359	1,164,846	27.7	5.9	21.8	3.557	38.5
1985	54,668,000	1,437,154	334,663	1,102,491	26.3	6.1	20.2	3.309	38.0
1986	56,004,000	1,493,995	326,749	1,167,246	26.7	5.8	20.9	3.328	35.0
1987	57,356,000	1,582,469	335,254	1,247,215	27.6	5.8	21.8	3.434	32.1
1988	58,721,000	1,565,372	325,098	1,240,274	26.7	5.5	21.2	3.311	30.1
1989	60,097,000	1,565,254	325,621	1,239,633	26.0	5.4	20.6	3.230	27.5
1990	60,703,000	1,631,069	313,890	1,317,179	26.9	5.4	21.5	3.279	24.3
1991	63,729,000	1,643,296	298,063	1,345,233	25.8	4.7	21.1	2.944	20.9
1992	65,339,000	1,684,395	319,579	1,364,816	25.8	4.9	20.9	3.031	21.9
1993	66,982,000	1,680,896	318,546	1,362,350	25.1	4.8	20.3	3.138	20.6
1994	68,624,000	1,645,011	321,440	1,323,571	24.0	4.7	19.3	3.013	18.9
1995	68,617,000	1,645,043	324,737	1,320,306	24.0	4.7	19.3	3.085	18.6
1996	69,951,000	1,608,468	344,363	1,264,105	23.0	4.9	18.1	2.935	19.0
1997	71,549,000	1,653,236	339,400	1,313,836	23.1	4.7	18.4	2.936	17.0
1998	73,147,000	1,632,859	352,992	1,279,867	22.3	4.8	17.5	2.829	17.3
1999	74,746,000	1,613,335	347,989	1,265,346	21.6	4.7	16.9	2.723	15.6
2000	76,348,000	1,766,440	366,931	1,399,509	23.1	4.8	18.3	2.917	15.7
2001	77,926,000	1,714,093	381,834	1,332,259	22.0	4.9	17.1	2.756	15.2
2002	79,503,000	1,666,773	396,297	1,270,476	21.0	5.0	16.0	2.618	14.2
2003	81,081,000	1,669,442	396,331	1,273,111	20.6	4.9	15.7	2.563	13.7
2004	82,663,000	1,710,994	403,191	1,307,803	20.7	4.9	15.8	2.564	13.2
2005	84,241,000	1,688,918	426,054	1,262,864	20.0	5.1	14.9	2.474	12.8
2006	86,973,000	1,663,029	441,036	1,221,993	19.1	5.1	14.0	2.391	13.1
2007	88,706,000	1,749,878	441,956	1,307,922	19.7	5.0	14.7	2.541	12.4
2008	90,457,000	1,784,316	461,581	1,322,735	19.7	5.1	14.6	2.455	12.5
2009	92,227,000	1,745,585	480,820	1,264,765	18.9	5.2	13.7	2.349	12.4
2010	94,013,000	1,782,981	488,265	1,294,716	19.0	5.2	13.8	2.420	12.6
2011	95,053,000	1,746,864	498,486	1,248,378	18.4	5.3	13.2	2.325	12.8
2012	96,328,000	1,790,367	514,745	1,275,622	18.6	5.3	13.2	2.334	12.4
2013	97,571,000	1,761,602	531,280	1,230,322	17.9	5.4	12.5	2.248	12.5
2014	99,138,000	1,748,857	536,999	1,211,858	17.6	5.4	12.2	2.187	12.3
2015	100,699,000	1,744,767	560,605	1,184,162	17.3	5.5	11.8	2.162	11.9
2016	102,530,000	1,731,289	582,183	1,149,106	16.8	5.6	11.2	2.110	12.6
2017	104,169,000	1,700,618	579,262	1,121,356	16.2	5.5	10.7	2.044	11.9
2018	105,755,000	1,668,120	590,709	1,077,411	15.8	5.6	10.2	1.980	12.6
2019	107,288,150	1,674,302	620,724	1,053,578	15.6	5.8	9.8	1.964	13.0
2020	109,202,700	1,528,624	613,936	914,688	14.0	5.6	8.4	1.774	11.0
2021	110,081,700	1,364,739	879,429	485,310	12.4	8.0	4.4	1.569	13.6
2022	110,939,800	1,455,393	679,766	775,627	13.0	6.1	6.9	1.652	13.8
2023	111,941,200	1,448,522	694,821	753,701	12.8	6.2	6.6	1.609

Current vital statistics

^[49]


Period	Live births	Deaths	Natural increase
*January - July 2023**	660,845	342,553	+318,292
*January - July 2024**	482,910	281,840	+201,070
Difference	-177,935 (-26.9%)	-60,713 (-17.7%)	-117,222

As the finalized, instead of provisional, live birth data for 2022 was published on January 5, 2024,^[50] while the corresponding finalized death data was published on February 6, 2024,^[51] it's better to take the monthly provisional updates with a 12-month delay. For example, regarding the latest provisional update at the end of July 2024, the data within the reference period from January through July 2023 would be reliable, while the data from August on would likely be underregistered & would face large revision during future months.

UN estimates

World population prospects, 2010^[52]
Period	Live births per year	Deaths per year	Natural change per year	CBR¹	CDR¹	NC¹	TFR¹	IMR¹
1950–1955	981 000	269 000	712 000	48.6	13.3	35.3	7.42	96.8
1955–1960	1,095,000	285 000	810 000	45.7	11.9	33.8	7.27	86.5
1960–1965	1,218,000	299 000	919 000	43.0	10.6	32.5	6.98	77.4
1965–1970	1,334,000	311 000	1,023,000	40.4	9.4	31.0	6.54	67.8
1970–1975	1,461,000	326 000	1,136,000	38.3	8.5	29.8	5.98	59.3
1975–1980	1,643,000	346 000	1,297,000	37.4	7.9	29.5	5.46	51.8
1980–1985	1,801,000	368 000	1,433,000	35.6	7.3	28.3	4.92	45.2
1985–1990	1,968,000	393 000	1,575,000	34.0	6.8	27.2	4.53	39.5
1990–1995	2,084,000	419 000	1,664,000	31.8	6.4	25.4	4.14	34.5
1995–2000	2,216,000	450 000	1,766,000	30.2	6.1	24.1	3.90	30.1
2000–2005	2,360,000	487 000	1,873,000	28.8	5.5	23.3	3.70	26.3
2005–2010	2,318,000	528 000	1,790,000	25.9	5.5	20.4	3.30	23.0
2010–2015				24.1	5.8	18.3	3.05
2015–2020				20.6	5.8	14.8	2.58
2020–2025				19.6	6.2	13.4	2.45
2025–2030				18.6	6.5	12.1	2.34
¹CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births

Demographic and health surveys

^[53] ^[54]

Total fertility rate (TFR) (wanted fertility rate) and crude birth rate (CBR):

Year	CBR (total)	TFR (total)	CBR (urban)	TFR (urban)	CBR (rural)	TFR (rural)
1993	29.7	4.09 (2.9)	28.5	3.53 (2.6)	30.9	4.82 (3.3)
1998	28.0	3.73 (2.7)	25.8	3.01 (2.3)	30.1	4.67 (3.3)
2003	25.6	3.5 (2.5)	24.7	3.0 (2.2)	26.7	4.3 (3.0)
2008	23.4	3.3 (2.4)	21.6	2.8 (2.1)	24.6	3.8 (2.7)
2013	22.1	3.0 (2.2)	21.5	2.6 (1.9)	22.6	3.5 (2.5)
2017	18.6	2.7 (2.0)	18.4	2.4 (1.8)	18.7	2.9 (2.2)
2022	13.3	1.9 (1.5)	12.7	1.7 (1.3)	14.0	2.2 (1.7)

Single mother phenomenon and illegitimate birth rate

More than half of the children born every year in the Philippines are illegitimate, and the percentage of illegitimate children is rising by 2% per year.^[55]^[56]^[57]^[58] The percentage of unwed woman in live-in relationship is consistently rising e.g. from 5.2% in 1993 to 18.8% in 2022, i.e. over 30 years the percentage of women in live-in increased nearly 360%; and the percentage of women in a married arrangement is consistently decreasing every year e.g. from 54.4% in 1993 to 36.2% in 2022, i.e. over 30 years 33% less woman chose to marry.^[59]

Reporting Year	% of women in live-in relationship	% increase in women in live-in relationship	% of women in marriages	% change in women in marriages	PSA sources
2022	18.8%	1.3%	36.2%	-6.2%	^[59]
2017	17.5%	3.0%	42.4%	-3.4%	^[59]
2013	14.5%	3.3%	45.8%	-4.9%	^[59]
2008	11.2%	3.2%	50.7%	-4.9%	^[59]
2003	8.0%	1.8%	55.6%	-2.2%	^[59]
1998	6.2%	1.0%	53.4%	-1.0%	^[59]
1993	5.2%	—	54.4%	—	^[59]

The following table, based on the annual official data sourced from Philippine Statistics Authority, shows the growing annual trend of illegitimate child births by percentages:

Reporting Year	Nationwide % of illegitimate children born every year	Nationwide % increase in illegitimate children compared to previous year	% of illegitimate children born in NCR every year	% of illegitimate children born in ARMM every year	PSA sources
2021	57.1%	0.1%	69.2%	5.2%	^[60]
2020	57.0%	2.2%	68.4%	5.4%	^[61]
2019	54.8%	0.5%	66.2%	4.8%	^[62]
2018	54.3%	1.0%	65.8%	4.3%	^[63]
2017	53.3%	4.1%	64.9%	4.3%	^[64]
2016	49.2%	−2.9%	59.9%	4.8%	^[65]
2015	52.1%	1.8%	63.0%	6.2%	^[66]
2014	50.3%	2.1%	62.0%	6.6%	^[67]
2013	48.2%	2.5%	60.9%	6.6%	^[68]
2012	45.7%	1.1%	58.5%	5.4%	^[69]
2011	44.6%	7.1%	56.9%	7.6%	^[70]
2008	37.5%	NA	NA	NA	^[71]

First time single mothers are mainly due to the teenage pregnancy among girls in the 17 to 19 years old age bracket, thus getting trapped in the cycle of poverty and abuse.^[72] Some females become prostitutes in the Philippines after they become unwed single mothers^[73] from teenage pregnancy. As of 2016 more than half of Filipina women did not want additional children, but access to contraceptives was limited, and many people were hesitant to use what contraceptives were available due to opposition from the Catholic Church.^[74]^[75] The reasons for the high illegitimate birthrate and single motherhood include the unpopularity of artificial contraception^[76] inadequate sex education, delays in implementing birth control legislation and a machismo attitude among many Filipino males. There are three million household heads without a spouse, two million of whom were female (2015 PSA estimates).

Between 2010 and 2014, 54% of all pregnancies in the Philippines (1.9 million pregnancies) were unintended. Consequently, 9% of women between 15 and 19 years of age have begun childbearing, and every year there are 610 000 unsafe abortions. In 2017, modern contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) in "the Philippines was 40% among married women of reproductive age and 17% among unmarried sexually active women" and "Forty-six percent of married women used no contraceptive method in 2017 and 14% a traditional method." The "unmet need for family planning' which is the lack of access of contraceptives to women do not want to have more children or wish to delay having children was 17% among married women and 49% among unmarried and among unmarried only 22% women were able to access modern contraceptive methods. "As a consequence of the low contraceptive met need, 68% of unintended pregnancies occur in women not using any method and 24% in those using traditional methods" and the rest had to resort to unsafe traditional methods.^[77]

The Catholic Church in Philippines opposes sex before or outside marriage, and the use of modern contraceptive and the passing of laws allowing for divorce. It continues to mix religion with politics since the time of Spanish friar, while Catholic priests continue to have scandals by having affairs and by fathering offspring with women amidst allegations of child sexual abuse by the Catholic Church clergy.^[78] The Catholic religion that was introduced by Spanish colonial era Catholic friars was adapted through a process of enculturation.^[78] Hence, there is a gap between the [relatively more orthodox] scriptural Catholic religion and the version practiced by Filipinos in daily life.^[78] 84% Filipinos are Catholic, and what Filipinos actually do in practice is different from what they believe in,^[78] i.e. Filipinos practice a liberal cultural attitude towards sexual relationships while also contrastingly practicing orthodox Catholic religious belief which opposes the modern scientific contraceptives and laws based on the modern values, resulting in lack of access to family planning methods, stigmatization of medical abortions, a high number of unwanted pregnancies, lack of access to safe modern medical abortions, high and still rising trend of illegitimate newborn birth rate.

The law of the Philippines continues to differentiate and discriminate between filiation (recognition of the biological relationship between father and child) and legitimacy (legally considered a legitimate child), national law still continues to label the "nonmarital births" as "illegitimate", which has been criticized by the social and legal activists for the constitutional stigmatization and denial of equal legal rights.

Life expectancy

Period	Life expectancy in years	Period	Life expectancy in years
1950–1955	55.4	1985–1990	64.7
1955–1960	57.1	1990–1995	65.7
1960–1965	58.6	1995–2000	66.8
1965–1970	60.1	2000–2005	67.5
1970–1975	61.4	2005–2010	68.0
1975–1980	61.7	2010–2015	68.6
1980–1985	62.9

Source: UN World Population Prospects^[79]

Structure of the population

Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 01.VIII.2015) (Excluding 2134 Filipinos in Philippine Embassies, Consulates and Missions Abroad.): ^[80]

Age Group	Male	Female	Total	%
Total	51,069,962	49,909,341	100,979,303	100
0–4	5,590,485	5,228,446	10,818,931	10.71
5–9	5,596,837	5,246,083	10,842,920	10.74
10–14	5,405,418	5,088,524	10,493,942	10.39
15–19	5,202,239	4,988,946	10,191,185	10.09
20–24	4,795,772	4,671,722	9,467,494	9.38
25–29	4,252,817	4,107,630	8,360,447	8.28
30–34	3,755,963	3,585,931	7,341,894	7.27
35–39	3,447,349	3,295,338	6,742,687	6.68
40–44	2,995,391	2,853,937	5,849,328	5.79
45–49	2,680,464	2,603,861	5,284,325	5.23
50–54	2,227,579	2,202,968	4,430,547	4.39
55–59	1,785,436	1,821,398	3,606,834	3.57
60–64	1,325,815	1,435,368	2,761,183	2.73
65–69	878 327	1,037,798	1,916,125	1.90
70–74	523 237	696 843	1,220,080	1.21
75–79	338 520	520 578	859 098	0.85
80–84	169 388	305 752	475 140	0.47
85–89	69 930	148 296	218 226	0.22
90–94	21 868	53 087	74 955	0.07
95–99	5 956	14 010	19 966	0.02
100+	1 171	2 825	3 996	<0.01
Age group	Male	Female	Total	Percent
0–14	16,592,740	15,563,053	32,155,793	31.84
15–64	32,468,825	31,567,099	64,035,924	63.41
65+	2,008,397	2,779,189	4,787,586	4.74

Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2021) (Estimates or projections based on the 2015 population census.): ^[80]

Age Group	Male	Female	Total	%
Total	55,641,183	54,557,471	110,198,654	100
0–4	5,713,939	5,376,619	11,090,558	10.06
5–9	5,721,245	5,393,760	11,115,005	10.09
10–14	5,571,493	5,266,058	10,837,551	9.83
15–19	5,282,220	5,065,572	10,347,792	9.39
20–24	5,025,243	4,778,690	9,803,933	8.90
25–29	4,731,675	4,491,835	9,223,510	8.37
30–34	4,332,532	4,161,373	8,493,905	7.71
35–39	3,809,605	3,689,326	7,498,931	6.80
40–44	3,315,063	3,236,820	6,551,883	5.95
45–49	2,991,320	2,930,462	5,921,782	5.37
50–54	2,552,972	2,536,854	5,089,826	4.62
55–59	2,159,465	2,201,321	4,360,786	3.96
60–64	1,679,598	1,793,510	3,473,108	3.15
65-69	1,202,310	1,377,181	2,579,491	2.34
70-74	757 578	957 989	1,715,567	1.56
75-79	450 941	660 111	1,111,052	1.01
80+	343 984	639 990	983 974	0.89
Age group	Male	Female	Total	Percent
0–14	17,006,677	16,036,437	33,043,114	29.99
15–64	35,879,693	34,885,763	70,765,456	64.22
65+	2,754,813	3,635,271	6,390,084	5.80

By region

Total fertility rate (TFR) and other related statistics by region, as of 2013:^[81]

Region	Total fertility rate	Percentage of women age 15–49 currently pregnant	Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49
National Capital Region	2.3	3.0	3.0
Cordillera Administrative Region	2.9	4.8	4.0
Ilocos Region	2.8	4.5	3.2
Cagayan Valley	3.2	6.1	3.7
Central Luzon	2.8	4.1	3.3
Calabarzon	2.7	3.1	3.4
Mimaropa	3.7	5.8	4.5
Bicol	4.1	4.0	4.6
Western Visayas	3.8	4.2	4.2
Central Visayas	3.2	3.9	3.6
Eastern Visayas	3.5	5.9	4.0
Zamboanga Peninsula	3.5	6.4	4.5
Northern Mindanao	3.5	5.7	4.3
Davao	2.9	5.0	3.9
Soccsksargen	3.2	3.8	4.2
Caraga	3.6	6.6	4.4
ARMM	4.2	4.7	5.5

Ethnic groups and modern immigrants in the Philippines

The majority of the people in the Philippines are related to Austronesian peoples. According to the CIA Factbook, the largest ethnic groups as of 2020 are the Tagalogs (26%), the Bisaya people (14.3%), the Ilocano people (8%), the Bicolano people (6.5%), the Waray people (3.8%), the Kapampangan people (3.0%), the Pangasinan people (1.9%), and the Maguindanao people (1.9%), among other local ethnicities (18.5%).^[82] The indigenous peoples of the Philippines form a minority of the population. Other large ethnic groups include Filipinos of Japanese, Indian, Chinese, Spanish, and American descent. There are more than 175 ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines, each with their own, identity, literature, tradition, music, dances, foods, beliefs, and history, but which form part of the tapestry of Filipino culture. The latest censuses did not take account of ethnicity, and the only census that included questions on ethnicity is of the 2000 census. Nevertheless, a 2019 Anthropology Study by Matthew Go, published in the Journal of Human Biology, using physical anthropology, estimated that, 72.7% of Filipinos are Asian, 12.7% of Filipinos can be classified as Hispanic (Latin-American Mestizos or Austronesian-Spanish Mestizos), 7.3% as Indigenous American, African at 4.5% and European at 2.7%.^[83]

The total number of immigrants and expats in Philippines as of the 2010 censuses is 177,365.^[84] By country:^[85]

United States of America: 29,972
China: 28,705
Japan: 11,584
India: 9,007
Korea, South: 5,822
Korea, North: 4,846
Canada: 4,700
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: 3,474
Australia: 3,360
Germany: 3,184
Indonesia: 2,781
Taiwan: 1,538
Italy: 1,460
Afghanistan: 1,019
France: 1,014
Spain: 1,009
Switzerland 872
Turkey: 739
Singapore: 691
South Africa: 681
Malaysia: 673
Saudi Arabia: 621
Norway: 550
Israel: 514
Sweden: 513
Iran: 498
Tunisia: 479
Belgium: 445
Congo: 444
Austria: 424
Pakistan: 421
Netherlands: 407
Algeria: 389
Ecuador: 387
Denmark: 374
United Arab Emirates: 368
Ireland: 362
Myanmar: 355
Vietnam: 351
Oman: 342
New Zealand: 325
Thailand: 286
Hungary: 206
Nigeria: 162
Jordan: 150
Sri Lanka: 146
Kuwait: 144
Egypt: 135
Brazil: 134
Bangladesh: 133
Greece: 129
Portugal: 127
Argentina: 125
Mexico: 123
Russia: 120
East Timor: 119
Armenia: 115
Lebanon: 110
Cape Verde: 109
Colombia: 106
Suriname: 106
Qatar: 102
Others: 1,617

Languages

According to the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino, there are 135 ethnic languages in the Philippine archipelago, each spoken by the respective ethno-linguistic group, except for the national Filipino language which is spoken by all 134 ethno-linguistic groups in the country. Most of the languages have several varieties (dialects), totaling over 300 across the archipelago. In the 1930s, the government promoted the use of the Tagalog language as the national language, and called the new Tagalog-based language as the national Filipino language, becoming the 135th ethnic language of the country.^[43]^{[failed verification]}^[86]^{[failed verification]} Visayan languages (Cebuano, Waray, Hiligaynon, etc.) are widely spoken throughout the Visayas and in most parts of Mindanao. Ilokano is the lingua franca of Northern Luzon excluding Pangasinan. Zamboangueño Chavacano is the official language of Zamboanga City and lingua franca of Basilan.

Filipino and English are the official languages of the country for purposes of communication and instruction.^[5] Consequently, English is widely spoken and understood, although fluency has decreased as the prevalence of Tagalog in primary and secondary educational institutions has increased.

Religion

The Philippine Statistics Authority in October 2015 reported that 80.58% of the total Filipino population were Roman Catholics, 10.8% were Protestant and 5.57% were Islamic.^[87] Although the 2012 International Religious Freedom (IRF) reports that an estimate by the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos (NCMF) in 2011 stated that there were then 10.3 million Muslims, or about 10 percent of the total population however this is yet to be proven officially.^[88] In 2000, according to the "World Values Survey", 1.8% were Protestant Christians and 10.9% were then irreligious.^[89]^{[dubious – discuss]} Other Christian denominations include the Iglesia ni Cristo (one of a number of separate Churches of Christ generally not affiliated with one another), Aglipayan Church, Members Church of God International, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Minority religions include Buddhism, Hinduism, and Judaism. Roman Catholics and Protestants were converted during the four centuries of Western influence by Spain, and the United States. Under Spanish rule, much of the population was converted to Christianity.

Orthodox Christianity also has a presence in the Philippines. The Orthodoxy was brought over by Russian and Greek immigrants to the Philippines. Protestant Christianity arrived in the Philippines during the 20th century, introduced by American missionaries.

Other religions include Judaism, Mahayana Buddhism, often mixed with Taoist beliefs, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Indigenous Philippine folk religions.

Population by religious affiliation (2015)
Affiliation	Number
Roman Catholic, including Catholic Charismatic	80.58	80.58	74,211,896
Islam	5.57	5.57	5,127,084
Evangelicals (PCEC)	2.68	2.68	2,469,957
Iglesia ni Cristo	2.45	2.45	2,251,941
Non-Roman Catholic and Protestant (NCCP)	1.16	1.16	1,071,686
Aglipayan	1.00	1	916,639
Seventh-day Adventist	0.74	0.74	681,216
Bible Baptist Church	0.52	0.52	480,409
United Church of Christ in the Philippines	0.49	0.49	449,028
Jehovah's Witnesses	0.45	0.45	410,957
Other Protestants	0.31	0.31	287,734
Church of Christ	0.28	0.28	258,176
Jesus Is Lord Church Worldwide	0.23	0.23	207,246
Tribal Religions	0.19	0.19	177,147
United Pentecostal Church (Philippines) Inc.	0.18	0.18	169,956
Other Baptists	0.17	0.17	154,686
Philippine Independent Catholic Church	0.15	0.15	138,364
Unión Espiritista Cristiana de Filipinas, Inc.	0.15	0.15	137,885
Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints	0.15	0.15	133,814
Association of Fundamental Baptist Churches in the Philippines	0.12	0.12	106,509
Evangelical Christian Outreach Foundation	0.10	0.1	96,102
None	0.08	0.08	73,248
Convention of the Philippine Baptist Church	0.07	0.07	65,008
Crusaders of the Divine Church of Christ Inc.	0.06	0.06	53,146
Buddhist	0.05	0.05	46,558
Lutheran Church of the Philippines	0.05	0.05	46,558
Iglesia sa Dios Espiritu Santo Inc.	0.05	0.05	45,000
Philippine Benevolent Missionaries Association	0.05	0.05	42,796
Faith Tabernacle Church (Living Rock Ministries)	0.04	0.04	36,230
Others	0.33	0.33	299,399
TOTAL			92,097,978
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority^[87]

Education

Education in the Philippines has been influenced by foreign models, particularly the United States, and Spain.^[90]^[91] Philippine students enter public school at about age four, starting from nursery school up to kindergarten. At about seven years of age, students enter elementary school (6 to 7 years). This is followed by junior high school (4 years) and senior high school (2 years). Students then take the college entrance examinations (CEE), after which they enter university (3 to 5 years). Other types of schools include private school, preparatory school, international school, laboratory high school, and science high school. School year in the Philippines starts from June, and ends in March with a two-month summer break from April to May, one week of semestral break in October, and a week or two during Christmas and New Year holidays.

Starting in SY 2011–2012 there has been a phased implementation of a new program. The K to 12 Program covers kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (six years of primary education, four years of junior high school, and two years of senior high school [SHS]).^[92]

Publications

Cristian Capelli; et al. (2001). "A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania" (PDF). American Journal of Human Genetics. 68 (2): 432–443. doi:10.1086/318205. PMC 1235276. PMID 11170891. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 14, 2010.
Frederic H. Sawyer (1900). The Inhabitants of the Philippines. Library of Alexandria. ISBN 978-1-4655-1185-0.
1903 Census of the Philippine Islands, Volumes 1 Archived September 18, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, 2 Archived September 17, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, 3 Archived September 17, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, 4 Archived September 17, 2021, at the Wayback Machine

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Notes

^ Including others such as Latin-Americans and Chinese-Mestizos, pure Chinese paid tribute but were not Philippine citizens as they were transients who returned to China, and Spaniards were exempt

External links

This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook (2025 ed.). CIA. (Archived 2011 edition.)

"Index of Demographic Statistics (principally 2000 Philippine census)". Philippine Statistics Authority. Archived from the original on June 4, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2005.
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[2020_census_of_population-1] "Highlights of the Philippine Population 2020 Census of Population – Philippine Statistics Authority". pia.gov.ph. Archived from the original on July 11, 2021. Retrieved July 8, 2021.

[2] "Registered live births 2021". Archived from the original on February 27, 2023. Retrieved February 27, 2023.

[psa.gov.ph-3] "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original on November 14, 2015. Retrieved January 6, 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

[4] "Philippines' fertility rate drops in 2022 —PopCom". www.gmanetwork.com. Archived from the original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved February 6, 2023.

[constitution-5] "Constitution of the Philippines: Article XIV Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture, and Sports". Chan Robles Virtual Law Library. Archived from the original on November 10, 2007. Retrieved November 26, 2009.

[pia.gov.ph-6] "Population Statistics". www.pia.gov.ph. Archived from the original on July 8, 2021. Retrieved June 8, 2021.

[census2020-7] "The 2020 Census of Population and Housing Reveals the Philippine Population at 109.035 Million". Philippine Statistics Authority. Archived from the original on July 8, 2021. Retrieved July 8, 2021.

[8] "History of the NSO Census of Population and Housing". Archived from the original on October 11, 2016. Retrieved October 6, 2016.

[9] Capelli, Cristian; Wilson, James F.; Richards, Martin; Stumpf, Michael P.H.; Gratrix, Fiona; Oppenheimer, Stephen; Underhill, Peter; Pascali, Vincenzo L.; Ko, Tsang-Ming; Goldstein, David B. (February 2001). "A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 68 (2): 432–443. doi:10.1086/318205. PMC 1235276. PMID 11170891.

[10] "Why the Philippines is America's Forgotten Colony". Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved February 13, 2020.

[11] "The Cultural Influences of India, China, Arabia, and Japan | Philippine Almanac". Archived from the original on July 1, 2012. Retrieved March 11, 2023.

[12] Pearson, M. N. (1969). "The Spanish 'Impact' on the Philippines, 1565-1770". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 12 (2). Brill: 165–186. doi:10.2307/3596057. ISSN 0022-4995. JSTOR 3596057. Archived from the original on May 7, 2021. Retrieved July 22, 2021.

[13] The Unlucky Country: The Republic of the Philippines in the 21st Century By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (page xii)

[14] Demography Philippine Yearbook 2011 Archived October 24, 2021, at the Wayback Machine Page 3

[15] Bao Jiemin (2005). "Chinese in Thailand". In Carol R. Ember; Melvin Ember; Ian A. Skoggard (eds.). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures around the World, Volume 1. Springer. pp. 759–785. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9. Archived from the original on September 27, 2023. Retrieved January 28, 2024.^: 751

[16] Stephanie Mawson, 'Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific' (Univ. of Sydney M.Phil. thesis, 2014), appendix 3.

[17] Mawson, Stephanie J. (August 2016). "Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth Century Pacific". Past & Present (232). Oxford Academic: 87–125. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtw008. Archived from the original on June 3, 2018. Retrieved July 24, 2021.

[18] "Japanese Christian". Philippines: Google map of Paco district of Manila, Philippines. Archived from the original on May 7, 2010. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[19] "Spanish Settlers in the Philippines (1571–1599) By Antonio Garcia-Abasalo" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on January 17, 2021. Retrieved November 23, 2020.

[20] Peasants, Servants, and Sojourners: Itinerant Asians in Colonial New Spain, 1571-1720 By Furlong, Matthew J. Archived April 29, 2022, at the Wayback Machine "Slaves purchased by the indigenous elites, Spanish and Hokkiens of the colony seemed drawn most often from South Asia, particularly Bengal and South India, and less so, from other sources, such as East Africa, Brunei, Makassar, and Java..." Chapter 2 "Rural Ethnic Diversity" Page 164 (Translated from: "Inmaculada Alva Rodríguez, Vida municipal en Manila (siglos xvi-xvii) (Córdoba: Universidad de Córdoba, 1997), 31, 35-36."

[Mexicans-21] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific By Stephanie J. Mawson AGI, México, leg. 25, núm. 62; AGI, Filipinas, leg. 8, ramo 3, núm. 50; leg. 10, ramo 1, núm. 6; leg. 22, ramo 1, núm. 1, fos. 408 r –428 v; núm. 21; leg. 32, núm. 30; leg. 285, núm. 1, fos. 30 r –41 v .

[fedor-22] Jagor, Fedor; et al. (2007). "Part VI People and Prospects of the Philippines". The Former Philippines Through Foreign Eyes. Echo Library. ISBN 978-1-4068-1542-9. Archived from the original on February 18, 2023. Retrieved August 9, 2018.

[23] "Intercolonial Intimacies Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 Paula C. Park" Page 100

[24] Garcia, María Fernanda (1998). "Forzados y reclutas: los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808)". Bolotin Archivo General de la Nación. 4 (11). Archived from the original on August 12, 2022. Retrieved July 9, 2022.

[25] "The Unlucky Country The Republic of the Philippines in the 21st Century" By Duncan Alexander McKenzie (2012)(page xii)

[26] Doran, Christine (1993). "Spanish and Mestizo Women of Manila". Philippine Studies. 41 (3). Ateneo de Manila University Press: 269–286. ISSN 0031-7837. JSTOR 42633385.

[Estadismo1-27] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t "ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO PRIMERO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved February 3, 2024.

[Estadismo2-28] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ESTADISMO DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS TOMO SEGUNDO By Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga (Original Spanish)

[29] "How big were families in the 1700s?" By Keri Rutherford

[Newson-30] Newson, Linda A. (April 16, 2009). Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-6197-1. Archived from the original on March 8, 2023. Retrieved February 3, 2024.

[Pnas-32] Maximilian Larena (January 21, 2021). "Supplementary Information for Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years (Appendix, Page 35)" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. p. 35. Retrieved March 23, 2021.

[TroiGawpo-33] Aurora E. Perez (1997). "The Population of The Philippines" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on November 26, 2022.

[DanielDoeppers-34] Doeppers, Daniel F. (1994). "Tracing the Decline of the Mestizo Categories in Philippine Life in the Late 19th Century". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 22 (2): 80–89. ISSN 0115-0243. JSTOR 29792149. Archived from the original on September 14, 2021. Retrieved July 22, 2021.

[35] Hedman, Eva-Lotta; Sidel, John (2005). Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-134-75421-2. Archived from the original on February 18, 2023. Retrieved July 30, 2020.

[36] Steinberg, David Joel (2018). "Chapter – 3 A SINGULAR AND A PLURAL FOLK". THE PHILIPPINES A Singular and a Plural Place. Routledge. p. 47. doi:10.4324/9780429494383. ISBN 978-0-8133-3755-5. Archived from the original on February 18, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2021. The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community. Increasingly powerful but adrift, they linked with the Spanish mestizos, who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire, many of the settlers from the New World, Caucasian creoles born in Mexico or Peru, became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish. The Spanish Empire had lost its universality.

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