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{{Short description|Order of sharks}}
{{Short description|Order of sharks}}
{{Automatic taxobox
{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Early Cretaceous|present|earliest=Bathonian}}Possible [[Late Jurassic]] record
| fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Early Cretaceous|present|earliest=Bathonian}}Possible [[Late Jurassic]] record if ''[[Palaeocarcharias]]'' is a lamniform
| image = White shark.jpg
| image = White shark.jpg
| image_caption = [[Great white shark]], ''Carcharodon carcharias''
| image_caption = [[Great white shark]], ''Carcharodon carcharias''
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}}
}}


The '''Lamniformes''' ({{IPAc-en|'|l|ae|m|n|ᵻ|f|ɔr|m|iː|z}}, from Greek ''lamna'' "fish of prey") are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[shark]]s commonly known as '''mackerel sharks''' (which may also refer specifically to the family [[Lamnidae]]). It includes some of the most familiar species of sharks, such as the [[great white shark|great white]],<ref>{{cite journal|title=Evolutionary pathways toward gigantism in sharks and rays|first1=Catalina|last1=Pimiento|first2=Juan L.|last2=Cantalapiedra|first3=Kenshu|last3=Shimada|first4=Daniel J.|last4=Field|first5=Jeroen B.|last5=Smaers|date=24 January 2019|journal=Evolution|volume=73|issue=2|pages=588–599|doi=10.1111/evo.13680|url = https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/289161|pmid=30675721|s2cid=59224442}}</ref> as well as more unusual representatives, such as the [[goblin shark]] and [[megamouth shark]].
The '''Lamniformes''' ({{IPAc-en|'|l|ae|m|n|ᵻ|f|ɔr|m|iː|z}}, from Greek ''lamna'' "fish of prey") are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[shark]]s commonly known as '''mackerel sharks''' (which may also refer specifically to the family [[Lamnidae]]). It includes some of the most familiar species of sharks, such as the [[great white shark|great white]]<ref name=":3" /> as well as less familiar ones, such as the [[goblin shark]] and [[megamouth shark]].


Members of the order are distinguished by possessing two [[dorsal fin]]s, an [[anal fin]], five [[gill|gill slits]], eyes without [[nictitating membrane]]s, and a mouth extending behind the eyes. Species in two families of Lamniformes – Lamnidae and Alopiidae – are distinguished for maintaining a higher body temperature than the surrounding waters.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Donley|first1=Jeanine M.|last2=Sepulveda|first2=Chugey A.|last3=Aalbers|first3=Scott A.|last4=McGillivray|first4=David G.|last5=Syme|first5=Douglas A.|last6=Bernal|first6=Diego|date=2012-04-13|title=Effects of temperature on power output and contraction kinetics in the locomotor muscle of the regionally endothermic common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus)|journal=Fish Physiology and Biochemistry|volume=38|issue=5|pages=1507–1519|doi=10.1007/s10695-012-9641-1|pmid=22527612|s2cid=1100494|issn=0920-1742}}</ref>
Members of the order are distinguished by possessing two [[dorsal fin]]s, an [[anal fin]], five [[gill|gill slits]], eyes without [[nictitating membrane]]s, and a mouth extending behind the eyes. Species in two families of Lamniformes – Lamnidae and Alopiidae – are distinguished for maintaining a higher body temperature than the surrounding waters.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Donley|first1=Jeanine M.|last2=Sepulveda|first2=Chugey A.|last3=Aalbers|first3=Scott A.|last4=McGillivray|first4=David G.|last5=Syme|first5=Douglas A.|last6=Bernal|first6=Diego|date=2012-04-13|title=Effects of temperature on power output and contraction kinetics in the locomotor muscle of the regionally endothermic common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus)|journal=Fish Physiology and Biochemistry|volume=38|issue=5|pages=1507–1519|doi=10.1007/s10695-012-9641-1|pmid=22527612|bibcode=2012FPBio..38.1507D |s2cid=1100494|issn=0920-1742}}</ref>


Members of the group include [[Macro-predator|macropredators]], generally of medium-large size, including the largest macropredatory shark ever, the extinct ''[[Otodus megalodon]],'' as well as large [[planktivore]]s.<ref name=":1" />
Members of the group include [[Macro-predator|macropredators]], generally of medium-large size, including the largest macropredatory shark ever, the extinct ''[[Otodus megalodon]],'' as well as large [[planktivore]]s.<ref name=":1" />


The small ~{{Convert|1|m|ft}} long [[carpet shark]]-like ''[[Palaeocarcharias]],'' known from the Middle and Late [[Jurassic]], shares the distinctive tooth histology of most lamniform sharks, which lack orthodentine, and is thus considered either the oldest lamniform or a sister group to all lamniforms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jambura|first1=Patrick L.|last2=Kindlimann|first2=René|last3=López-Romero|first3=Faviel|last4=Marramà|first4=Giuseppe|last5=Pfaff|first5=Cathrin|last6=Stumpf|first6=Sebastian|last7=Türtscher|first7=Julia|last8=Underwood|first8=Charlie J.|last9=Ward|first9=David J.|last10=Kriwet|first10=Jürgen|date=2019-07-04|title=Micro-computed tomography imaging reveals the development of a unique tooth mineralization pattern in mackerel sharks (Chondrichthyes; Lamniformes) in deep time|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=9|issue=1|pages=9652|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-46081-3|pmid=31273249|pmc=6609643|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.9652J |issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Landemaine |first=Olivier |last2=Thies |first2=Detlev |last3=Waschkewitz |first3=Jens |date=2018-11-01 |title=The Late Jurassic shark Palaeocarcharias (Elasmobranchii, Selachimorpha) – functional morphology of teeth, dermal cephalic lobes and phylogenetic position |url=https://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/pala/detail/312/90700/The_Late_Jurassic_shark_Palaeocarcharias_Elasmobra?l=EN |journal=Palaeontographica Abteilung A |language=en |pages=103–165 |doi=10.1127/0375-0442/2018/0000/0085}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Jambura |first=Patrick L. |last2=Stumpf |first2=Sebastian |last3=Kriwet |first3=Jürgen |date=2021-09-01 |title=Skeletal remains of the oldest known pseudocoracid shark Pseudocorax kindlimanni sp. nov. (Chondrichthyes, Lamniformes) from the Late Cretaceous of Lebanon |url= |journal=Cretaceous Research |volume=125 |pages=104842 |doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2021.104842 |issn=0195-6671|doi-access=free |pmc=7611798 }}</ref> Lamniformes underwent a major [[adaptive radiation]] during the [[Cretaceous]] and became prominent elements of oceanic ecosystems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Underwood |first=Charlie J. |date=March 2006 |title=Diversification of the Neoselachii (Chondrichthyes) during the Jurassic and Cretaceous |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1666/04069.1 |journal=Paleobiology |language=en |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=215–235 |doi=10.1666/04069.1 |bibcode=2006Pbio...32..215U |s2cid=86232401 |issn=0094-8373}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Shimada |first1=Kenshu |last2=Becker |first2=Martin A. |last3=Griffiths |first3=Michael L. |date=2021-11-02 |title=Body, jaw, and dentition lengths of macrophagous lamniform sharks, and body size evolution in Lamniformes with special reference to 'off-the-scale' gigantism of the megatooth shark, Otodus megalodon |url=|journal=Historical Biology |language=en |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2543–2559 |doi=10.1080/08912963.2020.1812598 |s2cid=224935604 |issn=0891-2963}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guinot |first1=Guillaume |last2=Adnet |first2=Sylvain |last3=Cappetta |first3=Henri |date=2012-09-05 |editor-last=MacKenzie |editor-first=Brian R. |title=An Analytical Approach for Estimating Fossil Record and Diversification Events in Sharks, Skates and Rays |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=e44632 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0044632 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3434181 |pmid=22957091|bibcode=2012PLoSO...744632G |doi-access=free }}</ref> They reached their highest diversity during the Late Cretaceous, but severely declined during the [[K-Pg Extinction|K-Pg extinction]], before rebounding to a high but lower diversity peak during the [[Paleogene]]. Lamniformes have severely declined over the last 20 million years, with only 15 species alive today, compared to over 290 extant species in the [[Carcharhiniformes]], which have evolved into medium and large body sizes during the same timeframe. The causes of the decline are uncertain, but are likely to have involved both [[Biological interaction|biotic]] factors like competition and non-biotic factors like temperature and sea level.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bazzi |first1=Mohamad |last2=Campione |first2=Nicolás E. |last3=Kear |first3=Benjamin P. |last4=Pimiento |first4=Catalina |last5=Ahlberg |first5=Per E. |date=2021-12-06 |title=Feeding ecology has shaped the evolution of modern sharks |journal=Current Biology |language=English |volume=31 |issue=23 |pages=5138–5148.e4 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.028 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=34614390|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Condamine |first1=Fabien L. |last2=Romieu |first2=Jules |last3=Guinot |first3=Guillaume |date=2019-10-08 |title=Climate cooling and clade competition likely drove the decline of lamniform sharks |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=116 |issue=41 |pages=20584–20590 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1902693116 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=6789557 |pmid=31548392|bibcode=2019PNAS..11620584C |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Although some authors have argued that the Late Jurassic ''[[Palaeocarcharias]]'' should be considered the oldest known lamniform, this is disputed. The earliest unambiguous records of lamniformes are from the Early Cretaceous.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Villalobos-Segura |first1=Eduardo |last2=Stumpf |first2=Sebastian |last3=Türtscher |first3=Julia |last4=Jambura |first4=Patrick L. |last5=Begat |first5=Arnaud |last6=López-Romero |first6=Faviel A. |last7=Fischer |first7=Jan |last8=Kriwet |first8=Jürgen |date=March 2023 |title=A Synoptic Review of the Cartilaginous Fishes (Chondrichthyes: Holocephali, Elasmobranchii) from the Upper Jurassic Konservat-Lagerstätten of Southern Germany: Taxonomy, Diversity, and Faunal Relationships |journal=Diversity |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=386 |doi=10.3390/d15030386 |doi-access=free |pmid=36950327 |pmc=7614348 |issn=1424-2818}}</ref> Lamniformes underwent a major [[adaptive radiation]] during the [[Cretaceous]] and became prominent elements of oceanic ecosystems.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Jambura |first1=Patrick L. |last2=Stumpf |first2=Sebastian |last3=Kriwet |first3=Jürgen |date=2021-09-01 |title=Skeletal remains of the oldest known pseudocoracid shark Pseudocorax kindlimanni sp. nov. (Chondrichthyes, Lamniformes) from the Late Cretaceous of Lebanon |url= |journal=Cretaceous Research |volume=125 |pages=104842 |doi=10.1016/j.cretres.2021.104842 |issn=0195-6671 |pmc=7611798 |doi-access=free|pmid=34642522 |bibcode=2021CrRes.12504842J }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Underwood |first=Charlie J. |date=March 2006 |title=Diversification of the Neoselachii (Chondrichthyes) during the Jurassic and Cretaceous |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1666/04069.1 |journal=Paleobiology |language=en |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=215–235 |doi=10.1666/04069.1 |bibcode=2006Pbio...32..215U |s2cid=86232401 |issn=0094-8373}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Shimada |first1=Kenshu |last2=Becker |first2=Martin A. |last3=Griffiths |first3=Michael L. |date=2021-11-02 |title=Body, jaw, and dentition lengths of macrophagous lamniform sharks, and body size evolution in Lamniformes with special reference to 'off-the-scale' gigantism of the megatooth shark, Otodus megalodon |url=|journal=Historical Biology |language=en |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2543–2559 |doi=10.1080/08912963.2020.1812598 |bibcode=2021HBio...33.2543S |s2cid=224935604 |issn=0891-2963}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guinot |first1=Guillaume |last2=Adnet |first2=Sylvain |last3=Cappetta |first3=Henri |date=2012-09-05 |editor-last=MacKenzie |editor-first=Brian R. |title=An Analytical Approach for Estimating Fossil Record and Diversification Events in Sharks, Skates and Rays |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=e44632 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0044632 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3434181 |pmid=22957091|bibcode=2012PLoSO...744632G |doi-access=free }}</ref> They reached their highest diversity during the Late Cretaceous, but severely declined during the [[K-Pg Extinction|K-Pg extinction]], before rebounding to a high but lower diversity peak during the [[Paleogene]]. Lamniformes have severely declined over the last 20 million years, with only 15 species alive today, compared to over 290 extant species in the [[Carcharhiniformes]], which have evolved into medium and large body sizes during the same timeframe. The causes of the decline are uncertain, but are likely to have involved both [[Biological interaction|biotic]] factors like competition and non-biotic factors like temperature and sea level.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bazzi |first1=Mohamad |last2=Campione |first2=Nicolás E. |last3=Kear |first3=Benjamin P. |last4=Pimiento |first4=Catalina |last5=Ahlberg |first5=Per E. |date=2021-12-06 |title=Feeding ecology has shaped the evolution of modern sharks |journal=Current Biology |language=English |volume=31 |issue=23 |pages=5138–5148.e4 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.028 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=34614390|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021CBio...31E5138B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Condamine |first1=Fabien L. |last2=Romieu |first2=Jules |last3=Guinot |first3=Guillaume |date=2019-10-08 |title=Climate cooling and clade competition likely drove the decline of lamniform sharks |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=116 |issue=41 |pages=20584–20590 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1902693116 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=6789557 |pmid=31548392|bibcode=2019PNAS..11620584C |doi-access=free }}</ref>


==Species==
==Species==
The order Lamniformes includes 10 families with 22 species, with a total of seven living families and 15 living species:<ref name = ECoF>{{cite web |url=https://www.calacademy.org/scientists/catalog-of-fishes-classification |title=Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes Classification |access-date=24 October 2024 |publisher=[[California Academy of Sciences]]}}</ref><ref name = Nelson5>{{cite book |author1=Nelson, J.S. |author1-link=Joseph S. Nelson |author2=Grande, T.C. |author3=Wilson, M.V.H. |year=2016 |title=Fishes of the World |edition=5th |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |place=Hoboken, NJ |pages=58 |isbn=978-1-118-34233-6 |lccn=2015037522 |oclc=951899884 |ol=25909650M |doi=10.1002/9781119174844}}</ref>
The order Lamniformes includes 10 families with 22 species, with a total of seven living families and 17 living species:


Order '''Lamniformes'''
Order '''Lamniformes'''
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***†''[[Cetorhinus piersoni]]'' <small>(Welton, 2015)</small>
***†''[[Cetorhinus piersoni]]'' <small>(Welton, 2015)</small>
** Genus †''[[Keasius]]'' <small>(Welton, 2013)</small>
** Genus †''[[Keasius]]'' <small>(Welton, 2013)</small>
*Family [[Pseudoscapanorhynchidae|Eoptolamnidae]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Kriwet|first1=Jürgen|last2=Klug|first2=Stefanie|last3=Canudo|first3=José I.|last4=Cuenca-Bescos|first4=Gloria|date=October 2008|title=A new Early Cretaceous lamniform shark (Chondrichthyes, Neoselachii)|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=154|issue=2|pages=278–290|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00410.x|doi-access=free}}</ref> (extinct, Late Cretaceous period)
*Family [[Pseudoscapanorhynchidae|Eoptolamnidae]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Kriwet|first1=Jürgen|last2=Klug|first2=Stefanie|last3=Canudo|first3=José I.|last4=Cuenca-Bescos|first4=Gloria|date=October 2008|title=A new Early Cretaceous lamniform shark (Chondrichthyes, Neoselachii)|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=154|issue=2|pages=278–290|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00410.x|doi-access=free}}</ref> (extinct, Late Cretaceous period)
**Genus †''[[Eoptolamna]]''<ref name=":0" />
**Genus †''[[Eoptolamna]]''<ref name=":0" />
***†''[[Eoptolamna|Eoptolamna eccentrolopha]]''
***†''[[Eoptolamna|Eoptolamna eccentrolopha]]''
Line 57: Line 57:
***†''[[Protolamna|Protolamna gigantea]]''
***†''[[Protolamna|Protolamna gigantea]]''
***†''[[Protolamna|Protolamna roanokeensis]]''
***†''[[Protolamna|Protolamna roanokeensis]]''
* Family [[Lamnidae]] <small>[[Johannes Peter Müller|J. P. Müller]] and [[Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle|Henle]], 1838</small> (mackerel sharks or white sharks)
* Superfamily [[Lamnoidea]] <small>[[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], 1835</small><ref name="Ferrón 2017">{{cite journal |last=Ferrón |first=H.G. |date=2017 |title=Regional endothermy as a trigger for gigantism in some extinct macropredatory sharks |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=9 |page= e0185185 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0185185 |pmid=28938002 |pmc=5609766 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1285185F |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Cooper 2020">{{cite journal |last=Cooper |first=J.A. |date=2020 |title=Scaling a giant |journal=Geoscientist |volume=30 |issue=10 |pages=10–15 |doi=10.1144/geosci2020-115 |s2cid=242895754 |url=https://geoscientist.online/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Geo_NOV2020_WR.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Greenfield 2022">{{cite journal |last=Greenfield |first=T. |date=2022 |title=List of skeletal material from megatooth sharks (Lamniformes, Otodontidae) |journal=Paleoichthys |volume=4 |pages=1–9 |url=https://usercontent.one/wp/pecescriollos.de/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/PI-04-Greenfield-2022-List-of-skeletal-material-from-megatooth-sharks.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Vella & Vella 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Vella |first1=N. |last2=Vella |first2=A. |date=2020 |title=The complete mitogenome of the Critically Endangered smalltooth sand tiger shark, ''Odontaspis ferox'' (Lamniformes: Odontaspididae) |journal=Mitochondrial DNA Part B |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=3301–3304 |doi=10.1080/23802359.2020.1814886 |pmid=33458146 |pmc=7782878 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
** Family [[Lamnidae]] <small>[[Johannes Peter Müller|J. P. Müller]] and [[Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle|Henle]], 1838</small> (mackerel sharks or white sharks)
** Genus ''[[Carcharodon]]'' <small>[[Andrew Smith (zoologist)|A. Smith]], 1838</small>
*** ''[[Great white shark|Carcharodon carcharias]]'' <small>([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])</small> (great white shark) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=751&genusname=Carcharodon&speciesname=carcharias]
*** Genus ''[[Carcharodon]]'' <small>[[Andrew Smith (zoologist)|A. Smith]], 1838</small>
**** ''[[Great white shark|Carcharodon carcharias]]'' <small>([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])</small> (great white shark) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=751&genusname=Carcharodon&speciesname=carcharias]
*** ''[[Carcharodon hubbelli]]'' <small>Ehret, Macfadden, Jones, Devries, Foster & Salas-Gismondi, 2012</small> (Hubbell's white shark)
**** †''[[Carcharodon hubbelli]]'' <small>Ehret, Macfadden, Jones, Devries, Foster & Salas-Gismondi, 2012</small> (Hubbell's white shark)
*** †''[[Carcharodon caifassii]]'' <small>Lawley, 1876</small>
**** †''[[Carcharodon caifassii]]'' <small>Lawley, 1876</small>
*** †''[[Carcharodon|Carcharodon carcharias-f]]'' <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small>
*** Genus ''[[Isurus]]'' <small>[[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Rafinesque]], 1810</small>
** Genus ''[[Isurus]]'' <small>[[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque|Rafinesque]], 1810</small>
**** ''[[Shortfin mako shark|Isurus oxyrinchus]]'' <small>Rafinesque, 1810</small> (shortfin mako) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=752&genusname=Isurus&speciesname=oxyrinchus]
*** ''[[Shortfin mako shark|Isurus oxyrinchus]]'' <small>Rafinesque, 1810</small> (shortfin mako) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=752&genusname=Isurus&speciesname=oxyrinchus]
**** ''[[Longfin mako shark|Isurus paucus]]'' <small>[[Darío Guitart-Manday|Guitart-Manday]], 1966</small> (longfin mako) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=753&genusname=Isurus&speciesname=paucus]
*** ''[[Longfin mako shark|Isurus paucus]]'' <small>[[Darío Guitart-Manday|Guitart-Manday]], 1966</small> (longfin mako) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=753&genusname=Isurus&speciesname=paucus]
*** Genus ''[[Lamna]]'' <small>[[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1816</small>
** Genus ''[[Lamna]]'' <small>[[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1816</small>
**** ''[[Salmon shark|Lamna ditropis]]'' <small>[[Carl Leavitt Hubbs|Hubbs]] & [[William Irving Follett|Follett]], 1947</small> (salmon shark) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=755&genusname=Lamna&speciesname=ditropis]
*** ''[[Salmon shark|Lamna ditropis]]'' <small>[[Carl Leavitt Hubbs|Hubbs]] & [[William Irving Follett|Follett]], 1947</small> (salmon shark) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=755&genusname=Lamna&speciesname=ditropis]
**** ''[[Porbeagle|Lamna nasus]]'' <small>(Bonnaterre, 1788)</small> (porbeagle) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=88&genusname=Lamna&speciesname=nasus]
*** ''[[Porbeagle|Lamna nasus]]'' <small>(Bonnaterre, 1788)</small> (porbeagle) [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?ID=88&genusname=Lamna&speciesname=nasus]
** Family †[[Otodontidae]] <small>Gluckman, 1964</small> (extinct, Late Cretaceous to [[Pliocene]]) (megatoothed sharks)
* Family †[[Otodontidae]] <small>Gluckman, 1964</small> (extinct, Late Cretaceous to [[Pliocene]]) (megatoothed sharks)
*** Genus †''[[Cretalamna]]'' <small>Gluckman, 1958</small>
** Genus †''[[Cretalamna]]'' <small>Gluckman, 1958</small>
*** Genus †''[[Otodus]]'' (=''Carcharocles'') <small>(Agassiz, 1843)</small>
** Genus †''[[Otodus]]'' <small>(Agassiz, 1843)</small>
**** †''[[Otodus obliquus]]'' <small>(Agassiz, 1838)</small>
*** †''[[Otodus obliquus]]'' <small>(Agassiz, 1838)</small>
**** †''[[Otodus angustidens]]'' <small>(Agassiz, 1843)</small>
*** †''[[Otodus angustidens]]'' <small>(Agassiz, 1843)</small>
**** †''[[Otodus chubutensis]]'' <small>(Agassiz, 1843)</small>
*** †''[[Otodus chubutensis]]'' <small>(Agassiz, 1843)</small>
**** †''[[Otodus megalodon]]'' <small>(Agassiz, 1843)</small> (megalodon)
*** †''[[Otodus megalodon]]'' <small>(Agassiz, 1843)</small> (megalodon)
**** †''[[Otodus auriculatus]]'' <small>(Jordan, 1923)</small>
*** †''[[Otodus auriculatus]]'' <small>(Jordan, 1923)</small>
**** †''[[Otodus sokolovi]]'' <small>(Zhelezko and Kozlov, 1999)</small>
*** †''[[Otodus sokolovi]]'' <small>(Zhelezko and Kozlov, 1999)</small>
*** Genus †''[[Megalolamna]]'' <small>Shimada et al., 2016</small>
*** †''[[Otodus poseidoni]]'' <small>(Zhelezko and Kozlov, 1999)</small>
*** Genus †''[[Palaeocarcharodon]]'' <small>Casieer, 1960</small>
*** †''[[Otodus minor]]'' <small>(Giebel, 1943)</small>
*** Genus †''[[Kenolamna]]'' <small>Siversson, 2017</small>
*** †''[[Otodus hastalis]]'' <small>(Lawley, 876)</small>
*** †''[[Otodus|Otodus limhamnensis]]'' <small>(Davis, 1890)</small>
*** †''[[Otodus debrayi]]'' <small>(Leriche, 1906)</small>
*** †''[[Otodus|Otodus naidini]]'' <small>(Zhelezko in Zhelezko & Kozlov)</small>
** Genus †''[[Megaselachus]]''
*** †''[[Megaselachus|Megaselachus subauriculatus]]''? <small>(Glickman, 1964)</small>
** Genus ''[[Megalolamna]]'' <small>Shimada et al., 2016</small>
** Genus †''[[Palaeocarcharodon]]'' <small>Casieer, 1960</small>
** Genus †''[[Kenolamna]]'' <small>Siversson, 2017</small>
* Family [[Megamouth shark|Megachasmidae]] <small>[[Leighton R. Taylor|Taylor]], [[Leonard Joseph Victor Compagno|Compagno]] & [[Paul J. Struhsaker|Struhsaker]], 1983</small>
* Family [[Megamouth shark|Megachasmidae]] <small>[[Leighton R. Taylor|Taylor]], [[Leonard Joseph Victor Compagno|Compagno]] & [[Paul J. Struhsaker|Struhsaker]], 1983</small>
** Genus ''[[Megamouth shark|Megachasma]]'' <small>Taylor, Compagno & Struhsaker, 1983</small>
** Genus ''[[Megamouth shark|Megachasma]]'' <small>Taylor, Compagno & Struhsaker, 1983</small>
Line 203: Line 211:
| align=center | 2
| align=center | 2
| align=center | 5
| align=center | 5
| valign=top | Extinct, the [[Cardabiodontidae]] include ''[[Cardabiodon]]'' and ''[[Dwardius]]'', both genera from the [[Cretaceous]] which have existed in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and Europe.<ref name=SiversonandMachalski>{{cite journal|author1=Mikael Siverson|author2=Marcin Machalski|title=Late late Albian (Early Cretaceous) shark teeth from Annopol, Poland|journal=Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology|volume=41|issue=4|year=2017|pages=433–463|doi=10.1080/03115518.2017.1282981|s2cid=133123002}}</ref>
| valign=top | Extinct, the [[Cardabiodontidae]] include ''[[Cardabiodon]]'' and ''[[Dwardius]]'', both genera from the [[Cretaceous]] which have existed in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and Europe.<ref name=SiversonandMachalski>{{cite journal|author1=Mikael Siverson|author2=Marcin Machalski|title=Late late Albian (Early Cretaceous) shark teeth from Annopol, Poland|journal=Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology|volume=41|issue=4|year=2017|pages=433–463|doi=10.1080/03115518.2017.1282981|bibcode=2017Alch...41..433S |s2cid=133123002}}</ref>
|-
|-
! style="background:rgb(150,80,150)" | [[Cretoxyrhinidae|<span style="color:white;">†Cretoxyrhinidae</span>]]
! style="background:rgb(150,80,150)" | [[Cretoxyrhinidae|<span style="color:white;">†Cretoxyrhinidae</span>]]
Line 261: Line 269:
| valign=top |7 species worldwide, known from the Late Cretaceous.
| valign=top |7 species worldwide, known from the Late Cretaceous.
|-
|-
! style="background:rgb(150,80,150)" | [[Truyolsodontidae|<span style="color:white;">†Truyolsodontidae</span>]]'''
! style="background:rgb(150,80,150)" | [[Truyolsodontidae|<span style="color:white;">†Truyolsodontidae</span>]]
|
|
| align=center | [[Truyolsodontidae]]
| align=center | [[Truyolsodontidae]]
Line 270: Line 278:


== Phylogeny ==
== Phylogeny ==
Below is a [[cladogram]] showing relationships within Lamniformes. The topology of extant families is based on Vella & Vella (2020) and the placements of Cretoxyrhinidae and Otodontidae are based on Ferrón (2017), Cooper (2020), and Greenfield (2022).<ref name="Ferrón 2017"/><ref name="Cooper 2020"/><ref name="Greenfield 2022"/><ref name="Vella & Vella 2020"/>
Below is a [[cladogram]] showing relationships within Lamniformes. The topology of extant families is based on Vella & Vella (2020) and the placements of Cretoxyrhinidae and Otodontidae are based on Ferrón (2017), Cooper (2020), and Greenfield (2022).<ref name="Ferrón 2017">{{cite journal |last=Ferrón |first=H.G. |date=2017 |title=Regional endothermy as a trigger for gigantism in some extinct macropredatory sharks |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=9 |page= e0185185 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0185185 |pmid=28938002 |pmc=5609766 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1285185F |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Cooper 2020">{{cite journal |last=Cooper |first=J.A. |date=2020 |title=Scaling a giant |journal=Geoscientist |volume=30 |issue=10 |pages=10–15 |doi=10.1144/geosci2020-115 |s2cid=242895754 |url=https://geoscientist.online/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Geo_NOV2020_WR.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Greenfield 2022">{{cite journal |last=Greenfield |first=T. |date=2022 |title=List of skeletal material from megatooth sharks (Lamniformes, Otodontidae) |journal=Paleoichthys |volume=4 |pages=1–9 |url=https://usercontent.one/wp/pecescriollos.de/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/PI-04-Greenfield-2022-List-of-skeletal-material-from-megatooth-sharks.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Vella & Vella 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Vella |first1=N. |last2=Vella |first2=A. |date=2020 |title=The complete mitogenome of the Critically Endangered smalltooth sand tiger shark, ''Odontaspis ferox'' (Lamniformes: Odontaspididae) |journal=Mitochondrial DNA Part B |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=3301–3304 |doi=10.1080/23802359.2020.1814886 |pmid=33458146 |pmc=7782878 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


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{{clade| style=font-size:85%; line-height:120%

Latest revision as of 03:58, 10 December 2024

Lamniformes
Temporal range: Early Cretaceous–present Possible Late Jurassic record if Palaeocarcharias is a lamniform
Great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Division: Selachii
Superorder: Galeomorphii
Order: Lamniformes
L. S. Berg, 1958
Families

See text

The Lamniformes (/ˈlæmnɪfɔːrmz/, from Greek lamna "fish of prey") are an order of sharks commonly known as mackerel sharks (which may also refer specifically to the family Lamnidae). It includes some of the most familiar species of sharks, such as the great white[1] as well as less familiar ones, such as the goblin shark and megamouth shark.

Members of the order are distinguished by possessing two dorsal fins, an anal fin, five gill slits, eyes without nictitating membranes, and a mouth extending behind the eyes. Species in two families of Lamniformes – Lamnidae and Alopiidae – are distinguished for maintaining a higher body temperature than the surrounding waters.[1]

Members of the group include macropredators, generally of medium-large size, including the largest macropredatory shark ever, the extinct Otodus megalodon, as well as large planktivores.[2]

Although some authors have argued that the Late Jurassic Palaeocarcharias should be considered the oldest known lamniform, this is disputed. The earliest unambiguous records of lamniformes are from the Early Cretaceous.[3] Lamniformes underwent a major adaptive radiation during the Cretaceous and became prominent elements of oceanic ecosystems.[4][5][2][6] They reached their highest diversity during the Late Cretaceous, but severely declined during the K-Pg extinction, before rebounding to a high but lower diversity peak during the Paleogene. Lamniformes have severely declined over the last 20 million years, with only 15 species alive today, compared to over 290 extant species in the Carcharhiniformes, which have evolved into medium and large body sizes during the same timeframe. The causes of the decline are uncertain, but are likely to have involved both biotic factors like competition and non-biotic factors like temperature and sea level.[7][8]

Species

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The order Lamniformes includes 10 families with 22 species, with a total of seven living families and 15 living species:[9][10]

Order Lamniformes

Family Image Common name Genera Species Description
Alopiidae Thresher sharks 1 3[14] Thresher sharks are large sharks found in temperate and tropical oceans around the world. The common name refers to its distinctive, thresher-like tail or caudal fin which can be as long as the body of the shark itself.
Cetorhinidae Basking sharks 1 1 The basking shark is the second largest living fish, after the whale shark, and the second of three plankton-eating sharks, the other two being the whale shark and megamouth shark. It is a cosmopolitan migratory species, found in all the world's temperate oceans. It is generally a harmless filter feeder with a greatly enlarged mouth, which cruises leisurely over huge distances covering three miles every hour. During each of those hours, it strains about 1.5 million L of water through more than 5,000 gill rakers for plankton.[15] Basking sharks have long been a commercially important fish, as a source of food, shark fin, animal feed, and shark liver oil. Overexploitation has reduced its populations to the point where some have disappeared and others need protection.
Lamnidae Mackerel sharks 3 5 Mackerel sharks, also called white sharks, are large, fast-swimming sharks, found in oceans worldwide. They include the great white, the mako, porbeagle shark, and salmon shark. Mackerel sharks have pointed snouts, spindle-shaped bodies, and gigantic gill openings. The first dorsal fin is large, high, stiff and angular or somewhat rounded. The second dorsal and anal fins are minute. The caudal peduncle has a few or less distinct keels. The teeth are gigantic. The fifth gill opening is in front of the pectoral fin and spiracles are sometimes absent. They are heavily built sharks, sometimes weighing nearly twice as much as sharks of comparable length from other families. Many in the family are among the fastest-swimming fish.
Megachasmidae Megamouth sharks 1 1 The megamouth shark is an extremely rare species of deepwater shark, and the smallest of the three filter-feeding sharks. Since its discovery in 1976, only a few megamouth sharks have been seen, with 55 specimens known to have been caught or sighted as of 2012, including three recordings on film. Like the basking shark and whale shark, it is a filter feeder, and swims with its enormous mouth wide open, filtering water for plankton and jellyfish. It is distinctive for its large head with rubbery lips. It is so unlike any other type of shark that it is classified in its own family, though it may belong in the family Cetorhinidae of which the basking shark is currently the sole member.
Mitsukurinidae Goblin sharks 1 1 Goblin sharks have a distinctive long, trowel-shaped, beak-like snout, much longer than those of other sharks. The snout contains sensory organs to detect the electrical signals given off by the shark's prey.[16] They also possess long, protrusible jaws.[17] When the jaws are retracted, the shark resembles a grey nurse shark with an unusually long nose. Goblin sharks include one living genus and three extinct genera.[18] The only known living species is Mitsukurina owstoni.
Odontaspididae Sand sharks 2 3 Sand sharks are so-called because they inhabit sandy shorelines, and are often seen trolling the ocean floor in the surf zone. They are found in warm or temperate waters throughout the world's oceans, except the eastern Pacific.[19] Sand sharks have a large second dorsal fin. They grow up to 10 feet in adult length.[20] The body tends to be brown in color with dark markings in the upper half. These markings disappear as they mature. Their needle-like teeth are highly adapted for impaling fish, their main prey. Their teeth are long, narrow, and very sharp with smooth edges, with one and on occasion two smaller cusplets on either side.[21]
Pseudocarchariidae Crocodile sharks 1 1 Only one species is in the crocodile shark family. It is a specialized inhabitant of the mesopelagic zone, found worldwide in tropical waters from the surface to a depth of 590 m (1,940 ft). It performs a diel vertical migration, staying below a depth of 200 m (660 ft) during the day and ascending into shallower water at night to feed. Typically measuring only 1 m (3.3 ft) in length, the crocodile shark is the smallest living mackerel shark. It can be distinguished by its elongated, cigar-shaped body, extremely large eyes, and relatively small fins. Substantial numbers are caught as bycatch, leading it to be assessed as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Anacoracidae Anacoracidae 4 39 Contains 4 genera of shark from the mid-Late Cretaceous, most notably Squalicorax, found worldwide.
Ptychodontidae Ptychodontidae 1 16 Only a single genus, Ptychodus, which contains at least 16 species of large (up to 10 metres (33 ft) in length) sharks with a specialised crushing dentition, known from the late Early to Late Cretaceous found worldwide.
Archaeolamnidae Archaeolamnidae 1 3 Contains a single Late Cretaceous genus, Archaeolamna, with 3 species.
†Aquilolamnidae (?) Aquilolamnidae 1 1 Tentatively assigned to Lamniformes; an extremely unusual, likely planktivorous shark with incredibly long, winglike pectoral fins, giving it a superficial resemblance to a manta ray, which it likely had a similar ecological niche to.
†Cardabiodontidae Cardabiodontidae 2 5 Extinct, the Cardabiodontidae include Cardabiodon and Dwardius, both genera from the Cretaceous which have existed in Australia, Canada, and Europe.[22]
†Cretoxyrhinidae Cretoxyrhinidae 1 4 Extinct, the Cretoxyrhinidae includes the sole member Cretoxyrhina (pictured), a genus from the mid-Late Cretaceous.[23]
†Eoptolamnidae Eoptolamnidae 3 8 An extinct family of Late Cretaceous lamniforms.
†Haimirichiidae Haimirichiidae 1 1 Represented only by the Cretaceous Haimirichia from Morocco.
†Otodontidae Megatoothed sharks 9 27 Extinct, the Otodontidae lived from the early-mid Cretaceous to the Pliocene, and reached huge sizes. The species megalodon (pictured), the largest shark ever, belongs to this group.[24]
†Palaeocarchariidae (?) Palaeocarchariidae 1 1 A Late Jurassic shark considered one of the closest relatives to the Lamniformes, alternately placed in its own order.
†Pseudocoracidae Pseudocoracidae 2 7 5 species in two genera from the Late Cretaceous, previously classified in Anacoracidae.
†Pseudoscapanorhynchidae Pseudoscapanorhynchidae 6 18 Known throughout the Cretaceous, possible Paleogene occurrence.
†Serratolamnidae Serratolamnidae 1 7 7 species worldwide, known from the Late Cretaceous.
†Truyolsodontidae Truyolsodontidae 1 1 Represented only by the Cretaceous Truyolsodontos from Spain.

Phylogeny

[edit]

Below is a cladogram showing relationships within Lamniformes. The topology of extant families is based on Vella & Vella (2020) and the placements of Cretoxyrhinidae and Otodontidae are based on Ferrón (2017), Cooper (2020), and Greenfield (2022).[25][26][27][28]

Lamniformes

Sustainable consumption

[edit]

In 2010, Greenpeace International added the shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) to its seafood red list.[29]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Donley, Jeanine M.; Sepulveda, Chugey A.; Aalbers, Scott A.; McGillivray, David G.; Syme, Douglas A.; Bernal, Diego (2012-04-13). "Effects of temperature on power output and contraction kinetics in the locomotor muscle of the regionally endothermic common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus)". Fish Physiology and Biochemistry. 38 (5): 1507–1519. Bibcode:2012FPBio..38.1507D. doi:10.1007/s10695-012-9641-1. ISSN 0920-1742. PMID 22527612. S2CID 1100494.
  2. ^ a b Shimada, Kenshu; Becker, Martin A.; Griffiths, Michael L. (2021-11-02). "Body, jaw, and dentition lengths of macrophagous lamniform sharks, and body size evolution in Lamniformes with special reference to 'off-the-scale' gigantism of the megatooth shark, Otodus megalodon". Historical Biology. 33 (11): 2543–2559. Bibcode:2021HBio...33.2543S. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1812598. ISSN 0891-2963. S2CID 224935604.
  3. ^ Villalobos-Segura, Eduardo; Stumpf, Sebastian; Türtscher, Julia; Jambura, Patrick L.; Begat, Arnaud; López-Romero, Faviel A.; Fischer, Jan; Kriwet, Jürgen (March 2023). "A Synoptic Review of the Cartilaginous Fishes (Chondrichthyes: Holocephali, Elasmobranchii) from the Upper Jurassic Konservat-Lagerstätten of Southern Germany: Taxonomy, Diversity, and Faunal Relationships". Diversity. 15 (3): 386. doi:10.3390/d15030386. ISSN 1424-2818. PMC 7614348. PMID 36950327.
  4. ^ Jambura, Patrick L.; Stumpf, Sebastian; Kriwet, Jürgen (2021-09-01). "Skeletal remains of the oldest known pseudocoracid shark Pseudocorax kindlimanni sp. nov. (Chondrichthyes, Lamniformes) from the Late Cretaceous of Lebanon". Cretaceous Research. 125: 104842. Bibcode:2021CrRes.12504842J. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2021.104842. ISSN 0195-6671. PMC 7611798. PMID 34642522.
  5. ^ Underwood, Charlie J. (March 2006). "Diversification of the Neoselachii (Chondrichthyes) during the Jurassic and Cretaceous". Paleobiology. 32 (2): 215–235. Bibcode:2006Pbio...32..215U. doi:10.1666/04069.1. ISSN 0094-8373. S2CID 86232401.
  6. ^ Guinot, Guillaume; Adnet, Sylvain; Cappetta, Henri (2012-09-05). MacKenzie, Brian R. (ed.). "An Analytical Approach for Estimating Fossil Record and Diversification Events in Sharks, Skates and Rays". PLOS ONE. 7 (9): e44632. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...744632G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044632. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3434181. PMID 22957091.
  7. ^ Bazzi, Mohamad; Campione, Nicolás E.; Kear, Benjamin P.; Pimiento, Catalina; Ahlberg, Per E. (2021-12-06). "Feeding ecology has shaped the evolution of modern sharks". Current Biology. 31 (23): 5138–5148.e4. Bibcode:2021CBio...31E5138B. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.028. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 34614390.
  8. ^ Condamine, Fabien L.; Romieu, Jules; Guinot, Guillaume (2019-10-08). "Climate cooling and clade competition likely drove the decline of lamniform sharks". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (41): 20584–20590. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11620584C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1902693116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6789557. PMID 31548392.
  9. ^ "Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes Classification". California Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
  10. ^ Nelson, J.S.; Grande, T.C.; Wilson, M.V.H. (2016). Fishes of the World (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. p. 58. doi:10.1002/9781119174844. ISBN 978-1-118-34233-6. LCCN 2015037522. OCLC 951899884. OL 25909650M.
  11. ^ a b c Kriwet, Jürgen; Klug, Stefanie; Canudo, José I.; Cuenca-Bescos, Gloria (October 2008). "A new Early Cretaceous lamniform shark (Chondrichthyes, Neoselachii)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 154 (2): 278–290. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00410.x.
  12. ^ Frederickson, Joseph A.; Schaefer, Scott N.; Doucette-Frederickson, Janessa A. (3 June 2015). "A Gigantic Shark from the Lower Cretaceous Duck Creek Formation of Texas" (PDF). PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0127162. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1027162F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127162. PMC 4454486. PMID 26039066.
  13. ^ "20-Foot Monster Shark Once Trolled Mesozoic Seas". livescience.com. 3 June 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
  14. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Family Alopiidae". FishBase. October 2013 version.
  15. ^ Basking shark BBC Nature, 13 March 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
  16. ^ Stevens, J.; Last, P.R. (1998). Paxton, J.R.; Eschmeyer, W.N. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press. p. 63. ISBN 0-12-547665-5.
  17. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Mitsukurina owstoni". FishBase. October 2005 version.
  18. ^ "Mitsukurinidae". www.helsinki.fi. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
  19. ^ National Geographic (10 September 2010). "Sand Tiger Sharks". National Geographic. Archived from the original on July 7, 2007. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
  20. ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Family Odontaspididae". FishBase. January 2009 version.
  21. ^ Bigelow, Henry B.; Schroeder, William C. (1953). Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. United States Government Printing Office. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
  22. ^ Mikael Siverson; Marcin Machalski (2017). "Late late Albian (Early Cretaceous) shark teeth from Annopol, Poland". Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology. 41 (4): 433–463. Bibcode:2017Alch...41..433S. doi:10.1080/03115518.2017.1282981. S2CID 133123002.
  23. ^ Mikael Siverson (1999). "A new large lamniform shark from the uppermost Gearle Siltstone (Cenomanian, Late Cretaceous) of Western Australia". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences. 90 (1): 49–66. doi:10.1017/S0263593300002509. S2CID 131195702.
  24. ^ Joseph S. Nelson (2006). "Order Lamniformes". Fishes of the World (4th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. pp. 57–60. ISBN 978-0-471-25031-9.
  25. ^ Ferrón, H.G. (2017). "Regional endothermy as a trigger for gigantism in some extinct macropredatory sharks". PLOS ONE. 12 (9): e0185185. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1285185F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185185. PMC 5609766. PMID 28938002.
  26. ^ Cooper, J.A. (2020). "Scaling a giant" (PDF). Geoscientist. 30 (10): 10–15. doi:10.1144/geosci2020-115. S2CID 242895754.
  27. ^ Greenfield, T. (2022). "List of skeletal material from megatooth sharks (Lamniformes, Otodontidae)" (PDF). Paleoichthys. 4: 1–9.
  28. ^ Vella, N.; Vella, A. (2020). "The complete mitogenome of the Critically Endangered smalltooth sand tiger shark, Odontaspis ferox (Lamniformes: Odontaspididae)". Mitochondrial DNA Part B. 5 (3): 3301–3304. doi:10.1080/23802359.2020.1814886. PMC 7782878. PMID 33458146.
  29. ^ Greenpeace International Seafood Red list Archived 2010-04-10 at the Wayback Machine

Further reading

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