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{{Short description|Species of velvet worms}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Speciesbox
| parent = Peripatoides
| image = Peripatoides novaezealandiae 150609625.jpg
| taxon = Peripatoides novaezealandiae
| genus = Peripatoides
| species = novaezealandiae
| authority = (Hutton, 1876)<ref name=GBIF>{{GBIF |title=''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' (Hutton, 1876) |id=2235594 |access-date=2 May 2024}}</ref>
}}
}}
'''''Peripatoides novaezealandiae''''' is a [[species]].<ref name="inaturalist-Peripatoides novaezealandiae">{{cite web |title=New Zealand peripatus (Peripatoides novaezealandiae) |url=https://inaturalist.nz/taxa/394827-Peripatoides-novaezealandiae |website=iNaturalist NZ |access-date=2024-05-01 |language=en}}</ref>


'''''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' s. str.''' is an allozymatic (reproductively isolated) species of [[Onychophora|velvet worms]] in the ''Peripatoides novaezealandiae''-complex,<ref name="Trewick 1998">{{Cite journal |last=Trewick |first=Steven A. |date=1998 |title=Sympatric cryptic species in New Zealand Onychophora |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |language=en |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=307–329 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1998.tb01520.x |issn=0024-4066 |doi-access=free}}</ref> endemic to [[New Zealand]]. Other described species include ''P. aurorbis'', ''P. kawekaensis'', ''P. morgani'' and ''P. sympatrica''.<ref name="Trewick 2000">{{Cite journal |last=Trewick |first=S. A. |date=2000 |title=Mitochondrial DNA sequences support allozyme evidence for cryptic radiation of New Zealand ''Peripatoides'' (Onychophora) |journal=Molecular Ecology |language=en |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=269–281 |bibcode=2000MolEc...9..269T |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00873.x |issn=1365-294X |pmid=10736025 |s2cid=8637591}}</ref>
⚫
==References==

== Description ==
[[File:Schematic ventral sketch of the location of sole pads and distal papillae on the fifth leg of a male from P. novaezealandiae-complex.png|thumb|Location of sole pads and distal papillae on the fifth leg of a male from ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex.<ref name="Pripnow c">{{cite journal |last1=Pripnow |first1=Birgit |last2=Ruhberg |first2=Hilke |title=Figs 3–5 in Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae'-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects |journal=African Invertebrates |date=31 August 2003 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=103–114 |url=https://zenodo.org/records/7666506}}</ref>]]
[[File:Fig. 2 in Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex' in culture - morphological and reproductive aspects.png|thumb|Location of characteristic orange papillae bulge relative to eye on ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex.<ref name="Pripnow b">{{cite journal |last1=Pripnow |first1=Birgit |last2=Ruhberg |first2=Hilke |title=Fig. 2 in Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects |journal=African Invertebrates |date=31 August 2003 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=103–114 |url=https://zenodo.org/records/7666504}}</ref>]]
As with all [[Onychophora]], ''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' s. str. has a long, worm-like body, a head, and an anal cone.<ref name="Hutton 1876">{{cite journal |last1=Hutton |first1=F.W. |title=On Peripatus novæ-zealandiæ |journal=Annals and Magazine of Natural History |date=November 1876 |volume=18 |issue=107 |pages=361–369 |doi=10.1080/00222937608682060}}</ref><ref name="Mayer 2015">{{Citation |last1=Mayer |first1=Georg |title=Onychophora |date=2015 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-7091-1865-8_4 |work=Evolutionary Developmental Biology of Invertebrates 3 |pages=53–98 |editor-last=Wanninger |editor-first=Andreas |place=Vienna |publisher=Springer Vienna |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-1865-8_4 |isbn=978-3-7091-1864-1 |last2=Franke |first2=Franziska Anni |last3=Treffkorn |first3=Sandra |last4=Gross |first4=Vladimir |last5=de Sena Oliveira |first5=Ivo}}</ref> The head has three pairs of modified limbs: the antennae, the jaws, and the oral [[Oral papilla|papillae]].<ref name="Hutton 1876" /><ref name="Mayer 2015" /> Their skin is velvety in texture and the sticky slime projected from their oral papillae does not stick to it.<ref name="Hutton 1876" /> They respire via two rows of [[trachea]] on the [[Dorsal (anatomy)|dorsal]] surface, which alternate with the legs.<ref name="Hutton 1876" />

All species in the ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex have fifteen pairs of unjointed, hollow cone-like limbs called lobopods.<ref name="Hutton 1876" /><ref name="Trewick 1998" /> This distinguishes them from the closely related [[Peripatoides suteri|''P. suteri'']] which has sixteen pairs of lobopods.<ref name="Gleeson 1996">{{cite journal |last1=Gleeson |first1=Dianne M. |date=January 1996 |title=Onychophora of New Zealand; past, present and future |journal=New Zealand Entomologist |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=51–55 |doi=10.1080/00779962.1996.9722023|bibcode=1996NZEnt..19...51G }}</ref><ref name="Gleeson 2010">{{cite book |last1=Gleeson |first1=D. M. |last2=Ruberg |first2=H. |editor1-last=Gordon |editor1-first=D. P. |title=New Zealand inventory of biodiversity |date=2010 |publisher=Canterbury University Press |location=Christchurch, N.Z |isbn=978-1-87725793-3 |pages=36–39 |chapter=Phylum Onychophora: velvet worms, peripatus.}}</ref> ''Peripatoides novaezealandiae''-complex has three complete spinous pads and a fourth fragmented pad on the [[ventral]] side of the legs.<ref name="Pripnow a">{{cite journal |last1=Pripnow |first1=Birgit |last2=Ruhberg |first2=Hilke |date=31 August 2003 |title=Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects |url=https://zenodo.org/records/7666500 |journal=African Invertebrates |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=103–114 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7666500}}</ref> Individuals all have three distal papillae on the feet.<ref name="Pripnow a" /><ref name="Trewick 1998" />

Colour varies from brownish red to purplish black, but there is usually a thin black dorsal stripe.<ref name="Hutton 1876" /> A bulge of orange-coloured papillae near the eyes is characteristic of the ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex.<ref name="Pripnow a" />

Length varies from 2.5–5 cm.<ref name="Trewick 1998" /> Males can reach a weight of up to 200 mg while adult female weight varies more widely, with some specimens of over 800 mg.<ref name="Tutt 2002">{{Cite journal|last1=Tutt|first1=Karen|last2=Daugherty|first2=Charles H.|last3=Gibbs|first3=George W.|date=2002|title=Differential life-history characteristics of male and female ''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae)|journal=Journal of Zoology|language=en|volume=258|issue=2|pages=257–267|doi=10.1017/S095283690200136X|issn=1469-7998|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Morphologically, males can usually be distinguished from females by the presence of a pair of posterior orange papillae which mark the opening of the anal glands.<ref name="Trewick 1998" /><ref name="Tutt 2002" /> These papillae appear before maturity, so cannot be used to identify sexually mature males.<ref name="Tutt 2002" /> Males in the ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex do not have the pheromone-producing [[wiktionary:crural|crural]] glands found in many other [[Onychophora]], such as ''[[Euperipatoides rowelli]]''.<ref name="Barclay 2000">{{cite journal |last1=Barclay |first1=S. D. |last2=Rowell |first2=D. M. |last3=Ash |first3=J. E. |title=Pheromonally mediated colonization patterns in the velvet worm Euperipatoides rowelli (Onychophora) |journal=Journal of Zoology |date=April 2000 |volume=250 |issue=4 |pages=437–446 |doi=10.1017/s0952836900004027}}</ref>

Newborns of ''P. novaezealandiae'' s. str. are pure white with slightly purple [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]].<ref name="Hutton 1876" /><ref name="Tutt 1997">{{cite book |last1=Tutt |first1=Karen |title=The life history and reproductive cycle of ''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae) |date=1997 |url=https://ir.wgtn.ac.nz/handle/123456789/24036 |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Other ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex morphs are born with [[Biological pigment|pigments]], possibly differentiating them from ''P. novaezealandiae'' s. str.<ref name="Pripnow a" />

== Distribution and habitat ==
=== Natural global range ===
''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' s. str. is [[Endemism|endemic]] to New Zealand.<ref name="Gleeson 1996" />

=== New Zealand range ===
''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' s. str. is limited to [[Wellington]], [[Wairarapa]], and southern [[Hawke's Bay]] regions in places such as Miller reserve, Otari, Akatarawa, Waiohine, Carterton, and Pahiatua.<ref name="Trewick 1998" />

=== Habitat preferences ===
''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' s. str. is usually found within or beneath rotting logs.<ref name="Trewick 1998" /><ref name="Tutt 2002" /> Sufficient moisture is vital for all Onychophora as they cannot regulate water loss due to a lack of both a waxy [[cuticle]] and [[Spiracle (arthropods)|tracheal spiracles]].<ref name="Barclay 2000" /><ref name="Gleeson 1996" /><ref name="Hardie 1975">{{cite journal |last1=Hardie |first1=R. |title=The riddle of Peripatus |journal=Australian Natural History |date=1975 |volume=18 |issue=5 |pages=180–185 |url=https://museum-publications.australian.museum/aus-nat-hist-1975-v18-iss5/ |language=en |issn=0004-9840}}</ref>

== Life cycle ==
As with all of ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex, ''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' s. str. use [[Viviparity|lecithotrophic viviparity]] to reproduce and supply nutrition to their young.<ref name="Mayer 2015" /> This means embryos are surrounded by egg membranes and derive nutrition from a yolk while inside the ovary.<ref name="Mayer 2015" /> Hatching and birth are simultaneous.<ref name="Mayer 2015" />

Juveniles go through three stages:<ref name="Pripnow a" />

* Stage A: wet and shiny [[integument]] (outer tissue). Needle-like spines of sensory papillae exposed.
* Stage B: integument becomes more strongly pigmented and loses lustre. Sensory spines still exposed to some extent. This change is up to nine days after birth.
* Stage C: integument fully pigmented and has no lustre. Sensory spines no longer exposed, and papillae resemble adult form. Time to reach this stage varies considerably with the location and [[Polymorphism (biology)|morph]], suggesting possible diagnostic differences between subspecies of the ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex.

Peripatids grow by [[moulting]] the outer cuticle when it becomes too restrictive.<ref name="Hardie 1975" /> ''P. novaezealandiae'' s. str. is an [[Semelparity and iteroparity|iteroparous]] batch breeder, meaning that it produces young in discontinuous batches.<ref name="Tutt 1997" />

Males of ''P. novaezealandiae'' s. str. reach sexual maturity between 40–60 mg body weight, while females reach sexual maturity between 80–95 mg body weight.<ref name="Tutt 2002" /> Females with embryos are usually between 114–508 mg but can be as large as 800 mg.<ref name="Tutt 2002" /> Prior to the development of the first embryos, female paired [[Uterus|uteri]] are white and thin.<ref name="Tutt 2002" /> Subsequently, the uteri are thick-walled, yellow, and baggy for all mature females.<ref name="Tutt 2002" />

Females can store sperm in [[Spermatheca|spermathecae]],<ref name="Tutt 2002" /> possibly for more than two years.<ref name="Pripnow a" /> Dissections show that both males and females contain sperm in all months of the year.<ref name="Tutt 2002" />

In some [[Onychophora]], [[Spermatophore|spermatophores]] (capsules containing sperm) from the male attach themselves to the [[integument]] of the females.<ref name="Manton 1938">{{cite journal |last1=Manton |first1=S. M. |title=Studies on the Onychophora, IV - The passage of spermatozoa into the ovary on ''Peripatopsis'' and the early developments of the ova |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |date=18 February 1938 |volume=228 |issue=556 |pages=421–441 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1938.0001|bibcode=1938RSPTB.228..421M }}</ref> Sperm invade the [[Hemolymph|haemolymph]] (body cavity), making their way to the reproductive tract.<ref name="Manton 1938" /> No spermatophores or scars have been found on female ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex, but sperm has been found within the haemolymph.<ref name="Tutt 2002" /> Evidence suggests sperm transfer in this species is dermal-haemocoelic (through skin into the body cavity), but this has yet to be confirmed.<ref name="Tutt 2002" />

== Diet and foraging ==
[[File:Subspecies Nuncia conjuncta conjuncta preying on Peripatoides novaezealandiae.jpg|thumb|A harvestman (''Nuncia conjuncta'' ssp. ''conjuncta'') eating ''P. novaezealandiae.''<ref name="Schneehagen 2021">{{cite web |last1=Schneehagen |first1=Uwe |title=Subspecies ''Nuncia conjuncta conjuncta'' |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/88363312 |website=iNaturalist |language=en |date=24 July 2021}}</ref>]]
[[File:Miotopus diversus feeding on the Peripatoides novaezealandiae.jpg|thumb|A cave wētā (''Miotopus diversus'') eating ''P. novaezealandiae''.<ref name="Schneehagen">{{cite web |last1=Schneehagen |first1=Uwe |title=New Zealand peripatus (''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'') |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/105486552 |website=iNaturalist |language=en |date=24 January 2022}}</ref>]]
[[File:Peripatoides novaezealandiae - Uwe Schneehagen - 433292266.jpeg|thumb|''P. novaezealandiae'' eating a ''[[Nanocambridgea gracilipes]]'' spider.]]
Like others in their genus, the ''Peripatoides novaezealandiae'' s. str. is a [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]] [[Predation|predator]].<ref name="Hutton 1876" /><ref name="Hardie 1975" />

Captive individuals of ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex have been sustained with [[Fly|flies]].<ref name="Hutton 1876" /> An abundance of [[Centipede|centipedes]] have been found in logs that also contain ''P. novaezealandiae'' s. str., suggesting a possible predator-prey relationship.<ref name="Tutt 1997" />

Peripatids use their oral papillae to shoot out sticky slime which thickens upon contact with the air and covers prey in a strong, net-like structure.<ref name="Hutton 1876" /><ref name="Hardie 1975" /> They approach and use their jaws to puncture the cuticle of the trapped animal, injecting [[Digestive enzyme|digestive enzymes]] and sucking up the liquefied remains.<ref name="Hutton 1876" /><ref name="Hardie 1975" /><ref name="Mayer 2015" />

== Predators, parasites, and diseases ==
Globally there has been very little research on the ecology of [[Onychophora]].<ref name="Guerro 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Guerrero-Casado |first1=José |last2=Monge-Nájera |first2=Julián |title=Bibliometrics of velvet worm (Onychophora) research: geographic and historical trends over 150 years, and recommendations for future work |journal=Biologia |date=16 November 2022 |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=109–117 |doi=10.1007/s11756-022-01221-5|bibcode=2022Biolg..78..109G }}</ref> Several species, including [[Spider|spiders]] and [[Beetle|beetles]], have been found in rotting logs along with ''P. novaezealandiae'' s. str..<ref name="Tutt 1997" /> It is unknown if these species are predators, prey, or perhaps either depending on the specific interaction.<ref name="Tutt 1997" /> Observations on [[iNaturalist]] have shown two species eating ''P. novaezealandiae'' s. str., a [[Opiliones|harvestman]] (''[[Nuncia conjuncta ssp. conjuncta]]'') and a [[Rhaphidophoridae|cave wētā]] (''[[Miotopus diversus]]'').

External [[Nematode|nematodes]] have been found behind the oral papillae of ''P. novaezealandiae'' s. str., but there is no evidence of [[parasitism]].<ref name="Tutt 1997" /> [[Mite|Mites]] have also been found on the [[integument]], but without evidence of any feeding.<ref name="Tutt 1997" /> Both relationships may be better characterised as [[Phoresis|phoresy]], where species are transported by the peripatus without causing harm.<ref name="Tutt 1997" />

No internal parasites or damage consistent with [[fungal infection]] have been found in ''P. novaezealandiae''.<ref name="Tutt 1997" />

== Conservation status ==
As a whole, ''P. novaezealandiae''-complex is classed as ‘not threatened’ according to the 2018 [[New Zealand Threat Classification System]].<ref name="Trewick 2018">{{cite book |last1=Trewick |first1=S. |last2=Hitchmough |first2=R. |last3=Rolfe |first3=J. |last4=Stringer |first4=I. |title=Conservation status of New Zealand Onychophora ('peripatus' or velvet worm), 2018 |date=2018 |publisher=New Zealand Department of Conservation |url=https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/science-and-technical/nztcs26entire.pdf}}</ref> In part, this is because the allozymatic species have not all been described and little is known about their distribution.<ref name="DOC 2014">{{Cite book |title=New Zealand peripatus/ngaokeoke : current knowledge, conservation and future research needs |publisher=Department of Conservation, Ōtepoti/Dunedin Office |others=New Zealand. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. |year=2014 |isbn=9780478150094 |oclc=994631114}}</ref>

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== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2806201}}
{{Animal-stub}}

[[Category:Onychophoran species]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1876]]

{{Improve categories|date=May 2024}}

Latest revision as of 01:04, 26 October 2024

Peripatoides novaezealandiae
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Onychophora
Family: Peripatopsidae
Genus: Peripatoides
Species:
P. novaezealandiae
Binomial name
Peripatoides novaezealandiae
(Hutton, 1876)[1]

Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is an allozymatic (reproductively isolated) species of velvet worms in the Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex,[2] endemic to New Zealand. Other described species include P. aurorbis, P. kawekaensis, P. morgani and P. sympatrica.[3]

Description

[edit]
Location of sole pads and distal papillae on the fifth leg of a male from P. novaezealandiae-complex.[4]
Location of characteristic orange papillae bulge relative to eye on P. novaezealandiae-complex.[5]

As with all Onychophora, Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. has a long, worm-like body, a head, and an anal cone.[6][7] The head has three pairs of modified limbs: the antennae, the jaws, and the oral papillae.[6][7] Their skin is velvety in texture and the sticky slime projected from their oral papillae does not stick to it.[6] They respire via two rows of trachea on the dorsal surface, which alternate with the legs.[6]

All species in the P. novaezealandiae-complex have fifteen pairs of unjointed, hollow cone-like limbs called lobopods.[6][2] This distinguishes them from the closely related P. suteri which has sixteen pairs of lobopods.[8][9] Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex has three complete spinous pads and a fourth fragmented pad on the ventral side of the legs.[10] Individuals all have three distal papillae on the feet.[10][2]

Colour varies from brownish red to purplish black, but there is usually a thin black dorsal stripe.[6] A bulge of orange-coloured papillae near the eyes is characteristic of the P. novaezealandiae-complex.[10]

Length varies from 2.5–5 cm.[2] Males can reach a weight of up to 200 mg while adult female weight varies more widely, with some specimens of over 800 mg.[11]

Morphologically, males can usually be distinguished from females by the presence of a pair of posterior orange papillae which mark the opening of the anal glands.[2][11] These papillae appear before maturity, so cannot be used to identify sexually mature males.[11] Males in the P. novaezealandiae-complex do not have the pheromone-producing crural glands found in many other Onychophora, such as Euperipatoides rowelli.[12]

Newborns of P. novaezealandiae s. str. are pure white with slightly purple antennae.[6][13] Other P. novaezealandiae-complex morphs are born with pigments, possibly differentiating them from P. novaezealandiae s. str.[10]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Natural global range

[edit]

Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is endemic to New Zealand.[8]

New Zealand range

[edit]

Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is limited to Wellington, Wairarapa, and southern Hawke's Bay regions in places such as Miller reserve, Otari, Akatarawa, Waiohine, Carterton, and Pahiatua.[2]

Habitat preferences

[edit]

Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is usually found within or beneath rotting logs.[2][11] Sufficient moisture is vital for all Onychophora as they cannot regulate water loss due to a lack of both a waxy cuticle and tracheal spiracles.[12][8][14]

Life cycle

[edit]

As with all of P. novaezealandiae-complex, Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. use lecithotrophic viviparity to reproduce and supply nutrition to their young.[7] This means embryos are surrounded by egg membranes and derive nutrition from a yolk while inside the ovary.[7] Hatching and birth are simultaneous.[7]

Juveniles go through three stages:[10]

  • Stage A: wet and shiny integument (outer tissue). Needle-like spines of sensory papillae exposed.
  • Stage B: integument becomes more strongly pigmented and loses lustre. Sensory spines still exposed to some extent. This change is up to nine days after birth.
  • Stage C: integument fully pigmented and has no lustre. Sensory spines no longer exposed, and papillae resemble adult form. Time to reach this stage varies considerably with the location and morph, suggesting possible diagnostic differences between subspecies of the P. novaezealandiae-complex.

Peripatids grow by moulting the outer cuticle when it becomes too restrictive.[14] P. novaezealandiae s. str. is an iteroparous batch breeder, meaning that it produces young in discontinuous batches.[13]

Males of P. novaezealandiae s. str. reach sexual maturity between 40–60 mg body weight, while females reach sexual maturity between 80–95 mg body weight.[11] Females with embryos are usually between 114–508 mg but can be as large as 800 mg.[11] Prior to the development of the first embryos, female paired uteri are white and thin.[11] Subsequently, the uteri are thick-walled, yellow, and baggy for all mature females.[11]

Females can store sperm in spermathecae,[11] possibly for more than two years.[10] Dissections show that both males and females contain sperm in all months of the year.[11]

In some Onychophora, spermatophores (capsules containing sperm) from the male attach themselves to the integument of the females.[15] Sperm invade the haemolymph (body cavity), making their way to the reproductive tract.[15] No spermatophores or scars have been found on female P. novaezealandiae-complex, but sperm has been found within the haemolymph.[11] Evidence suggests sperm transfer in this species is dermal-haemocoelic (through skin into the body cavity), but this has yet to be confirmed.[11]

Diet and foraging

[edit]
A harvestman (Nuncia conjuncta ssp. conjuncta) eating P. novaezealandiae.[16]
A cave wētā (Miotopus diversus) eating P. novaezealandiae.[17]
P. novaezealandiae eating a Nanocambridgea gracilipes spider.

Like others in their genus, the Peripatoides novaezealandiae s. str. is a nocturnal predator.[6][14]

Captive individuals of P. novaezealandiae-complex have been sustained with flies.[6] An abundance of centipedes have been found in logs that also contain P. novaezealandiae s. str., suggesting a possible predator-prey relationship.[13]

Peripatids use their oral papillae to shoot out sticky slime which thickens upon contact with the air and covers prey in a strong, net-like structure.[6][14] They approach and use their jaws to puncture the cuticle of the trapped animal, injecting digestive enzymes and sucking up the liquefied remains.[6][14][7]

Predators, parasites, and diseases

[edit]

Globally there has been very little research on the ecology of Onychophora.[18] Several species, including spiders and beetles, have been found in rotting logs along with P. novaezealandiae s. str..[13] It is unknown if these species are predators, prey, or perhaps either depending on the specific interaction.[13] Observations on iNaturalist have shown two species eating P. novaezealandiae s. str., a harvestman (Nuncia conjuncta ssp. conjuncta) and a cave wētā (Miotopus diversus).

External nematodes have been found behind the oral papillae of P. novaezealandiae s. str., but there is no evidence of parasitism.[13] Mites have also been found on the integument, but without evidence of any feeding.[13] Both relationships may be better characterised as phoresy, where species are transported by the peripatus without causing harm.[13]

No internal parasites or damage consistent with fungal infection have been found in P. novaezealandiae.[13]

Conservation status

[edit]

As a whole, P. novaezealandiae-complex is classed as ‘not threatened’ according to the 2018 New Zealand Threat Classification System.[19] In part, this is because the allozymatic species have not all been described and little is known about their distribution.[20]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Hutton, 1876)". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Trewick, Steven A. (1998). "Sympatric cryptic species in New Zealand Onychophora". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 63 (3): 307–329. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1998.tb01520.x. ISSN 0024-4066.
  3. ^ Trewick, S. A. (2000). "Mitochondrial DNA sequences support allozyme evidence for cryptic radiation of New Zealand Peripatoides (Onychophora)". Molecular Ecology. 9 (3): 269–281. Bibcode:2000MolEc...9..269T. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00873.x. ISSN 1365-294X. PMID 10736025. S2CID 8637591.
  4. ^ Pripnow, Birgit; Ruhberg, Hilke (31 August 2003). "Figs 3–5 in Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae'-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects". African Invertebrates. 44 (1): 103–114.
  5. ^ Pripnow, Birgit; Ruhberg, Hilke (31 August 2003). "Fig. 2 in Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects". African Invertebrates. 44 (1): 103–114.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Hutton, F.W. (November 1876). "On Peripatus novæ-zealandiæ". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 18 (107): 361–369. doi:10.1080/00222937608682060.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Mayer, Georg; Franke, Franziska Anni; Treffkorn, Sandra; Gross, Vladimir; de Sena Oliveira, Ivo (2015), Wanninger, Andreas (ed.), "Onychophora", Evolutionary Developmental Biology of Invertebrates 3, Vienna: Springer Vienna, pp. 53–98, doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-1865-8_4, ISBN 978-3-7091-1864-1
  8. ^ a b c Gleeson, Dianne M. (January 1996). "Onychophora of New Zealand; past, present and future". New Zealand Entomologist. 19 (1): 51–55. Bibcode:1996NZEnt..19...51G. doi:10.1080/00779962.1996.9722023.
  9. ^ Gleeson, D. M.; Ruberg, H. (2010). "Phylum Onychophora: velvet worms, peripatus.". In Gordon, D. P. (ed.). New Zealand inventory of biodiversity. Christchurch, N.Z: Canterbury University Press. pp. 36–39. ISBN 978-1-87725793-3.
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  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Tutt, Karen; Daugherty, Charles H.; Gibbs, George W. (2002). "Differential life-history characteristics of male and female Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae)". Journal of Zoology. 258 (2): 257–267. doi:10.1017/S095283690200136X. ISSN 1469-7998.
  12. ^ a b Barclay, S. D.; Rowell, D. M.; Ash, J. E. (April 2000). "Pheromonally mediated colonization patterns in the velvet worm Euperipatoides rowelli (Onychophora)". Journal of Zoology. 250 (4): 437–446. doi:10.1017/s0952836900004027.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Tutt, Karen (1997). The life history and reproductive cycle of Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae).
  14. ^ a b c d e Hardie, R. (1975). "The riddle of Peripatus". Australian Natural History. 18 (5): 180–185. ISSN 0004-9840.
  15. ^ a b Manton, S. M. (18 February 1938). "Studies on the Onychophora, IV - The passage of spermatozoa into the ovary on Peripatopsis and the early developments of the ova". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 228 (556): 421–441. Bibcode:1938RSPTB.228..421M. doi:10.1098/rstb.1938.0001.
  16. ^ Schneehagen, Uwe (24 July 2021). "Subspecies Nuncia conjuncta conjuncta". iNaturalist.
  17. ^ Schneehagen, Uwe (24 January 2022). "New Zealand peripatus (Peripatoides novaezealandiae)". iNaturalist.
  18. ^ Guerrero-Casado, José; Monge-Nájera, Julián (16 November 2022). "Bibliometrics of velvet worm (Onychophora) research: geographic and historical trends over 150 years, and recommendations for future work". Biologia. 78 (1): 109–117. Bibcode:2022Biolg..78..109G. doi:10.1007/s11756-022-01221-5.
  19. ^ Trewick, S.; Hitchmough, R.; Rolfe, J.; Stringer, I. (2018). Conservation status of New Zealand Onychophora ('peripatus' or velvet worm), 2018 (PDF). New Zealand Department of Conservation.
  20. ^ New Zealand peripatus/ngaokeoke : current knowledge, conservation and future research needs. New Zealand. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Ōtepoti/Dunedin Office. 2014. ISBN 9780478150094. OCLC 994631114.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
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