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The '''pearl crescent''' ('''''Phyciodes tharos''''') is a butterfly of North America. It is found in all parts of the United States except the west coast, and throughout Mexico and parts of southern Canada, in particular Ontario. Its habitat is open areas such as pastures, road edges, vacant lots, fields, open pine woods. Its pattern is quite variable. Males usually have black antenna knobs. Its upper side is orange with black borders; postmedian and submarginal areas are crossed by fine black marks. The underside of the hindwing has a dark marginal patch containing a light-colored crescent.
The '''pearl crescent''' ('''''Phyciodes tharos''''') is a butterfly of North America. It is found in all parts of the United States except the west coast, and throughout Mexico and parts of southern Canada, in particular Ontario. Its habitat is open areas such as pastures, road edges, vacant lots, fields, open pine woods. Its pattern is quite variable. Males usually have black antenna knobs. Its upper side is orange with black borders; postmedian and submarginal areas are crossed by fine black marks. The underside of the hindwing has a dark marginal patch containing a light-colored crescent.


The wingspan is from 21 to 34&nbsp;mm.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbif.gc.ca/spp_pages/butterflies/species/PearlCrescent_e.php |title=Pearl Crescent (Phyciodes tharos) (Drury, 1773) |website=Butterflies of Canada |date=14 December 2021 |publisher=Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility (CBIF)}}</ref> The species has several broods throughout the year, from April–November in the north, and throughout the year in the deep south and Mexico.
The wingspan is from 21 to 34 mm.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbif.gc.ca/spp_pages/butterflies/species/PearlCrescent_e.php |title=Pearl Crescent (Phyciodes tharos) (Drury, 1773) |website=Butterflies of Canada |date=14 December 2021 |publisher=Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility (CBIF)}}</ref> The species has several broods throughout the year, from April–November in the north, and throughout the year in the deep south and Mexico.


[[File:Phyciodes tharos 5.jpg|thumb|left|ventral view|200px]]
[[File:Phyciodes tharos 5.jpg|thumb|left|ventral view|200px]]
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Adults find [[nectar]] from a great variety of flowers including [[dogbane]], [[swamp milkweed]], [[shepherd's needle]], asters, and winter cress. Males patrol open areas for females. The eggs are laid in small batches on the underside of host plant leaves of aster species (family [[Asteraceae]]). Caterpillars eat the leaves and are gregarious when young. Hibernation is by third-stage caterpillars.
Adults find [[nectar]] from a great variety of flowers including [[dogbane]], [[swamp milkweed]], [[shepherd's needle]], asters, and winter cress. Males patrol open areas for females. The eggs are laid in small batches on the underside of host plant leaves of aster species (family [[Asteraceae]]). Caterpillars eat the leaves and are gregarious when young. Hibernation is by third-stage caterpillars.
== Hybridization ==
== Hybridization ==
Hybridization between ''Phyciodes tharos'' and other species of the genus, ''P. phaon'' and ''P. campestris montana,'' have been studied in the past<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Oliver |first=Charles G |date=1982 |title=Experimental hybridization between Phyciodes tharos and P. phaon (Nymphalidae) |url=https://images.peabody.yale.edu/lepsoc/jls/1980s/1982/1982-36(2)121-Oliver.pdf |journal=Journal of Lepidopterists' Society |volume=36 |pages=121–131}}</ref>. These studies were done because the question of if variation through hybridization could arise and create a new species of Lepidoptera as a result. Furthermore, these specific butterflies were chosen because in the case of ''P. campestris montana'' and ''P. tharos'', they share common larval food plants and habitat<ref name=":1" />. While in the case of ''P. phaon'' and ''P. tharos,'' they are sympatric along roadsides and sandy areas in northern Florida''<ref name=":2" />.'' The reason for these studies is to investigate the effects of incompatible genomes and how they affect offspring viability and variation between species. As ''P. tharos'' span across the Americas and Canada<ref name=":3" />, hybridization and interspecies breeding is a phenomenon that could lead to variety among species or infertility within offspring.
Hybridization between ''Phyciodes tharos'' and other species of the genus, ''P. phaon'' and ''P. campestris montana,'' have been studied in the past.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Proshek |first1=Benjamin |last2=Houghton |first2=David C. |date=March 2012 |title=Complex MtDNA Variation and Species Delimitations in the Phyciodes tharos Species Group (Nymphalidae: Melitaeini): A Second Look in Michigan and Ohio |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/10.18473/lepi.v66i1.a4 |journal=Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society |language=en |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=41–49 |doi=10.18473/lepi.v66i1.a4 |issn=0024-0966}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Oliver |first=Charles G |date=1982 |title=Experimental hybridization between Phyciodes tharos and P. phaon (Nymphalidae) |url=https://images.peabody.yale.edu/lepsoc/jls/1980s/1982/1982-36(2)121-Oliver.pdf |journal=Journal of Lepidopterists' Society |volume=36 |pages=121–131}}</ref> These studies were done to address the question as to whether or not variation through hybridization could arise and create a new species of Lepidoptera as a result. Furthermore, these specific butterflies were chosen because in the case of ''P. campestris montana'' and ''P. tharos'', they share common larval food plants and habitat.<ref name=":1" /> In the case of ''P. phaon'' and ''P. tharos,'' these species are sympatric along roadsides and sandy areas in northern Florida''<ref name=":2" />.'' The reason for these studies is to investigate the effects of incompatible genomes and how they affect offspring viability and variation between species. As ''P. tharos'' span across the Americas and Canada,<ref name=":3" /> hybridization and interspecies breeding is a phenomenon that could lead to variety among species or infertility within offspring.


To study this, laboratory studies have been done to inspect the compatibility of ''Phyciodes tharos'' with other species. In Oliver's experimental hybridization of ''Phyciodes tharos'' with ''P. campestris montana'', he states that "it is to be expected that the most sensitive test for genetic incompatibility between populations and species would be an assay of viability and fertility by laboratory hybridization"<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Oliver |first=Charles G. |date=September 1978 |title=EXPERIMENTAL HYBRIDIZATION BETWEEN THE NYMPHALID BUTTERFLIES <i>PHYCIODES THAROS</i> AND <i>P. CAMPESTRIS MONTANA</i> |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1978.tb04602.x |journal=Evolution |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=594–601 |doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1978.tb04602.x |pmid=28567955 |issn=0014-3820}}</ref>. Even though the cross species were incompatible, it continues the research towards if existing species of butterflies could cross breed and bring back variety within Lepidoptera.
To study this, laboratory studies have been done to inspect the compatibility of ''Phyciodes tharos'' with other species. In Oliver's experimental hybridization of ''Phyciodes tharos'' with ''P. campestris montana'', he states that "it is to be expected that the most sensitive test for genetic incompatibility between populations and species would be an assay of viability and fertility by laboratory hybridization".<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Oliver |first=Charles G. |date=September 1978 |title=EXPERIMENTAL HYBRIDIZATION BETWEEN THE NYMPHALID BUTTERFLIES <i>PHYCIODES THAROS</i> AND <i>P. CAMPESTRIS MONTANA</i> |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1978.tb04602.x |journal=Evolution |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=594–601 |doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1978.tb04602.x |pmid=28567955 |issn=0014-3820}}</ref> Even though the cross species were incompatible, it contributes to research on whether existing species of butterflies could cross breed and bring back variety within Lepidoptera.


== Relation to other species ==
== Relation to other species ==
''Phyciodes tharos''' large distribution spans from Mexico up to Canada<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Pearl Crescent (Phyciodes tharos) |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/52925-Phyciodes-tharos |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=iNaturalist |language=en}}</ref>. Specifically around the US' and Canada's border, other ''Phyciodes'' species can also be found aside ''Phyciodes tharos''. This includes ''P. batesii'', ''P. cocyta'', and ''P. pulchella''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tawny Crescent (Phyciodes batesii) |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/58577-Phyciodes-batesii |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=iNaturalist |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Northern Crescent (Phyciodes cocyta) |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/58576-Phyciodes-cocyta |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=iNaturalist |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Field Crescent (Phyciodes pulchella) |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/82069-Phyciodes-pulchella |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=iNaturalist |language=en}}</ref>''.'' This has raised the question whether these different ''Phyciodes'' species interbreed and how that has affected the genetic and phenotypic variation of the different ''Phyciodes'' species.
''Phyciodes tharos''' large distribution spans from Mexico up to Canada.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Pearl Crescent (Phyciodes tharos) |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/52925-Phyciodes-tharos |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=iNaturalist |language=en}}</ref> Specifically around the US' and Canada's border, other ''Phyciodes'' species can also be found aside ''Phyciodes tharos''. This includes ''P. batesii'', ''P. cocyta'', and ''P. pulchella.''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tawny Crescent (Phyciodes batesii) |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/58577-Phyciodes-batesii |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=iNaturalist |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Northern Crescent (Phyciodes cocyta) |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/58576-Phyciodes-cocyta |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=iNaturalist |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Field Crescent (Phyciodes pulchella) |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/82069-Phyciodes-pulchella |access-date=2024-05-31 |website=iNaturalist |language=en}}</ref> This has raised the question whether these different ''Phyciodes'' species interbreed and how that has affected the genetic and phenotypic variation of the different ''Phyciodes'' species.


While all of these Lepidoptera share the same genus, their genome has been proven to all be different, causing the variation in phenotype<ref name=":0" />. For example, when comparing the antenna of the northern and pearl crescent, the northern crescent has orange antenna tips, while the pearl crescent's are black and white<ref name=":0" />. In Wingert's study on the differentiation between the ''phyciodes'' butterflies, they found that the genome sequence of all of these Lepidoptera was different because of the low levels of gene flow and hybridization<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Wingert |first1=Brittany D |last2=Campbell |first2=Erin O |last3=Acorn |first3=John H |last4=Sperling |first4=Felix A H |date=2024-03-01 |title=Genomic integrity of <i>Phyciodes</i> butterfly species in a region of contact (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/isd/ixae006 |journal=Insect Systematics and Diversity |volume=8 |issue=2 |doi=10.1093/isd/ixae006 |issn=2399-3421|doi-access=free }}</ref>. Even though these species are capable of hybridization, it shows how these butterflies have been able to maintain their separate genomes and not overly hybridize.
While all of these Lepidoptera share the same genus, their genomes have proven to be distinct, causing the variation in phenotype.<ref name=":0" /> For example, when comparing the antenna of the northern and pearl crescent, the northern crescent has orange antenna tips, while the pearl crescent's are black and white.<ref name=":0" /> In Wingert et al.'s study on the differentiation between the ''Phyciodes'' butterflies, they found that the genome sequence of all of these Lepidoptera was different because of the low levels of gene flow and hybridization.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Wingert |first1=Brittany D |last2=Campbell |first2=Erin O |last3=Acorn |first3=John H |last4=Sperling |first4=Felix A H |date=2024-03-01 |title=Genomic integrity of <i>Phyciodes</i> butterfly species in a region of contact (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) |journal=Insect Systematics and Diversity |volume=8 |issue=2 |doi=10.1093/isd/ixae006 |issn=2399-3421|doi-access=free }}</ref> Even though these species are capable of hybridization, it shows how these butterflies have been able to maintain their separate genomes and not overly hybridize.


==Similar species==
==Similar species==
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==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Proshek |first1=Benjamin |last2=Houghton |first2=David C. |date=March 2012 |title=Complex MtDNA Variation and Species Delimitations in the Phyciodes tharos Species Group (Nymphalidae: Melitaeini): A Second Look in Michigan and Ohio |url=https://bioone.org/journals/the-journal-of-the-lepidopterists-society/volume-66/issue-1/lepi.v66i1.a4/Complex-MtDNA-Variation-and-Species-Delimitations-in-the-Phyciodes-tharos/10.18473/lepi.v66i1.a4.full |journal=The Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=41–49 |doi=10.18473/lepi.v66i1.a4 |issn=0024-0966}}</ref>
* {{cite book |last1=Brock |first1=Jim P. |first2=Kenn |last2=Kaufman |date=2003 |title=Butterflies of North America |place=Boston |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=0-618-15312-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brock |first1=Jim P. |first2=Kenn |last2=Kaufman |date=2003 |title=Butterflies of North America |place=Boston |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=0-618-15312-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Glassberg |first=Jeffrey |date=1999 |title=Butterflies through Binoculars: The East: A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Eastern North America |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-510668-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Glassberg |first=Jeffrey |date=1999 |title=Butterflies through Binoculars: The East: A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Eastern North America |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-510668-7}}

Latest revision as of 19:25, 3 September 2024

Pearl crescent

Secure  (NatureServe)[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Nymphalidae
Genus: Phyciodes
Species:
P. tharos
Binomial name
Phyciodes tharos
(Drury, [1773])

The pearl crescent (Phyciodes tharos) is a butterfly of North America. It is found in all parts of the United States except the west coast, and throughout Mexico and parts of southern Canada, in particular Ontario. Its habitat is open areas such as pastures, road edges, vacant lots, fields, open pine woods. Its pattern is quite variable. Males usually have black antenna knobs. Its upper side is orange with black borders; postmedian and submarginal areas are crossed by fine black marks. The underside of the hindwing has a dark marginal patch containing a light-colored crescent.

The wingspan is from 21 to 34 mm.[2] The species has several broods throughout the year, from April–November in the north, and throughout the year in the deep south and Mexico.

ventral view
Caterpillar
Composite showing the variation in this species

Adults find nectar from a great variety of flowers including dogbane, swamp milkweed, shepherd's needle, asters, and winter cress. Males patrol open areas for females. The eggs are laid in small batches on the underside of host plant leaves of aster species (family Asteraceae). Caterpillars eat the leaves and are gregarious when young. Hibernation is by third-stage caterpillars.

Hybridization

[edit]

Hybridization between Phyciodes tharos and other species of the genus, P. phaon and P. campestris montana, have been studied in the past.[3][4][5] These studies were done to address the question as to whether or not variation through hybridization could arise and create a new species of Lepidoptera as a result. Furthermore, these specific butterflies were chosen because in the case of P. campestris montana and P. tharos, they share common larval food plants and habitat.[4] In the case of P. phaon and P. tharos, these species are sympatric along roadsides and sandy areas in northern Florida[5]. The reason for these studies is to investigate the effects of incompatible genomes and how they affect offspring viability and variation between species. As P. tharos span across the Americas and Canada,[6] hybridization and interspecies breeding is a phenomenon that could lead to variety among species or infertility within offspring.

To study this, laboratory studies have been done to inspect the compatibility of Phyciodes tharos with other species. In Oliver's experimental hybridization of Phyciodes tharos with P. campestris montana, he states that "it is to be expected that the most sensitive test for genetic incompatibility between populations and species would be an assay of viability and fertility by laboratory hybridization".[4] Even though the cross species were incompatible, it contributes to research on whether existing species of butterflies could cross breed and bring back variety within Lepidoptera.

Relation to other species

[edit]

Phyciodes tharos' large distribution spans from Mexico up to Canada.[6] Specifically around the US' and Canada's border, other Phyciodes species can also be found aside Phyciodes tharos. This includes P. batesii, P. cocyta, and P. pulchella.[7][8][9] This has raised the question whether these different Phyciodes species interbreed and how that has affected the genetic and phenotypic variation of the different Phyciodes species.

While all of these Lepidoptera share the same genus, their genomes have proven to be distinct, causing the variation in phenotype.[10] For example, when comparing the antenna of the northern and pearl crescent, the northern crescent has orange antenna tips, while the pearl crescent's are black and white.[10] In Wingert et al.'s study on the differentiation between the Phyciodes butterflies, they found that the genome sequence of all of these Lepidoptera was different because of the low levels of gene flow and hybridization.[10] Even though these species are capable of hybridization, it shows how these butterflies have been able to maintain their separate genomes and not overly hybridize.

Similar species

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0 Phyciodes tharos Pearl Crescent". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  2. ^ "Pearl Crescent (Phyciodes tharos) (Drury, 1773)". Butterflies of Canada. Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility (CBIF). 14 December 2021.
  3. ^ Proshek, Benjamin; Houghton, David C. (March 2012). "Complex MtDNA Variation and Species Delimitations in the Phyciodes tharos Species Group (Nymphalidae: Melitaeini): A Second Look in Michigan and Ohio". Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society. 66 (1): 41–49. doi:10.18473/lepi.v66i1.a4. ISSN 0024-0966.
  4. ^ a b c Oliver, Charles G. (September 1978). "EXPERIMENTAL HYBRIDIZATION BETWEEN THE NYMPHALID BUTTERFLIES PHYCIODES THAROS AND P. CAMPESTRIS MONTANA". Evolution. 32 (3): 594–601. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1978.tb04602.x. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 28567955.
  5. ^ a b Oliver, Charles G (1982). "Experimental hybridization between Phyciodes tharos and P. phaon (Nymphalidae)" (PDF). Journal of Lepidopterists' Society. 36: 121–131.
  6. ^ a b "Pearl Crescent (Phyciodes tharos)". iNaturalist. Retrieved 2024-05-30.
  7. ^ "Tawny Crescent (Phyciodes batesii)". iNaturalist. Retrieved 2024-05-31.
  8. ^ "Northern Crescent (Phyciodes cocyta)". iNaturalist. Retrieved 2024-05-31.
  9. ^ "Field Crescent (Phyciodes pulchella)". iNaturalist. Retrieved 2024-05-31.
  10. ^ a b c Wingert, Brittany D; Campbell, Erin O; Acorn, John H; Sperling, Felix A H (2024-03-01). "Genomic integrity of Phyciodes butterfly species in a region of contact (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)". Insect Systematics and Diversity. 8 (2). doi:10.1093/isd/ixae006. ISSN 2399-3421.
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