Colonial mentality: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|Internalized attitude of ethnic or very cultural inferiority}} |
{{short description|Internalized attitude of ethnic or very cultural inferiority}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}} |
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}} |
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A '''colonial mentality''' is |
A '''colonial mentality''' is the [[Internalized oppression|internalized]] attitude of ethnic or cultural inferiority felt by people as a result of [[colonization]], i.e. them being colonized by another group.<ref name=":1">Nunning, Vera. (06/01/2015). Fictions of Empire and the (un-making of imperialist mentalities: Colonial discourse and post-colonial criticism revisited. Forum for world literature studies. (7)2. p.171-198.</ref> It corresponds with the belief that the cultural values of the colonizer are inherently superior to one's own.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=David|first1=E. J. R.|last2=Okazaki|first2=Sumie|date=2010-04-01|title=Activation and Automaticity of Colonial Mentality|journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|language=en|volume=40|issue=4|pages=850|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00601.x|issn=1559-1816}}</ref> The term has been used by [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial]] scholars to discuss the [[Transgenerational trauma|transgenerational]] effects of colonialism present in former colonies following [[decolonization]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=David|first=E. J. R.|title=Testing the validity of the colonial mentality implicit association test and the interactive effects of covert and overt colonial mentality on Filipino American mental health.|journal=[[Asian American Journal of Psychology]]|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=31–45|doi=10.1037/a0018820|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Unconscious dominions : psychoanalysis, colonial trauma, and global sovereignties|date=2011|publisher=Duke University Press|author1=Anderson, Warwick |author2=Jenson, Deborah |author3=Keller, Richard Charles) |isbn=9780822393986|location=Durham, NC|oclc=757835774}}</ref> It is commonly used as an operational concept for framing ideological domination in historical colonial experiences.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goss|first=Andrew|year=2009|title=Decent colonialism? Pure science and colonial ideology in the Netherlands East Indies, 1910–1929|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|volume=40|issue=1|pages=187–214|doi=10.1017/s002246340900006x|s2cid=143041214 |issn=1474-0680|url=https://scholarworks.uno.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist_facpubs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Felipe|first=Lou Collette S.|title=The relationship of colonial mentality with Filipina American experiences with racism and sexism.|journal=[[Asian American Journal of Psychology]]|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=25–30|doi=10.1037/aap0000033|year=2016}}</ref> In [[psychology]], colonial mentality has been used to explain instances of [[collective depression]], [[anxiety]], and other widespread [[Mental disorder|mental health]] issues in populations that have experienced colonization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paranjpe|first=Anand C.|date=2016-08-11|title=Indigenous Psychology in the Post- Colonial Context: An Historical Perspective|journal=Psychology and Developing Societies|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=27–43|doi=10.1177/097133360201400103|s2cid=145154030}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Utsey|first1=Shawn O.|last2=Abrams|first2=Jasmine A.|last3=Opare-Henaku|first3=Annabella|last4=Bolden|first4=Mark A.|last5=Williams|first5=Otis|date=2014-05-21|title=Assessing the Psychological Consequences of Internalized Colonialism on the Psychological Well-Being of Young Adults in Ghana|journal=Journal of Black Psychology|language=en|volume=41|issue=3|pages=195–220|doi=10.1177/0095798414537935|s2cid=146178551}}</ref> |
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Notable [[Marxism|Marxist]] influences on the postcolonial concept of colonial mentality include [[Frantz Fanon]]'s works on the fracturing of the colonial psyche through Western cultural domination,<ref>{{Cite book |
Notable [[Marxism|Marxist]] influences on the postcolonial concept of colonial mentality include [[Frantz Fanon]]'s works on the fracturing of the colonial psyche through Western cultural domination,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Forms of Fanonism : Frantz Fanon's critical theory and the dialectics of decolonization|last=Rabaka|first=Reiland|date=2010|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=9780739140338|location=Lanham, Md.|oclc=461323889}}</ref> as well as the concept of [[cultural hegemony]] developed by [[Italian Communist Party]] Founder [[Antonio Gramsci]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The postcolonial Gramsci|date=2012|publisher=Routledge |author1=Srivastava, Neelam Francesca Rashmi |author2=Bhattacharya, Baidik |isbn=9780415874816|location=New York|oclc=749115630}}</ref>{{toclimit|3}} |
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Criticism of the colonial mentality, however, is not solely a Marxist concept. [[Anti-Marxist]] nationalist intellectuals, such as [[Douglas Hyde]], [[Saunders Lewis]], [[Patrick Pearse]], [[Máirtín Ó Direáin]], and [[John Lorne Campbell]], who have also favored political, cultural, literary, and linguistic [[decolonisation]], have also denounced the colonial mentality as a serious problem among their own people. As a solution, they recommended [[heritage language learning]] and [[cultural nationalism]]; meaning a combination of reviving the best elements of the pre-colonial past and turning away from only emulating the colonizer in favor of looking at the culture and literature of the whole world, especially by those engaged in literature and the arts. |
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== Influences from Marxism == |
== Influences from Marxism == |
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=== Frantz Fanon === |
=== Frantz Fanon === |
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Frantz Fanon's Marxist writings on [[imperialism]], [[racism]], and decolonizing struggles have influenced post-colonial discussions about the internalization of colonial prejudice. Fanon first tackled the problem of, what he called, the "colonial alienation of the person"<ref>{{Cite book |
Frantz Fanon's Marxist writings on [[imperialism]], [[racism]], and decolonizing struggles have influenced post-colonial discussions about the internalization of colonial prejudice. Fanon first tackled the problem of, what he called, the "colonial alienation of the person"<ref>{{Cite book|title=Black Skin, White Masks|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7453-2849-2|location=London, United Kingdom|pages=xxiii}}</ref> as a mental health issue through [[Psychiatric assessment|psychiatric]] analysis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Robertson|first1=Michael|last2=Walter|first2=Garry|year=2009|title=Frantz Fanon and the confluence of psychiatry, politics, ethics and culture|journal=Acta Neuropsychiatrica|volume=21|issue=6|pages=308–309|doi=10.1111/j.1601-5215.2009.00428.x|s2cid=143798499 |issn=0924-2708}}</ref> |
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In ''[[The Wretched of the Earth]]'' ([[French language|French]]: ''Les Damnés de la Terre''), published in 1961, Fanon used psychiatry to analyze how [[French Algeria|French colonization]] and the carnage of the [[Algerian War]] had mentally affected Algerians' [[National identity|self-identity]] and mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Vikki |date=2011-01-04 |title=Introduction: Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth 50 Years On |journal=Theory, Culture & Society |language=en |volume=27 |issue=7–8 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1177/0263276410383721 |s2cid=143492378}}</ref> The book argues that during the period of colonization there was a subtle and constant mental pathology that developed within the colonial psyche.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/250 |title=The Wretched of the Earth |last=Fanon |first=Frantz |publisher=Grove Press, Inc |others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance |year=1961 |isbn=978-0802150837 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/250 250] |oclc=1316464}}</ref> Fanon argued that the colonial psyche is fractured by the lack of mental and material homogeneity as a result of the colonial power's [[Western culture]] being pressured onto the colonized population despite the existing material differences between them.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194 |title=The Wretched of the Earth |last=Fanon |first=Frantz |publisher=Grove Press, Inc |others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance |year=1961 |isbn=978-0802150837 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194 194] |oclc=1316464}}</ref> |
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Here Fanon expands traditional Marxist understandings of [[historical materialism]] to explore how the dissonance between [[Base and superstructure|material existence and culture]] functions to transform the colonized people through the mold of the Western [[bourgeoisie]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/162 |title=The Wretched of the Earth |last=Fanon |first=Frantz |publisher=Grove Press, Inc |others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance |year=1961 |isbn=978-0802150837 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/162 162] |oclc=1316464}}</ref> This meant that the native Algerian came to view their own traditional culture and identity through the lens of colonial prejudice. Fanon observed that average Algerians internalized and then openly repeated remarks that were in line with the institutionalized racist culture of the French colonizers; dismissing their own culture as backward due to the internalization of Western colonial ideologies.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/161 |title=The Wretched of the Earth |last=Fanon |first=Frantz |publisher=Grove Press, Inc |others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance |year=1961 |isbn=978-0802150837 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/161 161] |oclc=1316464}}</ref> |
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According to Fanon this results in a destabilizing existential conflict within the colonized culture:<blockquote>"In [[Western world|the West]], the family circle, the effects of education, and the relatively high [[standard of living]] of the working class provide a more or less efficient protection against the harmful action of these pastimes. But in an African country, where mental development is uneven, where the violent collision of two worlds has considerably shaken old traditions and thrown the universe of the perceptions out of focus, the impressionability and sensibility of the Young African are at the mercy of the various assaults made upon them by the very Nature of Western Culture."<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194 |title=The Wretched of the Earth |last=Fanon |first=Frantz |publisher=Grove Press, Inc |others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance |year=1961 |isbn=978-0802150837 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194 194–195] |oclc=1316464}}</ref></blockquote> |
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==British Empire== |
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{{See also|Anglocentrism|Whig history}} |
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===Wales=== |
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A person who suffers from excessive [[Anglophilia]], enthusiasm for the [[British Empire]], and embarrassment about Welsh identity is traditionally known in [[Welsh culture]] as a [[Dic Siôn Dafydd]]. In an effort to defend the [[Welsh language]] and Welsh culture from being lost to [[Anglicisation]], [[Iolo Morganwg]] spearheaded a highly successful and widely emulated revival of the traditional [[Eisteddfod]] during the late 18th-century. |
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More recently, [[Anti-Marxist]], [[Traditionalist Catholicism|Traditionalist Catholic]], and [[Welsh nationalist]] poet and playwright [[Saunders Lewis]] fought a decades-long battle against the [[Far Left]] leadership of [[Plaid Cymru]], the [[political party]] he co-founded, because of his belief that [[cultural nationalism]] was a preferable cause than Socialism. Unlike the Plaid Cymru leadership, Lewis believed that linguistic, literary, and cultural decolonisation needed to precede [[Welsh devolution]] or [[Welsh independence|political independence]]. Lewis called, most of all, for the [[language revival|revival]] of the [[Welsh people]]'s increasingly threatened [[heritage language]] and moving [[Welsh-language literature]] and [[Theatre in Wales|theatre]] towards [[World literature]], the whole [[Western canon]], and away from only emulating [[English literature]]. Otherwise, Lewis predicted as early as 1918, "the [[Senedd|Welsh Parliament]] would [only] be an enlarged County Council."<ref> Jelle Krol (2020), ''Minority Language Writers in the Wake of World War One: A Case Study of Four European Authors'', Palgrave. Page 107.</ref> |
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===Ireland=== |
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[[File:1913 Seachtain na Gaeilge poster.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Gaelic League]] poster from 1913 contrasting a proud, independent ''[[Éire]]'' with a craven, dependent ''West Britain'']] |
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In British-ruled Ireland, [[Irish people]] who displayed snobbery, extreme [[Anglophilia]], or [[mimicry|mimicked]] the [[English nobility]] and felt a [[cultural cringe]] regarding [[Irish culture]], [[Irish nationalism]], [[Gaelic games]], and the [[Gaelic revival]], were termed [[Jackeen]]s if they were [[Dublin]]ers, [[West Brit]]s if they were [[Anglo-Irish]] or [[Ulster Scots people]], and, if they were [[Irish Catholics]] and [[Gaels]], to be suffering from [[Shoneenism]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Writers and Politics: Essays and Criticism |first=Conor |last=Cruise O'Brien |date=1965 |isbn= |publisher=Chatto and Windus}}</ref> The most widely accepted [[etymology]] of ''shoneen'' is ({{langx|ga|seoinín}}, def. "Little John"), referring to [[John Bull]], the [[national personification]] of the [[British Empire]] in general and of [[England]] in particular.<ref>{{cite ODNB |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/68195 |title='Bull, John (supp. fl. 1712–)' |first=Miles |last=Taylor |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/68195}}</ref><ref name="Foster2015">{{cite book |author=Gavin M. Foster |title=The Irish Civil War and Society: Politics, Class, and Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEMTBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT71 |date=18 February 2015 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-42569-0 |pages=71–}}</ref> |
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Writing in 1914, Rev. William Burke laid the blame for shoneenism, less upon the seven hundred years of colonialism beginning in 1172, than upon the almost three hundred-year long [[religious persecution]] of the [[Catholic Church in Ireland]] that began under [[Henry VIII]] and ended only with [[Catholic Emancipation]] in 1829. In particular, Burke wrote, "It is hardly an exaggeration to say that most Irishmen are still haunted by a sub-conscious feeling of inferiority social or even intellectual." Burke then enumerated, the "habits of slavery induced by the [[Penal Laws (Ireland)|Penal code]]", as a lack of, "personal dignity, mental independence, and self-restraint". He also accused the legacy of religious persecution of having deprived the [[Irish people]], "of that sturdy [[individualism]] which respects oneself and respects others and which is as widely removed from insolence as it is from [[servility]]."<ref> Rev. William P. Burke (1914), ''[https://archive.org/details/MN42003ucmf_6 The Irish Priests in the Penal Times (1660-1760): From the State Papers in H.M. Record Offices, Dublin and London, the Bodleian Library, and the British Museum]'', Printed by N. Harvey & Co., Waterford, for the Author. pp. 207-208.</ref> |
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Rev. Burke continues, however, "While the code in so far as it was meant to pauperise and degrade was completely successful, it was a signal failure in its main purpose of Protestantising the people. Nay even, it had the very opposite effect ; for whilst in the sixteenth century they, clergy as well as laity, gave evidence of the wavering convictions of the period, in the nineteenth century they had become the most staunch Catholics in northern Europe."<ref> Rev. William P. Burke (1914), ''[https://archive.org/details/MN42003ucmf_6 The Irish Priests in the Penal Times (1660-1760): From the State Papers in H.M. Record Offices, Dublin and London, the Bodleian Library, and the British Museum]'', Printed by N. Harvey & Co., Waterford, for the Author. p. 208.</ref> |
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Even though, according to Marcus Tanner, the Irish people during the centuries of persecution, clung to the [[Tridentine Mass|Mass]], "[[Sign of the Cross|crossed]] themselves when they passed Protestant ministers on the road, had to be dragged into Protestant churches and put cotton wool in their ears rather than listen to Protestant sermons",<ref>Marcus Tanner (2004), ''The Last of the Celts'', [[Yale University]] Press. Pages 227-228.</ref> like many other invaded, conquered, and colonized peoples before and since, the Irish people overwhelmingly chose to abandon their [[heritage language]]. This choice was made out of a misunderstanding of the benefits of being [[multilingual]] and a deep longing for their children to succeed and move up in the world. The commonly quoted [[proverb]] in many rural areas, explaining the [[Victorian era]] [[language shift]] was, "Irish doesn't sell the cow." Ironically, the complete opposite was taking place during the same decades among speakers of [[minority language]]s in the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. |
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At the same time, the modern history of the Irish [[language revival]] is dated from Protestant [[Celticist]] [[Douglas Hyde]]'s 1892 manifesto ''The necessity for de-anglicising the Irish nation''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hyde |first1=Douglas |title=The necessity for de-anglicizing the Irish nation |url=http://www.gaeilge.org/deanglicising.html |website=gaeilge.org |access-date=11 January 2017 |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806042847/http://www.gaeilge.org/deanglicising.html |url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Yet another of the most influential critics of both the colonial mentality and Shoneenism was [[Easter Rising]] leader [[Patrick Pearse]], whose ideas on the [[decolonisation]] of Ireland's educational system are contained within his essay ''[[The Murder Machine (Patrick Pearse)|The Murder Machine]]''. |
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Also according to [[Louis de Paor]], Pearse's reading of the radically experimental poetry of [[Walt Whitman]] and of the French [[Symbolism (art)|Symbolists]] led him to introduce [[Modernist poetry]] into the [[Irish language]]. As a [[literary critic]], Pearse also left behind a very detailed blueprint for the [[decolonization]] of [[Irish literature]], particularly in the [[Irish language]]. |
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Louis de Paor writes that Patrick Pearse was "the most perceptive [[literary critic|critic]] and most accomplished poet," of the early Gaelic revival providing "a sophisticated model for a new literature in Irish that would reestablish a living connection with the pre-colonial Gaelic past while resuming its relationship with contemporary Europe, bypassing the monolithic influence of English."<ref>[[Louis De Paor]] (2016), ''Leabhar na hAthghabhála: Poems of Repossession: Irish-English Bilingual Edition'', [[Bloodaxe Books]]. Page 20.</ref> For this reason, de Paor has termed the youthful Pearse's execution by a [[British Army]] [[firing squad]] a catastrophe for Irish language literature. |
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Following the [[Irish War of Independence]] and [[Irish Civil War]], Ernest Augustus Boyd's 1924 collection ''Portraits: real and imaginary'' included "A West Briton", which gave a table of West-Briton responses to certain words:<ref name="Boyd">{{cite book |last1=Boyd |first1=Ernest Augustus |title=Portraits: real and imaginary, being memories and impressions of friends and contemporaries; with appreciations of divers singularities and characteristics of certain phases of life and letters among the North Americans as seen, heard, and divined |date=1970 |orig-year=1924 |publisher=George H. Doran |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/portraitsrealima00boyd/page/140 140]–145 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/portraitsrealima00boyd |access-date=9 May 2019 |chapter=A West Briton |isbn=9780403005284 |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref> |
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::{| |
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! Word !! Response |
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| ''[[Sinn Féin]]'' || [[German Plot (Ireland)|Pro-German]] |
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| Irish || Vulgar |
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|- |
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| England || Mother-country |
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|- |
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| Green || Red |
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|- |
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| Nationality || Disloyalty |
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|- |
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| Patriotism || [[Order of the British Empire|O.B.E.]] |
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| Self-determination || [[Origins of Czechoslovakia|Czecho-Slovakia]] |
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|} |
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According to Boyd, "The West Briton is the near Englishman ... an unfriendly caricature, the ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' of the least attractive English characteristics. ... The best that can be said ... is that the species is slowly becoming extinct. ... nationalism has become respectable".<ref name="Boyd"/> The opposite of the "West Briton" Boyd called the "synthetic Gael"<ref name="Boyd"/> and was called, more recently, a "[[Plastic Paddy]]." |
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Even long after the 1940s Pearse-inspired revival of [[Modern literature in Irish]], however, a colonial mentality in Ireland has repeatedly been accused of continuing to exist and is still being criticized. |
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For example, [[Máirtín Ó Direáin]]'s poetry in [[Connaught Irish]], which was written both during and after the [[Emergency (Ireland)|Emergency]] in Dublin, repeatedly displays the horror he felt as he witnessed the escalating collapse of [[Christian morality]], the growing number of, "emasculated men" and the similar loss of feminity in women.<ref>[[Louis de Paor]] (2016), ''Leabhar na hAthghabhála: Poems of Repossession: Irish-English Bilingual Edition'', [[Bloodaxe Books]]. Pages 54-55.</ref> Ó Direáin considered all three trends to be rooted in the ({{langx|ga|Stoitechas}}), or "Uprootedness", of [[Irish culture]] and the [[Irish people]], most particularly in long English-speaking parts of the country. |
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In contrast, [[Far Left]] nationalist [[Máirtín Ó Cadhain]]'s politics were [[Irish republicanism]] mixed with [[Marxism]] and [[radical politics]], and then tempered with a rhetorical [[anti-clericalism]]. In his writings, however, concerning the revival of the [[Irish language]], Ó{{nbsp}}Cadhain was very practical about the [[Catholic Church in Ireland]] but demanded greater commitment to the [[language revival]] from [[Roman Catholic priest]]s. It was his view that, as the Church was there anyway, it would be better if the clergy were more willing to address their faithful in the Irish language. He further promoted what he termed the {{lang|ga|Athghabháil na hÉireann}} ("Re-Conquest of Ireland"), (meaning both [[decolonization]] and re-[[Gaelicisation]]) and in response to what he saw as the Irish Government's bureaucratic foot-dragging on both Irish language broadcasting and Irish-medium education, Ó Cadhain was a key figure in the 1969 civil rights movement, {{lang|ga|[[Gluaiseacht Chearta Sibhialta na Gaeltachta]]}}. This group has used civil disobedience tactics influenced by [[Saunders Lewis]], the Welsh language activist and co-founder of [[Plaid Cymru]].<ref name="ie">{{cite web |url=https://máirtínócadhain.ie/english.html |title=Ó Cadhain's life |last=Ní Ghallchobhair |first=Fidelma |website=máirtínócadhain.ie |access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref> |
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More recently, in 2017 Irish [[Court of Appeal (Ireland)|Court of Appeals]] judge [[Gerard Hogan]] denounced the growing preference among Irish lawyers to allege that the [[European Convention of Human Rights]] has completely superseded the [[Constitution of Ireland]], as a "sort of legal shoneenism".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businesspost.ie/news-focus/hogan-legal-shoneenism-has-replaced-golden-era-of-constitutional-law/ |publisher=Business Post |website=businesspost.ie |title=Hogan: 'Legal shoneenism' has replaced 'golden era' of Constitutional law |first=Francesca |last=Comyn |date=14 November 2017 |access-date=21 November 2022}}</ref> |
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===Scotland=== |
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Under to the [[Education (Scotland) Act 1872|1872 Education Act]], school attendance was compulsory and only English was taught or tolerated in the schools of both the Lowlands and the [[Highlands and Islands]]. As a result, any student who spoke [[Scots language|Scots]] or [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] in the school or on its grounds could expect what Ronald Black calls the, "familiar Scottish experience of being thrashed for speaking [their] native language."<ref>Ronald Black (1999), ''An Tuil: Anthology of 20th Century Scottish Gaelic Verse'', p. 787.</ref> |
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In 1891, ''[[An Comunn Gàidhealach]]'' was founded in [[Oban]] to help preserve the [[Scottish Gaelic language]] and its literature and to establish the [[Royal National Mòd]] (''Am Mòd Nàiseanta Rìoghail''), as a festival<ref name="Scotsman">{{cite news |last=MacLeod |first=Murdo |author2=Fiona Stewart |title=Mod 2002 - and 20,000 Gaels blow in for festival of music |newspaper=The Scotsman |date=12 October 2002 |url=http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=600&id=1129402002 |access-date=2006-12-19}}</ref> of Gaelic music, literature, arts, and culture deliberately modelled upon the [[National Eisteddfod of Wales]]. |
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Before serving in the [[Seaforth Highlanders]] in [[British India]] and during the [[Fall of France]] in 1940, however, Gaelic language [[war poet]] [[Aonghas Caimbeul]] attended the 300-pupil Cross School on the [[Isle of Lewis]] after the 1872 Education Act. He later recalled of both [[Anglicisation]] and the use of the [[Whig history]] in the [[curriculum]], "A Lowlander, who had not a word of Gaelic, was the schoolmaster. I never had a Gaelic lesson in school, and the impression you got was that your language, people, and tradition had come from unruly, wild, and ignorant tribes and that if you wanted to make your way in the world you would be best to forget them completely. Short of the stories of the [[German people|German]] [[Baron Münchhausen]], I have never come across anything as dishonest, untruthful, and inaccurate as the [[history of Scotland]] as taught in those days."<ref>Ronald Black (1999), ''An Tuil: Anthology of 20th century Scottish Gaelic Verse'', pp. 757-759.</ref> |
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Even so, large numbers of the [[Scottish people]], both Highlander and Lowlander, continued to enlist in the [[British armed forces]] and the [[Scottish regiment]]s, through the role in spreading British Colonial rule to other countries, became renowned worldwide as [[shock troops]]. |
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For this reason, literary critic Wilson MacLeod has written that, in post-[[Battle of Culloden|Culloden]] [[Scottish Gaelic literature]], [[Anti-colonialism|anti-colonialist]] poets such as [[Duncan Livingstone]] "must be considered isolated voices. The great majority of [[Gaelic poetry|Gaelic verse]], from the eighteenth century onwards, was steadfastly [[Anglophile|Pro-British]] and [[British Empire|Pro-Empire]], with several poets, including Aonghas Moireasdan and Dòmhnall MacAoidh, enthusiastically asserting the conventual justificatory rationale for imperial expansion, that it was a [[civilising mission]] rather than a process of conquest and expropriation. Conversely, there is no evidence that Gaelic poets saw a connection between their own difficult history and the experience of colonised people in other parts of the world."<ref>Theo van Heijnsbergen and Carla Sassi, ''Within and Without Empire: Scotland Across the (Post)colonial Borderline'', p. 75.</ref> |
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===South Africa=== |
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For this reason, during the final phase of the [[Second Boer War]], [[Afrikaner people|Afrikaner]] residents of [[Winburg]] in the former [[Orange Free State]], routinely taunted the Scottish Regiments in the local British Army garrison with a parody of the Jacobite rebel song ''[[Bonnie Dundee]]'', which was typically sung in English. The parody celebrated the [[guerrilla warfare]] of [[Boer commando]] leader [[Christiaan De Wet]]. |
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: De Wet he is mounted, he rides up the street |
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: The English skedaddle an A1 retreat! |
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: And the commander swore: They've got through the net |
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: That's been spread with such care for Christiaan De Wet. |
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In ''[[The Wretched of the Earth]]'' ([[French language|French]]: ''Les Damnés de la Terre''), published in 1961, Fanon used psychiatry to analyze how [[French Algeria|French colonization]] and the carnage of the [[Algerian War]] had mentally affected Algerians' [[National identity|self-identity]] and mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bell|first=Vikki|date=2011-01-04|title=Introduction: Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth 50 Years On|journal=Theory, Culture & Society|language=en|volume=27|issue=7–8|pages=7–14|doi=10.1177/0263276410383721|s2cid=143492378}}</ref> The book argues that during the period of colonization there was a subtle and constant mental pathology that developed within the colonial psyche.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/250|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/250 250]|oclc=1316464}}</ref> Fanon argued that the colonial psyche is fractured by the lack of mental and material homogeneity as a result of the colonial power's [[Western culture]] being pressured onto the colonized population despite the existing material differences between them.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194 194]|oclc=1316464}}</ref> |
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: There are hills beyond Winburg and Boers on each hill |
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: Sufficient to thwart ten generals' skill |
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: There are stout-hearted burghers 10,000 men set |
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: On following the Mausers of Christian De Wet. |
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Here Fanon expands traditional Marxist understandings of [[historical materialism]] to explore how the dissonance between [[Base and superstructure|material existence and culture]] functions to transform the colonized people through the mold of the Western [[bourgeoisie]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/162|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/162 162]|oclc=1316464}}</ref> This meant that the native Algerian came to view their own traditional culture and identity through the lens of colonial prejudice. Fanon observed that average Algerians internalized and then openly repeated remarks that were in line with the institutionalized racist culture of the French colonizers; dismissing their own culture as backward due to the internalization of Western colonial ideologies.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/161|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/161 161]|oclc=1316464}}</ref> |
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: Then away to the hills, to the [[veld]], to the rocks |
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: Ere we own a usurper we'll crouch with the fox |
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: And tremble false Jingoes amidst all your glee |
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: Ye have not seen the last of my Mausers and me!<ref>[[Marq De Villiers]] (1988), ''White Tribe Dreaming: Apartheid's Bitter Roots as Witnessed by Eight Generations of an Afrikaner Family'', page 232.</ref> |
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According to Fanon this results in a destabilizing existential conflict within the colonized culture:<blockquote>"In [[Western world|the West]], the family circle, the effects of education, and the relatively high [[standard of living]] of the working class provide a more or less efficient protection against the harmful action of these pastimes. But in an African country, where mental development is uneven, where the violent collision of two worlds has considerably shaken old traditions and thrown the universe of the perceptions out of focus, the impressionability and sensibility of the Young African are at the mercy of the various assaults made upon them by the very Nature of Western Culture."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194|title=The Wretched of the Earth|last=Fanon|first=Frantz|publisher=Grove Press, Inc|others=Sartre, Jean-Paul, 1905-1980, Farrington, Constance|year=1961|isbn=978-0802150837|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth08fano/page/194 194–195]|oclc=1316464}}</ref></blockquote> |
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There have been recent criticism of [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s characterization of the [[Second Boer War]], despite rampant [[British war crimes]] and post-war colonialism aimed at using the educational system [[linguistic imperialism|to destroy]] the [[Afrikaans language]], as a "white man's war".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Free |first=Melissa |year=2016 |title=Fault Lines of Loyalty: Kipling's Boer War Conflict |jstor=10.2979/victorianstudies.58.2.12 |journal=Victorian Studies |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=314–323 |doi=10.2979/victorianstudies.58.2.12 |s2cid=148352835}}</ref> While writing during the early 1980s about the important role played by [[dissident]] poets and writers of [[Afrikaans literature]] in the [[Internal resistance to apartheid|internal opposition]] to [[South Africa under apartheid]], [[Jack Cope]] expressed a belief that the great tragedy of post-colonial [[South African history]] is the failure of the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] government to seemingly learn anything from the [[Afrikaner people]]'s own experiences with invasion, British war crimes, [[British concentration camps]], military conquest, and [[linguistic imperialism]]. Instead of carefully refraining from treating the non-White majority as the British Empire had treated their own ancestors, according to Cope, the Afrikaner-dominated government went on following political independence to repeat and, in some cases, radically escalate the same mistakes to the point of [[dystopia]]n absurdity, with similarly disastrous results.<ref>Jack Cope (1982), ''The Adversary Within: Dissident Writers in Afrikaans'', [[Cape Town]]. pp. ''vii'' – 27.</ref> |
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==Colonial India== |
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Since the end of [[Apartheid]] and particularly since the death of former South African President [[Nelson Mandela]], the ruling [[African National Congress]] [[political party]] has been similarly criticized and accused of repeating a racially inverted version of many of the same errors that ultimately destroyed British and Afrikaner rule over South Africa. |
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===Colonial India=== |
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[[File:British India (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|Territorial extent of [[British Raj|British India]].]] |
[[File:British India (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|Territorial extent of [[British Raj|British India]].]] |
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During the period of [[Colonial India|European colonial rule in India]], Europeans in India typically regarded many aspects [[Culture of India|Indian culture]] with disdain and supported colonial rule as a beneficial "[[civilizing mission]]".<ref>{{Cite book |
During the period of [[Colonial India|European colonial rule in India]], Europeans in India typically regarded many aspects [[Culture of India|Indian culture]] with disdain and supported colonial rule as a beneficial "[[civilizing mission]]".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Falser|first=Michael|title=Cultural Heritage as Civilizing Mission |publisher=Cham: Springer|year=2015|isbn=978-3-319-13637-0|pages=8–9|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-13638-7|series = Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context}}</ref> Colonial rule in India was framed as an act which was beneficial to the people of India, rather than a process of political and economic dominance by a small minority of foreigners.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fischer–Tiné|first=Harald|date=2016-07-26|title=Britain's other civilising mission|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=295–338|doi=10.1177/001946460504200302|s2cid=148689880}}</ref> |
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Under colonial rule, many practices were outlawed, such as the practice of forcing widows to immolate themselves (known as [[Sati (practice)|sati]])<ref>{{Cite journal |
Under colonial rule, many practices were outlawed, such as the practice of forcing widows to immolate themselves (known as [[Sati (practice)|sati]])<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mukta|first=Parita|title=The 'Civilizing Mission': The Regulation and Control of Mourning in Colonial India|journal=Feminist Review|volume=63|issue=1|pages=25–47|doi=10.1080/014177899339045|year=1999|s2cid=162234935}}</ref> with acts being deemed [[Idolatry|idolatrous]] being discouraged by [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Missionary|missionaries]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ganguly|first=Swagato|date=2017-01-02|title=Idolatry: concept and metaphor in colonial representations of India|journal=South Asian History and Culture|volume=8|issue=1|pages=19–91|doi=10.1080/19472498.2016.1260353|s2cid=152124939|issn=1947-2498}}</ref> the latter of which has been claimed by some scholars to have played a large role in the developments of the modern definition of [[History of Hinduism|Hinduism]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion – Oxford Scholarship|last=Pennington|first=Brian K.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0195166552|language=en|doi=10.1093/0195166558.001.0001}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Bourgeois Hinduism, or the faith of the modern Vedantists: rare discourses from early Colonial Bengal|last=Hatch|first=Brian A.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780195326086|location=New York|oclc=191044640}}</ref> These claims base their assumptions on the lack of a unified Hindu identity prior to the period of colonial rule,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sarma|first=Deepak|date=2006-04-01|title=Hindu Leaders in North America?|journal=Teaching Theology & Religion|language=en|volume=9|issue=2|pages=115–120|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9647.2006.00272.x|issn=1467-9647}}</ref> and modern Hinduism's unprecedented outward focus on a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] [[Vedanta]] worldview.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Bayly|first=C. A.|year=2010|journal=Modern Intellectual History|volume=7|issue=2|pages=275–295|doi=10.1017/s1479244310000077|issn=1479-2451|title=India, the Bhagavad Gita and the World|s2cid=143690300 }}</ref> These developments have been read as the result of colonial views which discouraged aspects of Indian religions which differed significantly from [[Christianity]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yelle|first=Robert A.|date=2005-04-01|title=Christians and Missionaries in India: Cross-Cultural Communication since 1500. Edited by Eric Frykenberg (Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003) 419 pp. $39.00|journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History|volume=35|issue=4|pages=681–682|doi=10.1162/002219505323383059|s2cid=142257044|issn=0022-1953}}</ref> It has been noted that the prominence of the [[Bhagavad Gita]] as a primary religious text in Hindu discourse was a historical response to European criticisms of Indian culture.<ref name=":6" /> Europeans found that the Gita had more in common with their own Christian [[Bible]], leading to the denouncement of Hindu practices more distantly related to monotheistic world views; with some historians claiming that Indians began to characterize their faith as the equivalent of Christianity in belief (especially in terms of monotheism) and structure (in terms of providing an equivalent primary sacred text).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Longkumer|first=Arkotong|date=2017-04-03|title=The power of persuasion: Hindutva, Christianity, and the discourse of religion and culture in Northeast India|journal=Religion|volume=47|issue=2|pages=203–227|doi=10.1080/0048721x.2016.1256845|s2cid=151354081|issn=0048-721X|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/28487092/Hindutva_Paper_Final_2_2016.pdf|hdl=20.500.11820/dd23cf50-aaa1-4120-b362-eee7028c3c8f|hdl-access=free}}</ref> |
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[[Hindu nationalism]] developed in the 19th century as an opposition to European ideological prominence; however, local Indian elites often aimed to make themselves and Indian society modern by "[[Westernization|emulating the West]]".<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |
[[Hindu nationalism]] developed in the 19th century as an opposition to European ideological prominence; however, local Indian elites often aimed to make themselves and Indian society modern by "[[Westernization|emulating the West]]".<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=Hindu Nationalism : A Reader|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe.|date=2007|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691130972|location=Princeton, N.J.|pages=6–7|oclc=368365428}}</ref> This led to the emergence of what some have termed '[[neo-Hinduism]]':<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Battaglia|first=Gino|date=2017-10-03|title=Neo-Hindu Fundamentalism Challenging the Secular and Pluralistic Indian State|journal=Religions|language=en|volume=8|issue=10|pages=216|doi=10.3390/rel8100216|doi-access=free}}</ref> consisting of reformist rhetoric transforming Hindu tradition from above, disguised as a revivalist call to return to the [[Historical Vedic religion|traditional practises of the faith]].<ref name=":7" /> Reflecting the same arguments made by Christian missionaries, who argued that the more superstitious elements of Hindu practice were responsible for corrupting the potential rational philosophy of the faith (i.e. the more Christian-like sentiments).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hindu Nationalism : A reader|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe.|date=2007|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691130972|location=Princeton, N.J.|pages=7|oclc=368365428}}</ref> Moving the definitions of Hindu practice away from more overt idol worshiping, reemphasizing the concept of [[Brahman]] as a monotheistic divinity, and focusing more on the figure of [[Krishna]] in [[Vaishnavism]] due to his role as a messianic type figure (more inline with European beliefs) which makes him a suitable alternative to the Christian figure of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus Christ.]]<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Bourgeois Hinduism, or the faith of the modern Vedantists : rare discourses from early Colonial Bengal|last=Hatcher|first=Brian A.|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195326086|location=New York|oclc=191044640}}</ref> |
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[[File:Kerala Raksha Yatra - BJP - 2011.jpg|left|thumb|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] supporters marching in [[Kerala]].]] |
[[File:Kerala Raksha Yatra - BJP - 2011.jpg|left|thumb|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] supporters marching in [[Kerala]].]] |
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The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), India's current ruling |
The [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), India's current ruling party, follows this tradition of nationalistic Hinduism ([[Hindutva]]), and promotes an Indian national identity infused with [[Neo-Vedanta|neo-Vedantic]] which has been claimed by some to have been influenced by a "colonial mentality".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Harriss|first=John|date=2015-10-02|title=Hindu Nationalism in Action: The Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian Politics|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=38|issue=4|pages=712–718|doi=10.1080/00856401.2015.1089826|s2cid=147615034|issn=0085-6401|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230188|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Jan|year=2015|title=India's Right Turn|url=https://read-dukeupress-edu.proxy.library.carleton.ca/world-policy-journal|journal=World Policy Journal|volume=32 |issue=2|pages=93–103|doi=10.1177/0740277515591547}}</ref> |
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Some critics have claimed that writer [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s portrayals of Indian characters in his works supported the view that colonized people were incapable of living without the help of [[Europe]]ans, describing these portrayals as [[Racism|racist]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/443889.stm | work=BBC News | title=Kipling comes under review | date=10 September 1999 | access-date=2010-04-30}}</ref> In his famous poem "[[The White Man's Burden]]", Kipling directly argues for this point by romanticizing the "[[civilising mission]]" in non-[[Western world|Western]] countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brantlinger|first=Patrick|year=2007|title=Kipling's "The White Man's Burden" and Its Afterlives|journal=English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920|volume=50|issue=2|pages=172–191|doi=10.1353/elt.2007.0017|s2cid=162945098|issn=1559-2715}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brantlinger|first=Patrick|year=2005|title=The Complexity of Kipling's Imperialist Politics|url=http://muse.jhu.edu.proxy.library.carleton.ca/article/366432/pdf|journal=English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920|volume=48 |issue=1|pages=88}}</ref> Jaway Syed has claimed that Kipling's poems idolizes [[Western world|Western culture]] as entirely rational and civilized, while treating non-white cultures as 'childlike' and 'demonic'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Syed|first1=Jawad|last2=Ali|first2=Faiza|date=2011-03-01|title=The White Woman's Burden: from colonial civilisation to Third World development|journal=Third World Quarterly|volume=32|issue=2|pages=349–365|doi=10.1080/01436597.2011.560473|s2cid=145012248|issn=0143-6597}}</ref> Similar sentiments have been interpreted in Kipling's other works, such as his characterization of the [[Second Boer War]] as a "white man's war";<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Free|first=Melissa|year=2016|title=Fault Lines of Loyalty: Kipling's Boer War Conflict|jstor=10.2979/victorianstudies.58.2.12|journal=Victorian Studies|volume=58|issue=2|pages=314–323|doi=10.2979/victorianstudies.58.2.12|s2cid=148352835}}</ref> along with his presentation of 'whiteness' as a morally and culturally superior trait of the West.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mondal|first=Sharleen|year=2014|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture|volume=42|issue=4|pages=733–751|doi=10.1017/s1060150314000278|issn=1060-1503|title=Whiteness, Miscegenation, and Anti-Colonial Rebellion in Rudyard Kipling's the Man Who Would be King|s2cid=159629882 }}</ref> His portrayal of Indians in his ''[[The Jungle Book|Jungle Book]]'' stories have also been criticized by Jane Hotchkiss as examples of the [[Chauvinism|chauvinistic]] [[infantilization]] of colonized peoples in [[popular culture]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hotchkiss|first=Jane|year=2001|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture|volume=29|issue=2|pages=435–449|doi=10.1017/s1060150301002108|issn=1470-1553|title=The Jungle of Eden: Kipling, Wolf Boys, and the Colonial Imagination|s2cid=162409338 }}</ref> Some historians claim that Kipling's works have contributed towards the development of a colonial mentality in the ways that the colonized people in these fictional narratives are made submissive to and dependent on their white rulers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jonathan Rey|date=2012-11-01|title=When Lions Talk: Wittgenstein, Kipling, and the Language of Colonialism1|journal=Literature Compass|language=en|volume=9|issue=11|pages=884–893|doi=10.1111/j.1741-4113.2012.00916.x|issn=1741-4113}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=White skins/Black masks : representation and colonialism|last=Low|first=Gail Ching-Liang|date=1996|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0203359600|location=London|pages=1–10|oclc=54666707}}</ref> |
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===Legacy=== |
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Some critics have claimed that writer [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s portrayals of Indian characters in his works supported the view that colonized people were incapable of living without being ruled by White British people, describing these portrayals as [[Racism|racist]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/443889.stm |work=BBC News |title=Kipling comes under review |date=10 September 1999 |access-date=2010-04-30}}</ref> In his famous poem "[[The White Man's Burden]]", Kipling directly argues for this point by romanticizing the "[[civilising mission]]" in non-[[Western world|Western]] countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brantlinger |first=Patrick |year=2007 |title=Kipling's "The White Man's Burden" and Its Afterlives |journal=English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=172–191 |doi=10.1353/elt.2007.0017 |s2cid=162945098 |issn=1559-2715}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brantlinger |first=Patrick |year=2005 |title=The Complexity of Kipling's Imperialist Politics |url=http://muse.jhu.edu.proxy.library.carleton.ca/article/366432/pdf |journal=English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=88}}</ref> Jaway Syed has claimed that Kipling's poems idolizes [[Western world|Western culture]] as entirely rational and civilized, while treating non-white cultures as 'childlike' and 'demonic'.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Syed |first1=Jawad |last2=Ali |first2=Faiza |date=2011-03-01 |title=The White Woman's Burden: from colonial civilisation to Third World development |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=349–365 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2011.560473 |s2cid=145012248 |issn=0143-6597}}</ref> |
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Along with his presentation of 'whiteness' as one of the morally and culturally superior traits of "Britishness",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mondal |first=Sharleen |year=2014 |journal=Victorian Literature and Culture |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=733–751 |doi=10.1017/s1060150314000278 |issn=1060-1503 |title=Whiteness, Miscegenation, and Anti-Colonial Rebellion in Rudyard Kipling's the Man Who Would be King |s2cid=159629882}}</ref> Kipling's portrayal of both Indians and monkeys in his ''[[The Jungle Book|Jungle Book]]'' stories have also been criticized by Jane Hotchkiss as examples of the [[Chauvinism|chauvinistic]] [[infantilization]] of all invaded and conquered peoples in [[Victorian era]] [[British culture]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hotchkiss |first=Jane |year=2001 |journal=Victorian Literature and Culture |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=435–449 |doi=10.1017/s1060150301002108 |issn=1470-1553 |title=The Jungle of Eden: Kipling, Wolf Boys, and the Colonial Imagination |s2cid=162409338}}</ref> Kipling's poetic lionisation of [[Ulster Loyalism]] and the [[Orange Order]] and his denunciation of the [[Catholic Church in Ireland]], the [[Land War]], [[Home Rule]], and [[Irish nationalism]] have also been criticized in modern Great Britain and Ireland for very similar reasons.<ref> [https://www.kiplingsociety.co.uk/poem/poems_ulster.htm Ulster], Kipling Society.</ref><ref> [https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v10/n03/owen-dudley-edwards/kipling-and-the-irish Kipling and the Irish], by [[Owen Dudley Edwards]], ''[[London Review of Books]]'', 4th February 1988.</ref> |
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Some historians claim that Kipling's works have contributed towards the development of a colonial mentality in the ways that the conquered peoples in these fictional narratives are made submissive to and dependent on their [[British upper class]] rulers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Jonathan Rey |date=2012-11-01 |title=When Lions Talk: Wittgenstein, Kipling, and the Language of Colonialism1 |journal=Literature Compass |language=en |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=884–893 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-4113.2012.00916.x |issn=1741-4113}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=White skins/Black masks : representation and colonialism |last=Low |first=Gail Ching-Liang |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0203359600 |location=London |pages=1–10 |oclc=54666707}}</ref> |
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==Spanish Empire== |
==Spanish Empire== |
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[[File:Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg|left|thumb| |
[[File:Spanish_Empire_-_1824.jpg|left|thumb| |
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Spanish Empire, 1824 |
Spanish Empire, 1824 |
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]]Mestizos and other mixed raced combinations were categorized into different [[casta]]s by viceroyalty administrators. This system was applied to Spanish territories in the [[New Spain|Americas]] and the [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Philippines]], where large populations of mixed raced individuals made up the increasing majority of the viceroyalty population (until the present day).<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |
]]Mestizos and other mixed raced combinations were categorized into different [[casta]]s by viceroyalty administrators. This system was applied to Spanish territories in the [[New Spain|Americas]] and the [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Philippines]], where large populations of mixed raced individuals made up the increasing majority of the viceroyalty population (until the present day).<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Olson|first=Christa|date=2009-10-16|title=Casta Painting and the Rhetorical Body|journal=Rhetoric Society Quarterly|volume=39|issue=4|pages=307–330|doi=10.1080/02773940902991429|s2cid=144818986|issn=0277-3945}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lentz|first=Mark|date=2017-02-01|title=Castas, Creoles, and the Rise of a Maya Lingua Franca in Eighteenth-Century Yucatan|journal=Hispanic American Historical Review|volume=97|issue=1|pages=29–61|doi=10.1215/00182168-3727376|issn=0018-2168}}</ref>[[File:Casta painting all.jpg|thumb|Casta painting showing couples of different races arranged hierarchically, |
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and the resulting racial status of their children. |
and the resulting racial status of their children. |
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]] |
]] |
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These racial categories punished those with [[List of ethnic groups of Africa|Black African]] or [[Afro-Latinos|Afro-Latin]] heritage; those of European descent were given privilege over these other mixtures. As a result of this system, people of African descent struggled to downplay their indigenous heritage and cultural trappings, in order to appear superficially more Spanish or natives.<ref>{{Cite book |
These racial categories punished those with [[List of ethnic groups of Africa|Black African]] or [[Afro-Latinos|Afro-Latin]] heritage; those of European descent were given privilege over these other mixtures. As a result of this system, people of African descent struggled to downplay their indigenous heritage and cultural trappings, in order to appear superficially more Spanish or natives.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Playing in the cathedral : music, race, and status in New Spain|last=Ramos-Kittrell|first=Jesús A.|year=2016 |isbn=978-0190236830|location=New York, NY|oclc=957615716}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book|title=Maya or mestizo?: nationalism, modernity, and its discontents|first=Ronald|last=Loewe|date=2011|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=9781442601420|location=Toronto|pages=1–5|oclc=466659990}}</ref> With these internalized prejudices individuals' choices of clothes, occupations, and forms of religious expression.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Indians and mestizos in the "lettered city" : reshaping justice, social hierarchy, and political culture in colonial Peru|last=Dueñas|first=Alcira|date=2010|publisher=University Press of Colorado|isbn=9781607320197|location=Boulder, Colo.|oclc=664565692}}</ref> Those of mixed racial identities who wanted to receive the institutional benefits of being Spanish (such as higher educational institutions and career opportunities), could do so by suppressing their own cultures and acting with "Spanishness".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Playing in the cathedral : music, race, and status in New Spain|last=Ramos-Kittrell|first=Jesús A.|year=2016|isbn=9780190236816|location=New York, NY|pages=37–38|oclc=933580544}}</ref> This mentality lead to commonplace racial forgery in Latin America, often accompanied by legitimizing oral accounts of a Spanish ancestor and a Spanish surname. Most mixed-white and white people in Latin America have Spanish surnames inherited from Spanish ancestors, while most other Latin Americans who have Spanish names and surnames acquired them through the [[Christianization]] and [[Hispanicization]] of the indigenous and African slave populations by Spanish friars.<ref name="ytublackmamatambien">{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/58525?tid=relatedcl|title=Y Tu Black Mama Tambien|last=Quinonez|first=Ernesto|website=[[Newsweek]] |date=19 June 2003|access-date=2008-05-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06360/748295-51.stm|title=Documentary, Studies Renew Debate About Skin Color's Impact|date=26 December 2006|access-date=9 August 2010|work=Pittsburgh Post Gazette}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://newsblogs.chicagotribune.com/race/2009/02/in-many-different-cultures-and-countries-around-the-world-skin-color-plays-a-huge-role-in-the-concept-of-beauty-lighter-ski/comments/page/2/|title=Is Light Skin Still Preferable to Dark?|date=26 February 2010|access-date=9 August 2010|work=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref> |
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However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as Amerindian groups simply blended [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] with their traditional beliefs.<ref>{{Cite journal |
However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as Amerindian groups simply blended [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] with their traditional beliefs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ditchfield|first=Simon|date=2004-12-01|title=Of Dancing Cardinals and Mestizo Madonnas: Reconfiguring the History of Roman Catholicism in the Early Modern Period|journal=Journal of Early Modern History|volume=8|issue=3|pages=386–408|doi=10.1163/1570065043124011|issn=1570-0658}}</ref> [[Syncretism]] between native beliefs and Christianity is still largely prevalent in Indian and Mestizo communities in Latin America.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beatty|first=Andrew|date=2006-06-01|title=The Pope in Mexico: Syncretism in Public Ritual|journal=American Anthropologist|language=en|volume=108|issue=2|pages=324–335|doi=10.1525/aa.2006.108.2.324|issn=1548-1433}}</ref> |
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===Philippines=== |
===Philippines=== |
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{{Main|Filipino mestizos}} |
{{Main|Filipino mestizos}} |
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Prior to the arrival by the Spaniards (1565–1898), the [[Sulu Archipelago]] (located in southern Philippines) was a colony of the [[Majapahit Empire]] (1293–1527) based in Indonesia. The Americans were the last country to [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|colonize the Philippines]] (1898–1946) and nationalists claim that it continues to act as a [[Neocolonialism|neo-colony]] of the US despite its formal independence in 1946.<ref name="Gómez Rivera 2000">{{Harvnb|Gómez Rivera|2000}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|García|2009}}</ref> In the Philippines colonial mentality is most evident in the preference for [[Mestizo#Philippines|Filipino mestizos]] (primarily those of mixed [[Filipino people|native Filipino]] and [[white (people)|white]] ancestry, but also mixed indigenous Filipinos and [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese]], and other ethnic groups) in the entertainment industry and mass media, in which they have received extensive exposure despite constituting a small fraction of the population.<ref name="americanchronicle.com">{{cite web |
Prior to the arrival by the Spaniards (1565–1898), the [[Sulu Archipelago]] (located in southern Philippines) was a colony of the [[Majapahit Empire]] (1293–1527) based in Indonesia. The Americans were the last country to [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|colonize the Philippines]] (1898–1946) and nationalists claim that it continues to act as a [[Neocolonialism|neo-colony]] of the US despite its formal independence in 1946.<ref name="Gómez Rivera 2000">{{Harvnb|Gómez Rivera|2000}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|García|2009}}</ref> In the Philippines colonial mentality is most evident in the preference for [[Mestizo#Philippines|Filipino mestizos]] (primarily those of mixed [[Filipino people|native Filipino]] and [[white (people)|white]] ancestry, but also mixed indigenous Filipinos and [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese]], and other ethnic groups) in the entertainment industry and mass media, in which they have received extensive exposure despite constituting a small fraction of the population.<ref name="americanchronicle.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=11261|title=Americanchronicle.com|access-date=28 July 2006|archive-date=19 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019213525/http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=11261|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Is the 'racist' BAYO advert real?|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/260881/scitech/socialmedia/is-the-racist-bayo-advert-real|work=6 June 2012|date=6 June 2012 |publisher=GMA News Online|access-date=24 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The semantics of 'mestizo'|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/267061/lifestyle/culture/the-semantics-of-mestizo|work=27 July 2012|date=27 July 2012 |publisher=GMA News|access-date=24 August 2013}}</ref> |
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The [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Cádiz Constitution of 1812]] automatically gave [[Spanish nationality law|Spanish citizenship]] to all Filipinos regardless of race.<ref name="Gómez Rivera 2000"/> The census of 1870 stated that at least one-third of the population of [[Luzon]] had partial Hispanic ancestry (from varying points of origin and ranging from [[Latin America]] to Spain).<ref>Jagor, Fëdor, et al. (1870). [http://www.authorama.com/former-philippines-b-8.html ''The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes'']</ref> |
The [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Cádiz Constitution of 1812]] automatically gave [[Spanish nationality law|Spanish citizenship]] to all Filipinos regardless of race.<ref name="Gómez Rivera 2000"/> The census of 1870 stated that at least one-third of the population of [[Luzon]] had partial Hispanic ancestry (from varying points of origin and ranging from [[Latin America]] to Spain).<ref>Jagor, Fëdor, et al. (1870). [http://www.authorama.com/former-philippines-b-8.html ''The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes'']</ref> |
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The combined number of all types of white mestizos or Eurasians is 3.6%, according to a genetic study by [[Stanford University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |title=A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214223039/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2010}}</ref> This is contradicted by another genetic study done by [[University of California|California University]] which stated that Filipinos possess moderate amounts of European admixture.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.genetics.org/content/early/2015/06/18/genetics.115.178616.full.pdf+html |
The combined number of all types of white mestizos or Eurasians is 3.6%, according to a genetic study by [[Stanford University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |title=A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania |access-date=2008-02-20 |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214223039/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2010 }}</ref> This is contradicted by another genetic study done by [[University of California|California University]] which stated that Filipinos possess moderate amounts of European admixture.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.genetics.org/content/early/2015/06/18/genetics.115.178616.full.pdf+html|author= *Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco |
||
|title= Self-identified East Asian nationalities correlated with genetic clustering, consistent with extensive endogamy. Individuals of mixed East Asian-European genetic ancestry were easily identified; we also observed a modest amount of European genetic ancestry in individuals self-identified as Filipinos|journal= Genetics|year=2015|volume= 200|issue= 4 |
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|pages=1285–1295|doi= 10.1534/genetics.115.178616 |
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|pmid= 26092716 |
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|pmc= 4574246}}</ref> |
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A cultural preference for relatively light skinned people exists within the Philippines. According to Kevin Nadal and David Okazaki, light skin preference may have pre-colonial origins. However, they also suggest that this preference was strengthened by colonialism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nadal |first1=Kevin L. |title=Filipino American psychology : a handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice |date=2021 |publisher=Wiley |location=Hoboken |isbn=9781119677000 |pages=96–97 |edition=[Second] |url=https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Filipino+American+Psychology%3A+A+Handbook+of+Theory%2C+Research%2C+and+Clinical+Practice%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9781119677086 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tewari |first1=Nita |last2=Alvarez |first2=Alvin |title=Asian American Psychology: Current Perspectives |date=2009 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-84169-769-7 |page=159 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7K4bRyidcoC |language=en}}</ref> In an undated Philippine epic, the hero covers his face with a shield so that the sun would not "lessen his handsome looks". Some regard this as proof that desire for light-colored skin predates overseas influences.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lasco |first1=Gideon |title=The real reason why so many Asian men are using skin-whitening products |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/voices/culture/article/2016/11/25/real-reason-why-so-many-asian-men-are-using-skin-whitening-products |website=Special Broadcasting Service |language=en}}</ref> Regardless of the origin of the preference, the use of skin bleaching remains prevalent among Filipino men and women, however there is also a growing embrace of darker skinned female aesthetic within the Philippines.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Zapata |first1=Karina |title=Why some Filipinos lighten their skin |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/filipino-calgary-skin-lightening-karina-zapata-1.5908655 |publisher=CBC News}}</ref> |
A cultural preference for relatively light skinned people exists within the Philippines. According to Kevin Nadal and David Okazaki, light skin preference may have pre-colonial origins. However, they also suggest that this preference was strengthened by colonialism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nadal |first1=Kevin L. |title=Filipino American psychology : a handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice |date=2021 |publisher=Wiley |location=Hoboken |isbn=9781119677000 |pages=96–97 |edition=[Second] |url=https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Filipino+American+Psychology%3A+A+Handbook+of+Theory%2C+Research%2C+and+Clinical+Practice%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9781119677086 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tewari |first1=Nita |last2=Alvarez |first2=Alvin |title=Asian American Psychology: Current Perspectives |date=2009 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-84169-769-7 |page=159 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7K4bRyidcoC |language=en}}</ref> In an undated Philippine epic, the hero covers his face with a shield so that the sun would not "lessen his handsome looks". Some regard this as proof that desire for light-colored skin predates overseas influences.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lasco |first1=Gideon |title=The real reason why so many Asian men are using skin-whitening products |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/voices/culture/article/2016/11/25/real-reason-why-so-many-asian-men-are-using-skin-whitening-products |website=Special Broadcasting Service |language=en}}</ref> Regardless of the origin of the preference, the use of skin bleaching remains prevalent among Filipino men and women, however there is also a growing embrace of darker skinned female aesthetic within the Philippines.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Zapata |first1=Karina |title=Why some Filipinos lighten their skin |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/filipino-calgary-skin-lightening-karina-zapata-1.5908655 |publisher=CBC News}}</ref> |
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*[[Intercultural competence]] |
*[[Intercultural competence]] |
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*[[Language shift]] |
*[[Language shift]] |
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*[[Thomas Macaulay#India |
*[[Thomas Macaulay#India|Macaulay's minutes]] |
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*[[Eurocentric]] |
*[[Eurocentric]] |
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*[[Mongrel complex]] |
*[[Mongrel complex]] |
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===Works cited=== |
===Works cited=== |
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{{Refbegin|indent=yes|2}} |
{{Refbegin|indent=yes|2}} |
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* {{citation |
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* {{citation |last=García |first=José Miguel |title=The North American Invasion Continues |url=http://jmgpatria.blogspot.com/2009/06/american-invasion-continues_7055.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110708044039/http://jmgpatria.blogspot.com/2009/06/american-invasion-continues_7055.html |archive-date=8 July 2011 |access-date=5 September 2010 |date=30 June 2009 |work=Patria Philippines, at the Recovery of Our Inherited Archipelago |publisher=Blogger by [[Google]] |location=San Francisco, California, United States of America |url-status=dead}} |
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|last=García |
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* {{citation |last=Gómez Rivera |first=Guillermo |author-link=Guillermo Gómez Rivera |title=The Filipino State |url=http://www.buscoenlaces.es/kaibigankastila/rivera3.html |date=20 September 2000 |publisher=Buscoenlaces |location=Spain |at=CHAPTER VI 1900s: The Filipino People was Deprived of its Own State |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120728001343/http://www.buscoenlaces.es/kaibigankastila/rivera3.html |archive-date=28 July 2012 |access-date=5 September 2010 |url-status=dead}} |
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|first=José Miguel |
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|title=The North American Invasion Continues |
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|url=http://jmgpatria.blogspot.com/2009/06/american-invasion-continues_7055.html |
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|archive-url=https://archive.today/20110708044039/http://jmgpatria.blogspot.com/2009/06/american-invasion-continues_7055.html |
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|archive-date=8 July 2011 |
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|access-date=5 September 2010 |
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|date=30 June 2009 |
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|work=Patria Philippines, at the Recovery of Our Inherited Archipelago |
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|publisher=Blogger by [[Google]] |
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|location=San Francisco, California, United States of America |
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|url-status=dead |
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}} |
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* {{citation |
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|last=Gómez Rivera |
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|first=Guillermo |
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|author-link=Guillermo Gómez Rivera |
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|title=The Filipino State |
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|url=http://www.buscoenlaces.es/kaibigankastila/rivera3.html |
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|date=20 September 2000 |
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|publisher=Buscoenlaces |
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|location=Spain |
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|at=CHAPTER VI 1900s: The Filipino People was Deprived of its Own State |
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|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120728001343/http://www.buscoenlaces.es/kaibigankastila/rivera3.html |
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|archive-date=28 July 2012 |
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|access-date=5 September 2010 |
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|url-status=dead |
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}} |
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{{Refend}} |
{{Refend}} |
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| Line 201: | Line 139: | ||
[[Category:Colonies in antiquity]] |
[[Category:Colonies in antiquity]] |
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[[Category:Cultural studies]] |
[[Category:Cultural studies]] |
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[[Category:Linguistic rights]] |
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[[Category:White supremacy]] |
[[Category:White supremacy]] |
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[[Category:Cultural genocide]] |
[[Category:Cultural genocide]] |
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Latest revision as of 09:51, 19 December 2024
A colonial mentality is the internalized attitude of ethnic or cultural inferiority felt by people as a result of colonization, i.e. them being colonized by another group.[1] It corresponds with the belief that the cultural values of the colonizer are inherently superior to one's own.[2] The term has been used by postcolonial scholars to discuss the transgenerational effects of colonialism present in former colonies following decolonization.[3][4] It is commonly used as an operational concept for framing ideological domination in historical colonial experiences.[5][6] In psychology, colonial mentality has been used to explain instances of collective depression, anxiety, and other widespread mental health issues in populations that have experienced colonization.[7][8]
Notable Marxist influences on the postcolonial concept of colonial mentality include Frantz Fanon's works on the fracturing of the colonial psyche through Western cultural domination,[9] as well as the concept of cultural hegemony developed by Italian Communist Party Founder Antonio Gramsci.[10]
Influences from Marxism
[edit]Frantz Fanon
[edit]Frantz Fanon's Marxist writings on imperialism, racism, and decolonizing struggles have influenced post-colonial discussions about the internalization of colonial prejudice. Fanon first tackled the problem of, what he called, the "colonial alienation of the person"[11] as a mental health issue through psychiatric analysis.[12]
In The Wretched of the Earth (French: Les Damnés de la Terre), published in 1961, Fanon used psychiatry to analyze how French colonization and the carnage of the Algerian War had mentally affected Algerians' self-identity and mental health.[13] The book argues that during the period of colonization there was a subtle and constant mental pathology that developed within the colonial psyche.[14] Fanon argued that the colonial psyche is fractured by the lack of mental and material homogeneity as a result of the colonial power's Western culture being pressured onto the colonized population despite the existing material differences between them.[15]
Here Fanon expands traditional Marxist understandings of historical materialism to explore how the dissonance between material existence and culture functions to transform the colonized people through the mold of the Western bourgeoisie.[16] This meant that the native Algerian came to view their own traditional culture and identity through the lens of colonial prejudice. Fanon observed that average Algerians internalized and then openly repeated remarks that were in line with the institutionalized racist culture of the French colonizers; dismissing their own culture as backward due to the internalization of Western colonial ideologies.[17]
According to Fanon this results in a destabilizing existential conflict within the colonized culture:
"In the West, the family circle, the effects of education, and the relatively high standard of living of the working class provide a more or less efficient protection against the harmful action of these pastimes. But in an African country, where mental development is uneven, where the violent collision of two worlds has considerably shaken old traditions and thrown the universe of the perceptions out of focus, the impressionability and sensibility of the Young African are at the mercy of the various assaults made upon them by the very Nature of Western Culture."[18]
Colonial India
[edit].svg)
During the period of European colonial rule in India, Europeans in India typically regarded many aspects Indian culture with disdain and supported colonial rule as a beneficial "civilizing mission".[19] Colonial rule in India was framed as an act which was beneficial to the people of India, rather than a process of political and economic dominance by a small minority of foreigners.[20]
Under colonial rule, many practices were outlawed, such as the practice of forcing widows to immolate themselves (known as sati)[21] with acts being deemed idolatrous being discouraged by Evangelical missionaries,[22] the latter of which has been claimed by some scholars to have played a large role in the developments of the modern definition of Hinduism.[23][24] These claims base their assumptions on the lack of a unified Hindu identity prior to the period of colonial rule,[25] and modern Hinduism's unprecedented outward focus on a monotheistic Vedanta worldview.[24][26] These developments have been read as the result of colonial views which discouraged aspects of Indian religions which differed significantly from Christianity.[27] It has been noted that the prominence of the Bhagavad Gita as a primary religious text in Hindu discourse was a historical response to European criticisms of Indian culture.[26] Europeans found that the Gita had more in common with their own Christian Bible, leading to the denouncement of Hindu practices more distantly related to monotheistic world views; with some historians claiming that Indians began to characterize their faith as the equivalent of Christianity in belief (especially in terms of monotheism) and structure (in terms of providing an equivalent primary sacred text).[28] Hindu nationalism developed in the 19th century as an opposition to European ideological prominence; however, local Indian elites often aimed to make themselves and Indian society modern by "emulating the West".[29] This led to the emergence of what some have termed 'neo-Hinduism':[30] consisting of reformist rhetoric transforming Hindu tradition from above, disguised as a revivalist call to return to the traditional practises of the faith.[29] Reflecting the same arguments made by Christian missionaries, who argued that the more superstitious elements of Hindu practice were responsible for corrupting the potential rational philosophy of the faith (i.e. the more Christian-like sentiments).[31] Moving the definitions of Hindu practice away from more overt idol worshiping, reemphasizing the concept of Brahman as a monotheistic divinity, and focusing more on the figure of Krishna in Vaishnavism due to his role as a messianic type figure (more inline with European beliefs) which makes him a suitable alternative to the Christian figure of Jesus Christ.[26][29][30][32]
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), India's current ruling party, follows this tradition of nationalistic Hinduism (Hindutva), and promotes an Indian national identity infused with neo-Vedantic which has been claimed by some to have been influenced by a "colonial mentality".[33][34]
Some critics have claimed that writer Rudyard Kipling's portrayals of Indian characters in his works supported the view that colonized people were incapable of living without the help of Europeans, describing these portrayals as racist.[35] In his famous poem "The White Man's Burden", Kipling directly argues for this point by romanticizing the "civilising mission" in non-Western countries.[36][37] Jaway Syed has claimed that Kipling's poems idolizes Western culture as entirely rational and civilized, while treating non-white cultures as 'childlike' and 'demonic'.[38] Similar sentiments have been interpreted in Kipling's other works, such as his characterization of the Second Boer War as a "white man's war";[39] along with his presentation of 'whiteness' as a morally and culturally superior trait of the West.[40] His portrayal of Indians in his Jungle Book stories have also been criticized by Jane Hotchkiss as examples of the chauvinistic infantilization of colonized peoples in popular culture.[41] Some historians claim that Kipling's works have contributed towards the development of a colonial mentality in the ways that the colonized people in these fictional narratives are made submissive to and dependent on their white rulers.[42][43]
Spanish Empire
[edit]Latin America
[edit]In the overseas territories administered by the Spanish Empire, racial mixing between Spanish settlers and the indigenous peoples resulted in a prosperous union later called Mestizo. There were limitations in the racial classes only to people from African descent, this mainly for being descendants of slaves under a current state of slavery. Unlike Mestizos, castizos or indigenous people who were protected by the Leyes de las Indias "to be treated like equals, as citizens of the Spanish Empire". It was completely forbidden to enslave the indígenas under the death penalty charge.
Mestizos and other mixed raced combinations were categorized into different castas by viceroyalty administrators. This system was applied to Spanish territories in the Americas and the Philippines, where large populations of mixed raced individuals made up the increasing majority of the viceroyalty population (until the present day).[44][45]
These racial categories punished those with Black African or Afro-Latin heritage; those of European descent were given privilege over these other mixtures. As a result of this system, people of African descent struggled to downplay their indigenous heritage and cultural trappings, in order to appear superficially more Spanish or natives.[46][47] With these internalized prejudices individuals' choices of clothes, occupations, and forms of religious expression.[47][48] Those of mixed racial identities who wanted to receive the institutional benefits of being Spanish (such as higher educational institutions and career opportunities), could do so by suppressing their own cultures and acting with "Spanishness".[49] This mentality lead to commonplace racial forgery in Latin America, often accompanied by legitimizing oral accounts of a Spanish ancestor and a Spanish surname. Most mixed-white and white people in Latin America have Spanish surnames inherited from Spanish ancestors, while most other Latin Americans who have Spanish names and surnames acquired them through the Christianization and Hispanicization of the indigenous and African slave populations by Spanish friars.[50][51][52]
However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as Amerindian groups simply blended Catholicism with their traditional beliefs.[53] Syncretism between native beliefs and Christianity is still largely prevalent in Indian and Mestizo communities in Latin America.[54]
Philippines
[edit]Prior to the arrival by the Spaniards (1565–1898), the Sulu Archipelago (located in southern Philippines) was a colony of the Majapahit Empire (1293–1527) based in Indonesia. The Americans were the last country to colonize the Philippines (1898–1946) and nationalists claim that it continues to act as a neo-colony of the US despite its formal independence in 1946.[55][56] In the Philippines colonial mentality is most evident in the preference for Filipino mestizos (primarily those of mixed native Filipino and white ancestry, but also mixed indigenous Filipinos and Chinese, and other ethnic groups) in the entertainment industry and mass media, in which they have received extensive exposure despite constituting a small fraction of the population.[57][58][59]
The Cádiz Constitution of 1812 automatically gave Spanish citizenship to all Filipinos regardless of race.[55] The census of 1870 stated that at least one-third of the population of Luzon had partial Hispanic ancestry (from varying points of origin and ranging from Latin America to Spain).[60]
The combined number of all types of white mestizos or Eurasians is 3.6%, according to a genetic study by Stanford University.[61] This is contradicted by another genetic study done by California University which stated that Filipinos possess moderate amounts of European admixture.[62]
A cultural preference for relatively light skinned people exists within the Philippines. According to Kevin Nadal and David Okazaki, light skin preference may have pre-colonial origins. However, they also suggest that this preference was strengthened by colonialism.[63][64] In an undated Philippine epic, the hero covers his face with a shield so that the sun would not "lessen his handsome looks". Some regard this as proof that desire for light-colored skin predates overseas influences.[65] Regardless of the origin of the preference, the use of skin bleaching remains prevalent among Filipino men and women, however there is also a growing embrace of darker skinned female aesthetic within the Philippines.[66]
See also
[edit]- Acculturation
- Colonialism
- Colorism
- Creolization
- Cultural assimilation
- Cultural cringe
- Cultural identity
- Cultural imperialism
- Decreolization
- Enculturation
- Globalization
- Hamitic theory
- Hellenization
- Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation
- Indigenization/Indigenism
- Intercultural competence
- Language shift
- Macaulay's minutes
- Eurocentric
- Mongrel complex
- Paper Bag Party
- Passing (racial identity)
- Race
- Racialism
- Romanization (cultural)
- Self-fulfilling prophecy
- Social interpretations of race
- Syncretism
- Westernization
- "The White Man's Burden"
- Cognitive dissonance
References
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Works cited
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