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{{Short description|Cauldron-like volcanic feature formed by the emptying of a magma chamber}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Other uses}}
[[Image:Santorini Landsat.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Satellite image of [[Santorini]]. Clockwise from center: Nea Kameni; Palea Kameni; Aspronisi; Therasia; Thera]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
[[Image:Crater Lake from rim-USGS.jpg|thumb|300px|Crater Lake|[[Crater Lake]], Oregon]]
[[File:Mount Mazama eruption timeline.PNG|thumb|right|[[Mount Mazama]]'s eruption timeline, an example of caldera formation]]
A '''caldera''' is a [[volcano|volcanic]] feature formed by the collapse of land following a volcanic eruption. They are often confused with [[volcanic crater]]s. The word 'caldera' comes from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]], meaning "[[cauldron]]".

A '''caldera''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ɔː|l|ˈ|d|ɛr|ə|,_|k|æ|l|-}}<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|caldera}}</ref> {{respell|kawl|DERR|ə|,_|kal|-}}) is a large [[cauldron]]-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a [[magma chamber]] in a [[volcanic eruption]]. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the structural integrity of such a chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface (from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Troll|first1=V. R. |last2=Walter|first2=T. R. |last3=Schmincke|first3=H.-U. |date=2002-02-01 |title=Cyclic caldera collapse: Piston or piecemeal subsidence? Field and experimental evidence |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/30/2/135/192320/Cyclic-caldera-collapse-Piston-or-piecemeal |journal=[[Geology (journal)|Geology]] |language=en |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=135–38 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0135:CCCPOP>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=2002Geo....30..135T |issn=0091-7613}}</ref> Although sometimes described as a [[Volcanic crater|crater]], the feature is actually a type of [[sinkhole]], as it is formed through [[subsidence]] and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century, the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years.<ref name="Gudmundsson_EtAl_2016"/> Only eight caldera-forming collapses are known to have occurred between 1911 and 2018,<ref name="Gudmundsson_EtAl_2016">{{cite journal |last1=Gudmundsson |first1=Magnús T. |last2=Jónsdóttir |first2=Kristín |last3=Hooper |first3=Andrew |last4=Holohan |first4=Eoghan P. |last5=Halldórsson |first5=Sæmundur A. |last6=Ófeigsson |first6=Benedikt G. |last7=Cesca |first7=Simone |last8=Vogfjörd |first8=Kristín S. |last9=Sigmundsson |first9=Freysteinn |last10=Högnadóttir |first10=Thórdís |last11=Einarsson |first11=Páll |last12=Sigmarsson |first12=Olgeir |last13=Jarosch |first13=Alexander H. |last14=Jónasson |first14=Kristján |last15=Magnússon |first15=Eyjólfur |last16=Hreinsdóttir |first16=Sigrún |last17=Bagnardi |first17=Marco |last18=Parks |first18=Michelle M. |last19=Hjörleifsdóttir |first19=Vala |last20=Pálsson |first20=Finnur |last21=Walter |first21=Thomas R. |last22=Schöpfer |first22=Martin P. J. |last23=Heimann |first23=Sebastian |last24=Reynolds |first24=Hannah I. |last25=Dumont |first25=Stéphanie |last26=Bali |first26=Eniko |last27=Gudfinnsson |first27=Gudmundur H. |last28=Dahm |first28=Torsten |last29=Roberts |first29=Matthew J. |last30=Hensch |first30=Martin |last31=Belart |first31=Joaquín M. C. |last32=Spaans |first32=Karsten |last33=Jakobsson |first33=Sigurdur |last34=Gudmundsson |first34=Gunnar B. |last35=Fridriksdóttir |first35=Hildur M. |last36=Drouin |first36=Vincent |last37=Dürig |first37=Tobias |last38=Aðalgeirsdóttir |first38=Guðfinna |last39=Riishuus |first39=Morten S. |last40=Pedersen |first40=Gro B. M. |last41=van Boeckel |first41=Tayo |last42=Oddsson |first42=Björn |last43=Pfeffer |first43=Melissa A. |last44=Barsotti |first44=Sara |last45=Bergsson |first45=Baldur |last46=Donovan |first46=Amy |last47=Burton |first47=Mike R. |last48=Aiuppa |first48=Alessandro |title=Gradual caldera collapse at Bárdarbunga volcano, Iceland, regulated by lateral magma outflow |journal=Science |date=15 July 2016 |volume=353 |issue=6296 |pages=aaf8988 |doi=10.1126/science.aaf8988 |pmid=27418515 |hdl=10447/227125 |s2cid=206650214 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/103058/1/Gudmundsson_et_al_2016_Science.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724114153/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/103058/1/Gudmundsson_et_al_2016_Science.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-24 |url-status=live }}</ref> with a caldera collapse at [[Kīlauea]], Hawaii in 2018.<ref name="Shelley_Thelen_2019">{{cite journal | title=Anatomy of a Caldera Collapse: Kīlauea 2018 Summit Seismicity Sequence in High Resolution | last1=Shelly | first1=D.R. |last2=Thelen |first2=W.A. | journal=Geophysical Research Letters | year=2019 | volume=46 | issue=24 | pages=14395–14403 | doi=10.1029/2019GL085636| bibcode=2019GeoRL..4614395S | s2cid=214287960 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes described as "caldera volcanoes".<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Druitt | first1=T. H. | last2=Costa | first2=F. | last3=Deloule | first3=E. | last4=Dungan | first4=M. | last5=Scaillet | first5=B. | title=Decadal to monthly timescales of magma transfer and reservoir growth at a caldera volcano | journal=Nature | volume=482 | issue=7383 | date=2012 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/nature10706 | pages=77–80| pmid=22297973 | bibcode=2012Natur.482...77D | hdl=10220/7536 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The term ''caldera'' comes from [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''{{Wikt-lang|es|caldera}}'', and [[Latin]] ''{{Wikt-lang|la|caldaria}}'', meaning "cooking pot".<ref name="cole-etal-2005">{{cite journal |last1=Cole |first1=J |last2=Milner |first2=D |last3=Spinks |first3=K |title=Calderas and caldera structures: a review |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |date=February 2005 |volume=69 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.06.004|bibcode=2005ESRv...69....1C }}</ref> In some texts the English term ''cauldron'' is also used,<ref name="smith-bailey-1968"/> though in more recent work the term ''cauldron'' refers to a caldera that has been deeply eroded to expose the beds under the caldera floor.<ref name="cole-etal-2005"/> The term ''caldera'' was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the German geologist [[Leopold von Buch]] when he published his memoirs of his 1815 visit to the [[Canary Islands]],{{refn|group=note|name=note 1|Leopold von Buch's book ''Physical Description of the Canary Isles'' was published in 1825.}} where he first saw the Las Cañadas caldera on [[Tenerife]], with Mount [[Teide]] dominating the landscape, and then the [[Caldera de Taburiente]] on [[La Palma]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=von Buch |first1=L. |year=1820 |title=Ueber die Zusammensetzung der basaltischen Inseln und ueber Erhebungs-Cratere |location=Berlin |publisher=University of Lausanne
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-_sTAAAAQAAJ&q=von%20Buch%2C%20L.%201820.%20Uber%20die%20Zusammensetzung%20der%20Basaltischen%20Inseln%20und%20%C3%BCber%20Erhebungs%20Kratere.%20A%20lecture%20delivered%20before%20the%20Prussian%20Academy%20on%20Sciences%20in%20May%201818%2C%20Berlin.&pg=PA1 |access-date=28 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="cole-etal-2005"/>


==Caldera formation==
==Caldera formation==
[[File:Origin of volcanic caldera via analogue model.gif|thumb|Animation of an analogue experiment showing the origin of a volcanic caldera in box filled with flour]]
A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the [[magma chamber]] beneath the volcano, usually as the result of a large [[volcano|volcanic eruption]]. If enough magma is erupted, the emptied chamber will not be able to support the weight of the ''volcanic edifice'' (the [[mountain]]) above. Fractures will form around the edge of the chamber, usually in a roughly circular shape. These ''ring fractures'' may in fact serve as volcanic vents. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fractures begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single massive eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds or thousands of square kilometers.
[[File:Toba zoom.jpg|thumb|[[Landsat]] image of [[Lake Toba]], on the island of [[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]] (100 km/62 mi long and 30&nbsp;km/19 mi wide, one of the world's largest calderas). A [[resurgent dome]] formed the island of [[Samosir]].]]
[[File:Cagar Alam Rawa Danau Caldera.png|thumb|Topographic map of Cagar Alam Rawa Danau Caldera in Indonesia]]


A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the [[magma chamber]] beneath the volcano, sometimes as the result of a large explosive [[volcano|volcanic eruption]] (see [[1815 eruption of Mount Tambora|Tambora]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Greshko |first1=Michael |title=201 Years Ago, This Volcano Caused a Climate Catastrophe |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/04/160408-tambora-eruption-volcano-anniversary-indonesia-science/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926233008/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/04/160408-tambora-eruption-volcano-anniversary-indonesia-science/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 September 2019 |website=National Geographic |date=8 April 2016 |access-date=2 September 2020}}</ref> in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano (see [[Piton de la Fournaise]] in 2007)<ref>{{Cite gvp|vn=233020|title=Piton de la Fournaise|date=2019}}</ref> or in a connected fissure system (see [[Bárðarbunga]] in 2014–2015). If enough [[magma]] is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular [[Fracture (geology)|fracture]], the "ring fault", develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault [[intrusion]]s which are also known as [[ring dike]]s.<ref name="philpotts-ague-2009">{{cite book |last1=Philpotts |first1=Anthony R. |last2=Ague |first2=Jay J. |title=Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=9780521880060 |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{rp|86–89}} Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dethier|first1=David P.|last2=Kampf|first2=Stephanie K.|title=Geology of the Jemez Region II|date=2007|publisher=Ne Mexico Geological Society|page=499 p|url=http://nmgs.nmt.edu/publications/guidebooks/58|access-date=6 November 2015|archive-date=17 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017020924/http://nmgs.nmt.edu/publications/guidebooks/58/|url-status=dead}}</ref> As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers.<ref name="cole-etal-2005"/>
===Explosive calderas===
If the magma is rich in [[silica]], the caldera is often filled in with [[ignimbrite]], [[tuff]], [[rhyolite]], and other [[igneous rock]]s. Silica-rich magma is very [[viscous]]. As a result, gases tend to become trapped at high pressure within the magma. When the magma gets near the surface of the Earth, the gas expands quickly, causing [[explosion]]s and spreading [[volcanic ash]] over wide areas. Further [[lava]] flows may be erupted, and the center of the caldera is often uplifted in the form of a ''[[resurgent dome]]'' by subsequent intrusion of magma. A ''silicic'' or ''rhyolitic caldera'' may erupt hundreds or even thousands of [[cubic kilometer]]s of material in a single event. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as [[Krakatoa]] in [[1883]] or [[Mount Pinatubo]] in [[1991]], may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects.


== Mineralization in calderas ==
When [[Yellowstone Caldera]] (last) erupted 640,000 years ago it released 1,000 cubic kilometers of material, covering all of [[North America]] in up to two meters of debris. By comparison, when [[Mount St. Helens]] erupted in [[1980]], it released 1.2 cubic kilometers of ejecta. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the [[Lake Toba]] eruption in [[Indonesia]]. About 75,000 years ago, this volcano released 2,800 cubic kilometers of ejecta, the largest known eruption within the [[Quaternary]] Period (last 1.8 million years). In the late 1990s, [[archeologist]] Stanley Ambrose [http://www.anthro.uiuc.edu/faculty/ambrose/] proposed that a [[volcanic winter]] induced by this eruption reduced the [[human]] population to a few thousand individuals, resulting in a [[population bottleneck]] (''see'' [[Toba catastrophe theory]]). Even larger caldera-forming eruptions are known, especially [[La Garita Caldera]] in the [[San Juan Mountains]] of [[Colorado]], where the 5,000 cubic kilometer Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a truly major single eruption 27.8 million years ago.
Some calderas are known to host rich [[ore deposit]]s. Metal-rich fluids can circulate through the caldera, forming hydrothermal ore deposits of metals such as lead, silver, gold, mercury, lithium, and uranium.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=John |first1=D. A. |title=Supervolcanoes and Metallic Ore Deposits |journal=Elements |date=1 February 2008 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=22 |doi=10.2113/GSELEMENTS.4.1.22 |bibcode=2008Eleme...4...22J }}</ref> One of the world's best-preserved [[Mineralization (geology)|mineralized]] calderas is the [[Sturgeon Lake Caldera]] in [[northwestern Ontario]], Canada, which formed during the [[Neoarchean]] [[Era (geology)|era]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.d.umn.edu/prc/workshops/S08workshop.html |title=UMD: Precambrian Research Center |publisher=University of Minnesota, Duluth |access-date=2014-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112337/http://www.d.umn.edu/prc/workshops/S08workshop.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> about 2.7&nbsp;billion years ago.<ref>{{cite web | title=Caldera volcanoes |publisher=University of Minnesota, Dultuh|first=Ron|last=Morton|date=18 March 2001 | url=http://www.d.umn.edu/~rmorton/ronshome/Volcanoes/calderas.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031102004227/http://www.d.umn.edu/~rmorton/ronshome/Volcanoes/calderas.html | archive-date=2 November 2003 | url-status=dead}}</ref> In the [[San Juan volcanic field]], ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas, with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steven |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Luedke |first2=Robert G. |first3=Peter W. |last3=Lipman |title=Relation of mineralization to calderas in the San Juan volcanic field, southwestern Colorado |journal=J. Res. US Geol. Surv. |volume=2 |year=1974 |pages=405–409}}</ref>


== Types of caldera ==
At some points in [[geologic time]], rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the [[San Juan Mountains]] of [[Colorado]] (erupted during the [[Tertiary Period]]) or the [[Saint Francois Mountain Range]] of [[Missouri]] (erupted during the [[Proterozoic]]).

===Explosive caldera eruptions===
{{Further|Explosive eruption}}
Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by a magma chamber whose [[magma]] is rich in [[silica]]. Silica-rich magma has a high [[viscosity]], and therefore does not flow easily like [[basalt]].<ref name="philpotts-ague-2009" />{{rp|23–26}} The magma typically also contains a large amount of dissolved gases, up to 7 [[wt%]] for the most silica-rich magmas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmincke |first1=Hans-Ulrich |title=Volcanism |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |isbn=9783540436508 |pages=42–43}}</ref> When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the drop in [[confining pressure]] causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma, fragmenting the magma to produce a mixture of [[volcanic ash]] and other [[tephra]] with the very hot gases.{{sfn|Schmincke|2003|pp=155–157}}

The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an [[eruption column]]. However, as the volume of erupted material increases, the eruption column is unable to [[Entrainment (hydrodynamics)|entrain]] enough air to remain buoyant, and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form [[pyroclastic flows]].{{sfn|Schmincke|2003|p=157}} Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas, so that ash flow [[tuff]]s emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of [[flood basalt]]s.<ref name="philpotts-ague-2009" />{{rp|77}} For example, when [[Yellowstone Caldera]] last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of material (as measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of [[North America]] in up to two metres of debris.<ref name="USGSFS3024">{{cite web|first1=Jacob B. |last1=Lowenstern |first2=Robert L. |last2=Christiansen |first3=Robert B. |last3=Smith |first4=Lisa A. |last4=Morgan |first5=Henry |last5=Heasler |title=Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's in Yellowstone's Future? – U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2005–3024 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |date=May 10, 2005|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3024/}}</ref>

Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, such as the [[La Garita Caldera]] in the [[San Juan Mountains]] of [[Colorado]], where the {{convert|5000|km3}} [[Fish Canyon Tuff]] was blasted out in eruptions about 27.8&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name=livescience>{{cite web | url=http://www.livescience.com/11113-biggest-volcanic-eruption.html|title=What's the Biggest Volcanic Eruption Ever?| publisher=livescience.com | date=10 November 2010 | access-date=2014-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Best |first1=Myron G. |last2=Christiansen |first2=Eric H. |last3=Deino |first3=Alan L. |last4=Gromme |first4=Sherman |last5=Hart |first5=Garret L. |last6=Tingey |first6=David G. |title=The 36–18 Ma Indian Peak–Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas, southeastern Great Basin, USA: Multicyclic super-eruptions |journal=Geosphere |date=August 2013 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=864–950 |doi=10.1130/GES00902.1 |bibcode=2013Geosp...9..864B |doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{anchor|Outflow sheet}}
The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff, [[rhyolite]], and other [[igneous rock]]s.<ref name="troll-etal-2000">{{Cite journal|last1=Troll|first1=Valentin R.|last2=Emeleus|first2=C. Henry|last3=Donaldson|first3=Colin H.|date=2000-11-01|title=Caldera formation in the Rum Central Igneous Complex, Scotland|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s004450000099|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|language=en|volume=62|issue=4|pages=301–317|doi=10.1007/s004450000099|bibcode=2000BVol...62..301T|s2cid=128985944|issn=1432-0819}}</ref> The caldera is surrounded by an '''outflow sheet''' of ash flow tuff (also called an '''ash flow sheet''').<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Best |first1=Myron G. |last2=Christiansen |first2=Eric H. |last3=Deino |first3=Alan L. |last4=Grommé |first4=C. Sherman |last5=Tingey |first5=David G. |title=Correlation and emplacement of a large, zoned, discontinuously exposed ash flow sheet: The 40 Ar/ 39 Ar chronology, paleomagnetism, and petrology of the Pahranagat Formation, Nevada |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=10 December 1995 |volume=100 |issue=B12 |pages=24593–24609 |doi=10.1029/95JB01690|bibcode=1995JGR...10024593B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=Geoffrey W. |last2=Wolff |first2=John A. |last3=Self |first3=Stephen |title=Estimating the eruptive volume of a large pyroclastic body: the Otowi Member of the Bandelier Tuff, Valles caldera, New Mexico |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |date=February 2016 |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=10 |doi=10.1007/s00445-016-1000-0|bibcode=2016BVol...78...10C |s2cid=130061015 }}</ref>

If magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a ''[[resurgent dome]]'' such as is seen at the [[Valles Caldera]], [[Lake Toba]], the San Juan volcanic field,<ref name="smith-bailey-1968">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Robert L. |last2=Bailey |first2=Roy A. |title=Resurgent Cauldrons |journal=Geological Society of America Memoirs |date=1968 |volume=116 |pages=613–662 |doi=10.1130/MEM116-p613}}</ref> [[Galán|Cerro Galán]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grocke |first1=Stephanie B. |last2=Andrews |first2=Benjamin J. |last3=de Silva |first3=Shanaka L. |title=Experimental and petrological constraints on long-term magma dynamics and post-climactic eruptions at the Cerro Galán caldera system, NW Argentina |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |date=November 2017 |volume=347 |pages=296–311 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.09.021|bibcode=2017JVGR..347..296G |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Yellowstone Caldera|Yellowstone]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tizzani |first1=P. |last2=Battaglia |first2=M. |last3=Castaldo |first3=R. |last4=Pepe |first4=A. |last5=Zeni |first5=G. |last6=Lanari |first6=R. |title=Magma and fluid migration at Yellowstone Caldera in the last three decades inferred from InSAR, leveling, and gravity measurements |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=April 2015 |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=2627–2647 |doi=10.1002/2014JB011502|bibcode=2015JGRB..120.2627T |doi-access=free |hdl=11573/779666 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and many other calderas.<ref name="smith-bailey-1968"/>

Because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event, it can cause catastrophic environmental effects. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as [[Krakatoa]] in 1883<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=N |last2=Griesser |first2=T |last3=Fischer |first3=A |last4=Stickler |first4=A. and |last5=Brönnimann |first5=S. |year=2009 |title=Climate effects of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption: Historical and present perspectives |journal=VJSCHR. Natf. Ges. Zürich |volume=154 |pages=31–40 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255700466 |access-date=29 December 2020}}</ref> or [[Mount Pinatubo]] in 1991,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robock |first1=A. |title=PINATUBO ERUPTION: The Climatic Aftermath |journal=Science |date=15 February 2002 |volume=295 |issue=5558 |pages=1242–1244 |doi=10.1126/science.1069903|pmid=11847326 |s2cid=140578928 }}</ref> may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable [[Volcanic winter|drop in temperature]] around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the [[Lake Toba]] eruption in [[Indonesia]].

At some points in [[geological time]], rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the [[Eocene]] [[Rùm#Geology|Rum]] Complex of Scotland,<ref name="troll-etal-2000"/> the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (formed during the [[Oligocene]], [[Miocene]], and [[Pliocene]] epochs) or the [[Saint Francois Mountain Range]] of [[Missouri]] (erupted during the [[Proterozoic]] eon).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kisvarsanyi |first1=Eva B. |title=Geology of the Precambrian St. Francois Terrane, Southeastern Missouri |date=1981 |publisher=Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey |oclc=256041399 }}{{page needed|date=November 2019}}</ref>

====Valles====
[[File:Valle Caldera, New Mexico.jpg|thumb|Valle Caldera, New Mexico]]
{{Main|Valles Caldera}}
For their 1968 paper<ref name="smith-bailey-1968"/> that first introduced the concept of a resurgent caldera to geology,<ref name="cole-etal-2005"/> R.L. Smith and R.A. Bailey chose the Valles caldera as their model. Although the Valles caldera is not unusually large, it is relatively young (1.25 million years old) and unusually well preserved,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goff |first1=Fraser |last2=Gardner |first2=Jamie N. |last3=Reneau |first3=Steven L. |last4=Kelley |first4=Shari A. |last5=Kempter |first5=Kirt A. |last6=Lawrence |first6=John R. |title=Geologic map of the Valles caldera, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico |journal=New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources Map Series |date=2011 |volume=79 |bibcode=2011AGUFM.V13C2606G |url=https://geoinfo.nmt.edu/publications/maps/geologic/gm/79/ |access-date=18 May 2020}}</ref> and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera.<ref name="cole-etal-2005"/> The ash flow tuffs of the Valles caldera, such as the [[Bandelier Tuff]], were among the first to be thoroughly characterized.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=Clarence S. |last2=Smith |first2=Robert L. |title=Ash-flow tuffs: Their origin, geologic relations, and identification |journal=U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper |series=Professional Paper |date=1961 |volume=366 |doi=10.3133/pp366|doi-access=free |hdl=2027/ucbk.ark:/28722/h26b1t |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

====Toba====
{{Main|Lake Toba|Toba catastrophe theory}}

About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about {{convert|2800|km3}} [[dense-rock equivalent]] of ejecta. This was the largest known eruption during the ongoing [[Quaternary]] period (the last 2.6&nbsp;million years) and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25&nbsp;million years. In the late 1990s, [[anthropologist]] Stanley Ambrose<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.anthro.illinois.edu/people/ambrose | title=Stanley Ambrose page | publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign | access-date=20 March 2014}}</ref> proposed that a [[volcanic winter]] induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals, resulting in a [[population bottleneck]]. More recently, [[Lynn Jorde]] and [[Henry Harpending]] proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately 5,000–10,000 people.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/1999/supervolcanoes_script.shtml Supervolcanoes], [[BBC2]], 3 February 2000</ref> There is no direct evidence, however, that either theory is correct, and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gathorne-Hardy |first1=F.J |last2=Harcourt-Smith |first2=W.E.H |title=The super-eruption of Toba, did it cause a human bottleneck? |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |date=September 2003 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=227–230 |doi=10.1016/s0047-2484(03)00105-2 |pmid=14580592 |bibcode=2003JHumE..45..227G }}</ref> There is evidence that human habitation continued in [[India]] after the eruption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petraglia |first1=M. |last2=Korisettar |first2=R. |last3=Boivin |first3=N. |last4=Clarkson |first4=C. |last5=Ditchfield |first5=P. |last6=Jones |first6=S. |last7=Koshy |first7=J. |last8=Lahr |first8=M. M. |last9=Oppenheimer |first9=C. |last10=Pyle |first10=D. |last11=Roberts |first11=R. |last12=Schwenninger |first12=J.-L. |last13=Arnold |first13=L. |last14=White |first14=K. |title=Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption |journal=Science |date=6 July 2007 |volume=317 |issue=5834 |pages=114–116 |doi=10.1126/science.1141564 |pmid=17615356 |bibcode=2007Sci...317..114P |s2cid=20380351 }}</ref>

[[File:La Cumbre - ISS.JPG|thumb|right|Satellite photograph of the summit caldera on [[Fernandina Island]] in the [[Galápagos Islands|Galápagos]] [[archipelago]]]]
[[File:Nemrut Caldera aerial.jpg|thumb|right|Oblique aerial photo of [[Nemrut (volcano)|Nemrut Caldera]], Van Lake, Eastern Turkey]]


===Non-explosive calderas===
===Non-explosive calderas===
[[File:Iss038e012569, Caldera Sollipulli.jpg|thumb|[[Sollipulli]] Caldera, located in central Chile near the border with Argentina, filled with ice. The volcano is in the southern Andes Mountains within Chile's Parque Nacional Villarica.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82676 | title=EO | website=Earthobservatory.nasa.gov | access-date=20 March 2014| date=2013-12-23 }}</ref>]]
Some volcanoes, such as [[Kīlauea]] on the island of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaii]], form calderas in a different fashion. In the case of Kilauea, the magma feeding the volcano is relatively silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less [[viscous]] than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas, and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop [[Fernandina Island]] underwent a collapse in 1968, when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 meters.[http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1503-01=&VErupt=Y&VSources=Y&VRep=Y&VWeekly=Y&volpage=photos&photo=062078] [[Kilauea]] Caldera has an inner crater known as Halema‘uma‘u, which has often been filled by a lava lake. The largest volcano on Earth, [[Mauna Loa]] is also capped by a subsidence caldera called Moku‘āweoweo Caldera.


Some volcanoes, such as the large [[shield volcano]]es [[Kīlauea]] and [[Mauna Loa]] on the island of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaii]], form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is [[basalt]], which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less [[Viscosity|viscous]] than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop [[Fernandina Island]] collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped {{convert|350|m}}.<ref name=gvp>{{cite gvp | vn=353010&vtab=Photos | title=Fernandina: Photo}}</ref>
===Non-volcanic calderas===


==Extraterrestrial calderas==
It is possible, although rare, for a caldera-like formation to be created by erosion rather than volcanism. It is believed that the [[Caldera de Taburiente]] on [[La Palma]] in the [[Canary Islands]] is an example of this.
Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the [[Solar System]]. Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on [[Venus]], [[Mars]], the [[Moon]], and [[Io (moon)|Io]], a satellite of [[Jupiter]]. None of these worlds have [[plate tectonics]], which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% is attributed to [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] volcanism).<ref name = "Wilson">{{Cite book | last1 = Parfitt | first1 = L. | last2 = Wilson | first2 = L. | title = Fundamentals of Physical Volcanology | url = https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsphys00parf | url-access = limited | place = Malden, MA | publisher = [[Blackwell Publishing]]| date= 19 February 2008| chapter = Volcanism on Other Planets| pages = [https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsphys00parf/page/n211 190]–212| chapter-url = http://google.com/books?id=ptpCiNkwLj8C&printsec=frontcover| isbn = 978-0-632-05443-5 | oclc = 173243845}}</ref> Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is {{cvt|68|km|||}}. The average caldera diameter on Io is close to {{cvt|40|km|||}}, and the mode is {{cvt|6|km|||}}; [[Tvashtar Paterae]] is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of {{cvt|290|km|||}}. The average caldera diameter on Mars is {{cvt|48|km|||}}, smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from {{cvt|1.6–80|km|0||}} as a maximum.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S1871-644X(07)00008-3 |chapter=Magma-Chamber Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation |title=Caldera Volcanism: Analysis, Modelling and Response |volume=10 |pages=313–349 |series=Developments in Volcanology |year=2008 |last1=Gudmundsson |first1=Agust |isbn=978-0-444-53165-0 }}</ref>


==Notable calderas==
===The Moon===
{{Further|Volcanism on the Moon}}
''See also [[:Category:Volcanic calderas]]
The [[Moon]] has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but are currently believed to have been formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500&nbsp;million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form.<ref name = "Wilson"/> Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The [[Compton–Belkovich Thorium Anomaly|Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex]] on the [[far side of the Moon]] is thought to be a caldera, possibly an [[Pyroclastic flow|ash-flow]] caldera.<ref name="Compton-Belkovich">{{cite journal |last1=Chauhan |first1=M. |last2=Bhattacharya |first2=S. |last3=Saran |first3=S. |last4=Chauhan |first4=P. |last5=Dagar |first5=A. |title=Compton–Belkovich Volcanic Complex (CBVC): An ash flow caldera on the Moon |journal=Icarus |date=June 2015 |volume=253 |pages=115–129 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2015.02.024 |bibcode=2015Icar..253..115C }}</ref>
*Africa
**[[Ngorongoro Crater]] ([[Tanzania]], Africa)
**[[Chã das Caldeiras]], [[Cape Verde]]
**''See ''Europe'' for calderas in the Canary Islands
*Asia
**[[Aira Caldera]] ([[Kagoshima Prefecture]], [[Japan]])
**[[Mount Aso|Aso]] ([[Kumamoto Prefecture]], [[Japan]])
**[[Mount Halla]] ([[Jeju-do]], [[South Korea]])
**[[Kikai Caldera]] ([[Kagoshima Prefecture]], [[Japan]])
**[[Krakatoa]], [[Indonesia]]
**[[Mount Pinatubo]] ([[Luzon]], [[Philippines]])
**[[Taal Volcano]] ([[Luzon]], [[Philippines]])
**[[Lake Toba]] ([[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]])
** [[Mount Tambora]] ([[Sumbawa]], [[Indonesia]])
**[[Tao-Rusyr Caldera]] ([[Onekotan]], [[Russia]])
**[[Lake Towada|Towada]] ([[Aomori Prefecture]], [[Japan]])
**[[Lake Tazawa|Tazawa]] ([[Akita Prefecture]], [[Japan]])
*Americas
**USA
***[[Battle Ground Lake State Park]] ([[Washington]], US)
***[[Mount Aniakchak]] ([[Alaska]], US)
***[[Crater Lake]] on [[Mount Mazama]] ([[Crater Lake National Park]], [[Oregon]], [[United States]])
***[[Mount Katmai]] ([[Alaska]], US)
***[[La Garita Caldera]] ([[Colorado]], US)
***[[Long Valley Caldera|Long Valley]] ([[California]], [[United States|US]])
***[[Newberry Caldera]] ([[Oregon]], US)
***[[Mount Okmok]] ([[Alaska]], US)
***[[Valle Grande]] ([[New Mexico]], US)
***[[Yellowstone Caldera]] ([[Wyoming]], US)
**Canada
***[[Mount Silverthrone]] ([[British Columbia]], [[Canada]])
***[[Mount Edziza]] ([[British Columbia]], [[Canada]])
***[[Bennett Lake Caldera]] ([[British Columbia]]/[[Yukon]], [[Canada]])
***[[The Ash Pit]] ([[British Columbia]], [[Canada]])
***[[Mount Pleasant Caldera]] ([[New Brunswick]], [[Canada]])
**Other
***[[Masaya Volcano|Masaya]], [[Nicaragua]]
***[[Lake Atitlan]], [[Guatemala]]
***[[Fernandina Island]], [[Galapagos Islands]], [[Ecuador]]
*Europe
**[[Santorini]] ([[Greece]])
**[[Askja]] ([[Iceland]])
**[[Campi Flegrei]] ([[Italy]])
**[[Lake Bracciano]] ([[Italy]])
**[[Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente|Caldera de Taburiente]] ([[Spain]])
**[[Las Cañadas]] on [[Teide]] ([[Spain]])
**[[Ardnamurchan]] ([[Scotland]])
*Oceania
**[[Lake Taupo]] ([[New Zealand]])
**[[Mount Warning]] ([[Australia]])
**[[Blue Lake, South Australia]] ([[Mt Gambier]])
**[[Kilauea]] ([[Hawaii]], US)
**[[Moku‘āweoweo Caldera]] on [[Mauna Loa]] ([[Hawaii]], US)
*Antarctica
**[[Deception_Island|Deception Island]]
*Indian Ocean
** [[Cirque de Mafate]], [[Cirque de Salazie]], and [[Cirque de Cilaos]] on [[Réunion]]


*Mars
===Mars===
{{Further|Volcanism on Mars}}
**[[Olympus Mons]] Caldera
The volcanic activity of [[Mars]] is concentrated in two major provinces: [[Tharsis]] and [[Elysium (volcanic province)|Elysium]]. Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle [[Hotspot (geology)|hot spots]]. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas.<ref name = "Wilson"/> Mars has the tallest volcano in the Solar System, [[Olympus Mons]], which is more than three times the height of Mount Everest, with a diameter of 520&nbsp;km (323 miles). The summit of the mountain has six nested calderas.<ref>Philip's World Reference Atlas including Stars and Planets {{ISBN|0-7537-0310-6}} Publishing House Octopus publishing Group Ltd p. 9</ref>
*Venus

**[[Maat Mons]] Caldera
===Venus===
{{Further|Volcanism on Venus}}
Because there is no [[plate tectonics]] on [[Venus]], heat is mainly lost by conduction through the [[lithosphere]]. This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large [[shield volcano]]es that range in size from {{cvt|150–400|km|round=5||}} in diameter and {{cvt|2–4|km|||}} high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging {{cvt|60|km|||}} across.<ref name = "Wilson"/>

===Io===
{{Further|Volcanism on Io}}
Io, unusually, is heated by solid flexing due to the [[Tidal force|tidal]] influence of [[Jupiter]] and Io's [[orbital resonance]] with neighboring large moons [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] and [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], which keep its orbit slightly [[orbital eccentricity|eccentric]]. Unlike any of the planets mentioned, Io is continuously volcanically active. For example, the NASA ''[[Voyager 1]]'' and ''[[Voyager 2]]'' spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing Io in 1979. Io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across.<ref name = "Wilson"/>

==List of volcanic calderas==
{{See also|Category:Calderas}}
===Africa===
[[File:Nabro and Mallahle Volcanoes-NASA.jpg|thumb|right|NASA [[False-colour]] topographical relief image of Nabro (top) and Mallahle volcanic calderas (centre left)]]
* [[Ngorongoro Crater]] (Tanzania)
* [[Menengai]] Crater (Kenya)
* [[Mount Elgon]] (Uganda/Kenya)
* [[Mount Fogo]] (Cape Verde)
* [[Mount Longonot]] (Kenya)
* [[Mount Meru (Tanzania)|Mount Meru]] (Tanzania)
* [[Erta Ale]] (Ethiopia)
* [[Nabro Volcano]] (Eritrea)
* [[Mallahle]] (Eritrea)
* ''See ''Europe'' for calderas in the Canary Islands and the Azores''

===Antarctica===
[[File:Deception island.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of [[Deception Island]] by [[Sentinel-2]] (March 2023)]]
* [[Deception Island]]
* [[Kemp Caldera]]

===Asia===
[[File:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|Caldera of [[Mount Tambora]]]]
[[File:Pinatubo92pinatubo caldera crater lake.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Pinatubo]], Philippines]]
*[[China]]
** Dakantou Caldera (大墈头) (Shanhuyan Village, Taozhu Town, [[Linhai]], Zhejiang)
** Ma'anshan Caldera (马鞍山) (Shishan Town (石山镇), [[Xiuying District|Xiuying]], Hainan)
** Yiyang Caldera (宜洋) (Shuangxi Town (双溪镇宜洋村), [[Pingnan County, Fujian]])
* [[Indonesia]]
** [[Mount Batur|Batur]] ([[Bali]])
** [[Krakatoa]] ([[Sunda Strait]])
** [[Lake Maninjau]] ([[Sumatra]])
** [[Lake Toba]] (Sumatra)
** [[Mount Rinjani]] ([[Lombok]])
** [[Mount Tondano]] ([[Sulawesi]])
** [[Mount Tambora]] ([[Sumbawa]])
** [[Mount Bromo|Tengger Caldera]] ([[Java Island|Java]])
*[[Japan]]
** [[Aira Caldera]] ([[Kagoshima Prefecture]])
** [[Lake Kussharo|Kussharo]] ([[Hokkaido]])
** [[Lake Kuttara|Kuttara]] (Hokkaido)
** [[Lake Mashū|Mashū]] (Hokkaido)
** [[Aso Caldera]], [[Mount Aso]] ([[Kumamoto Prefecture]])
** [[Kikai Caldera]] (Kagoshima Prefecture)
** [[Lake Towada|Towada]] ([[Aomori Prefecture]])
** [[Lake Tazawa|Tazawa]] ([[Akita Prefecture]])
** [[Mount Hakone|Hakone]] ([[Kanagawa Prefecture]])
*[[Korean Peninsula]]
** [[Mount Halla]] ([[Jeju Province|Jeju-do]], South Korea)
** [[Heaven Lake]] ([[Baekdu Mountain]], North Korea/[[Changbai Mountains]], China)
*[[The Philippines]]
** [[Apolaki Caldera]] ([[Benham Rise]])
** [[Corregidor Caldera]] (Manila Bay)
** [[Mount Pinatubo]] ([[Luzon]])
** [[Taal Volcano]] (Luzon)
** [[Laguna Caldera]] (Luzon)
** [[Mount Bulusan|Irosin Caldera]] (Luzon)
*[[Türkiye]]
** [[Derik]] ([[Mardin]])
** [[Nemrut (volcano)]]
* [[Russia]] [[File:Yankicha.jpg|thumb|Caldera of the island [[Ushishir|Yankicha/Ushishir]], [[Kuril Islands]]]]
** [[Akademia Nauk (volcano)|Akademia Nauk]] ([[Kamchatka Peninsula]])
** [[Golovnin]] ([[Kuril Islands]])
** [[Karymsky (volcano)|Karymsky Caldera]] ([[Kamchatka Peninsula]])
** [[Karymshina]] ([[Kamchatka Peninsula]])
** [[Khangar]] ([[Kamchatka Peninsula]])
** [[Ksudach]] ([[Kamchatka Peninsula]])
** [[Kurile Lake]] ([[Kamchatka Peninsula]])
** [[Pauzhetka caldera]] (hosts Kurile Lake caldera, [[Kamchatka Peninsula]])<ref name=volc>{{cite web |title = Diky Greben|url = https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=300022 |date=2022-03-15 }}</ref>
** [[Lvinaya Past]] ([[Kuril Islands]])
** [[Tao-Rusyr Caldera]] ([[Kuril Islands]])
** [[Uzon]] ([[Kamchatka Peninsula]])
** [[Zavaritski Caldera]] ([[Kuril Islands]])
** [[Ushishir|Yankicha/Ushishir]] ([[Kuril Islands]])
** Chegem Caldera ([[Kabardino-Balkarian Republic]], [[North Caucasus]])

===Europe===
[[File:Santorini 3D version 1.gif|thumb|3D [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] [[aerial view|aerial spinning view]] over [[Santorini]], Greece]] [[File:Laacher_See_-_Luftaufnahme.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the [[Laacher See]], Germany]] [[File:Cratere degli Astroni visto dall'alto.jpg|thumb|View of the [[Phlegraean Fields]] near [[Naples]], Italy]] [[File:Caldeira Faial ca 580 m.ü.NN. Kesselboden.JPG|thumb|''Caldeira do Faial'' on the [[Caldeira Volcano]], [[Faial Island]], [[Azores]]]]
* [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
** [[Bakuriani|Bakuriani/Didveli Caldera]]
** [[Samsari]]
* [[Germany]]
** [[Laacher See]]
* [[Greece]]
** [[Santorini]]
** [[Nisyros]]
* [[Iceland]]
** [[Askja]]
** [[Grímsvötn]]
** [[Bárðarbunga]]
** [[Katla volcano|Katla]]
** [[Krafla]]
* [[Italy]]
** [[Phlegraean Fields]]
** [[Lake Bracciano]]
** [[Lake Bolsena]]
** [[Mount Somma]] which contains [[Mount Vesuvius]]
* [[Portugal]]
** [[Lagoa das Sete Cidades]] & [[Furnas#Physical geography|Furnas]] ([[São Miguel Island|São Miguel]], [[the Azores]])
** Caldeira do Faial ([[Faial Island|Faial]])
** [[Estreitinho|Caldeirão do Corvo]] ([[Corvo Island|Corvo]])
* [[United Kingdom]]
** [[Glen Coe]] (Scotland)
** [[Scafells|Scafell Caldera]] ([[Lake District]], England)<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Borrowdale_Volcanic_Group,_upper_silicic_eruptive_phase,_Caradoc_magmatism,_Ordovician,_Northern_England | title=Borrowdale Volcanic Group, upper silicic eruptive phase, Caradoc magmatism, Ordovician, Northern England – Earthwise}}</ref>
* [[Slovakia]]
** [[Banská Štiavnica]]
* [[Spain]]
** [[Teide|Las Cañadas]] ([[Tenerife]], [[Canary Islands]])

===North and Central America===
[[File:Teopan.jpg|thumb|[[Coatepeque Caldera]], El Salvador crater lake]]
[[File:Crater lake oregon.jpg|thumb|[[Crater Lake]], Oregon, formed around 5,680 BC]]
[[File:Aniakchak-caldera alaska.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Aniakchak|Aniakchak]]-caldera, Alaska]]
* [[Canada]]
** [[Silverthrone Caldera]] ([[British Columbia]])
** [[Mount Edziza]] (British Columbia)
** [[Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex]] (British Columbia/[[Yukon]])
** [[Mount Pleasant Caldera]] ([[New Brunswick]])
** [[Sturgeon Lake Caldera]] ([[Ontario]])
** [[Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex]] (Yukon)
** [[Blake River Megacaldera Complex]] ([[Quebec]]/Ontario)
** [[New Senator Caldera]] (Quebec)
** [[Misema Caldera]] (Ontario/Quebec)
** [[Noranda Caldera]] (Quebec)
* [[Mexico]]
** La primavera Caldera ([[Jalisco]])
** Amealco Caldera ([[Querétaro]])
** Las Cumbres Caldera ([[Veracruz]]-[[Puebla]])
** Los Azufres Caldera ([[Michoacán]])
** Los Humeros Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla)
** Mazahua Caldera ([[State of Mexico|Mexico State]])
* [[El Salvador]]
** [[Lake Ilopango]]
** [[Lake Coatepeque]]
* [[Guatemala]]
** [[Lake Amatitlán]]
** [[Lake Atitlán]]
** [[Quetzaltenango|Xela]]
** [[Santa Catarina Barahona|Barahona]]
* [[Nicaragua]]
** [[Masaya Volcano|Masaya]] (Nicaragua)
* [[United States]]
** [[Mount Aniakchak]] ([[Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve]]) ([[Alaska]])
** [[Cochetopa Dome|Cochetopa Caldera]] ([[Colorado]])
** [[Crater Lake]] on [[Mount Mazama]] ([[Crater Lake National Park]], [[Oregon]])
** [[Mount Katmai]] (Alaska)
** [[Kīlauea]] ([[Hawaii]])
** [[Mauna Loa]] ([[Hawaii]])
** [[La Garita Caldera]] ([[Colorado]])
** [[Long Valley Caldera|Long Valley]] ([[California]])
** [[Henry's Fork Caldera]] ([[Idaho]])
** [[Island Park Caldera]] (Idaho, [[Wyoming]])
** [[Newberry Volcano]] (Oregon)
** [[McDermitt Caldera]] (Oregon)
** [[Medicine Lake Volcano]] (California)
** [[Mount Okmok]] (Alaska)
** [[Valles Caldera]] ([[New Mexico]])
** [[Yellowstone Caldera]] (Wyoming)

===Indian Ocean===
* [[Cirque de Cilaos]] (Réunion)
* [[Cirque de Mafate]] (Réunion)
* [[Cirque de Salazie]] (Réunion)
* [[Enclos Fouqué]] (Réunion)

===Oceania===
[[File:Mokuaweoweo from the air.gif|thumb|Mokuʻāweoweo, [[Mauna Loa]]'s summit caldera, covered in snow]]
[[File:Lake taupo landsat.jpg|thumb|right|Satellite photo of [[Lake Taupō]]]]
* [[Australia]]
**[[Cerberean Cauldron]] <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clemens |first1=J.D. |last2=Birch |first2=W.D. |title=Assembly of a zoned volcanic magma chamber from multiple magma batches: The Cerberean Cauldron, Marysville Igneous Complex, Australia |journal=Lithos |date=December 2012 |volume=155 |pages=272–288 |doi=10.1016/j.lithos.2012.09.007 |bibcode=2012Litho.155..272C }}</ref>
** [[Mount Warning]]
** [[Prospect Hill (New South Wales)|Prospect Hill]]
*[[Hawaii]]
** [[Kilauea]] ([[Hawaii]], US)
** [[Mauna Loa|Moku‘āweoweo Caldera]] on [[Mauna Loa]] (Hawaii, US)
*[[New Zealand]]
** Kapenga
**[[Lake Ohakuri]]
** [[Lake Ōkataina|Lake Okataina]]
** [[Lake Rotorua]]
** [[Lake Taupō]]
** Maroa
** [[Otago Harbour]]
** [[Reporoa caldera]]
*[[Papua New Guinea]]
** [[Dakataua]]
*[[Polynesia]]
** [[Rano Kau]] ([[Easter Island]], Chile)

===South America===
[[File:Sollipulli Caldera, Southern Chile.jpg|thumb|Aerial photograph of [[Sollipulli]] caldera, looking east]]
* [[Argentina]]
** [[Aguas Calientes caldera|Aguas Calientes]], [[Salta Province]]
** [[Caldera del Atuel]], [[Mendoza Province]]
** [[Galán]], [[Catamarca Province]]
* [[Bolivia]]
** [[Pastos Grandes]]
* [[Colombia]]
** Arenas crater caldera, [[Nevado del Ruiz]] volcano, [[Caldas Department]]
** Laguna Verde caldera, [[Azufral]] volcano, [[Narino Department]]
* [[Chile]]
** [[Chaitén (volcano)|Chaitén]]
** [[Puyehue-Cordón Caulle|Cordillera Nevada Caldera]]
** [[Laguna del Maule (volcano)|Laguna del Maule]]
** [[Pacana Caldera]]
** [[Sollipulli]]
* [[Ecuador]]
** [[Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve]]
** [[Cuicocha]]
** [[Quilotoa]]
** [[Fernandina Island]], [[Galápagos Islands]]
** [[Sierra Negra (Galápagos)]]
** [[Chacana]] Caldera

==Extraterrestrial volcanic calderas==
* [[Mars]]
** [[Olympus Mons]] caldera
* [[Venus]]
** [[Maat Mons]] caldera

==Erosion calderas==
* Americas
** [[Guaichane-Mamuta]] (Chile)
** [[Mount Tehama]] ([[California]], US)
* Europe
** [[Caldera de Taburiente]] (Spain)
* Oceania
** [[Tweed Volcano|Tweed Valley]] ([[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]], Australia)
* Asia
** Chegem Caldera ([[Kabardino-Balkarian Republic]], Northern Caucasus Region, Russia)
** [[Taal volcano]] (Philippines) [[Batangas Province]]


==See also==
==See also==
* {{annotated link|Complex volcano}}
* [[Supervolcano]]
* {{annotated link|Maar}}
* [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]]
* [[Somma volcano]]
* {{annotated link|Somma volcano}}
* {{annotated link|Supervolcano}}
* [[Complex volcano]]
* {{annotated link|Volcanic Explosivity Index}}


== Explanatory notes ==
==External links==
{{commons|Caldera}}
{{Reflist|group=note}}
* [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/caldera.html USGS page on calderas]
* [http://volcanodb.com/search.php?type=Caldera List of Caldera Volcanoes]
* [http://www.bigvolcano.com.au/natural/wollum.htm The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano - Australia]
* [http://host.uniroma3.it/progetti/cev/Web%20CEV%20folder/lagarita.html Largest Explosive Eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Peter Lipman (1999). "Caldera". ''In'' Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Volcanoes''. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-643140-X


==Further reading==
[[Category:Depressions]]
* {{cite journal|last1=Clough|first1=C. T.|last2=Maufe|first2=H. B.|last3=Bailey|first3=E. B.|title=The Cauldron-Subsidence of Glen Coe, and the Associated Igneous Phenomena|journal=Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society|date=1909|volume=65|issue=1–4|pages=611–78|doi=10.1144/GSL.JGS.1909.065.01-04.35|s2cid=129342758|url=https://zenodo.org/record/2346903}}
[[Category:Igneous rocks]]
*{{cite book |doi=10.1016/S1871-644X(07)00008-3 |chapter=Magma-Chamber Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation |title=Caldera Volcanism: Analysis, Modelling and Response |volume=10 |pages=313–349 |series=Developments in Volcanology |year=2008 |last1=Gudmundsson |first1=Agust |isbn=978-0-444-53165-0 }}
[[Category:Landforms]]
* Kokelaar, B. P; and Moore, I. D; 2006. ''Glencoe caldera volcano, Scotland''. {{ISBN|9780852725252}}. Pub. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. There is an associated 1:25000 solid geology map.
[[Category:Volcanic calderas| ]]
* Lipman, P; 1999. "Caldera". In Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Volcanoes''. [[Academic Press]]. {{ISBN|0-12-643140-X}}
[[Category:Volcanology]]
*{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Howell |title=Calderas and their origin |journal=University of California Publications Bulletin of the Department of Geological Sciences |date=1941 |volume=25 |pages=239–346 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027553265&view=1up&seq=291 }}


==External links==
[[als:Caldera (Krater)]]
{{Commons category|Calderas}}
[[bg:Калдера]]
{{Wiktionary|caldera}}
[[cs:Kaldera]]
* [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/caldera.php USGS page on calderas]
[[de:Caldera (Krater)]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110717230952/http://www.volcanodb.com/search.php?type=Caldera List of Caldera Volcanoes]
[[et:Kaldeera]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070630233550/http://eis.bris.ac.uk/~gljhg/Workgroup/Workgroup_files/Edited-list-publications_calderas-71206.pdf Collection of references on collapse calderas] (43 pages)
[[es:Caldera volcánica]]
* [http://www.bigvolcano.com.au/natural/wollum.htm The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano – Australia]
[[fr:Caldeira]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051216160300/http://host.uniroma3.it/progetti/cev/Web%20CEV%20folder/lagarita.html Largest Explosive Eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado]
[[is:Sigketill]]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/1999/supervolcanoes_script.shtml Supervolcanoes]
[[it:Caldera vulcanica]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mIK6l5vNT8o Time-lapse video of Kīlauea caldera collapse, 2018]
[[sw:Kaldera]]

[[lb:Caldera (Krater)]]
{{Earth's landforms}}
[[lt:Kaldera]]
{{Volcanoes}}
[[hu:Kaldera]]
{{Authority control}}
[[nl:Caldera]]

[[ja:カルデラ]]
[[pl:Kaldera]]
[[Category:Calderas| ]]
[[Category:Depressions (geology)]]
[[pt:Caldeira vulcânica]]
[[Category:Igneous rocks]]
[[ru:Кальдера]]
[[sk:Kaldera]]
[[Category:Volcanism]]
[[Category:Volcanic landforms]]
[[sh:Kaldera]]
[[Category:Volcanic craters|.]]
[[fi:Kaldera]]
[[tr:Kaldera]]
[[uk:Кальдера]]
[[zh:破火山口]]

Latest revision as of 02:19, 22 December 2024

Mount Mazama's eruption timeline, an example of caldera formation

A caldera (/kɔːlˈdɛrə, kæl-/[1] kawl-DERR-ə, kal-) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the structural integrity of such a chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface (from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter).[2] Although sometimes described as a crater, the feature is actually a type of sinkhole, as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century, the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years.[3] Only eight caldera-forming collapses are known to have occurred between 1911 and 2018,[3] with a caldera collapse at Kīlauea, Hawaii in 2018.[4] Volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes described as "caldera volcanoes".[5]

Etymology

[edit]

The term caldera comes from Spanish caldera, and Latin caldaria, meaning "cooking pot".[6] In some texts the English term cauldron is also used,[7] though in more recent work the term cauldron refers to a caldera that has been deeply eroded to expose the beds under the caldera floor.[6] The term caldera was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the German geologist Leopold von Buch when he published his memoirs of his 1815 visit to the Canary Islands,[note 1] where he first saw the Las Cañadas caldera on Tenerife, with Mount Teide dominating the landscape, and then the Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma.[8][6]

Caldera formation

[edit]
Animation of an analogue experiment showing the origin of a volcanic caldera in box filled with flour
Landsat image of Lake Toba, on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia (100 km/62 mi long and 30 km/19 mi wide, one of the world's largest calderas). A resurgent dome formed the island of Samosir.
Topographic map of Cagar Alam Rawa Danau Caldera in Indonesia

A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, sometimes as the result of a large explosive volcanic eruption (see Tambora[9] in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano (see Piton de la Fournaise in 2007)[10] or in a connected fissure system (see Bárðarbunga in 2014–2015). If enough magma is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture, the "ring fault", develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dikes.[11]: 86–89  Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture.[12] As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers.[6]

Mineralization in calderas

[edit]

Some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits. Metal-rich fluids can circulate through the caldera, forming hydrothermal ore deposits of metals such as lead, silver, gold, mercury, lithium, and uranium.[13] One of the world's best-preserved mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northwestern Ontario, Canada, which formed during the Neoarchean era[14] about 2.7 billion years ago.[15] In the San Juan volcanic field, ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas, with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera.[16]

Types of caldera

[edit]

Explosive caldera eruptions

[edit]

Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by a magma chamber whose magma is rich in silica. Silica-rich magma has a high viscosity, and therefore does not flow easily like basalt.[11]: 23–26  The magma typically also contains a large amount of dissolved gases, up to 7 wt% for the most silica-rich magmas.[17] When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the drop in confining pressure causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma, fragmenting the magma to produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other tephra with the very hot gases.[18]

The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an eruption column. However, as the volume of erupted material increases, the eruption column is unable to entrain enough air to remain buoyant, and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form pyroclastic flows.[19] Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas, so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts.[11]: 77  For example, when Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km3 of material (as measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of debris.[20]

Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, such as the La Garita Caldera in the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, where the 5,000 cubic kilometres (1,200 cu mi) Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in eruptions about 27.8 million years ago.[21][22]

The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff, rhyolite, and other igneous rocks.[23] The caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff (also called an ash flow sheet).[24][25]

If magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the Valles Caldera, Lake Toba, the San Juan volcanic field,[7] Cerro Galán,[26] Yellowstone,[27] and many other calderas.[7]

Because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event, it can cause catastrophic environmental effects. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as Krakatoa in 1883[28] or Mount Pinatubo in 1991,[29] may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia.

At some points in geological time, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the Eocene Rum Complex of Scotland,[23] the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (formed during the Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene epochs) or the Saint Francois Mountain Range of Missouri (erupted during the Proterozoic eon).[30]

Valles

[edit]
Valle Caldera, New Mexico

For their 1968 paper[7] that first introduced the concept of a resurgent caldera to geology,[6] R.L. Smith and R.A. Bailey chose the Valles caldera as their model. Although the Valles caldera is not unusually large, it is relatively young (1.25 million years old) and unusually well preserved,[31] and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera.[6] The ash flow tuffs of the Valles caldera, such as the Bandelier Tuff, were among the first to be thoroughly characterized.[32]

Toba

[edit]

About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about 2,800 cubic kilometres (670 cu mi) dense-rock equivalent of ejecta. This was the largest known eruption during the ongoing Quaternary period (the last 2.6 million years) and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose[33] proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals, resulting in a population bottleneck. More recently, Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately 5,000–10,000 people.[34] There is no direct evidence, however, that either theory is correct, and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species.[35] There is evidence that human habitation continued in India after the eruption.[36]

Satellite photograph of the summit caldera on Fernandina Island in the Galápagos archipelago
Oblique aerial photo of Nemrut Caldera, Van Lake, Eastern Turkey

Non-explosive calderas

[edit]
Sollipulli Caldera, located in central Chile near the border with Argentina, filled with ice. The volcano is in the southern Andes Mountains within Chile's Parque Nacional Villarica.[37]

Some volcanoes, such as the large shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii, form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt, which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop Fernandina Island collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 metres (1,150 ft).[38]

Extraterrestrial calderas

[edit]

Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the Solar System. Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on Venus, Mars, the Moon, and Io, a satellite of Jupiter. None of these worlds have plate tectonics, which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% is attributed to hotspot volcanism).[39] Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is 68 km (42 mi). The average caldera diameter on Io is close to 40 km (25 mi), and the mode is 6 km (3.7 mi); Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of 290 km (180 mi). The average caldera diameter on Mars is 48 km (30 mi), smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1.6–80 km (1–50 mi) as a maximum.[40]

The Moon

[edit]

The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but are currently believed to have been formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form.[39] Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex on the far side of the Moon is thought to be a caldera, possibly an ash-flow caldera.[41]

Mars

[edit]

The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated in two major provinces: Tharsis and Elysium. Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas.[39] Mars has the tallest volcano in the Solar System, Olympus Mons, which is more than three times the height of Mount Everest, with a diameter of 520 km (323 miles). The summit of the mountain has six nested calderas.[42]

Venus

[edit]

Because there is no plate tectonics on Venus, heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere. This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150–400 km (95–250 mi) in diameter and 2–4 km (1.2–2.5 mi) high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km (37 mi) across.[39]

Io

[edit]

Io, unusually, is heated by solid flexing due to the tidal influence of Jupiter and Io's orbital resonance with neighboring large moons Europa and Ganymede, which keep its orbit slightly eccentric. Unlike any of the planets mentioned, Io is continuously volcanically active. For example, the NASA Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing Io in 1979. Io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across.[39]

List of volcanic calderas

[edit]

Africa

[edit]
NASA False-colour topographical relief image of Nabro (top) and Mallahle volcanic calderas (centre left)

Antarctica

[edit]
Satellite image of Deception Island by Sentinel-2 (March 2023)

Asia

[edit]
Caldera of Mount Tambora
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

Europe

[edit]
3D CGI aerial spinning view over Santorini, Greece
Aerial view of the Laacher See, Germany
View of the Phlegraean Fields near Naples, Italy
Caldeira do Faial on the Caldeira Volcano, Faial Island, Azores

North and Central America

[edit]
Coatepeque Caldera, El Salvador crater lake
Crater Lake, Oregon, formed around 5,680 BC
Aniakchak-caldera, Alaska

Indian Ocean

[edit]

Oceania

[edit]
Mokuʻāweoweo, Mauna Loa's summit caldera, covered in snow
Satellite photo of Lake Taupō

South America

[edit]
Aerial photograph of Sollipulli caldera, looking east

Extraterrestrial volcanic calderas

[edit]

Erosion calderas

[edit]

See also

[edit]
  • Complex volcano – Landform of more than one related volcanic centre
  • Maar – Low-relief volcanic crater
  • Somma volcano – Volcanic caldera that has been partially filled by a new central cone
  • Supervolcano – Volcano that has had an eruption with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8
  • Volcanic Explosivity Index – Predictive Qualitative scale for explosiveness of volcanic eruptions

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Leopold von Buch's book Physical Description of the Canary Isles was published in 1825.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "caldera". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
  2. ^ Troll, V. R.; Walter, T. R.; Schmincke, H.-U. (1 February 2002). "Cyclic caldera collapse: Piston or piecemeal subsidence? Field and experimental evidence". Geology. 30 (2): 135–38. Bibcode:2002Geo....30..135T. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0135:CCCPOP>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
  3. ^ a b Gudmundsson, Magnús T.; Jónsdóttir, Kristín; Hooper, Andrew; Holohan, Eoghan P.; Halldórsson, Sæmundur A.; Ófeigsson, Benedikt G.; Cesca, Simone; Vogfjörd, Kristín S.; Sigmundsson, Freysteinn; Högnadóttir, Thórdís; Einarsson, Páll; Sigmarsson, Olgeir; Jarosch, Alexander H.; Jónasson, Kristján; Magnússon, Eyjólfur; Hreinsdóttir, Sigrún; Bagnardi, Marco; Parks, Michelle M.; Hjörleifsdóttir, Vala; Pálsson, Finnur; Walter, Thomas R.; Schöpfer, Martin P. J.; Heimann, Sebastian; Reynolds, Hannah I.; Dumont, Stéphanie; Bali, Eniko; Gudfinnsson, Gudmundur H.; Dahm, Torsten; Roberts, Matthew J.; Hensch, Martin; Belart, Joaquín M. C.; Spaans, Karsten; Jakobsson, Sigurdur; Gudmundsson, Gunnar B.; Fridriksdóttir, Hildur M.; Drouin, Vincent; Dürig, Tobias; Aðalgeirsdóttir, Guðfinna; Riishuus, Morten S.; Pedersen, Gro B. M.; van Boeckel, Tayo; Oddsson, Björn; Pfeffer, Melissa A.; Barsotti, Sara; Bergsson, Baldur; Donovan, Amy; Burton, Mike R.; Aiuppa, Alessandro (15 July 2016). "Gradual caldera collapse at Bárdarbunga volcano, Iceland, regulated by lateral magma outflow" (PDF). Science. 353 (6296): aaf8988. doi:10.1126/science.aaf8988. hdl:10447/227125. PMID 27418515. S2CID 206650214. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 July 2018.
  4. ^ Shelly, D.R.; Thelen, W.A. (2019). "Anatomy of a Caldera Collapse: Kīlauea 2018 Summit Seismicity Sequence in High Resolution". Geophysical Research Letters. 46 (24): 14395–14403. Bibcode:2019GeoRL..4614395S. doi:10.1029/2019GL085636. S2CID 214287960.
  5. ^ Druitt, T. H.; Costa, F.; Deloule, E.; Dungan, M.; Scaillet, B. (2012). "Decadal to monthly timescales of magma transfer and reservoir growth at a caldera volcano". Nature. 482 (7383): 77–80. Bibcode:2012Natur.482...77D. doi:10.1038/nature10706. hdl:10220/7536. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 22297973.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Cole, J; Milner, D; Spinks, K (February 2005). "Calderas and caldera structures: a review". Earth-Science Reviews. 69 (1–2): 1–26. Bibcode:2005ESRv...69....1C. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.06.004.
  7. ^ a b c d Smith, Robert L.; Bailey, Roy A. (1968). "Resurgent Cauldrons". Geological Society of America Memoirs. 116: 613–662. doi:10.1130/MEM116-p613.
  8. ^ von Buch, L. (1820). Ueber die Zusammensetzung der basaltischen Inseln und ueber Erhebungs-Cratere. Berlin: University of Lausanne. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
  9. ^ Greshko, Michael (8 April 2016). "201 Years Ago, This Volcano Caused a Climate Catastrophe". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 26 September 2019. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
  10. ^ "Piton de la Fournaise". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. 2019.
  11. ^ a b c Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009). Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521880060.
  12. ^ Dethier, David P.; Kampf, Stephanie K. (2007). Geology of the Jemez Region II. Ne Mexico Geological Society. p. 499 p. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 6 November 2015.
  13. ^ John, D. A. (1 February 2008). "Supervolcanoes and Metallic Ore Deposits". Elements. 4 (1): 22. Bibcode:2008Eleme...4...22J. doi:10.2113/GSELEMENTS.4.1.22.
  14. ^ "UMD: Precambrian Research Center". University of Minnesota, Duluth. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
  15. ^ Morton, Ron (18 March 2001). "Caldera volcanoes". University of Minnesota, Dultuh. Archived from the original on 2 November 2003.
  16. ^ Steven, Thomas A.; Luedke, Robert G.; Lipman, Peter W. (1974). "Relation of mineralization to calderas in the San Juan volcanic field, southwestern Colorado". J. Res. US Geol. Surv. 2: 405–409.
  17. ^ Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003). Volcanism. Berlin: Springer. pp. 42–43. ISBN 9783540436508.
  18. ^ Schmincke 2003, pp. 155–157.
  19. ^ Schmincke 2003, p. 157.
  20. ^ Lowenstern, Jacob B.; Christiansen, Robert L.; Smith, Robert B.; Morgan, Lisa A.; Heasler, Henry (10 May 2005). "Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's in Yellowstone's Future? – U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2005–3024". United States Geological Survey.
  21. ^ "What's the Biggest Volcanic Eruption Ever?". livescience.com. 10 November 2010. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  22. ^ Best, Myron G.; Christiansen, Eric H.; Deino, Alan L.; Gromme, Sherman; Hart, Garret L.; Tingey, David G. (August 2013). "The 36–18 Ma Indian Peak–Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas, southeastern Great Basin, USA: Multicyclic super-eruptions". Geosphere. 9 (4): 864–950. Bibcode:2013Geosp...9..864B. doi:10.1130/GES00902.1.
  23. ^ a b Troll, Valentin R.; Emeleus, C. Henry; Donaldson, Colin H. (1 November 2000). "Caldera formation in the Rum Central Igneous Complex, Scotland". Bulletin of Volcanology. 62 (4): 301–317. Bibcode:2000BVol...62..301T. doi:10.1007/s004450000099. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 128985944.
  24. ^ Best, Myron G.; Christiansen, Eric H.; Deino, Alan L.; Grommé, C. Sherman; Tingey, David G. (10 December 1995). "Correlation and emplacement of a large, zoned, discontinuously exposed ash flow sheet: The 40 Ar/ 39 Ar chronology, paleomagnetism, and petrology of the Pahranagat Formation, Nevada". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 100 (B12): 24593–24609. Bibcode:1995JGR...10024593B. doi:10.1029/95JB01690.
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Further reading

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