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{{Short description|Large baleen whale species}}
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{{Taxobox
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| color = pink
{{Speciesbox
| name = Humpback Whale
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|7.2|0|ref={{r|fossil}}}} [[Late Miocene]] – [[Recent]]
| status = VU<!--Please do not change this to "EN"; the species is internationally Vulnerable, although Endangered in some regions -->
| name = Humpback whale{{r|MSW3}}
| trend = up
| image = Humpback Whale underwater shot.jpg
| status_system = iucn2.3
| image2 = Humpback whale size (color).svg
| status_ref =
| image2_caption = Size compared to an average human
<ref name="iucn">{{IUCN2006|assessors=Cetacean Specialist Group|year=1996|id=13006|title=Megaptera novaeangliae|downloaded=[[11 May]] [[2006]]}} Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is vulnerable </ref>
| image2_alt = Illustration of a whale next to a human diver
| image = Humpback_Whale_underwater_shot.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| image2 = Humpback_whale_size.svg
| status_ref = {{R|iucn}}
| image2_width = 250px
| status2 = CITES_A1
| image2_caption = Size comparison against an average human
| status2_system = CITES
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| status2_ref = {{r|CITES}}
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| genus = Megaptera
| parent_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1846
| subclassis = [[Eutheria]]
| ordo = [[Cetacea]]
| species = novaeangliae
| authority = ([[Georg Heinrich Borowski|Borowski]], 1781)
| subordo = [[Mysticeti]]
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| familia = [[Balaenopteridae]]
| subdivision =
| genus = '''''Megaptera'''''
* ''M. n. australis''
| genus_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1846
| species = '''''M. novaeangliae'''''
* ''M. n. kuzira''
| binomial = ''Megaptera novaeangliae''
* ''M. n. novaeangliae''
| range_map = Cypron-Range Megaptera novaeangliae.svg
| binomial_authority = [[Georg Borowski|Borowski]], 1781
| range_map_caption = Humpback whale range (in blue)
| range_map = cetacea_range_map_Humpback_Whale.PNG
| synonyms =
| range_map_width = 250px
* ''Balaena gibbosa'' <small>Erxleben, 1777</small>
| range_map_caption = Humpback Whale range
* ''B. boops'' <small>Fabricius, 1780</small>
* ''B. nodosa'' <small>Bonnaterre, 1789</small>
* ''B. longimana'' <small>Rudolphi, 1832</small>
* ''Megaptera longimana'' <small>Gray, 1846</small>
* ''Kyphobalaena longimana'' <small>Van Beneden, 1861</small>
* ''Megaptera versabilis'' <small>Cope, 1869</small>
}}
}}


The '''Humpback Whale''', ''Megaptera novaeangliae'', is a [[baleen whale]]. One of the larger [[rorqual]] species, adults range in length from 12&ndash;16&nbsp;[[metre]]s (40&ndash;50&nbsp;[[Foot (unit of length)|ft]]) and weigh approximately 36,000&nbsp;[[kilogram]]s (79,000&nbsp;[[Pound (mass)|lb]]). The Humpback has a distinctive body shape, with unusually long pectoral fins and a knobbly head. It is an acrobatic animal, often [[breaching]] and slapping the water. Males produce a complex [[whale song]], which lasts for 10 to 20 minutes and is repeated for hours at a time. The purpose of the song is not yet clear, although it appears to have a role in mating.
The '''humpback whale''' ('''''Megaptera novaeangliae''''') is a species of [[baleen whale]]. It is a [[rorqual]] (a member of the family [[Balaenopteridae]]) and is the [[monotypic taxon|only species]] in the [[genus]] '''''Megaptera'''''. Adults range in length from {{convert|14|-|17|m|ft|abbr=on}} and weigh up to {{convert|40|metric ton|short ton|abbr=on}}. The humpback has a distinctive body shape, with long [[pectoral fins]] and [[tubercle]]s on its head. It is known for [[Whale surfacing behaviour|breaching]] and other distinctive [[Cetacean surfacing behaviour|surface behaviors]], making it popular with [[whale watching|whale watchers]]. Males produce a complex [[Whale sound|song]] typically lasting 4 to 33 minutes.


Found in oceans and seas around the world, Humpback Whales typically migrate up to 25,000 [[kilometre]]s each year. Humpbacks feed only in summer, in [[Polar region|polar]] waters, and migrate to [[tropical]] or [[sub-tropical]] waters to breed and give birth in the winter. During the winter, Humpbacks [[Fasting|fast]] and live off their [[Blubber|fat]] reserves. The species' diet consists mostly of [[krill]] and small [[fish]]. Humpbacks have a diverse repertoire of feeding methods, including the spectacular ''bubble net fishing'' technique.
Found in [[ocean]]s and [[list of seas|sea]]s around the world, humpback whales typically [[animal migration|migrate]] up to {{convert|16000|km|mi|abbr=on}} each year. They feed in [[Polar region|polar]] waters and migrate to [[tropics|tropical]] or [[subtropical]] waters to breed and give birth. Their diet consists mostly of [[krill]] and small [[fish]], and they usually [[Bubble-net feeding|use bubble]]s to catch prey. They are [[Promiscuity#Other animals|promiscuous]] breeders, with both sexes having multiple partners. [[Orca]]s are the main natural predators of humpback whales. The bodies of humpbacks host [[barnacle]]s and [[whale lice]].


Like other large whales, the Humpback was a target for the [[whaling]] industry, and its population fell by an estimated 90% before a whaling moratorium was introduced in 1966. Stocks of the species have since partially recovered, however entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with ships, and noise pollution are ongoing concerns. Current estimates for the abundance of Humpback Whales range from about 30,000 to 60,000, approximately one third of pre-whaling levels. Once hunted to the brink of extinction, Humpbacks are now sought out by [[whale watching|whale-watchers]], particularly off parts of [[Australia]] and the [[United States]].
Like other large whales, the humpback was a target for the [[whaling]] industry. Humans once hunted the species to the brink of [[extinction]]; its population fell to around 5,000 by the 1960s. Numbers have partially recovered to some 135,000 animals worldwide, while entanglement in [[fishing net|fishing gear]], collisions with ships, and [[noise pollution]] continue to affect the species. Some individual whales have achieved celebrity status such as [[Humphrey the Whale]].


==Taxonomy==
== Taxonomy ==
The humpback was first identified as ''baleine de la Nouvelle Angleterre'' by [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]] in his ''Regnum Animale'' of 1756. In 1781, [[Georg Heinrich Borowski]] described the species, converting Brisson's name to its [[Latin]] equivalent, ''Balaena novaeangliae''. In 1804, [[Bernard Germain de Lacépède]] shifted the humpback from the family [[Balaenidae]], renaming it ''B. jubartes''. In 1846, [[John Edward Gray]] created the genus ''Megaptera'', classifying the humpback as ''Megaptera longipinna'', but in 1932, [[Remington Kellogg]] reverted the species names to use Borowski's ''novaeangliae''.{{R|WJ}} The common name is derived from the curving of their backs when diving. The generic name ''Megaptera'' from the [[Ancient Greek]] ''mega-'' {{lang|grc|μεγα}} ("giant") and ''ptera''/ {{lang|grc|πτερα}} ("wing"){{R|LiddellScott2015}} refer to their large front flippers. The specific name means "New Englander" and was probably given by Brisson due to regular sightings of humpbacks off the coast of [[New England]].{{R|WJ}}
[[Image:humpback dorsal fin.JPG|thumb|left|200px|A diving Humpback shows off its namesake hump.]]

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Humpback whales are [[rorqual]]s, members of the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Balaenopteridae]], which includes the [[blue whale|blue]], [[fin whale|fin]], [[Bryde's whale|Bryde's]], [[sei whale|sei]] and [[minke whale]]s. A 2018 genomic analysis estimates that rorquals diverged from other baleen whales in the late [[Miocene]], between 10.5 and 7.5&nbsp;million years ago. The humpback and fin whale were found to be [[sister taxon]] (see [[phylogenetic tree]] below).{{r|Arnason_etal_2018}} There is reference to a humpback-blue whale hybrid in the [[South Pacific Ocean|South Pacific]], attributed to marine biologist Michael Poole.{{r|Reeves|Hatch}}
{{clade| style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%
{{clade|style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%;width:400px;
|label1=[[Balaenopteridae]]
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''B. acutorostrata/bonaerensis'' ([[minke whale]] species complex) [[File:Rorcual austral 3 flipped.jpg|50px|Antarctic minke whale illustration|alt=Antarctic minke whale illustration with a dark top, a creamy underside, a long robust body, and a dorsal fin where the back begins to slope down]]
|1={{clade
|1=''B. bonaerensis'' ([[Southern Minke Whale]])
|2=''B. acutorostra'' ([[Northern Minke Whale]])
}}
|2={{clade
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''B. musculus'' ([[blue whale]])<span style="{{MirrorH}}">[[File:Blauwal.png|50 px|Blue whale illustration|alt=Blue whale illustration with a dark blue tail, a slightly lighter shade of blue overall, and a small dorsal fin close to the tail]]</span>
|1=''B. physalus'' ([[Fin Whale]])
|2=''B. borealis'' ([[sei whale]]) [[File:Balaenoptera borealis.jpg|50 px|Sei whale illustration|alt=Sei whale illustration with an overall dark coloration, white underbelly, a long robust body, and a dorsal fin near the tail]]
|2={{clade
|1=''B. edeni'' ([[Pygmy Bryde's Whale]])
|2={{clade
|1=''B. borealis'' ([[Sei Whale]])
|2=''B. brydei'' ([[Bryde's Whale]])
}}
}}
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|2={{clade
|1=''Eschrichtius robustus'' ([[gray whale]]) [[File:Eschrichtius robustus NOAA.jpg|50 px|Gray whale illustration|alt=Gray whale illustration with a sleet gray color, lightly colored spots mainly on the head and top, a robust body, and small bumps where the back slopes downwards]]
|1=''B. musculus'' ([[Blue Whale]])
|2=''Megaptera novaeangliae'' ([[Humpback Whale]])
|2={{clade
|1=''B. physalus'' ([[fin whale]]) [[File:Rorcual común (Balaenoptera physalus) flipped.jpg|50 px|Fin whale illustration|alt=Fin whale illustration with a dark backside, white underside, lightly colored head, a slender body, and a small dorsal fin near the tail]]
|3=''Eschrichtius robustus'' ([[Gray Whale]])
|2='''''Megaptera novaeangliae''''' ('''humpback whale''') [[File:Megaptera novaeangliae NOAA.jpg|50 px|Humpback whale illustration|alt=Humpback whale illustration with an overall dark coloration, white underbelly, a robust body, and a small, stunted dorsal fin]]
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
<small>A [[phylogenetic tree]] of animals related to the Humpback Whale</small>
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Humpback Whales are [[rorquals]] (family [[Balaenopteridae]]), a family that includes the [[Blue Whale]], the [[Fin Whale]], the [[Bryde's Whale]], the [[Sei Whale]] and the [[Minke Whale]]. The rorquals are believed to have diverged from the other families of the suborder [[Mysticeti]] as long ago as the middle [[Miocene]].<ref name="evolution">{{cite book <!--| url = http://www-personal.umich.edu/~gingeric/PDFfiles/PDG413_whalesmhyst_opt.pdf | format = PDF DEAD LINK-->| title = McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science & Technology | year = 2004 | publisher = The McGraw Hill Companies | chapter = Whale Evolution | author = Gingerich P}}</ref> However, it is not known when the members of these families diverged from each other.


Modern humpback whale populations originated in the southern hemisphere around 880,000 years ago and colonized the northern hemisphere 200,000–50,000 years ago. A 2014 genetic study suggested that the separate populations in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Southern Oceans have had limited [[gene flow]] and are distinct enough to be [[subspecies]], with the scientific names of ''M. n. novaeangliae'', ''M. n. kuzira'' and ''M. n. australis'' respectively.{{R|subspecies}} A non-migratory population in the [[Arabian Sea]] has been isolated for 70,000 years.{{r|Pomilla}}
Though clearly related to the giant whales of the [[genus]] ''[[Balaenoptera]]'', the Humpback has been the sole member of its genus since Gray's work in 1846. More recently though, DNA sequencing analysis has indicated both the Humpback and the [[Gray Whale]] are close relatives of the Blue Whale, the world's largest animal. If further research confirms these relationships, it will be necessary to reclassify the rorquals.


== Characteristics ==
The Humpback Whale was first identified as "baleine de la Nouvelle Angleteer" by [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]] in his ''[[Regnum Animale]]'' of 1756. In 1781, Georg Borowski described the species, converting Brisson's name to its Latin equivalent, ''Baleana novaeangliae''. Early in the 19th century [[Bernard Germain Étienne de La Ville-sur-Illon, comte de Lacépède|Lacépède]] shifted the Humpback from the [[Balaenidae]] family, renaming it ''Balaenoptera jubartes''. In 1846, [[John Edward Gray]] created the genus ''Megaptera'', classifying the Humpback as ''Megaptera longpinna'', but in 1932, [[Remington Kellogg]] reverted the species names to use Borowski's ''novaeangliae''.<ref name="WJ">{{cite book|title=The Whales' Journey|author=Martin S|date=2002|pages=251|publisher=Allen & Unwin Pty., Limited|id=ISBN 1865082325}}</ref> The common name is derived from their humping motion while swimming. The generic name ''Megaptera'' from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''mega-''/μεγα- "giant" and ''ptera''/πτερα "wing",<ref>{{cite book|author=Liddell & Scott|year=1980|title=Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition |publisher=Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK|id=ISBN 0-19-910207-4}}</ref> refers to their large front flippers. The specific name means "New Englander" and was probably given by Brisson due the regular sightings of Humpbacks off the coast of [[New England]].<ref name="WJ" />
[[File:Humpback Whale, blowholes.jpg|thumb|Young whale with [[Blowhole (anatomy)|blowholes]] visible]]


The adult humpback whale is generally {{convert|14|–|15|m|abbr=on}}, though longer lengths of {{convert|16|–|17|m|abbr=on}} have been recorded. Females are usually {{convert|1|–|1.5|m|abbr=on}} longer than males.{{R|Perrin}} The species can reach body masses of {{convert|40|metric ton|short ton|abbr=on}}. Calves are born at around {{convert|4.3|m|abbr=on}} long with a weight of {{convert|680|kg|abbr=on}}.{{R|Jefferson}}
==Description and lifecycle==
Humpback Whales can easily be identified by their stocky bodies with obvious humps and black [[dorsal]] colouring. The head and lower jaw are covered with knobs called [[tubercle]]s, which are actually [[hair follicle]]s and are characteristic of the species. The tail flukes, which are lifted high in the dive sequence, have wavy rear edges.<ref name="plan">{{cite web |url= http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/whale_humpback.pdf |title= Final Recovery Plan for the Humpback Whale ''Megaptera novaeangliae'' |date=1991 |publisher= U.S. Department of Commerce |format = PDF |accessdaymonth=[[10 April]]|accessyear=[[2007]]}}</ref>


The body is bulky with a thin [[Rostrum (anatomy)|rostrum]] and proportionally long flippers, each around one-third of its body length.{{R|plan|mammalian}} It has a short dorsal fin that varies from nearly non-existent to somewhat long and curved. As a rorqual, the humpback has grooves between the tip of the lower jaw and the navel.{{R|Perrin}} They are relatively few in number in this species, ranging from 14 to 35.{{R|plan}} The mouth is lined with baleen plates, which number 270–400 for both sides.{{R|mammalian}}
The long black and white tail fin, which can be up to a third of body length, and the pectoral fins have unique patterns, which enable individual whales to be recognised.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Katona S.K. and Whitehead, H.P.|date=1981|title=Identifying humpback whales using their mural markings|journal=Polar Record|issue= 20|pages=439–444}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Kaufman G., Smultea M.A. and Forestell P.|date=1987|title=Use of lateral body pigmentation patterns for photo ID of east Australian (Area V) humpback whales|journal=Cetus|volume=7|issue=1|pages=5–13}}</ref> Several suggestions have been made to explain the evolution of the Humpback's pectoral fins, which are proportionally the longest fins of any [[cetacean]]. The two most enduring hypotheses are the higher maneuverability afforded by long fins, or that the increased surface area is useful for temperature control when migrating between warm and cold climates.


The dorsal or upper-side of the animal is generally black; the ventral or underside has various levels of black and white coloration.{{R|Perrin}} Whales in the southern hemisphere tend to have more white pigmentation. The flippers can vary from all-white to white only on the undersurface.{{R|Jefferson}} The varying color patterns and scars on the tail flukes distinguish individual animals.{{R|KatonaWhitehead|KaufmanSmultea}} The end of the genital slit of the female is marked by a round feature, known as the hemispherical lobe, which visually distinguishes males and females.{{R|mammalian|Glockner}}
[[Image:Buckelwal Schwanzflosse.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A Humpback Whale tail has wavy rear edges.]]
[[Image:100B2053.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A tail from a different individual - the tail of each Humpback Whale is unique.]]
Humpbacks have 270 to 400 darkly coloured [[baleen]] plates on each side of the mouth. [[Ventral]] grooves run from the lower jaw to the [[umbilicus]] about halfway along the bottom of the whale. These grooves are less numerous (usually 16&ndash;20) and consequently more prominent than in other [[rorqual]]s. The stubby [[dorsal fin]] is visible soon after the [[Blowhole (biology)|blow]] when the whale surfaces, but has disappeared by the time the flukes emerge. Humpbacks have a distinctive 3&nbsp;m (10&nbsp;ft) bushy [[Blow (cetacean)|blow]].


Unique among large whales, humpbacks have bumps or [[tubercle]]s on the head and front edge of the flippers; the tail fluke has a jagged [[trailing edge]].{{R|Perrin|mammalian}} The tubercles on the head are {{convert|5|–|10|cm|abbr=on}} thick at the base and poke up to {{convert|6.5|cm|abbr=on}}. They are mostly hollow in the center, often containing at least one fragile hair that erupts {{convert|1|-|3|cm|abbr=on}} from the skin and is {{convert|0.1|mm|abbr=on}} thick. The tubercles develop early in the womb and may have a sensory function as they are rich in nerves.{{r|tubercles}} Sensory nerve cells in the skin are adapted to withstand the high water pressure of diving.{{r|Eldridge}}
Calves are about 4&ndash;4.5&nbsp;m (13&ndash;15&nbsp;ft) long when born and weigh approximately 700&nbsp;kg (1500&nbsp;lb). They are nursed by their mothers for their first six months, then are sustained through a mixture of nursing and independent feeding for a further six months. Calves leave their mothers at the start of their second year, when they are typically 9&nbsp;m (30&nbsp;ft) long. Both sexes reach sexual maturity at the age of five with full adult size being achieved a little later. Fully grown the males average 15&ndash;16&nbsp;m (49&ndash;52&nbsp;ft), the females being slightly larger at 16&ndash;17&nbsp;m (52&ndash;56&nbsp;ft), with a weight of 40,000&nbsp;kg (or 44&nbsp;tons); the largest recorded specimen was 19&nbsp;m (62&nbsp;ft) long and had pectoral fins measuring 6&nbsp;m (20&nbsp;ft) each.<ref name=Clapham>{{cite book|author=Clapham P|chapter=Humpback Whale|pages=589–592|title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals|id=ISBN 0125513402}}</ref>


In one study, a humpback whale brain measured {{convert|22.4|cm|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|18|cm|abbr=on}} wide at the tips of the [[temporal lobe]]s, and weighed around {{convert|4.6|kg|abbr=on}}. Its brain has similar complexity to the brains of smaller whales and dolphins.{{r|Hof}} Computer models of the middle ear suggest that the humpback can hear at frequencies between 15 Hz and 3 kHz "when stimulated at the [[eardrum|tympanic membrane]]", and between 200 Hz and 9 kHz "if stimulated at the thinner region of the [[tympanic bone]] adjacent to the tympanic membrane". This is consistent with their vocalization ranges.{{r|hearing}}
Females have a lobe about 15&nbsp;[[centimetre]]s (6&nbsp;[[Inch|in]]) in diameter in their genital region. This allows males and females to be distinguished if the underside of the whale can be seen, even though the male's penis usually remains unseen in the genital slit. Male whales have distinctive scarring patterns and pigmentations on their underside, some resulting from high speed courtship chases of females.


As in all cetaceans, the respiratory tract of the humpback whale is connected to the [[Blowhole (anatomy)|blowhole]]s and not the mouth,{{r|respiratorytract}} though it appears to be able to unlock the [[epiglottis]] and [[larynx]] and move them towards the oral cavity, allowing them to blow bubbles from there.{{r|Reidenberg}} The vocal folds of the humpback are more horizontally positioned than those of land mammals which allows them to produce underwater calls.{{r|respiratorytract}} These calls are amplified by a laryngeal sac.{{r|Adam}}
Females typically breed every two or three years. The gestation period is 11 months, yet some individuals can breed in two consecutive years. Humpback Whales can live for 40&ndash;50 years.


== Behavior and ecology ==
===Identification===
{{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical
The varying patterns on the Humpback's tail flukes are sufficient to identify an individual. Unique visual identification is not possible in most cetacean species (exceptions include [[Orcas]] and [[Right Whales]]), so the Humpback has become one of the most-studied species. A study using data from 1973 to 1998 on whales in the North Atlantic gave researchers detailed information on gestation times, growth rates, and calving periods, as well as allowing more accurate population predictions by simulating the [[mark-release-recapture]] technique. A photographic catalogue of all known whales in the North Atlantic was developed over this period and is currently maintained by [[Wheelock College]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://whale.wheelock.edu/whalenet-stuff/humpcat.html|title=Whalenet Data Search|publisher=Wheelock College|author=Williamson JM|date=2005|accessdaymonth=[[03 April]]|accessyear=[[2007]]}}</ref> Similar photographic identification projects have subsequently begun in the North Pacific by SPLASH (Structure of Populations, Levels of Abundance and Status of Humpbacks), and around the world.
|image1=026b Humpback whale jump and splash Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|caption1=Humpback [[Whale surfacing behavior|breaching]]|alt1=Photo of a humpback in profile with most of its body out of the water, with back forming an acute angle to water|image2=030 Humpback whale lobtailing Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|caption2=Humpback [[lobtailing]]|alt2=Photo of humpback tail slaping at the surface. Rest of body underwater}}


Humpback whale groups, aside from mothers and calves, typically last for days or weeks at the most.{{r|Perrin|claphamj}} They are normally sighted in small groups though large [[Aggregation (ethology)|aggregation]]s form during feeding and among males competing for females.{{R|claphamj}} Humpbacks may interact with other cetacean species, such as [[right whale]]s, [[fin whale]]s, and [[bottlenose dolphin]]s.{{r|Abrolhos|Mobley|Deakos}} Humpbacks are highly active at the surface, performing aerial behaviors such as [[Cetacean surfacing behavior#Breaching and lunging|breaching]], surface slapping with the tail flake ([[Cetacean surfacing behavior#Lobtailing and slapping|lobtailing]]) and flippers and [[peduncle throw]]s which involve the tail crashing sideways on the surface. These may be forms of [[Play (activity)|play]] and communication and/or for removing parasites.{{r|Perrin}}{{r|surfacing}} The species is a slower swimmer than other rorquals, cruising at {{convert|7.9|–|15.1|km/h|abbr=on}}. When threatened, a humpback may speed up to {{convert|27|km/h|abbr=on}}.{{R|mammalian}} Their proportionally long pectoral fins give them great propulsion and allow them to swim in any direction independently of the movements of the tail fluke. Humpbacks are able to flap and rotate their flippers in a manner similar to [[California sea lion]]s.{{r|flipper}}
===Social structure and courtship===
[[Image:DSC 7334.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Humpbacks frequently breach, throwing their bodies out of their water.]]
{{seealso|Whale behaviour}}
The Humpback social structure is loose-knit. Usually, individuals live alone or in small transient groups that assemble and break up over the course of a few hours. Groups may stay together a little longer in summer in order to forage and feed cooperatively. Longer-term relationships between pairs or small groups, lasting months or even years, have been observed, but are rare. The range of the Humpback overlaps considerably with many other whale and dolphin species &mdash; whilst it may be seen near other species (for instance, the Minke Whale), it rarely interacts socially with them.


Humpbacks rest at the surface with their bodies lying horizontally.{{r|Iwata}} They frequent shallow [[seamount]]s, commonly exploring depths of up to 80 meters (260 feet) and occasionally venturing into deep dives reaching up to 616 meters (2,020 feet). These deeper descents are believed to serve various purposes, including navigational guidance, communication with fellow humpback whales, and facilitation of feeding activities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Derville |first1=Solène |last2=Torres |first2=Leigh G. |last3=Zerbini |first3=Alexandre N. |last4=Oremus |first4=Marc |last5=Garrigue |first5=Claire |date=2020-03-17 |title=Horizontal and vertical movements of humpback whales inform the use of critical pelagic habitats in the western South Pacific |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=4871 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-61771-z |pmid=32184421 |pmc=7078318 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.4871D |issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free }}</ref> Dives typically do not exceed five minutes during the summer but are normally 15–20 minutes during the winter.{{R|mammalian}} As it dives, a humpback typically raises its tail fluke, exposing the underside.{{r|Perrin}} Humpbacks have been observed to produce oral "bubble clouds" when near another individual, possibly in the context of "aggression, mate attraction, or play". Humpbacks may also use bubble cloud as "smoke screens" to escape from predators.{{r|Reidenberg}}
[[Courtship]] rituals take place during the winter months, when the whales migrate towards the equator from their summer feeding grounds closer to the poles. Humpback Whales do not feed while in their wintering waters. Competition for a mate is usually fierce, and female whales as well as mother-calf dyads are frequently trailed by unrelated male whales dubbed ''escorts'' by researcher [[Louis Herman]]. Groups of two to twenty males typically gather around a single female and exhibit a variety of behaviours in order to establish dominance in what is known as a ''competitive pod''. The displays last several hours, the group size may ebb and flow as unsuccessful males retreat and others arrive to try their luck. Techniques used include breaching, spy-hopping, lob-tailing, tail-slapping, flipper-slapping, charging and parrying.

[[Whale song]] is assumed to have an important role in mate selection; however, scientists remain unsure whether the song is used between males in order to establish identity and dominance, between a male and a female as a mating call, or a mixture of the two. All these vocal and physical techniques have also been observed while not in the presence of potential mates. This indicates that they are probably important as a more general communication tool.


===Feeding===
===Feeding===
Humpback whales feed from spring to fall. They are [[Generalist and specialist species|generalist]] feeders, their main food items being [[krill]], [[copepod]]s, other [[plankton]] and small schooling fish. The most common krill species eaten in the southern hemisphere is the [[Antarctic krill]]. Further north, the [[northern krill]] and various species of ''[[Euphausia]]'' and ''[[Thysanoessa]]'' are consumed. Fish prey include [[Clupea|herring]], [[capelin]], [[Ammodytoides|sand lances]] and [[Atlantic mackerel]].{{R|Perrin|mammalian}} Like other rorquals, humpbacks are "gulp feeders", swallowing prey in bulk, while [[right whale]]s and [[bowhead whale]]s are skimmers.{{R|claphamj}} The whale increases its mouth gape by expanding the grooves.{{r|Perrin}} Water is pushed out through the baleen.{{r|Friedlaender}} In the southern hemisphere, humpbacks have been recorded foraging in large compact gatherings numbering up to 200 individuals.{{r|supergroup}}
[[Image:Humpback lunge feeding.jpg|thumb|right|A pair of Humpback Whales feeding by lunging.]]
[[Image:humpback flipper.jpg|thumb|right|Slapping flippers may help Humpbacks forage for food by startling fish.]]


[[File:Whales Bubble Net Feeding-edit1.jpg|right|thumb|A group of whales bubble net fishing near [[Juneau, Alaska]]|alt=Photo of several whales, each with only its head visible above the surface]]
The species feeds only in summer and lives off fat reserves during winter. It is an energetic feeder, taking [[krill]] and small schooling [[fish]], such as [[herring]] ''(Clupea harengus)'', [[salmon]], [[capelin]] ''(Mallotus villosus)'' and [[sand lance]] ''(Ammodytes americanus)'' as well as [[Mackerel]] ''(Scomber scombrus)'', [[pollock]] ''(Pollachius virens)'' and [[haddock]] ''(Melanogrammus aeglefinus)'' in the North Atlantic.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Overholtz W.J. and Nicholas J.R.|date=1979|title=Apparent feeding by the fin whale, ''Balaenoptera physalus'', and humpback whale, ''Megaptera novaeangliae'', on the American sand lance, ''Ammodytes americanus'', in the
Northwest Atlantic|journal=Fish. Bull.|issue=77|pages=285–287}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Whitehead H.|date=1987|title=Updated status of the humpback whale, ''Megaptera novaeangliae'', in Canada|journal=Canadian Field-Naturalist|volume=101|issue=2|pages=284–294}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Meyer T.L., Cooper R.A. and Langton R.W.|date=1979|title=Relative abundance, behavior and food habits of the American sand lance ''(Ammodytes americanus)'' from the Gulf of Maine|journal=Fish. Bull|volume=77|issue=1|pages=243–253}}</ref> Krill and [[Copepod]]s have been recorded from Australian and Antarctic waters.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nemoto T.|date=1959|title=Food of baleen whales with reference to whale movements|journal=Science Report Whales Research Institute
Tokyo|issue=14|pages=149–290}}</ref> It hunts fish by direct attack or by stunning them by hitting the water with its flippers or flukes.


Humpbacks typically hunt their prey with [[bubble-net feeding|bubble-nets]], which is considered to be a form of [[Tool use by non-humans|tool use]].{{r|Szabo}} A group swims in a shrinking circle while blowing air from their blowholes, capturing prey above in a cylinder of [[Bubble (physics)|bubbles]]. They may dive up to {{convert|20|m|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} performing this technique. Bubble-netting comes in two main forms; upward spirals and double loops. Upward spirals involve the whales blowing air from their blowholes continuously as they circle towards the surface, creating a spiral of bubbles. Double loops consist of a deep, long loop of bubbles that herds the prey, followed by slapping the surface and then a smaller loop that prepares the final capture. Combinations of spiraling and looping have been recorded. After the humpbacks create the "nets", the whales swim into them with their mouths gaping and ready to swallow.{{r|Friedlaender}} Bubble-net feeding has also been observed in solitary humpbacks, which can consume more food per mouthful without tiring, particularly with low-density prey patches.{{r|Szabo}}
The Humpback has the most diverse repertoire of feeding methods of all [[baleen whale]]s.<ref name ="Recplan91">{{cite book|publisher=National Marine Fisheries Service|date=1991|title=Recovery Plan for the Humpback Whale ''(Megaptera novaeangliae)''|author=Prepared by the Humpback Whale Recovery Team for the National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland|pages=105}}</ref> Its most inventive technique is known as ''bubble net fishing'': a group of whales blows bubbles while swimming to create a visual barrier against fish, while one or more whales in the group make vocalizations that drive the fish against the wall. The bubble wall is then closed, encircling the fish, which are confined in an ever-tighter area. The whales then suddenly swim upwards through the bubble net, mouths agape, swallowing thousands of fish in one gulp. This technique can involve a ring of bubbles up to 30&nbsp;m (100&nbsp;ft) in diameter and the cooperation of a dozen animals. It is one of the more spectacular acts of collaboration among [[marine mammal]]s.


Using [[network-based diffusion analysis]], one study argued that whales learned lobtailing from other whales in the group over 27 years in response to a change in primary prey.{{R|Lobtail|whaleculture}} The tubercles on the flippers stall the [[angle of attack]], which both maximizes [[Lift (force)|lift]] and minimizes [[drag (physics)|drag]] (see [[tubercle effect]]). This, along with the shape of the flippers, allows the whales to make the abrupt turns necessary during bubble-feeding.{{r|Fish}}
Humpback Whales are preyed upon by [[Orca]]s. The result of these attacks is generally nothing more serious than some scarring of the skin, but it is likely that young calves are sometimes killed.<ref name="claphamj">{{cite journal |journal= Mammal
Review |author= Clapham, P.J. |date= 1996 |title= The social and reproductive biology of humpback whales: an ecological perspective |issue= 26 |pages= 27–49 |url= http://www.sitkawhalefest.org/review.pdf |format = PDF | accessdate = 2007-04-26}}</ref>


At [[Stellwagen Bank]] off the coast of [[Massachusetts]], humpback whales have been recorded foraging at the seafloor for sand lances. This involves the whales flushing out the fish by brushing their jaws against the bottom.{{r|bottomfeeding}}
===Song===
{{main|Whale song}}
Both male and female Humpback Whales can produce sounds, however only the males produce the long, loud, complex "songs" for which the species is famous. Each song consists of several sounds in a low [[register (music)|register]] that vary in [[amplitude]] and [[frequency]], and typically lasts from 10 to 20 minutes.<ref name="asc"/> Songs may be repeated continuously for several hours; Humpback Whales have been observed to sing continuously for more than 24 hours at a time. As [[cetaceans]] have no vocal chords, whales generate their song by forcing air through their massive nasal cavities.


=== Courtship and reproduction ===
Whales within an area sing the same song, for example all of the Humpback Whales of the North Atlantic sing the same song, and those of the North Pacific sing a different song. Each population's song changes slowly over a period of years &mdash;never returning to the same sequence of notes.<ref name="asc"/>


Mating and breeding take place during the winter months, which is when females reach [[estrus]] and males reach peak testosterone and sperm levels.{{r|Perrin}} Humpback whales are [[Promiscuity#Other animals|promiscuous]], with both sexes having multiple partners.{{r|Perrin|Clapham97}} Males will frequently trail both lone females and cow–calf pairs. These are known as "escorts", and the male that is closest to the female is known as the "principal escort", who fights off the other suitors known as "challengers". Other males, called "secondary escorts", trail further behind and are not directly involved in the conflict.{{r|Herman}} [[Agonistic behavior]] between males consists of tail slashing, ramming, and head-butting.{{r|Perrin}} Males have also been observed engaging in [[Homosexual behavior in animals|copulation with each other]].{{r|Stack}}
Scientists are still unsure of the purpose of whale song. Only male Humpbacks sing, so it was initially assumed that the purpose of the songs was to attract females. However, many of the whales observed to approach singing whales have been other males, with the meeting resulting in a conflict. Thus, one interpretation is that the whale songs serve as a threat to other males.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/humpback/song.html|title=Humpback Whales. Song of the Sea.|accessdate=2007-04-22|publisher=Public Broadcasting Station}}</ref> Some scientists have hypothesized that the song may serve an [[animal echolocation|echolocative]] function.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering |title= Humpback Whale Song or Humpback Whale Sonar? A Reply to Au et al. |author= Mercado E III & Frazer LN |volume= 26 |issue=3 |pages=406–415 |date= July 2001 |url= http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~emiii/00946514.pdf |format = PDF | |accessdaymonth=[[03 April]] |accessyear=[[2007]]}}</ref> During the feeding season, Humpback Whales make altogether different vocalizations, which they use to herd fish into their bubble nets.<ref> {{cite journal |journal= Aquatic Mammals |title= Stereotypical sound patterns in humpback whale songs: Usage and function |author= Mercado E III, Herman LM & Pack AA |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=37–52 |date=2003
|url= http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~emiii/mercado_et_al_03.pdf |format = PDF |accessdaymonth=[[03 April]]|accessyear=[[2007]]}}</ref>


Gestation in the species lasts 11.5 months, and females reproduce every 2 years.{{r|Perrin}} Fetuses start out with teeth and develop their baleen during the very last months of their gestation.{{r|prenatal}} Humpback whale births have been rarely observed. One birth witnessed off Madagascar occurred within four minutes.{{r|shortnote}} Mothers typically give birth in mid-winter, usually to a single calf.{{r|Jefferson}} Young start out with furled dorsal fins which straighten and stiffen as they get older. Calves with furled fin spend more time traveling and surfacing to breathe while calves with straighter fins can hold their breaths longer and can rest and circle around at the surface more. Older calves are also away from their mothers more.{{r|calves}} Calves suckle for up to a year but can eat adult food in six months. Humpbacks are sexually mature at 5–10 years, depending on the population.{{r|Perrin}} Humpback whales possibly live over 50 years.{{r|Jefferson}}
==Population and distribution==
The Humpback Whale is found in all the major [[ocean]]s, in a wide band running from the Antarctic ice edge to 65° N [[latitude]], though is not found in the eastern [[Mediterranean]], the [[Baltic Sea]] or the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Estimating cetacean poplation levels is difficult; current estimates for Humpbacks are in the 30,000<ref name="asc"/> to 60,000<ref name=marinebio>''[http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=39 Humpback Whale]'' Marinebio.org. Retrieved on [[2007-04-26]]</ref> range, down from a pre-[[whaling]] population of 125,000.


<gallery mode = packed heights = 160px>
The Humpback is a migratory species, spending its summers in cooler, high-latitude waters, but mating and calving in tropical and sub-tropical waters.<ref name="asc">{{cite web|url=http://www.acsonline.org/factpack/humpback.htm|title=American Cetacean Society Fact Sheet| publisher = American Cetacean Society | accessdaymonth=[[17 April]]|accessyear=[[2007]]}}</ref>
Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) with calf Moorea 2.jpg|Mother with calf off [[Moorea]], [[French Polynesia]]
An exception to this rule is a population in the [[Arabian Sea]], which remains in these tropical waters year-round.<ref name="asc" /> Annual migrations of up to 25,000&nbsp;[[kilometre]]s (16,000&nbsp;[[statute mile]]s) are typical, making it one of the farthest-travelling of any mammalian species.
Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) calf Moorea 2.jpg|the same calf off [[Moorea]]
</gallery>


=== Vocalizations ===
A 2007 study identified seven individual whales wintering off the Pacific coast of [[Costa Rica]] as those which had made a trip from the Antarctic of around 8300&nbsp;km. Identified by their unique tail patterns, these animals have made the longest documented migration by a mammal.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rasmussen K, Palacios DM, Calambokidis J, Saborío MT, Dalla Rosa L, Secchi ER, Steiger GH, Allen JM, & Stone GS|date=2007|title=Southern Hemisphere humpback whales wintering off Central America: insights from water temperature into the longest mammalian migration|journal=Biology Letters|issue=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0067|id= ISSN 1744-957X|url=http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/openurl.asp?genre=article&id=doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0067 online link}}</ref>
{{further information|Whale vocalization#Song of the humpback whale}}
[[File:HumBack2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Spectrogram]] of humpback whale vocalizations: detail is shown for the first 24 seconds of the 37-second recording "Singing Humpbacks". {{Listen|filename=Humpbackwhale2.ogg|title=Singing humpbacks|description=Recording of humpback whales singing.|format=[[Ogg]]}}]]


Male humpback whales produce complex songs during the winter breeding season. These vocals range in [[frequency]] between 100 [[Hz]] and 4&nbsp;kHz, with [[harmonic]]s reaching up to 24&nbsp;kHz or more, and can travel at least {{convert|10|km|abbr=on}}. Males may sing for between 4 and 33 minutes, depending on the region. In Hawaii, humpback whales have been recorded vocalizing for as long as seven hours.{{r|Herman2017}} Songs are divided into layers; "subunits", "units", "subphrases", "phrases" and "themes". A subunit refers to the discontinuities or inflections of a sound while full units are individual sounds, similar to [[musical notes]]. A succession of units creates a subphrase, and a collection of subphrases make up a phrase. Similar-sounding phrases are repeated in a series grouped into themes, and multiple themes create a song.{{r|Cholewiak2012}}
In [[Australia]], two main migratory populations have been identified, off the west and east coast respectively. These two populations are distinct with only a few females in each [[generation]] crossing between the two groups.<ref name="aus">{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=38|title=Megaptera novaeangliae in Species Profile and Threats Database|publisher=Australian Government: Department of the Environment and Water Resources|date=2007|accessdaymonth=[[17 April]]|accessyear=[[2007]]}}</ref>


The function of these songs has been debated, but they may have multiple purposes. There is little evidence to suggest that songs establish [[Dominance hierarchy|dominance]] among males. However, there have been observations of non-singing males disrupting singers, possibly in aggression. Those who join singers are males who were not previously singing. Females do not appear to approach singers that are alone, but may be drawn to gatherings of singing males, much like a [[lek mating]] system. Another possibility is that songs bring in foreign whales to populate the breeding grounds.{{r|Herman2017}} It has also been suggested that humpback whale songs have [[Animal echolocation|echolocating]] properties and may serve to locate other whales.{{r|sonic}} A 2023 study found that as humpback whales numbers have recovered from whaling, singing has become less common.{{r|Dunlop}}
==Whaling==
{{main|Whaling}}
The first recorded Humpback kill was made in 1608 off [[Nantucket]]. Opportunistic killing of the species is likely to have occurred long before, and it continued with increasing pace in the following centuries. By the [[18th century]], the commercial value of Humpback Whales had been recognized, and they became a common target for whalers for many years.


Whale songs are similar among males in a specific area. Males may alter their songs over time, and others in contact with them copy these changes.{{r|Cholewiak2012}} They have been shown in some cases to spread "horizontally" between neighboring populations throughout successive breeding seasons.{{r|pmid21497089}} In the northern hemisphere, songs change more gradually while southern hemisphere songs go through cyclical "revolutions".{{r|Zanberg}}
By the 19th century, many nations (and the [[United States]] in particular), were hunting the animal heavily in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] &mdash; and to a lesser extent in the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s. However, it was the introduction of the [[explosive harpoon]] in the late [[19th century]] that allowed whalers to accelerate their take. This, coupled with the opening-up of the Antarctic seas in 1904, led to a sharp decline in all whale populations.


Humpback whales are reported to make other vocalizations. "Snorts" are quick low-frequency sounds commonly heard among animals in groups consisting of a mother–calf pair and one or more male escort groups. These likely function in mediating interactions within these groups. "Grumbles" are also low in frequency but last longer and are more often made by groups with one or more adult males. They appear to signal body size and may serve to establish social status. "Thwops" and "wops" are [[frequency modulation|frequency modulated]] vocals, and may serve as [[contact call]]s both within and between groups. High-pitched "cries" and "violins" and modulated "shrieks" are normally heard in groups with two or more males and are associated with competition. Humpback whales produce short, low-frequency "grunts" and short, modulated "barks" when joining new groups.{{r|nonsong}}
It is estimated that during the [[20th century]] at least 200,000 Humpbacks were taken, reducing the global population by over 90%, with the population in the North Atlantic estimated to have dropped to as low as 700 individuals.<ref name=breiwick>Breiwick JM, Mitchell E, Reeves RR (1983) Simulated population trajectories for northwest Atlantic humpback whales 1865–1980. ''Fifth biennial Conference on Biology of Marine Mammals, Boston'' Abstract. p14</ref> To prevent species [[extinction]], a general [[moratorium]] on the hunting of Humpbacks was introduced in 1966 and is still in force today. In his book ''Humpback Whales'' (1996), [[Phil Clapham]], a scientist at the [[Smithsonian Institute]], said "This wanton destruction of some of the earth's most magnificent creatures [is] one of the greatest of our many environmental crimes."


===Predation===
By the time the [[International Whaling Commission]] (IWC) members agreed on a moratorium on Humpback hunting in 1966, the whales were so scarce that commercial hunting was no longer worthwhile. At this time, 250,000 were recorded killed. However, the true toll is likely to be significantly higher. It is now known that the [[Soviet Union]] was deliberately under-recording its kills; the total Soviet Humpback kill was reported at 2,820 whereas the true number is now believed to be over 48,000.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Whales Alive!|publisher=Cetacean Society International|volume=6|number=4|title=On the Soviet Whaling Falsification, 1947–1972|author=Prof. Alexey V. Yablokov|date=1997|url=http://csiwhalesalive.org/csi97403.html}}</ref>
Visible scars indicate that [[orca]]s prey upon juvenile humpbacks.{{R|claphamj}} A 2014 study in Western Australia observed that when available in large numbers, young humpbacks can be attacked and sometimes killed by orcas. Moreover, mothers and (possibly related) adults escort calves to deter such predation. The suggestion is that when humpbacks suffered near-extinction during the whaling era, orcas turned to other prey but are now resuming their former practice.{{R|RESGA}} There is also evidence that humpback whales will defend against or [[Mobbing (animal behavior)|mob]] killer whales who are attacking either humpback calves or juveniles as well as members of other species, including [[pinniped|seal]]s. The humpback's protection of other species may be unintentional, a "spillover" of mobbing behavior intended to protect members of its species. The powerful flippers of humpback whales, often infested with large, sharp [[Coronula|barnacles]], are formidable weapons against orcas. When threatened, they will thresh their flippers and tails keeping the orcas at bay.{{R|mobbing}}


The [[great white shark]] is another confirmed predator of the humpback whale. In 2020, Marine biologists Dines and Gennari ''et al.'', published a documented incident of a pair of great white sharks within an hour apart, attacking and killing a live adult humpback whale.{{r|DinesandGennari}} A second incident regarding great white sharks killing humpback whales was documented off the coast of South Africa. The shark recorded instigating the attack was a female nicknamed "Helen". Working alone, the shark attacked a {{Convert|33|ft|m|abbr=on}} emaciated and entangled humpback whale by attacking the whale's tail to cripple and bleed the whale before she managed to drown the whale by biting onto its head and pulling it underwater.{{r|Independent|express}}
[[As of 2004]], hunting of Humpback Whales is restricted to a few animals each year off the Caribbean island [[Bequia]] in the nation of [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines]].<ref name ="Recplan91"/> The take is not believed to threaten the local population.


===2007 Japanese whaling ===
===Infestations===
[[File:Anim1032 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library (mirrored).jpg|thumb|right|''[[Coronula diadema]]'' on a humpback]]
Starting in November 2007, Japan is planning to kill 50 Humpback Whales a year in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary under its [[Whaling in Japan|JARPA-II]] research program. The announcement sparked global protests<ref name="scoop">scoop.co.nz: [http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0705/S00320.htm Leave Humpback Whales Alone Message To Japan] 16 May 2007</ref>.
Humpback whales often have [[barnacle]]s living on their skin; the most common being the [[acorn barnacle]] species ''[[Coronula diadema]]'' and ''[[Coronula reginae]]'', which in turn are sites for attachment for [[goose barnacle]] species like ''[[Conchoderma auritum]]'' and ''[[Conchoderma virgatum]]''. They are most abundant at the lower jaw tip, along the middle ventral groove, near the genital slit and between the bumps on the flippers. ''C. reginae'' digs deep into the skin, while attachments by ''C. diadema'' are more superficial. The size of the latter species provides more sites for attachment for other barnacles. Barnacles are considered to be [[epibiont]]s rather than parasites as they do not feed on the whales, though they can affect their swimming by increasing [[Drag (physics)|drag]].{{r|barnacles}}


The [[whale louse]] species ''[[Cyamus boopis]]'' is specialized for feeding on humpback whales and is the only species in its family found on them.{{r|lice}} Internal parasites of humpbacks include protozoans of the genus ''[[Entamoeba]]'', [[tapeworm]]s of the family [[Diphyllobothriidae]] and [[roundworm]]s of the infraorder [[Ascaridomorpha]].{{r|endoparasite}}
In New Zealand, protests have come from [[Maori]] and Pacific community leaders. Whales hold a significant place in the tradition and culture of many Pacific countries, according to Melino Maka, chairman of the Tongan Advisory Council. "We have a spiritual connection with our whales in our waters." he said.


==Range==
Protests occurred 20 centres around Australia as well as Tonga. Many whales known to locals and tourism operators in Australian waters were born after whaling finished, so around humans they're benign. Japan's resumption of whaling may cause the remaining animals to become nervous, agitated or belligerent around humans and vessels. It is feared this will damage tourism. The Australian government has been vocal in its opposition to whaling, but has been criticized for not taking legal action against it.<ref>http://www.news.com.au/travel/story/0,23483,21741734-5012962,00.html</ref> The Australian shadow environment minister, [[Peter Garrett]], has announced a policy whereby Australian navy ships would intercept and board whaling vessels in the lead up to the Federal election. Whale watching is worth an estimated $260 million in Australia.
[[File:Breach W Lighthouse.jpg|thumb|right|A humpback whale breaching off Alaska in the United States.]]
Humpback whales are found in marine waters [[cosmopolitan distribution|worldwide]], except for some areas at the equator and High Arctic and some enclosed seas.{{R|Jefferson}} The furthest north they have been recorded is at [[81st parallel north|81°N]] around northern [[Franz Josef Land]].{{R|Franz}} They are usually coastal and tend to congregate in waters within [[Continental shelf|continental shelves]]. Their winter breeding grounds are located around the equator; their summer feeding areas are found in colder waters, including near the polar ice caps. Humpbacks go on vast [[animal migration|migrations]] between their feeding and breeding areas, often crossing the open ocean. The species has been recorded traveling up to {{convert|8000|km|abbr=on}} in one direction.{{R|Jefferson}} An isolated, non-migratory population feeds and breeds in the northern Indian Ocean, mainly in the [[Arabian Sea]] around [[Oman]].{{r|NOAA}} This population has also been recorded in the [[Gulf of Aden]], the [[Persian Gulf]], and off the coasts of Pakistan and India.{{R|arabian}}
[[File:Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary submerged humpback whales.png|thumb|Humpback whales in the [[Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary]].]]
In the North Atlantic, there are two separate wintering populations, one in the [[West Indies]], from Cuba to northern Venezuela, and the other in the [[Cape Verde Islands]] and northwest Africa. During summer, West Indies humpbacks congregate off [[New England]], eastern Canada, and western [[Greenland]], while the Cape Verde population gathers around Iceland and Norway. There is some overlap in the summer ranges of these populations, and West Indies humpbacks have been documented feeding further east.{{r|NOAA}} Whale visits into the [[Gulf of Mexico]] have been infrequent but have occurred in the gulf historically.{{R|texas}} They were considered to be uncommon in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], but increased sightings, including re-sightings, indicate that more whales may colonize or recolonize it in the future.{{R|Panigada}}


The North Pacific has at least four breeding populations: off Mexico (including [[Baja California peninsula|Baja California]] and the [[Revillagigedos Islands]]), Central America, the [[Hawaiian Islands]], and both [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] and the [[Philippines]]. The Mexican population forages from the [[Aleutian Island]]s to California. During the summer, Central American humpbacks are found only off Oregon and California. In contrast, Hawaiian humpbacks have a wide feeding range but most travel to [[southeast Alaska]] and northern British Columbia. The wintering grounds of the Okinawa/Philippines population are mainly around the [[Russian Far East]]. There is some evidence for a fifth population somewhere in the northwestern Pacific. These whales are recorded to feed off the Aleutians with a breeding area somewhere south of the [[Bonin Islands]].{{r|NOAA}}
Anti-whaling commercials with the slogan "Tell Japan We'll Keep the Ban", narrated by [[Sir Trevor McDonald]], were launched in the [[Caribbean]] by [[Lord Ashcroft]], the deputy chairman of the Conservative Party. The Antiguan and Dominican governments have blocked the ad from being shown on their state owned channels, as has the [[MTV]]'s [[Tempo network]] across the Carabian. The ad is being broadcast in Antigua & Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts & Nevis, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent & the Grenadines.<ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/main.jhtml;jsessionid=A4S1KQFOYRZLLQFIQMGSFFWAVCBQWIV0?xml=/earth/2007/05/01/eajapan101.xml</ref>


===Southern Hemisphere===
There are only around 2,000 humpbacks in the entire South Pacific. The local populations are critically endangered in Fiji and Samoa. Whaling may also cause naturally isolated populations to mix, reducing distinct genetic groups.
[[File:Aerial view of three humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) near Cape Solander, New South Wales, Australia.webm|thumb|Aerial view of three humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) near Cape Solander, New South Wales, Australia.]]
[[File:Humpback Whales in antarctica.jpg|thumb|right|Humpback on its back in [[Antarctica]]]]
In the Southern Hemisphere, humpback whales are divided into seven breeding stocks, some of which are further divided into sub-structures. These include the southeastern Pacific (stock G), southwestern Atlantic (stock A), southeastern Atlantic (stock B), southwestern Indian Ocean (stock C), southeastern Indian Ocean (stock D), southwestern Pacific (stock E), and the Oceania stock (stocks E–F).{{r|NOAA}} Stock G breeds in tropical and subtropical waters off the west coast of Central and South America and forages along the west coast of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]], the [[South Orkney Islands]] and to a lesser extent the [[Tierra del Fuego]] of southern Chile. Stock A winters off Brazil and migrates to summer grounds around [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]. Some stock A individuals have also been recorded off the western Antarctic Peninsula, suggesting an increased blurring of the boundaries between the feeding areas of stocks A and G.{{r|southamerican}}


Stock B breeds on the west coast of Africa and is further divided into Bl and B2 subpopulations, the former ranging from the [[Gulf of Guinea]] to Angola and the latter ranging from Angola to western South Africa. Stock B whales have been recorded foraging in waters to the southwest of the continent, mainly around [[Bouvet Island]].{{r|Rosenbaum}} Comparison of songs between those at [[Cape Lopez]] and [[Abrolhos Archipelago]] indicate that trans-Atlantic mixings between stock A and stock B whales occur.{{R|sigaa}} Stock C whales winter around southeastern Africa and surrounding waters. This stock is further divided into C1, C2, C3, and C4 subpopulations; C1 occurs around [[Mozambique]] and eastern South Africa, C2 around the [[Comoro Islands]], C3 off the southern and eastern coast of Madagascar and C4 around the [[Mascarene Islands]]. The feeding range of this population is likely between coordinates [[5th meridian west|5°W]] and [[60th meridian east|60°E]] and under [[50th parallel south|50°S]].{{r|NOAA|Rosenbaum}} There may be overlap in the feeding areas of stocks B and C.{{r|Rosenbaum}}
==Conservation==
[[Image:DeadHumpback.jpg|thumb|right|A dead Humpback washed up near [[Big Sur]], [[California]].]]
Internationally this species is considered [[vulnerable species|vulnerable]]. Most monitored stocks of Humpback Whales have rebounded well since the end of the commercial whaling era.<ref name="iucn" /> However, the species is considered [[endangered species|endangered]] in some countries where local populations have recovered slowly, including the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wc.adfg.state.ak.us/index.cfm?adfg=endangered.humpbackwhale|title=Humpback Whale (''Megaptera novaeangliae'')|publisher=Division of Wildlife Conservation, Alaska Department of Fish and Game|date=2006|accessdaymonth=[[19 April]]|accessyear=[[2007]]}}</ref>


Stock D whales breed off the western coast of Australia, and forage in the southern region of the [[Kerguelen Plateau]].{{r|Bestley}} Stock E is divided into E1, E2, and E3 stocks.{{r|NOAA}} E1 whales have a breeding range off eastern Australia and [[Tasmania]]; their main feeding range is close to Antarctica, mainly within [[130th meridian east|130°E]] and [[170th meridian west|170°W]].{{r|southwestPacific}} The Oceania stock is divided into the [[New Caledonia]] (E2), [[Tonga]] (E3), [[Cook Islands]] (F1) and [[French Polynesia]] (F2) subpopulations. This stock's feeding grounds mainly range from around the [[Ross Sea]] to the Antarctic Peninsula.{{r|Oceania}}
Today, individuals are vulnerable to collisions with ships, [[By-catch|entanglement]] in fishing gear, and noise pollution.<ref name="iucn" /> Like other cetaceans, Humpbacks are sensitive to noise and can even be injured by it. In the 19th century, two Humpback Whales were found dead near sites of repeated oceanic sub-bottom blasting, with traumatic injuries and fractures in the ears.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the Acoustic Society of America|number=94|date=1849–1850|title=Blast injury in humpback whale ears}}</ref>


== Human relations ==
The ingestion of [[saxitoxin]], a [[Paralytic shellfish poisoning|PSP]] (paralytic shellfish poison) from contaminated mackerel has been implicated in Humpback Whale deaths.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dierauf L & Gulland F|date=2001|title=Marine Mammal Medicine|publisher=CRC Press|id=ISBN 0849308399}}</ref>
=== Whaling ===
{{Main|Whaling}}
{{See also|Whaling in Japan}}
[[File:The American Museum journal (c1900-(1918)) (17538123954).jpg|thumb|right|Humpback whales taken by whalers off [[Vancouver Island]], early 20th century]]
Humpback whales were hunted as early as the late 16th century.{{r|iucn}} They were often the first species to be harvested in an area due to this coastal distribution.{{r|Perrin}} North Pacific kills alone are estimated at 28,000 during the 20th century.{{R|plan}} In the same period, over 200,000 humpbacks were taken in the Southern Hemisphere.{{r|Perrin}} North Atlantic populations dropped to as low as 700 individuals.{{R|plan}} In 1946, the [[International Whaling Commission]] (IWC) was founded to oversee the industry. They imposed hunting regulations and created hunting seasons. To prevent [[extinction]], IWC banned commercial humpback whaling in 1966. By then, the global population had been reduced to around 5,000.{{R|baker}} The Soviet Union deliberately under-recorded its catches; the Soviets reported catching 2,820 between 1947 and 1972, but the true number was over 48,000.{{R|yablokov}}


As of 2004, hunting was restricted to a few animals each year off the Caribbean island of [[Bequia]] in [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]].{{R|Recplan91}} The take is not believed to threaten the local population. Japan had planned to kill 50 humpbacks in the 2007/08 season under its [[Institute for Cetacean Research|JARPA II]] research program. The announcement sparked global protests.{{R|scoop}} After a visit to Tokyo by the IWC chair asking the Japanese for their co-operation in sorting out the differences between pro- and anti-whaling nations on the commission, the Japanese whaling fleet agreed to take no humpback whales during the two years it would take to reach a formal agreement.{{R|BBC1}} In 2010, the IWC authorized Greenland's native population to hunt a few humpback whales for the following three years.{{R|Press}}
Some countries are creating action plans to protect the Humpback; for example, in the [[United Kingdom]], the Humpback Whale has been designated as a priority species under the national [[Biodiversity Action Plan]], generating a set of actions to conserve the species. The sanctuary provided by [[National Park]]s such as [[Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve]] and [[Cape Hatteras National Seashore]], among others, have also become a major factor in sustaining the populations of the species in those areas.<ref name="npc2">{{cite web|url=http://www.npca.org/marine_and_coastal/marine_wildlife/humpbackwhale.html|title=Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)|publisher=National Parks Conservation Association|accessdaymonth=[[19 April]]|accessyear=[[2007]]}}</ref>


[[File:Whale Watching in Gloucester, Massachusetts 5.jpg|thumb|Whale watching off Massachusetts]]
Although much was known about the Humpback Whale due to information obtained through whaling, the migratory patterns and social interactions of the species were not well known until two separate studies by R. Chittleborough and W. H. Dawbin in the 1960s.<ref>Chittleborough RG. (1965) Dynamics of two populations of the humpback whale. ''Australian Journal of Maritime and Freshwater Resources'' '''16''': 33&ndash;128.</ref> [[Roger Payne]] and [[Scott McVay]] made further studies of the species in 1971.<ref>Payne RS, McVay S. (1971) Songs of humpback whales. ''Science'' '''173''':585–597.</ref>
Their analysis of whale song led to worldwide media interest in the species, and left an impression in the public mind that whales were a highly [[cetacean intelligence|intelligent cetacean]] species, a contributing factor to the anti-whaling stance of many countries.


==Whale-watching==
=== Whale-watching ===
{{seealso|Whale-watching}}
{{Main|Whale watching}}
{{see also|Whale watching in Australia}}
[[Image:Humpback Whale fg1.jpg|thumb|left|260px|Humpback near [[Hervey Bay, Queensland]]]]
Much of the growth of commercial [[whale watching]] was built on the humpback whale. The species' highly active surface behaviors and tendency to become accustomed to boats have made them easy to observe, particularly for photographers. In 1975, humpback whale tours were established in New England and Hawaii.{{r|whalewatch}} This business brings in a revenue of $20&nbsp;million per year for Hawaii's economy.{{R|hawaii}} While Hawaiian tours have tended to be commercial, New England and California whale watching tours have introduced educational components.{{r|whalewatch}}
Humpback Whales are generally curious about objects in their environment. They will often approach and circle boats. Whilst this inquisitiveness was akin to suicide when the vessel was a whaling ship, it has become an attraction of [[whale-watching]] tourism in many locations around the world since the 1990s.


== Conservation status ==
Whale-watching locations include the Atlantic coast off the [[Samana]] province of the [[Dominican Republic]], the Pacific coast off [[Oregon]], [[Washington]], [[Vancouver]], [[Hawaii]] and [[Alaska]], the [[Bay of Biscay]] to the west of France, [[Byron Bay]] north of [[Sydney]], [[Hervey Bay]] north of [[Brisbane]], the coasts of [[New England]] and [[Newfoundland]], [[New Zealand]], the [[Tonga]]n islands, the northern [[St. Lawrence River]] and the Snaefellsnes peninsula in the west of [[Iceland]]. The species is popular because it breaches regularly and spectacularly, and displays a range of other social behaviours.
[[File:DeadHumpback.jpg|thumb|right|A dead humpback washed up near [[Big Sur]], [[California]]|alt=Photo of beached whale with observers in background]]
As of 2018, the [[IUCN Red List]] lists the humpback whale as [[Least-concern species|least-concern]], with a worldwide population of around 135,000 whales, of which around 84,000 are mature individuals, and an increasing population trend.{{R|iucn}}{{r|Marinepolicy}} Regional estimates are around 13,000 in the North Atlantic, 21,000 in the North Pacific, and 80,000 in the southern hemisphere. For the isolated population in the Arabian Sea, only around 80 individuals remain,{{r|Perrin2015}} and this population is considered to be [[endangered]]. In most areas, humpback whale populations have recovered from historic whaling, particularly in the North Pacific.{{r|Jefferson}} Such recoveries have led to the downlisting of the species' threatened status in the United States, Canada, and Australia.{{r|Marinepolicy|abc}} In Costa Rica, [[Ballena Marine National Park]] was established for humpback protection.{{r|UTP}}


Humpbacks still face various other man-made threats, including entanglement by fishing gear, vessel collisions, human-caused noise and traffic disturbance, coastal habitat destruction, and climate change.{{r|Jefferson}} Like other cetaceans, humpbacks can be injured by excessive noise. In the 19th century, two humpback whales were found dead near repeated oceanic sub-bottom blasting sites, with traumatic injuries and fractures in the ears.{{R|ketten}} [[Saxitoxin]], a [[paralytic shellfish poisoning]] from contaminated mackerel, has been implicated in humpback whale deaths.{{R|DieraufGulland2001}} While oil ingestion is a risk for whales, a 2019 study found that oil did not foul baleen and instead was easily rinsed by flowing water.{{r|royal}}
As with other cetacean species, however, a mother whale will generally be extremely protective of her infant, and will seek to place herself between any boat and the calf before moving quickly away from the vessel. Whale-watching tour operators are asked to avoid stressing the mother.


Whale researchers along the Atlantic Coast report that there have been more stranded whales with signs of vessel strikes and fishing gear entanglement in recent years than ever before. The [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] recorded 88 stranded humpback whales between January 2016 and February 2019. This is more than double the number of whales stranded between 2013 and 2016. Because of the increase in stranded whales, NOAA declared an unusual mortality event in April 2017. [[Virginia Aquarium|Virginia Beach Aquarium]]'s stranding response coordinator, Alexander Costidis, stated the conclusion that the two causes of these unusual mortality events were vessel interactions and entanglements.{{r|natgeo}}
==Famous Humpbacks==
===Migaloo===
An [[albino]] Humpback Whale that travels up and down the east coast of Australia has become famous in the local media, on account of its extremely rare all-white appearance. The whale, born in 1990, is called Migaloo (a word for "white fellow" from one of the languages of the [[Indigenous Australians]]). Speculation about the whale's gender was resolved in June 2004, when it found a mate for the first time, and was proven to be a male. Because of the intense interest, environmentalists feared that the whale was becoming distressed by the number of boats following it each day. In response, the Queensland government ordered the maintenance of a 500&nbsp;m (1,600&nbsp;ft) exclusion zone around the whale. Recent close up pictures have shown Migaloo to have skin cancer and/or skin cysts as a result of his lack of protection from the sun.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.migaloowhale.org/space.html|title=Migaloo, the White Humpback Whale|publisher=Pacific Whale Foundation|date=2004|accessdaymonth=[[03 April]]|accessyear=2007}}</ref>


== Notable individuals ==
===Humphrey===
{{main|Humphrey the whale}}
One of the most notable Humpback Whales is [[Humphrey the whale]], who was rescued twice in [[California]] by [[The Marine Mammal Center]] and other concerned groups.<ref>Tokuda W (1992) ''Humphrey the lost whale'', Heian Intl Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89346-346-9</ref><ref>Callenbach E & Leefeldt C ''Humphrey the Wayward Whale'', ISBN 0-930588-23-1</ref> The first rescue was in 1985, when he swam into [[San Francisco Bay]] and then up the Sacramento River towards [[Rio Vista, California|Rio Vista]].<ref>Jane Kay, ''San Francisco Examiner'' Monday, Oct. 9, 1995</ref> Five years later, Humphrey returned and became stuck on a [[bay mud|mudflat]] in [[San Francisco Bay]] immediately north of [[Sierra Point, Brisbane, California|Sierra Point]] below the view of onlookers from the upper floors of the [[Dakin Building]]. He was pulled off the mudflat with a large cargo net and the help of a Coast Guard boat. Both times he was successfully guided back to the Pacific Ocean using a "sound net" in which people in a flotilla of boats made unpleasant noises behind the whale by banging on steel pipes, a Japanese fishing technique known as "oikami." At the same time, the attractive sounds of Humpback Whales preparing to feed were broadcast from a boat headed towards the open ocean.<ref>Toni Knapp, ''The Six Bridges of Humphrey the Whale''. Illustrated by Craig Brown. Roberts Rinehart, 1993 (1989)</ref> Since leaving the San Francisco Bay in 1990 Humphrey has been seen only once, at the [[Farallon Islands]] in 1991.


===Delta and Dawn===
=== Tay whale ===
{{main|Tay Whale}}
On May 9th 2007, two whales, a mother and a calf, entered the San Fransisco Bay and left their salt water habitat and headed north up the Sacramento River. Soon they took a turn into the Sacramento deep water channel and ended up in the deep water port in Sacramento, California. There they stayed for approx a week and drew crowds in the hundreds to thousands. They were named Delta and Dawn. On May 20 2007 Delta and Dawn heard some tugboats in the deep water ports start up and suddenly and suprisingly began heading back south down the deep water channel. Biologists, Coast Guard, Fish and Game and other experts began following the whales discouraging them from turning back up north, the channel was cleared and everyone waited to see if the whales would make it.
[[File:Struthers Tay Whale Dissection by George Washington Wilson.jpg|thumb|Professor [[John Struthers (anatomist)|John Struthers]] about to dissect the [[Tay Whale]], [[Dundee]], photographed by [[George Washington Wilson]] in 1884]]


In December 1883, a male humpback swam up the [[Firth of Tay]] in Scotland, past what was then the whaling port of [[Dundee]]. Harpooned during a failed hunt, it was found dead off [[Stonehaven]] a week later. Its carcass was exhibited to the public by a local entrepreneur, John Woods, both locally and then as a touring exhibition that traveled to [[Edinburgh]] and [[London]]. The whale was dissected by Professor [[John Struthers (anatomist)|John Struthers]], who wrote seven papers on its anatomy and an 1889 monograph on the humpback.{{R|Whale|williams|pennington|memoir}}
==In popular culture==
In ''[[Moby-Dick]]'', a novel where the chief whale [[protagonist]] is a [[Sperm Whale]], [[Herman Melville]] describes the Humpback Whale as ''"the most gamesome and light-hearted of all the whales, making more gay foam and white water than any other of them"''.


=== Migaloo ===
Humpback Whales were a plot element in the film ''[[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]''. In the film, an alien probe arrives at 23rd century Earth and attempts to contact the by then extinct whales. The crew of the ''[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)|Enterprise]]'' travel back in time to obtain a breeding pair of Humpbacks to communicate with the probe and forestall the Earth's destruction. In Disney's [[Fantasia 2000]], a segment featuring a pod of frolicking Humpback Whales in the air and within icebergs is set to [[Ottorino Respighi]]'s ''[[Pines of Rome]]'', and in Disney/Pixar's ''[[Finding Nemo]]'', a Humpback Whale guides Marlin and Dory to [[Sydney, Australia]].
{{main article|Migaloo}}
[[File:Albino Humpback Whale? (20566466506).jpg|thumb|Possible sighting of Migaloo off the [[Royal National Park]]]]


An [[albino]] humpback whale that travels up and down the east coast of Australia became famous in local media because of its rare, all-white appearance. Migaloo is the only known Australian all-white specimen,{{R|migaloo}} and is a true albino.{{R|jhered}} First sighted in 1991, the whale was named for an [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous Australian]] word for "white fella". To prevent sightseers from approaching dangerously close, the Queensland government decreed a 500-m (1600-ft) exclusion zone around him.{{r|sharethewater}}
[[Judy Collins]]' [[1970]] album ''[[Whales and Nightingales]]'' featured a recording of the traditional song "Farewell To Tarwathie", on which Collins sang to the accompaniment of a recording of a Humpback Whale.


Migaloo was last seen in June 2020 along the coast of Port Macquarie NSW in Australia.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-20/sighting-migaloo-this-humpback-migration-season/102326456 | title=What are the chances of seeing the world-famous white whale Migaloo this winter? | newspaper=ABC News | date=19 May 2023 }}</ref> Migaloo has several physical characteristics that can be identified; his dorsal fin is somewhat hooked, and his tail flukes have a unique shape, with edges that are spiked along the lower trailing side.{{r|SUP}} In July 2022, concerns arose that Migaloo had died after a white whale washed up on the shores of [[Mallacoota]] beach, however after genetic testing, and noting that the carcass was of a female whale while Migaloo is male, it was confirmed by experts to not be Migaloo.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-16/white-whale-washes-up-on-mallacoota-beach/101245020|title=White whale washes up on Mallacoota beach|date=16 July 2022|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|first1= Kerrin|last1=Thomas|first2=Mim|last2=Hook|accessdate=16 July 2022|work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jul/17/scientists-to-determine-if-white-whale-carcass-on-victorian-beach-is-well-known-migaloo | title=Experts confirm white whale carcass on Victorian beach is not Migaloo |work=[[Australian Associated Press]]|publisher=[[TheGuardian.com|The Guardian]] | date=17 July 2022|accessdate=17 July 2022}}</ref>
==Media==
{{seealso|List of whale songs}}
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Humpback_whale_moo.ogg|title=Common humpback whale vocalizations on a windy day|description=Recorded by the National Park Service, using a hydrophone that is anchored near the mouth of Glacier Bay, Alaska for the purpose of monitoring ambient noise.|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Humpback whale wheezeblow.ogg|title=A Humpback Whale song,|description=Recorded by the National Park Service, using a hydrophone that is anchored near the mouth of Glacier Bay, Alaska for the purpose of monitoring ambient noise.|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Akhumphi1x.ogg|title=Humpback Whale Song|description=Made by the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=En-humpback whale.ogg|title=Humpback Whale Song|description=A verbal recording of the article Humpback Whale|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}


==Footnotes==
=== Humphrey ===
{{Main|Humphrey the Whale}}
{{reflist|2}}


In 1985, Humphrey swam into [[San Francisco Bay]] and then up the [[Sacramento River]] towards [[Rio Vista, California|Rio Vista]].{{R|kay}} Five years later, Humphrey returned and became stuck on a [[bay mud|mudflat]] in San Francisco Bay immediately north of [[Sierra Point, Brisbane, California|Sierra Point]] below the view of onlookers from the upper floors of the [[Dakin Building]]. He was twice rescued by [[the Marine Mammal Center]] and other concerned groups in California.{{R|tokuda}} He was pulled off the mudflat with a large [[cargo net]] and the help of the [[US Coast Guard]]. Both times, he was successfully guided back to the Pacific Ocean using a "sound net" in which people in a [[flotilla]] of boats made unpleasant noises behind the whale by banging on steel pipes, a Japanese fishing technique known as ''oikami''. At the same time, the attractive sounds of humpback whales preparing to feed were broadcast from a boat headed towards the open ocean.{{R|Knapp1993}}
==References==
===Books===
<div class="references-small">
*Clapham, Phil. (1996). ''Humpback Whales''. ISBN 0-948661-87-9
*Clapham, Phil. ''Humpback Whale''. pp 589&ndash;592 in the ''Encyclopeadia of Marine Mammals''. ISBN 0-12-551340-2
*Reeves, Stewart, Clapham and Powell. Date? ''National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World''. ISBN 0-375-41141-0
*Dawbin, W. H. ''The seasonal migratory cycle of humpback whales''. In K.S. Norris (ed), ''Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises''. University of California Press.
</div>


===Journal articles===
== See also ==
{{Portal|Cetaceans|Mammals|Marine life}}
<div class="references-small">
* [[List of cetaceans]]
*Best, P. B. (1993) Increase rates in severely depleted stocks of baleen whales. ''ICES Journal of Marine Science'' '''50''':169–186.
* [[Wilhelmina Bay]]
*Smith, T.D.; J. Allen, P.J. Clapham, P.S. Hammond, S. Katona, F. Larsen, J. Lien, D. Mattila, P.J. Palsboll, J. Sigurjonsson, P.T. Stevick & N. Oien. (1999) An ocean-basin-wide mark-recapture study of the North Atlantic humpback whale. ''Marine Mammal Science'' '''15''': 1&ndash;32.
* [[List of animals with humps]]
</div>


{{Clear}}
==External links==

{{cetaceaportal}}
== References ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-humpback_whale.ogg|2005-09-18}}
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
{{Commons|Megaptera novaeangliae}}
<ref name=fossil>{{Cite web |url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=36760 |title=Fossilworks: Megaptera |website=[[Fossilworks]] |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=26 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726103550/http://www.fossilworks.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=taxonInfo&taxon_no=36760 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Cetacea|id=14300027}}</ref>

<ref name=iucn>{{Cite iucn | author = Cooke, J.G. | title = ''Megaptera novaeangliae'' | year = 2018 | page = e.T13006A50362794 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T13006A50362794.en | access-date = 18 January 2020}}</ref>

<ref name=CITES>{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref>

<ref name=Arnason_etal_2018>{{cite journal | author1=Árnason, U. | author2=Lammers, F. | author3=Kumar, V. | author4=Nilsson, M. A. | author5=Janke, A. | title=Whole-genome sequencing of the blue whale and other rorquals finds signatures for introgressive gene flow | journal=[[Science Advances]] | volume=4 | issue = 4 | pages=eaap9873 | date=2018| bibcode=2018SciA....4.9873A | doi=10.1126/sciadv.aap9873 | pmid=29632892 | pmc=5884691 }}</ref>

<ref name=Reeves>{{cite book | last1=Reeves | first1=R. R. | last2=Stewart | first2=P. J. | last3=Clapham | first3=J. | last4=Powell | first4=J. A. | title=Whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the eastern North Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters: A guide to their identification | location=New York | publisher=[[Knopf]] | pages=234–237 | date=2002}}</ref>

<ref name=Hatch>{{cite journal | author1=Hatch, L. T. | author2=Dopman, E. B. | author3=Harrison, R. G. | title=Phylogenetic relationships among the baleen whales based on maternally and paternally inherited characters | journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] | volume=41 | issue=1 | pages=12–27 | date=2006| doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.05.023 | pmid=16843014 | bibcode=2006MolPE..41...12H }}</ref>

<ref name=WJ>{{cite book|first=Stephen |last=Martin|title=The Whales' Journey|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=M0jN8JM0pIYC|page=251}}|year=2001|page=251|publisher=Allen & Unwin|isbn=978-1-86508-232-5}}</ref>

<ref name=LiddellScott2015>{{cite book|first1=Henry George |last1=Liddell|first2=Robert |last2=Scott|title=Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=7_sKrgEACAAJ}}|date=2 February 2015|publisher=Martino Fine Books|isbn=978-1-61427-770-5}}</ref>

<ref name=subspecies>{{cite journal|author1=Jackson, Jennifer A.|author2=Steel, Debbie J.|author3=Beerli, P.|author4=Congdon, Bradley C.|author5=Olavarría, Carlos|author6=Leslie, Matthew S.|author7=Pomilla, Cristina|author8=Rosenbaum, Howard|author9=Baker, C Scott|year=2014|title=Global diversity and oceanic divergence of humpback whales (''Megaptera novaeangliae'')|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences|volume=281|issue=1786|doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.3222|pmid=24850919 |pmc=4046397 }}</ref>

<ref name=Pomilla>{{cite journal|author1=Pomilla, Cristina|author2=Amaral, Ana R.|author3=Collins, Tim|author4=Minton, Gianna|author5=Findlay, Ken|author6=Leslie, Matthew S.|author7=Ponnampalam, Louisa|author8=Baldwin, Robert|author9=Rosenbaum, Howard|year=2014|title=The World's Most Isolated and Distinct Whale Population? Humpback Whales of the Arabian Sea|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9|issue=12|page=e114162|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0114162|pmid=25470144 |pmc=4254934 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9k4162P |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=Perrin>{{cite book|editor-first1=William F.|editor-last1=Perrin|editor-first2=Bernd |editor-last2= Wursig|editor-first3=J.G.M. 'Hans' |editor-last3=Thewissen|title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=2rkHQpToi9sC}}|date=26 February 2009|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-091993-5|last=Clapham |first=Phillip J. |contribution=Humpback Whale ''Megaptera novaeangliae'' |pages=582–84}}</ref>

<ref name=Jefferson>{{cite book|last1=Jefferson|first1=Thomas A.|last2=Webber|first2=Marc A.|last3=Pitman|first3=Robert L.|year=2015|title=Marine Mammals of the World: A Comprehensive Guide to Their Identification|publisher=Academic Press|edition=2nd|pages=79–83|isbn=978-0-12-409542-7}}</ref>

<ref name=plan>{{Cite book |title=Final Recovery Plan for the Humpback Whale (''Megaptera Novaeangliae'') |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |year=1991 |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/whale_humpback.pdf |access-date=2011-06-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613025919/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/whale_humpback.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-13}}</ref>

<ref name=Glockner>{{cite conference |title=Determining the sex of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in their natural environment |first=Deborah A. |last=Glockner |year=1983 |conference=AAAS Sel. Symp. No. 76 |editor=[[Roger Payne|Payne, Roger Searle]] |book-title=Behavior and communication of whales |publisher=Avalon Publishing |pages=447–464 |isbn=9780865317222 }}</ref>

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<ref name=Bestley>{{cite journal|author1=Bestley, Sophie|author2=Andrews-Goff, Virginia|author3=van Wijk, Esmee|author4=Rintoul, Stephen R.|author5=Double, Michael C.|author6=How, Jason|year=2019|title=New insights into prime Southern Ocean forage grounds for thriving Western Australian humpback whales|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=9|issue=1|page=13988|doi=10.1038/s41598-019-50497-2|pmid=31562374 |pmc=6764985 |bibcode=2019NatSR...913988B |s2cid=203437910 }}</ref>

<ref name=southwestPacific>{{cite journal|author1=Andrews-Goff, V.|author2=Bestley, S.|author3=Gales, N. J.|author4=Laverick, S. M.|author5=Paton, D.|author6=Polanowski, A. M.|author7=Schmitt, N. T.|author8=Double, M. C.|year=2018|title=Humpback whale migrations to Antarctic summer foraging grounds through the southwest Pacific Ocean|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|issue=1|page=12333|doi=10.1038/s41598-018-30748-4|pmid=30120303 |pmc=6098068 |bibcode=2018NatSR...812333A }}</ref>

<ref name=Oceania>{{cite journal|author1=Steel, D.|author2=Anderson, M.|author3=Garrigue, C.|author4=Olavarría, C.|author5=Caballero, S.|author6=Childerhouse, S.|author7=Clapham, P.|author8=Constantine, R.|author9=Dawson, S.|author10=Donoghue, M.|author11=Flórez-González, L.|author12=Gibbs, N.|author13=Hauser, N.|author14=Oremus, M.|author15=Paton, D.|author16=Poole, M. M.|author17=Robbins, J.|author18=Slooten, L.|author19=Thiele, D.|author20=Ward, J.|author21=Baker, C. S.|year=2018|title=Migratory interchange of humpback whales (''Megaptera novaeangliae'') among breeding grounds of Oceania and connections to Antarctic feeding areas based on genotype matching|journal=Polar Biology|volume=41|issue=4|pages=653–662|doi=10.1007/s00300-017-2226-9|bibcode=2018PoBio..41..653S |s2cid=4301608 }}</ref>

<ref name=Recplan91>{{cite book |year=1991 |title=Recovery Plan for the Humpback Whale ''(Megaptera novaeangliae)'' |author=Humpback Whale Recovery Team |publisher=National Marine Fisheries Service |location=Silver Spring, Maryland |page=105}}</ref>

<ref name=Lobtail>{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Jenny |last2=Weinrich |first2=Mason |last3=Hoppitt |first3=Will |last4=Rendell |first4=Luke |title=Network-Based Diffusion Analysis Reveals Cultural Transmission of Lobtail Feeding in Humpback Whales |journal=Science |date=26 April 2013 |volume=340 |issue=6131 |pages=485–8|doi=10.1126/science.1231976 |pmid=23620054|bibcode=2013Sci...340..485A |s2cid=206546227 }}</ref>

<ref name=whaleculture>{{cite news|last=Lee|first=Jane J.|title=Do Whales Have Culture? Humpbacks Pass on Behavior|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130425-humpback-whale-culture-behavior-science-animals/|access-date=30 April 2013|newspaper=National Geographic|date=April 25, 2013|archive-date=1 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501033924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/13/130425-humpback-whale-culture-behavior-science-animals/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=claphamj>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2907.1996.tb00145.x|journal=Mammal New Studies|author=Clapham, P.J.|volume=26|year=1996|title=The social and reproductive biology of humpback whales: an ecological perspective|issue=1|pages=27–49|url=https://pdf.zlibcdn.com/dtoken/1066ee9cf5d7c6a5fc81e25d5e2cfcf9/j.1365-2907.1996.tb00145.x.pdf|access-date=2022-03-07|archive-date=2022-05-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503220909/https://pdf.zlibcdn.com/dtoken/1066ee9cf5d7c6a5fc81e25d5e2cfcf9/j.1365-2907.1996.tb00145.x.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=Iwata>{{cite journal|last1=Iwata|first1=Takashi|last2=Biuw|first2=Martin|last3=Aoki|first3=Kagari|last4=O’Malley Miller|first4=Patrick James|last5=Sato|first5=Katsufumi|year=2021|title=Using an omnidirectional video logger to observe the underwater life of marine animals: Humpback whale resting behaviour|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=186|page=104369|doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104369|pmid=33640487|s2cid=232051037|doi-access=free|hdl=10023/21642|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

<!-- <ref name=Dolphin>{{cite journal|author=Dolphin, William Ford|year=1987|title=Ventilation and dive patterns of humpback whales, ''Megaptera novaeangliae'', on their Alaskan feeding grounds|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=65|issue=1|pages=83–90|doi=10.1139/z87-013}}</ref> -->

<ref name=baker>{{cite journal|last1= Baker|first1= CS|last2= Perry|first2= A|last3= Bannister|first3= JL|last4= Weinrich|first4= MT|last5= Abernethy|first5= RB|last6= Calambokidis|first6= J|last7= Lien|first7= J|last8= Lambertsen|first8= RH|last9= Ramírez|first9= JU|date=September 1993|title= Abundant mitochondrial DNA variation and world-wide population structure in humpback whales|journal= [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]|volume= 90|issue= 17|pages= 8239–8243|quote= Before protection by international agreement in 1966, the world-wide population of humpback whales had been reduced by hunting to <5000, with some regional subpopulations reduced to <200...|doi= 10.1073/pnas.90.17.8239|pmid=8367488|pmc= 47324|bibcode= 1993PNAS...90.8239B|doi-access= free}}</ref>

<ref name=yablokov>{{cite journal |journal=Whales Alive! |publisher=Cetacean Society International |volume=6 |issue=4 |title=On the Soviet Whaling Falsification, 1947–1972 |author=Alexey V. Yablokov |year=1997 |url=http://csiwhalesalive.org/csi97403.html |access-date=2007-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720200901/http://csiwhalesalive.org/csi97403.html |archive-date=2011-07-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=scoop>{{cite web|website=scoop.co.nz |url=https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0705/S00320.htm |title=Leave Humpback Whales Alone Message To Japan |last=Jamnadas |first=Bharat |publisher=Scoop Media |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709052336/http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0705/S00320.htm |archive-date=9 July 2007 |url-status=live |date=16 May 2007}}</ref>

<ref name=BBC1>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7156288.stm |title=Japan changes track on whaling<!-- Bot generated title --> |work=[[BBC News]] |date=2007-12-21 |access-date=2010-01-05 |first=Chris |last=Hogg |archive-date=2007-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226033323/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7156288.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Press>{{cite news|agency=The Associated Press|title=Greenland: Humpback Whales Are Deemed Eligible For Hunting|work=The New York Times|page=7|date=26 June 2010|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/26/science/earth/26briefs-WHALES.html|access-date=24 February 2017|archive-date=30 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630111225/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/26/science/earth/26briefs-WHALES.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Perrin2015>{{cite book|editor-first1=William F.|editor-last1=Perrin|editor-first2=Bernd |editor-last2= Wursig|editor-first3=J.G.M. 'Hans' |editor-last3=Thewissen|title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals|publisher=Academic Press|isbn= 978-0-12-804327-1|year=2015|last=Clapham |first=Phillip J. |contribution=Humpback Whale ''Megaptera novaeangliae'' |pages=589–92}}</ref>

<ref name=whalewatch>{{cite book|editor-first1=William F.|editor-last1=Perrin|editor-first2=Bernd |editor-last2= Wursig|editor-first3=J.G.M. 'Hans' |editor-last3=Thewissen|title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=2rkHQpToi9sC}}|date=26 February 2009|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-091993-5|last=Hoyt |first=Erich |contribution=Whale Watching |pages=1224}}</ref>

<ref name=hawaii>{{cite web|title=Whale Watching in Hawai'i|publisher=Office of National Marine Sanctuaries|access-date=6 August 2012|url=http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/explore/whale_watching.html|archive-date=28 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121128040917/http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/explore/whale_watching.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Whale>{{cite web |url=http://www.abdn.ac.uk/zoohons/struthers/tay_whale.hti |title=Professor Struthers and the Tay Whale |access-date=2008-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051111213426/http://www.abdn.ac.uk/zoohons/struthers/tay_whale.hti |archive-date=2005-11-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=ketten>{{cite journal|journal=[[Journal of the Acoustical Society of America]]|volume=94|issue=3|pages=1849–50|title=Blast injury in humpback whale ears: Evidence and implications|author1=Ketten, D. R. |author2=Lien, J. |author3=Todd, J. |year=1993|doi=10.1121/1.407688|bibcode=1993ASAJ...94.1849K|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=Marinepolicy>{{cite journal|author1=Bejder, Michelle|author2=Johnston, David W.|author3=Smith, Joshua|author4=Friedlaender, Ari|author5=Bejder, Lars|year=2016|title=Embracing conservation success of recovering humpback whale populations: Evaluating the case for downlisting their conservation status in Australia|journal=Marine Policy|volume=66|pages=137–141|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2015.05.007|bibcode=2016MarPo..66..137B |url=https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/27970/ }}</ref>

<ref name=abc>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-26/humpback-whales-no-longer-listed-as-endangered/100862644|title=Humpback whales no longer listed as endangered after major recovery|author=Long, Claudia|website=ABC News|accessdate=March 25, 2022|date=February 25, 2022}}</ref>

<ref name=UTP>{{cite book|author=Henderson, Carrol L.|year=2010|title=Mammals, Amphibians, and Reptiles of Costa Rica|publisher=University of Texas Press|page=85|isbn=9780292784642}}</ref>

<ref name=DieraufGulland2001>{{cite book|first1=Leslie |last1=Dierauf|first2=Frances M.D. |last2=Gulland|title=CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine: Health, Disease and Rehabilitation|edition=Second|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=FIIgDk9i_GkC}}|date=27 June 2001|publisher=CRC Press|page=494|isbn=978-1-4200-4163-7}}</ref>

<ref name=royal>{{cite journal|last1=Werth|first1=A. J.|last2=Blakeney|first2=S. M.|last3=Cothren|first3=A. I.|year=2019|title=Oil adsorption does not structurally or functionally alter whale baleen|journal=Royal Society Open Science|volume=6|issue=5|page=182194|doi=10.1098/rsos.182194|pmid=31218043|pmc=6549998|bibcode=2019RSOS....682194W|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=natgeo>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/humpback-whales-unusual-mortality-event|title=Whales are dying along East Coast—and scientists are racing to understand why|date=2019-03-13|website=Animals|access-date=2019-03-18|archive-date=2019-03-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323044836/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/03/humpback-whales-unusual-mortality-event/|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=williams>{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=M. J. |title=Professor Struthers and the Tay whale |journal=[[Scottish Medical Journal]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=92–94 |year=1996 |pmid=8807706 |doi=10.1177/003693309604100308}}</ref>

<ref name=pennington>Pennington, C. ''The modernisation of medical teaching at Aberdeen in the nineteenth century''. Aberdeen University Press, 1994.</ref>

<ref name=memoir>{{cite book|first=Sir John |last=Struthers|title=Memoir on the Anatomy of the Humpback Whale, Megaptera Longimana|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=PN4TAAAAYAAJ}}|year=1889|publisher=Maclachlan and Stewart}}</ref>

<ref name=jhered>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1093/jhered/esr108 | pmid=22140253 | volume=103 | issue=1 | title=Variation in the Tyrosinase Gene Associated with a White Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) | journal=Journal of Heredity | pages=130–133| year=2011 | last1=Polanowski | first1=A. M. | last2=Robinson-Laverick | first2=S. M. | last3=Paton | first3=D. | last4=Jarman | first4=S. N. | doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name=migaloo>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/8126237.stm |title=Exclusion zone for special whale |date=2009-06-30 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=2009-06-30}}</ref>

<ref name=sharethewater>{{Cite web|url=https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0025/88900/marine-mammal-proximity-brochure.pdf|title=Share the Water|website=Department of Environment and Science|publisher=[[Queensland Government]]|access-date=20 February 2020|archive-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224030735/https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0025/88900/marine-mammal-proximity-brochure.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=SUP>{{Cite web|title=Migaloo spotted in Hawaii!|url=https://hawaiianpaddlesports.com/news/migaloo-spotted-hawaii/|access-date=2021-10-21|website=SUP, Canoe, Kayak Tours & Maui Surf Lessons|language=en-US}}</ref>

<ref name=kay>Jane Kay, ''San Francisco Examiner'' Monday, 9 October 1995</ref>

<ref name=tokuda>{{cite book|first1=Wendy |last1=Tokuda |author1-link=Wendy Tokuda |first2=Richard |last2=Hall |title=Humphrey the Lost Whale: A True Story |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=PyP8oAEACAAJ}}|date=14 October 2014|publisher=Stone Bridge Press|isbn=978-1-61172-017-4}}</ref>

<ref name=Knapp1993>{{cite book|first=Toni |last=Knapp|title=The Six Bridges of Humphrey the Whale|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=qzFAAAAACAAJ}}|date=1 October 1993|publisher=Roberts Rinehart Publishers|isbn=978-1-879373-64-8}}</ref>

<ref name=Stack>{{cite journal|title=An observation of sexual behavior between two male humpback whales|author1=Stephanie H. Stack|author2=Lyle Krannichfeld|author3=Brandi Romano|journal=Marine Mammal Science|year=2024|doi=10.1111/mms.13119|doi-access=free|hdl=10072/430033|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
}}

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-humpback whale.ogg|date=2005-09-18}}
{{Commons category|Megaptera novaeangliae}}
{{Wikispecies|Megaptera novaeangliae}}
{{Wikispecies|Megaptera novaeangliae}}
;General
*ARKive - [http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Megaptera_novaeangliae/ images and movies of the humpback whale ''(Megaptera novaeangliae)''].
*[http://www.mayumbanationalpark.com/cetaceans.htm Photos and information about humpback whales and other cetaceans in Mayumba National Park]
*[http://www.oceania.org.au/whales/whales.html Humpbacks of Hervey Bay, Queensland, Australia]
*[http://www.dolphin-institute.org/resource_guide/gettingtoknowhumpbackwhales.htm The Dolphin Institute Whale Resource Guide] and [http://www.dolphin-institute.org/our_research/whale_research/whaleresearchpublications.htm scientific publications]
*[http://www.ecoresearch.net/modules.php?set_albumName=Marine-Life&op=modload&file=index&name=gallery&include=view_album.php&page=1 Humpback Whale Gallery (Silverbanks)]
*{{fr icon}}[http://www.cetace.info/videos/Baleine_a_bosse/videos_baleine_a_bosse.php Humpback Whale videos]


; General
;Humpback Whale songs
* [http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/humpbackwhale.htm US National Marine Fisheries Service Humpback Whale web page]
*[http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~emiii/mercado_et_al_03.pdf A detailed analysis of the form and function of the humpback whale song], from the [[University at Buffalo, The State University of New York|University at Buffalo]]
* ARKive – [https://web.archive.org/web/20060426134105/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Megaptera_novaeangliae/ images and movies of the humpback whale ''(Megaptera novaeangliae)''].
*[http://whalesong.net The Whalesong Project]
*[http://www.physorg.com/news11980.html Article from PHYSORG.com on the complex syntax of whalesong phrases]
* [http://www.oceania.org.au/whales/whales.html Humpbacks of Hervey Bay, Queensland, Australia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060227185525/http://www.dolphin-institute.org/resource_guide/gettingtoknowhumpbackwhales.htm The Dolphin Institute Whale Resource Guide] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20060228132749/http://www.dolphin-institute.org/our_research/whale_research/whaleresearchpublications.htm scientific publications]
* [http://www.ecoresearch.net/index.php?q=gallery&g2_itemId=227 Humpback Whale Gallery (Silverbanks)]
* {{in lang|fr}} [http://www.cetace.info/videos/Baleine_a_bosse/videos_baleine_a_bosse.php Humpback whale videos]
* [http://www.oceania.org.au/iwhales/portal/home.php The Humpback Whales of Hervey Bay]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8318000/8318182.stm Epic humpback whale battle filmed]

; Humpback whale songs
* [http://whalesong.net/ The Whalesong Project]
* [http://www.physorg.com/news11980.html Article from PHYSORG.com on the complex syntax of whalesong phrases]
* [http://cetus.ucsd.edu/voicesinthesea_org/species/baleenWhales/humpback.html Voices of the Sea – Sounds of the Humpback Whale] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140822220905/http://cetus.ucsd.edu/voicesinthesea_org/species/baleenWhales/humpback.html |date=2014-08-22 }}
* [http://www.songlinesofthewhales.org/ Songlines – Songs of the Eastern Australian Humpback whales]

; Conservation
* [http://www.oceania.org.au/expedition/research.html The Oceania Project, Humpback Whale Research, Hervey Bay]


; Videos
;Conservation
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-lw8_SAtX8o&feature=emb_title Humpback whales' attempt to stop killer whale attack] – ''[[Planet Earth Live (TV series)|Planet Earth Live]]'' – [[BBC One]]
*[http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/research/HIHWNMS_Research_Mobley.pdf Estimating the humpback population in the Pacific], from the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0T-RFdAcpVQ Humpback whales defend Gray whale against Killer whales] ([[YouTube]])
*[http://www.dal.ca/~whitelab/rwb/COSEWIChumpback2003.pdf Estimating the humpback population in the Atlantic], from [[Dalhousie University]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JIF7XWe_3Sw Humpbacks Block Orcas' Feeding Frenzy] ([[LiveScience]])
*[http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/recovery/m-novaeangliae/index.html Recovery plan in Australia: 2005–2010]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W9KfHky9sMo Humpback whales charge group of transient orcas] ([[Save Our Seas Foundation]])
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-2XBwDNoQ9U Humpbacks Chase Killer Whales Right Under Our Boat, 8/24/2014]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aSia-HeDfKQ Humpback Whale Mother Fights Off Males to Protect Calf | BBC Earth]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NTw8MR67xv8 Whale Protects Diver From Shark] | [[The Dodo (website)|The Dodo]]


; Other
{{Baleen whales}}
* [https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/world/383351/dead-humpback-whale-discovered-in-amazon-jungle Dead calf] at the [[Amazon rainforest]]


{{Cetacea|M.}}
{{featured article}}
{{Mysticeti Genera|M.|state=collapsed}}
[[Category:Baleen whales]]
{{Taxonbar|from=Q132905}}
[[Category:Fauna of Greenland]]
{{Link FA|es}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|no}}
{{Link FA|sv}}


[[Category:Mammals described in 1781]]
[[zh-min-nan:Toā-si̍t-keng]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[cs:Keporkak]]
[[da:Pukkelhval]]
[[Category:Rorquals]]
[[Category:Cosmopolitan mammals]]
[[de:Buckelwal]]
[[Category:ESA threatened species]]
[[es:Megaptera novaeangliae]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Georg Heinrich Borowski]]
[[eo:Ĝiba baleno]]
[[Category:Tool-using mammals]]
[[fr:Baleine à bosse]]
[[ko:혹등고래]]
[[it:Megaptera novaeangliae]]
[[he:לווייתן גדול סנפיר]]
[[kl:Qipoqqaq]]
[[lt:Kuprotasis banginis]]
[[nl:Bultrug]]
[[ja:ザトウクジラ]]
[[no:Knølhval]]
[[pl:Humbak]]
[[pt:Baleia-jubarte]]
[[ru:Горбатый кит]]
[[simple:Humpback Whale]]
[[sk:Vráskavec dlhoplutvý]]
[[fi:Ryhävalas]]
[[sv:Knölval]]
[[zh:座头鲸]]

Latest revision as of 02:30, 13 December 2024

Humpback whale[1]
Temporal range: 7.2–0 Ma[2] Late MioceneRecent
Illustration of a whale next to a human diver
Size compared to an average human
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[4]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Cetacea
Family: Balaenopteridae
Genus: Megaptera
Gray, 1846
Species:
M. novaeangliae
Binomial name
Megaptera novaeangliae
(Borowski, 1781)
Subspecies
  • M. n. australis
  • M. n. kuzira
  • M. n. novaeangliae
Humpback whale range (in blue)
Synonyms
  • Balaena gibbosa Erxleben, 1777
  • B. boops Fabricius, 1780
  • B. nodosa Bonnaterre, 1789
  • B. longimana Rudolphi, 1832
  • Megaptera longimana Gray, 1846
  • Kyphobalaena longimana Van Beneden, 1861
  • Megaptera versabilis Cope, 1869

The humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) is a species of baleen whale. It is a rorqual (a member of the family Balaenopteridae) and is the only species in the genus Megaptera. Adults range in length from 14–17 m (46–56 ft) and weigh up to 40 metric tons (44 short tons). The humpback has a distinctive body shape, with long pectoral fins and tubercles on its head. It is known for breaching and other distinctive surface behaviors, making it popular with whale watchers. Males produce a complex song typically lasting 4 to 33 minutes.

Found in oceans and seas around the world, humpback whales typically migrate up to 16,000 km (9,900 mi) each year. They feed in polar waters and migrate to tropical or subtropical waters to breed and give birth. Their diet consists mostly of krill and small fish, and they usually use bubbles to catch prey. They are promiscuous breeders, with both sexes having multiple partners. Orcas are the main natural predators of humpback whales. The bodies of humpbacks host barnacles and whale lice.

Like other large whales, the humpback was a target for the whaling industry. Humans once hunted the species to the brink of extinction; its population fell to around 5,000 by the 1960s. Numbers have partially recovered to some 135,000 animals worldwide, while entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with ships, and noise pollution continue to affect the species. Some individual whales have achieved celebrity status such as Humphrey the Whale.

Taxonomy

[edit]

The humpback was first identified as baleine de la Nouvelle Angleterre by Mathurin Jacques Brisson in his Regnum Animale of 1756. In 1781, Georg Heinrich Borowski described the species, converting Brisson's name to its Latin equivalent, Balaena novaeangliae. In 1804, Bernard Germain de Lacépède shifted the humpback from the family Balaenidae, renaming it B. jubartes. In 1846, John Edward Gray created the genus Megaptera, classifying the humpback as Megaptera longipinna, but in 1932, Remington Kellogg reverted the species names to use Borowski's novaeangliae.[5] The common name is derived from the curving of their backs when diving. The generic name Megaptera from the Ancient Greek mega- μεγα ("giant") and ptera/ πτερα ("wing")[6] refer to their large front flippers. The specific name means "New Englander" and was probably given by Brisson due to regular sightings of humpbacks off the coast of New England.[5]

Humpback whales are rorquals, members of the family Balaenopteridae, which includes the blue, fin, Bryde's, sei and minke whales. A 2018 genomic analysis estimates that rorquals diverged from other baleen whales in the late Miocene, between 10.5 and 7.5 million years ago. The humpback and fin whale were found to be sister taxon (see phylogenetic tree below).[7] There is reference to a humpback-blue whale hybrid in the South Pacific, attributed to marine biologist Michael Poole.[8][9]

Balaenopteridae

B. acutorostrata/bonaerensis (minke whale species complex) Antarctic minke whale illustration with a dark top, a creamy underside, a long robust body, and a dorsal fin where the back begins to slope down

B. musculus (blue whale)Blue whale illustration with a dark blue tail, a slightly lighter shade of blue overall, and a small dorsal fin close to the tail

B. borealis (sei whale) Sei whale illustration with an overall dark coloration, white underbelly, a long robust body, and a dorsal fin near the tail

Eschrichtius robustus (gray whale) Gray whale illustration with a sleet gray color, lightly colored spots mainly on the head and top, a robust body, and small bumps where the back slopes downwards

B. physalus (fin whale) Fin whale illustration with a dark backside, white underside, lightly colored head, a slender body, and a small dorsal fin near the tail

Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale) Humpback whale illustration with an overall dark coloration, white underbelly, a robust body, and a small, stunted dorsal fin

Modern humpback whale populations originated in the southern hemisphere around 880,000 years ago and colonized the northern hemisphere 200,000–50,000 years ago. A 2014 genetic study suggested that the separate populations in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Southern Oceans have had limited gene flow and are distinct enough to be subspecies, with the scientific names of M. n. novaeangliae, M. n. kuzira and M. n. australis respectively.[10] A non-migratory population in the Arabian Sea has been isolated for 70,000 years.[11]

Characteristics

[edit]
Young whale with blowholes visible

The adult humpback whale is generally 14–15 m (46–49 ft), though longer lengths of 16–17 m (52–56 ft) have been recorded. Females are usually 1–1.5 m (3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in) longer than males.[12] The species can reach body masses of 40 metric tons (44 short tons). Calves are born at around 4.3 m (14 ft) long with a weight of 680 kg (1,500 lb).[13]

The body is bulky with a thin rostrum and proportionally long flippers, each around one-third of its body length.[14][15] It has a short dorsal fin that varies from nearly non-existent to somewhat long and curved. As a rorqual, the humpback has grooves between the tip of the lower jaw and the navel.[12] They are relatively few in number in this species, ranging from 14 to 35.[14] The mouth is lined with baleen plates, which number 270–400 for both sides.[15]

The dorsal or upper-side of the animal is generally black; the ventral or underside has various levels of black and white coloration.[12] Whales in the southern hemisphere tend to have more white pigmentation. The flippers can vary from all-white to white only on the undersurface.[13] The varying color patterns and scars on the tail flukes distinguish individual animals.[16][17] The end of the genital slit of the female is marked by a round feature, known as the hemispherical lobe, which visually distinguishes males and females.[15][18]

Unique among large whales, humpbacks have bumps or tubercles on the head and front edge of the flippers; the tail fluke has a jagged trailing edge.[12][15] The tubercles on the head are 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in) thick at the base and poke up to 6.5 cm (2.6 in). They are mostly hollow in the center, often containing at least one fragile hair that erupts 1–3 cm (0.39–1.18 in) from the skin and is 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) thick. The tubercles develop early in the womb and may have a sensory function as they are rich in nerves.[19] Sensory nerve cells in the skin are adapted to withstand the high water pressure of diving.[20]

In one study, a humpback whale brain measured 22.4 cm (8.8 in) long and 18 cm (7.1 in) wide at the tips of the temporal lobes, and weighed around 4.6 kg (10 lb). Its brain has similar complexity to the brains of smaller whales and dolphins.[21] Computer models of the middle ear suggest that the humpback can hear at frequencies between 15 Hz and 3 kHz "when stimulated at the tympanic membrane", and between 200 Hz and 9 kHz "if stimulated at the thinner region of the tympanic bone adjacent to the tympanic membrane". This is consistent with their vocalization ranges.[22]

As in all cetaceans, the respiratory tract of the humpback whale is connected to the blowholes and not the mouth,[23] though it appears to be able to unlock the epiglottis and larynx and move them towards the oral cavity, allowing them to blow bubbles from there.[24] The vocal folds of the humpback are more horizontally positioned than those of land mammals which allows them to produce underwater calls.[23] These calls are amplified by a laryngeal sac.[25]

Behavior and ecology

[edit]
Photo of a humpback in profile with most of its body out of the water, with back forming an acute angle to water
Humpback breaching
Photo of humpback tail slaping at the surface. Rest of body underwater
Humpback lobtailing

Humpback whale groups, aside from mothers and calves, typically last for days or weeks at the most.[12][26] They are normally sighted in small groups though large aggregations form during feeding and among males competing for females.[26] Humpbacks may interact with other cetacean species, such as right whales, fin whales, and bottlenose dolphins.[27][28][29] Humpbacks are highly active at the surface, performing aerial behaviors such as breaching, surface slapping with the tail flake (lobtailing) and flippers and peduncle throws which involve the tail crashing sideways on the surface. These may be forms of play and communication and/or for removing parasites.[12][30] The species is a slower swimmer than other rorquals, cruising at 7.9–15.1 km/h (4.9–9.4 mph). When threatened, a humpback may speed up to 27 km/h (17 mph).[15] Their proportionally long pectoral fins give them great propulsion and allow them to swim in any direction independently of the movements of the tail fluke. Humpbacks are able to flap and rotate their flippers in a manner similar to California sea lions.[31]

Humpbacks rest at the surface with their bodies lying horizontally.[32] They frequent shallow seamounts, commonly exploring depths of up to 80 meters (260 feet) and occasionally venturing into deep dives reaching up to 616 meters (2,020 feet). These deeper descents are believed to serve various purposes, including navigational guidance, communication with fellow humpback whales, and facilitation of feeding activities.[33] Dives typically do not exceed five minutes during the summer but are normally 15–20 minutes during the winter.[15] As it dives, a humpback typically raises its tail fluke, exposing the underside.[12] Humpbacks have been observed to produce oral "bubble clouds" when near another individual, possibly in the context of "aggression, mate attraction, or play". Humpbacks may also use bubble cloud as "smoke screens" to escape from predators.[24]

Feeding

[edit]

Humpback whales feed from spring to fall. They are generalist feeders, their main food items being krill, copepods, other plankton and small schooling fish. The most common krill species eaten in the southern hemisphere is the Antarctic krill. Further north, the northern krill and various species of Euphausia and Thysanoessa are consumed. Fish prey include herring, capelin, sand lances and Atlantic mackerel.[12][15] Like other rorquals, humpbacks are "gulp feeders", swallowing prey in bulk, while right whales and bowhead whales are skimmers.[26] The whale increases its mouth gape by expanding the grooves.[12] Water is pushed out through the baleen.[34] In the southern hemisphere, humpbacks have been recorded foraging in large compact gatherings numbering up to 200 individuals.[35]

Photo of several whales, each with only its head visible above the surface
A group of whales bubble net fishing near Juneau, Alaska

Humpbacks typically hunt their prey with bubble-nets, which is considered to be a form of tool use.[36] A group swims in a shrinking circle while blowing air from their blowholes, capturing prey above in a cylinder of bubbles. They may dive up to 20 m (70 ft) performing this technique. Bubble-netting comes in two main forms; upward spirals and double loops. Upward spirals involve the whales blowing air from their blowholes continuously as they circle towards the surface, creating a spiral of bubbles. Double loops consist of a deep, long loop of bubbles that herds the prey, followed by slapping the surface and then a smaller loop that prepares the final capture. Combinations of spiraling and looping have been recorded. After the humpbacks create the "nets", the whales swim into them with their mouths gaping and ready to swallow.[34] Bubble-net feeding has also been observed in solitary humpbacks, which can consume more food per mouthful without tiring, particularly with low-density prey patches.[36]

Using network-based diffusion analysis, one study argued that whales learned lobtailing from other whales in the group over 27 years in response to a change in primary prey.[37][38] The tubercles on the flippers stall the angle of attack, which both maximizes lift and minimizes drag (see tubercle effect). This, along with the shape of the flippers, allows the whales to make the abrupt turns necessary during bubble-feeding.[39]

At Stellwagen Bank off the coast of Massachusetts, humpback whales have been recorded foraging at the seafloor for sand lances. This involves the whales flushing out the fish by brushing their jaws against the bottom.[40]

Courtship and reproduction

[edit]

Mating and breeding take place during the winter months, which is when females reach estrus and males reach peak testosterone and sperm levels.[12] Humpback whales are promiscuous, with both sexes having multiple partners.[12][41] Males will frequently trail both lone females and cow–calf pairs. These are known as "escorts", and the male that is closest to the female is known as the "principal escort", who fights off the other suitors known as "challengers". Other males, called "secondary escorts", trail further behind and are not directly involved in the conflict.[42] Agonistic behavior between males consists of tail slashing, ramming, and head-butting.[12] Males have also been observed engaging in copulation with each other.[43]

Gestation in the species lasts 11.5 months, and females reproduce every 2 years.[12] Fetuses start out with teeth and develop their baleen during the very last months of their gestation.[44] Humpback whale births have been rarely observed. One birth witnessed off Madagascar occurred within four minutes.[45] Mothers typically give birth in mid-winter, usually to a single calf.[13] Young start out with furled dorsal fins which straighten and stiffen as they get older. Calves with furled fin spend more time traveling and surfacing to breathe while calves with straighter fins can hold their breaths longer and can rest and circle around at the surface more. Older calves are also away from their mothers more.[46] Calves suckle for up to a year but can eat adult food in six months. Humpbacks are sexually mature at 5–10 years, depending on the population.[12] Humpback whales possibly live over 50 years.[13]

Vocalizations

[edit]
Spectrogram of humpback whale vocalizations: detail is shown for the first 24 seconds of the 37-second recording "Singing Humpbacks".

Male humpback whales produce complex songs during the winter breeding season. These vocals range in frequency between 100 Hz and 4 kHz, with harmonics reaching up to 24 kHz or more, and can travel at least 10 km (6.2 mi). Males may sing for between 4 and 33 minutes, depending on the region. In Hawaii, humpback whales have been recorded vocalizing for as long as seven hours.[47] Songs are divided into layers; "subunits", "units", "subphrases", "phrases" and "themes". A subunit refers to the discontinuities or inflections of a sound while full units are individual sounds, similar to musical notes. A succession of units creates a subphrase, and a collection of subphrases make up a phrase. Similar-sounding phrases are repeated in a series grouped into themes, and multiple themes create a song.[48]

The function of these songs has been debated, but they may have multiple purposes. There is little evidence to suggest that songs establish dominance among males. However, there have been observations of non-singing males disrupting singers, possibly in aggression. Those who join singers are males who were not previously singing. Females do not appear to approach singers that are alone, but may be drawn to gatherings of singing males, much like a lek mating system. Another possibility is that songs bring in foreign whales to populate the breeding grounds.[47] It has also been suggested that humpback whale songs have echolocating properties and may serve to locate other whales.[49] A 2023 study found that as humpback whales numbers have recovered from whaling, singing has become less common.[50]

Whale songs are similar among males in a specific area. Males may alter their songs over time, and others in contact with them copy these changes.[48] They have been shown in some cases to spread "horizontally" between neighboring populations throughout successive breeding seasons.[51] In the northern hemisphere, songs change more gradually while southern hemisphere songs go through cyclical "revolutions".[52]

Humpback whales are reported to make other vocalizations. "Snorts" are quick low-frequency sounds commonly heard among animals in groups consisting of a mother–calf pair and one or more male escort groups. These likely function in mediating interactions within these groups. "Grumbles" are also low in frequency but last longer and are more often made by groups with one or more adult males. They appear to signal body size and may serve to establish social status. "Thwops" and "wops" are frequency modulated vocals, and may serve as contact calls both within and between groups. High-pitched "cries" and "violins" and modulated "shrieks" are normally heard in groups with two or more males and are associated with competition. Humpback whales produce short, low-frequency "grunts" and short, modulated "barks" when joining new groups.[53]

Predation

[edit]

Visible scars indicate that orcas prey upon juvenile humpbacks.[26] A 2014 study in Western Australia observed that when available in large numbers, young humpbacks can be attacked and sometimes killed by orcas. Moreover, mothers and (possibly related) adults escort calves to deter such predation. The suggestion is that when humpbacks suffered near-extinction during the whaling era, orcas turned to other prey but are now resuming their former practice.[54] There is also evidence that humpback whales will defend against or mob killer whales who are attacking either humpback calves or juveniles as well as members of other species, including seals. The humpback's protection of other species may be unintentional, a "spillover" of mobbing behavior intended to protect members of its species. The powerful flippers of humpback whales, often infested with large, sharp barnacles, are formidable weapons against orcas. When threatened, they will thresh their flippers and tails keeping the orcas at bay.[55]

The great white shark is another confirmed predator of the humpback whale. In 2020, Marine biologists Dines and Gennari et al., published a documented incident of a pair of great white sharks within an hour apart, attacking and killing a live adult humpback whale.[56] A second incident regarding great white sharks killing humpback whales was documented off the coast of South Africa. The shark recorded instigating the attack was a female nicknamed "Helen". Working alone, the shark attacked a 33 ft (10 m) emaciated and entangled humpback whale by attacking the whale's tail to cripple and bleed the whale before she managed to drown the whale by biting onto its head and pulling it underwater.[57][58]

Infestations

[edit]
Coronula diadema on a humpback

Humpback whales often have barnacles living on their skin; the most common being the acorn barnacle species Coronula diadema and Coronula reginae, which in turn are sites for attachment for goose barnacle species like Conchoderma auritum and Conchoderma virgatum. They are most abundant at the lower jaw tip, along the middle ventral groove, near the genital slit and between the bumps on the flippers. C. reginae digs deep into the skin, while attachments by C. diadema are more superficial. The size of the latter species provides more sites for attachment for other barnacles. Barnacles are considered to be epibionts rather than parasites as they do not feed on the whales, though they can affect their swimming by increasing drag.[59]

The whale louse species Cyamus boopis is specialized for feeding on humpback whales and is the only species in its family found on them.[60] Internal parasites of humpbacks include protozoans of the genus Entamoeba, tapeworms of the family Diphyllobothriidae and roundworms of the infraorder Ascaridomorpha.[61]

Range

[edit]
A humpback whale breaching off Alaska in the United States.

Humpback whales are found in marine waters worldwide, except for some areas at the equator and High Arctic and some enclosed seas.[13] The furthest north they have been recorded is at 81°N around northern Franz Josef Land.[62] They are usually coastal and tend to congregate in waters within continental shelves. Their winter breeding grounds are located around the equator; their summer feeding areas are found in colder waters, including near the polar ice caps. Humpbacks go on vast migrations between their feeding and breeding areas, often crossing the open ocean. The species has been recorded traveling up to 8,000 km (5,000 mi) in one direction.[13] An isolated, non-migratory population feeds and breeds in the northern Indian Ocean, mainly in the Arabian Sea around Oman.[63] This population has also been recorded in the Gulf of Aden, the Persian Gulf, and off the coasts of Pakistan and India.[64]

Humpback whales in the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary.

In the North Atlantic, there are two separate wintering populations, one in the West Indies, from Cuba to northern Venezuela, and the other in the Cape Verde Islands and northwest Africa. During summer, West Indies humpbacks congregate off New England, eastern Canada, and western Greenland, while the Cape Verde population gathers around Iceland and Norway. There is some overlap in the summer ranges of these populations, and West Indies humpbacks have been documented feeding further east.[63] Whale visits into the Gulf of Mexico have been infrequent but have occurred in the gulf historically.[65] They were considered to be uncommon in the Mediterranean Sea, but increased sightings, including re-sightings, indicate that more whales may colonize or recolonize it in the future.[66]

The North Pacific has at least four breeding populations: off Mexico (including Baja California and the Revillagigedos Islands), Central America, the Hawaiian Islands, and both Okinawa and the Philippines. The Mexican population forages from the Aleutian Islands to California. During the summer, Central American humpbacks are found only off Oregon and California. In contrast, Hawaiian humpbacks have a wide feeding range but most travel to southeast Alaska and northern British Columbia. The wintering grounds of the Okinawa/Philippines population are mainly around the Russian Far East. There is some evidence for a fifth population somewhere in the northwestern Pacific. These whales are recorded to feed off the Aleutians with a breeding area somewhere south of the Bonin Islands.[63]

Southern Hemisphere

[edit]
Aerial view of three humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) near Cape Solander, New South Wales, Australia.
Humpback on its back in Antarctica

In the Southern Hemisphere, humpback whales are divided into seven breeding stocks, some of which are further divided into sub-structures. These include the southeastern Pacific (stock G), southwestern Atlantic (stock A), southeastern Atlantic (stock B), southwestern Indian Ocean (stock C), southeastern Indian Ocean (stock D), southwestern Pacific (stock E), and the Oceania stock (stocks E–F).[63] Stock G breeds in tropical and subtropical waters off the west coast of Central and South America and forages along the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, the South Orkney Islands and to a lesser extent the Tierra del Fuego of southern Chile. Stock A winters off Brazil and migrates to summer grounds around South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Some stock A individuals have also been recorded off the western Antarctic Peninsula, suggesting an increased blurring of the boundaries between the feeding areas of stocks A and G.[67]

Stock B breeds on the west coast of Africa and is further divided into Bl and B2 subpopulations, the former ranging from the Gulf of Guinea to Angola and the latter ranging from Angola to western South Africa. Stock B whales have been recorded foraging in waters to the southwest of the continent, mainly around Bouvet Island.[68] Comparison of songs between those at Cape Lopez and Abrolhos Archipelago indicate that trans-Atlantic mixings between stock A and stock B whales occur.[69] Stock C whales winter around southeastern Africa and surrounding waters. This stock is further divided into C1, C2, C3, and C4 subpopulations; C1 occurs around Mozambique and eastern South Africa, C2 around the Comoro Islands, C3 off the southern and eastern coast of Madagascar and C4 around the Mascarene Islands. The feeding range of this population is likely between coordinates 5°W and 60°E and under 50°S.[63][68] There may be overlap in the feeding areas of stocks B and C.[68]

Stock D whales breed off the western coast of Australia, and forage in the southern region of the Kerguelen Plateau.[70] Stock E is divided into E1, E2, and E3 stocks.[63] E1 whales have a breeding range off eastern Australia and Tasmania; their main feeding range is close to Antarctica, mainly within 130°E and 170°W.[71] The Oceania stock is divided into the New Caledonia (E2), Tonga (E3), Cook Islands (F1) and French Polynesia (F2) subpopulations. This stock's feeding grounds mainly range from around the Ross Sea to the Antarctic Peninsula.[72]

Human relations

[edit]

Whaling

[edit]
Humpback whales taken by whalers off Vancouver Island, early 20th century

Humpback whales were hunted as early as the late 16th century.[3] They were often the first species to be harvested in an area due to this coastal distribution.[12] North Pacific kills alone are estimated at 28,000 during the 20th century.[14] In the same period, over 200,000 humpbacks were taken in the Southern Hemisphere.[12] North Atlantic populations dropped to as low as 700 individuals.[14] In 1946, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was founded to oversee the industry. They imposed hunting regulations and created hunting seasons. To prevent extinction, IWC banned commercial humpback whaling in 1966. By then, the global population had been reduced to around 5,000.[73] The Soviet Union deliberately under-recorded its catches; the Soviets reported catching 2,820 between 1947 and 1972, but the true number was over 48,000.[74]

As of 2004, hunting was restricted to a few animals each year off the Caribbean island of Bequia in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.[75] The take is not believed to threaten the local population. Japan had planned to kill 50 humpbacks in the 2007/08 season under its JARPA II research program. The announcement sparked global protests.[76] After a visit to Tokyo by the IWC chair asking the Japanese for their co-operation in sorting out the differences between pro- and anti-whaling nations on the commission, the Japanese whaling fleet agreed to take no humpback whales during the two years it would take to reach a formal agreement.[77] In 2010, the IWC authorized Greenland's native population to hunt a few humpback whales for the following three years.[78]

Whale watching off Massachusetts

Whale-watching

[edit]

Much of the growth of commercial whale watching was built on the humpback whale. The species' highly active surface behaviors and tendency to become accustomed to boats have made them easy to observe, particularly for photographers. In 1975, humpback whale tours were established in New England and Hawaii.[79] This business brings in a revenue of $20 million per year for Hawaii's economy.[80] While Hawaiian tours have tended to be commercial, New England and California whale watching tours have introduced educational components.[79]

Conservation status

[edit]
Photo of beached whale with observers in background
A dead humpback washed up near Big Sur, California

As of 2018, the IUCN Red List lists the humpback whale as least-concern, with a worldwide population of around 135,000 whales, of which around 84,000 are mature individuals, and an increasing population trend.[3][81] Regional estimates are around 13,000 in the North Atlantic, 21,000 in the North Pacific, and 80,000 in the southern hemisphere. For the isolated population in the Arabian Sea, only around 80 individuals remain,[82] and this population is considered to be endangered. In most areas, humpback whale populations have recovered from historic whaling, particularly in the North Pacific.[13] Such recoveries have led to the downlisting of the species' threatened status in the United States, Canada, and Australia.[81][83] In Costa Rica, Ballena Marine National Park was established for humpback protection.[84]

Humpbacks still face various other man-made threats, including entanglement by fishing gear, vessel collisions, human-caused noise and traffic disturbance, coastal habitat destruction, and climate change.[13] Like other cetaceans, humpbacks can be injured by excessive noise. In the 19th century, two humpback whales were found dead near repeated oceanic sub-bottom blasting sites, with traumatic injuries and fractures in the ears.[85] Saxitoxin, a paralytic shellfish poisoning from contaminated mackerel, has been implicated in humpback whale deaths.[86] While oil ingestion is a risk for whales, a 2019 study found that oil did not foul baleen and instead was easily rinsed by flowing water.[87]

Whale researchers along the Atlantic Coast report that there have been more stranded whales with signs of vessel strikes and fishing gear entanglement in recent years than ever before. The NOAA recorded 88 stranded humpback whales between January 2016 and February 2019. This is more than double the number of whales stranded between 2013 and 2016. Because of the increase in stranded whales, NOAA declared an unusual mortality event in April 2017. Virginia Beach Aquarium's stranding response coordinator, Alexander Costidis, stated the conclusion that the two causes of these unusual mortality events were vessel interactions and entanglements.[88]

Notable individuals

[edit]

Tay whale

[edit]
Professor John Struthers about to dissect the Tay Whale, Dundee, photographed by George Washington Wilson in 1884

In December 1883, a male humpback swam up the Firth of Tay in Scotland, past what was then the whaling port of Dundee. Harpooned during a failed hunt, it was found dead off Stonehaven a week later. Its carcass was exhibited to the public by a local entrepreneur, John Woods, both locally and then as a touring exhibition that traveled to Edinburgh and London. The whale was dissected by Professor John Struthers, who wrote seven papers on its anatomy and an 1889 monograph on the humpback.[89][90][91][92]

Migaloo

[edit]
Possible sighting of Migaloo off the Royal National Park

An albino humpback whale that travels up and down the east coast of Australia became famous in local media because of its rare, all-white appearance. Migaloo is the only known Australian all-white specimen,[93] and is a true albino.[94] First sighted in 1991, the whale was named for an indigenous Australian word for "white fella". To prevent sightseers from approaching dangerously close, the Queensland government decreed a 500-m (1600-ft) exclusion zone around him.[95]

Migaloo was last seen in June 2020 along the coast of Port Macquarie NSW in Australia.[96] Migaloo has several physical characteristics that can be identified; his dorsal fin is somewhat hooked, and his tail flukes have a unique shape, with edges that are spiked along the lower trailing side.[97] In July 2022, concerns arose that Migaloo had died after a white whale washed up on the shores of Mallacoota beach, however after genetic testing, and noting that the carcass was of a female whale while Migaloo is male, it was confirmed by experts to not be Migaloo.[98][99]

Humphrey

[edit]

In 1985, Humphrey swam into San Francisco Bay and then up the Sacramento River towards Rio Vista.[100] Five years later, Humphrey returned and became stuck on a mudflat in San Francisco Bay immediately north of Sierra Point below the view of onlookers from the upper floors of the Dakin Building. He was twice rescued by the Marine Mammal Center and other concerned groups in California.[101] He was pulled off the mudflat with a large cargo net and the help of the US Coast Guard. Both times, he was successfully guided back to the Pacific Ocean using a "sound net" in which people in a flotilla of boats made unpleasant noises behind the whale by banging on steel pipes, a Japanese fishing technique known as oikami. At the same time, the attractive sounds of humpback whales preparing to feed were broadcast from a boat headed towards the open ocean.[102]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Mead, J. G.; Brownell, R. L. Jr. (2005). "Order Cetacea". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 723–743. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  2. ^ "Fossilworks: Megaptera". Fossilworks. Archived from the original on 26 July 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  3. ^ a b c Cooke, J.G. (2018). "Megaptera novaeangliae". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T13006A50362794. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T13006A50362794.en. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
  4. ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  5. ^ a b Martin, Stephen (2001). The Whales' Journey. Allen & Unwin. p. 251. ISBN 978-1-86508-232-5.
  6. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (2 February 2015). Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged. Martino Fine Books. ISBN 978-1-61427-770-5.
  7. ^ Árnason, U.; Lammers, F.; Kumar, V.; Nilsson, M. A.; Janke, A. (2018). "Whole-genome sequencing of the blue whale and other rorquals finds signatures for introgressive gene flow". Science Advances. 4 (4): eaap9873. Bibcode:2018SciA....4.9873A. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aap9873. PMC 5884691. PMID 29632892.
  8. ^ Reeves, R. R.; Stewart, P. J.; Clapham, J.; Powell, J. A. (2002). Whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the eastern North Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters: A guide to their identification. New York: Knopf. pp. 234–237.
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