Millet: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Group of grasses (food grain)}} |
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{{otheruses}} |
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{{Other uses|Millet (disambiguation)}} |
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[[Image:Grain millet, early grain fill, Tifton, 7-3-02.jpg|thumb|240px|right|[[Pearl millet]] in the field]] |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}} |
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The '''millets''' are a group of small-[[seed]]ed [[species]] of [[cereal]] [[Crop (agriculture)|crops]] or [[grains]], widely grown around the world for [[food]] and [[fodder]]. They do not form a [[scientific classification|taxonomic]] group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult production environments. It was millets, rather than rice, that formed important parts of prehistoric diet in Chinese Neolithic and Korean Mumun societies. |
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[[File:Grain millet, early grain fill, Tifton, 7-3-02.jpg|thumb|[[Pearl millet]]]] |
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'''Millets''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɪ|l|ɪ|t|s}})<ref name="Oxford Dictionaries">{{cite web |title=Definition of millet |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/millet |website=Oxford Dictionaries |publisher=Oxford University |access-date=21 July 2017}}</ref> are a highly varied group of small-seeded [[grasses]], widely grown around the world as [[cereal]] crops or grains for [[fodder]] and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe [[Paniceae]]<!--within the grass family [[Poaceae]]-->. |
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==Millet varieties== |
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[[Image:Panicum miliaceum0.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Ripe head of [[proso millet]]]] |
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The millets include species in several genera, mostly in the subfamily [[Panicoideae]], of the grass family [[Poaceae]]. |
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The most widely cultivated species in order of worldwide production[http://www.fao.org/docrep/W1808E/w1808e0l.htm] are: |
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# [[Pearl millet]] (''Pennisetum glaucum'') |
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# [[Foxtail millet]] (''Setaria italica'') |
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# [[Proso millet]] also known as '''common millet''', '''broom corn millet''', '''hog millet''' or '''white millet''' (''Panicum miliaceum'') |
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# [[Finger millet]] (''Eleusine coracana'') |
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Millets are important crops in the [[Semi-arid climate|semiarid tropics]] of Asia and Africa, especially in [[India]], [[Mali]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Niger]], with 97% of production in [[Developing country|developing countries]].<ref name="HCS">{{cite journal |last1=McDonough |first1=Cassandrea M. |last2=Rooney |first2=Lloyd W. |last3=Serna-Saldivar |first3=Sergio O. |title=The Millets |journal=Food Science and Technology: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology |volume=99 |edition=2nd |pages=177–210 |publisher=CRC Press |year=2000}}</ref> The crop is favoured for its [[Agricultural productivity|productivity]] and short growing season under hot dry conditions. The millets are sometimes understood to include the widely cultivated [[sorghum]]; apart from that, [[pearl millet]] is the most commonly cultivated of the millets.<ref name="FAO">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W1808E/w1808e0l.htm |title=The World Sorghum and Millet Economies: Facts, Trends and Outlook |chapter=Annex II: Relative importance of millet species, 1992–94 |year=1996 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=978-92-5-103861-1}}</ref> [[Finger millet]], [[proso millet]], and [[foxtail millet]] are other important crop species. |
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Minor millets include: |
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Millets may have been consumed by humans for about 7,000 years and potentially had "a pivotal role in the rise of multi-crop agriculture and settled farming societies".<ref name="NPR">{{cite web |title=Millet: How A Trendy Ancient Grain Turned Nomads Into Farmers |last=Cherfas |first=Jeremy |date=23 December 2015 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/12/23/460559052/millet-how-a-trendy-ancient-grain-turned-nomads-into-farmers |website=National Public Radio |series=The Salt |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> |
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== Names and etymology == |
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* [[Barnyard millet]] (''Echinochloa'' spp.) |
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* [[Kodo millet]] (''Paspalum scrobiculatum'') |
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* [[Little millet]] (''Panicum sumatrense'') |
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* [[Guinea millet]] (''Brachiaria deflexa'' = ''Urochloa deflexa'') |
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* [[Browntop millet]] (''Urochloa ramosa'' = ''Brachiaria ramosa'' = ''Panicum ramosum'') |
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Etymologically, ''millet'' is a term derived from [[Latin]] ''millium'', the Latin name for these plants. |
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[[Teff]] (''Eragrostis tef'') and [[fonio]] (''Digitaria exilis'') are also often called millets, as more rarely are [[sorghum]] (''Sorghum'' spp.) and [[Job's Tears]] (''Coix lacrima-jobi''). |
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In [[ancient Egyptian]] millet was called ''besha'' or ''beṭ-t'', in [[Coptic language|Coptic]] ⲃϣⲧⲉ (bēshte).<ref>Budge E. A. W., Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Vol 2, 1920</ref> |
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==Production history== |
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[[Image:2005millet.PNG|thumb|right|Millet output in 2005]] |
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Specialized archaeologists called [[palaeoethnobotanists]], relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in prehistory than rice, especially in northern China and Korea. Broomcorn (''Panicum miliaceum'') and [[Foxtail millet]] were important crops beginning in the Early [[Neolithic]] of [[China]]. For example, some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at [[Cishan culture|Cishan]] (north) and [[Hemudu culture|Hemudu]] (south). Cishan dates to 7000-5000 BCE and contained pit-houses, storage pits, pottery, stone tools related to cultivation, and carbonized foxtail millet. A 4000 year old well-preserved bowl containing well-preserved noodles made from foxtail millet and [[broomcorn millet]] was found at the [[Lajia]] archaeological site in [[China]] {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. |
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== Description == |
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Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the [[Korean Peninsula]] dating to the Middle [[Jeulmun pottery period]] (c. 3500-2000 BCE) (Crawford 1992; Crawford and Lee 2003). Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multi-cropping agriculture of the [[Mumun pottery period]] (c. 1500-300 BCE) in Korea (Crawford and Lee 2003). Millets and their wild ancestors such as [[barnyard grass]] and [[panic grass]] were also cultivated in [[Japan]] during the [[Jōmon period]] some time after 4000 BCE (Crawford 1983, 1992). |
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Millet was consumed in northern Europe at least since the [[Iron Age]], based upon analysis of [[Haraldskær Woman]] found in [[Jutland]], [[Denmark]] {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. |
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Millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to the grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other major [[cereal]]s.<ref name="Fahad Bajwa Nazir Anjum 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Fahad |first1=Shah |last2=Bajwa |first2=Ali A. |last3=Nazir |first3=Usman |last4=Anjum |first4=Shakeel A. |last5=Farooq |first5=Ayesha |last6=Zohaib |first6=Ali |last7=Sadia |first7=Sehrish |last8=Nasim |first8=Wajid |last9=Adkins |first9=Steve |last10=Saud |first10=Shah |last11=Ihsan |first11=Muhammad Z. |last12=Alharby |first12=Hesham |last13=Wu |first13=Chao |last14=Wang |first14=Depeng |last15=Huang |first15=Jianliang |title=Crop Production under Drought and Heat Stress: Plant Responses and Management Options |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=8 |date=2017-06-29 |page=1147 |issn=1664-462X |pmid=28706531 |pmc=5489704 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.01147 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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Major research on millets is carried out by the [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]], and by the [[Agricultural Research Service|USDA-ARS]] at [[Tifton, Georgia]], [[United States|USA]]. |
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<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths="180" heights="180"> |
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==Current uses of millet== |
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File:Finger millet 3 11-21-02.jpg|[[Eleusine coracana|Finger millet]] in the field |
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[[Image:Millet beer in Cameroon.jpg|thumb|right|Millet beer in [[Cameroon]]]] |
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File:Panicum miliaceum0.jpg|Ripe head of [[proso millet]] |
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File:Millet In Kerala-3.jpg|[[Sprouting]] millet plants |
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</gallery> |
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=== Phylogeny === |
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Millets are principally food sources in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. In Western India, millet flour (called "Bajari" in [[Marathi]]) has been commonly used with "Jowar" ([[Sorghum]]) flour for hundreds of years to make the local staple flat bread (called "[[Bhakri]]"). |
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The millets are closely related to [[sorghum]] and [[maize]] within the [[PACMAD clade]] of grasses, and more distantly to the [[cereal]]s of the [[BOP clade]] such as [[wheat]] and [[barley]].<ref name="Escobar Scornavacca Cenci Guilhaumon 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Escobar |first1=Juan S |last2=Scornavacca |first2=Céline |last3=Cenci |first3=Alberto |last4=Guilhaumon |first4=Claire |last5=Santoni |first5=Sylvain |last6=Douzery |first6=Emmanuel J. P. |last7=Ranwez |first7=Vincent |last8=Glémin |first8=Sylvain |last9=David |first9=Jacques |display-authors=5 |title=Multigenic phylogeny and analysis of tree incongruences in Triticeae (Poaceae) |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=2011 |page=181 |pmid=21702931 |pmc=3142523 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-181 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2011BMCEE..11..181E }}</ref> |
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Millets are traditionally important grains used in brewing [[millet beer]] in some cultures, for instance by the [[Tao people]] of [[Orchid Island]] and, along with [[sorghum]], by various peoples in East Africa. |
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{{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100% |
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[[Celiac]] patients can replace certain cereal grains in their diets by consuming millets in various forms including breakfast cereals. |
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|label1=(Part of [[Poaceae]]) |
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|1={{clade |
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|label1= [[BOP clade]] |
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|1={{clade |
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|1=[[Bambusoideae]] (bamboos) |
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|2={{clade |
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|label1=[[Pooideae]] |
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|1={{clade |
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|label1=other grasses |
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|1= ([[fescue]], [[ryegrass]]) |
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|label2= [[Triticeae]] |
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|2={{clade |
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|1=''[[Hordeum]]'' (barley) |
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|2={{clade |
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|1=''[[Triticum]]'' (wheat) |
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|2=''[[Secale]]'' (rye) |
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}} |
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}} |
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}} |
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|2=''[[Oryza]]'' (rice) |
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}} |
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}} |
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|label2= [[PACMAD clade]] |
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|2={{clade |
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|1=''[[Pennisetum]]'' (fountaingrasses, [[pearl millet]]) |
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|2={{clade |
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|1='''''Millets''''' |
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|2={{clade |
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|1=''[[Sorghum]]'' (sorghum) |
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|2=''[[Zea (plant)|Zea]]'' (maize) |
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}} |
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}} |
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}} |
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}} |
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}} |
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=== Taxonomy === |
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Millet can often be used in recipes instead of [[buckwheat]], [[rice]], or [[quinoa]]. |
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The different species of millets are not all closely related. All are members of the family [[Poaceae]] (the grasses), but they belong to different [[tribe (biology)|tribe]]s and subfamilies. Commonly cultivated millets are:<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Taylor |editor-first1=John R.N. |editor-last2=Duodu |editor-first2=Kwaku G. |date=2019 |title=Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry, Technology, and Nutritional Attributes |edition=2nd |url=https://shop.elsevier.com/books/sorghum-and-millets/taylor/978-0-12-811527-5 |publisher=Elsevier |page=3 |isbn=9780128115275 |id=e{{isbn|9780128115282}}}}</ref> |
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Millet sprays are often recommended as healthy treats to finicky pet birds, as they are easily eaten and (in the case of destruction-prone hookbills) easily broken. |
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[[Eragrostideae]] tribe in the subfamily [[Chloridoideae]]: |
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[[Image:Millet.png|thumb|150 px|millet]] |
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==Nutrition== |
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* ''[[Eleusine coracana]]'': Finger millet |
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The protein content in millet is very close to that of [[wheat]]; both provide about 11% protein by weight. |
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* ''[[Eragrostis tef]]'': Teff; often not considered to be a millet<ref name="fao1">{{cite web |title=Sorghum and millet in human nutrition |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=1995 |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm |access-date=2012-01-07 |archive-date=2018-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001231759/http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818e/T0818E00.HTM |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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[[Paniceae]] tribe in the subfamily [[Panicoideae]]: |
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Millets are rich in B vitamins, especially [[niacin]], B6 and [[folacin]], [[calcium]], [[iron]], [[potassium]], [[magnesium]], and [[zinc]]. Millets contain no [[gluten]], so they cannot rise for bread. When combined with [[wheat]] or [[xanthan gum]] (for those who have [[coeliac disease]]), though, they can be used for raised bread. Alone, they are suited for [[flatbread]]. |
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* Genus ''[[Panicum]]'': |
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As none of the millets are closely related to wheat, they are appropriate foods for those with [[coeliac disease]] or other forms of allergies/intolerance of wheat. |
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** ''[[Proso millet|Panicum miliaceum]]'': Proso millet (common millet, broomcorn millet, hog millet, or white millet, also known as baragu in Kannada, panivaragu in Tamil) |
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** ''[[Panicum sumatrense]]'': Little millet |
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** ''[[Panicum hirticaule]]'': Sonoran millet, cultivated in the American Southwest |
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* ''[[Pennisetum glaucum]]'': Pearl millet |
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[[File:A closeup of Pearl Millet (Cumbu).JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Pearl millet (''Pennisetum glaucum'')]] |
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* ''[[Setaria italica]]'': Foxtail millet, Italian millet, panic<ref>{{Cite OED|panic}} from classical Latin pānicum (or pānīcum) Italian millet.</ref> |
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* Genus ''[[Digitaria]]'': of minor importance as crops<ref name=fao1/> |
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** ''[[Digitaria exilis]]'': known as white fonio, fonio millet, and hungry rice or acha rice |
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** ''[[Digitaria iburua]]'': Black fonio |
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** ''[[Digitaria compacta]]'': Raishan, cultivated in the [[Khasi Hills]] of northeast India |
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** ''[[Digitaria sanguinalis]]'': Polish millet |
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* Genus ''[[Echinochloa]]'': collectively, the members of this genus are called ''barnyard grasses'' or ''barnyard millets'' |
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** ''[[Echinochloa esculenta]]'': Japanese barnyard millet |
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** ''[[Echinochloa frumentacea]]'': Indian barnyard millet |
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** ''[[Echinochloa oryzoides]]'' |
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** ''[[Echinochloa stagnina]]'': Burgu millet |
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** ''[[Echinochloa crus-galli]]'': Common barnyard grass (or cockspur grass) |
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* ''[[Paspalum scrobiculatum]]'': Kodo millet |
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[[File:A closeup of Varagu millet with husk..JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Kodo millet (''Paspalum scrobiculatum'')]] |
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* ''[[Brachiaria deflexa]]'': Guinea millet |
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* ''[[Brachiaria ramosa]]'': Browntop millet<ref>{{cite web|title=Browntop Millet|url=https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_urra.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_urra.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|access-date=1 April 2018}}</ref> |
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* ''[[Spodiopogon formosanus]]'': Taiwan oil millet, endemic to Taiwan<ref name="Takei 2013">Takei, Emiko (October 2013). ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267747587_Millet_Culture_and_Indigenous_Cuisine_in_Taiwan Millet Culture and Indigenous Cuisine in Taiwan]''. The 2013 International Conference on Chinese Food Culture, Kunming, Yunnan, China.</ref> |
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[[Andropogoneae]] tribe, also in the subfamily [[Panicoideae]]: |
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==Preparation== |
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The basic preparation consists in washing the millet and toasting it while moving until one notes a characteristic scent. Then five measures of boiling water for each two measures of millet are added with some sugar or salt. The mixture is cooked covered using low flame for 30-35 minutes. |
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* ''[[Sorghum bicolor]]'': Sorghum; usually considered a separate cereal, but sometimes known as ''great millet'' |
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==References== |
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* ''[[Job's tears|Coix lacryma-jobi]]'': Job's tears, also known as adlay millet<ref name=fao1/> |
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* Crawford, Gary W. ''Paleoethnobotany of the Kameda Peninsula''. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1983. |
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== Domestication and spread == |
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* Crawford, Gary W. Prehistoric Plant Domestication in East Asia. In ''The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective'', edited by C.W. Cowan and P.J. Watson, pp. 117-132. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, 1992. |
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Specialized archaeologists called [[palaeoethnobotanists]], relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in [[prehistory]] than [[rice]], especially in northern China and Korea.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://cities.expressindia.com/local-news/fullstory.php?newsid=166480 |title=Millets older than wheat, rice: Archaeologists |first=Tarannum |last=Manjul |publisher=Lucknow Newsline |date=21 January 2006 |access-date=2008-04-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509121424/http://cities.expressindia.com/local-news/fullstory.php?newsid=166480 |archive-date=9 May 2008 }}</ref> |
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The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought,<ref name="Lu"/> and this has been suggested to have aided its spread.<ref name="Lawler"/> Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region of [[Europe]] by 5000 BC.<ref name="Lawler">{{cite journal |last1=Lawler |first1=A. |year=2009 |title=Bridging East and West: Millet on the move |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue= 5943|pages=942–943 |doi=10.1126/science.325_940 |pmid=19696328 }}</ref> |
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* Crawford, Gary W. and Gyoung-Ah Lee. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. ''Antiquity'' 77(295):87-95, 2003. |
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Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BC, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from the [[Late Bronze Age]] in [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and northern Greece.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nesbitt |first1=Mark |last2=Summers |first2=Geoffrey |date=January 1988 |title=Some Recent Discoveries of Millet (Panicum miliaceum L. and Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.) at Excavations in Turkey and Iran |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Records-of-millet-from-the-Ancient-Near-East-and-Greece_tbl1_234002850 |journal=Anatolian Studies |volume= 38|issue=38 |pages=85–97 |doi=10.2307/3642844 |access-date=25 February 2019 |jstor=3642844 |s2cid=84670275 }}</ref> [[Hesiod]] describes that "the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer."<ref name="Hesiod2013">{{cite book|author=Hesiod|title=Hesiod, the Poems and Fragments, Done Into English Prose|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9uungEACAAJ|date=September 2013|publisher=Theclassics Us|pages=fragments S396–423|isbn=978-1-230-26344-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1091#Hesiod_0606_290|title = The Poems and Fragments | Online Library of Liberty}}</ref> And millet is listed along with wheat in the third century BC by [[Theophrastus]] in his "Enquiry into Plants".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/enquiryintoplant01theouoft/page/78|title = Enquiry into plants and minor works on odours and weather signs, with an English translation by Sir Arthur Hort, bart|year = 1916}}</ref> |
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==External links== |
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* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/millet.html Alternative Field Crops Manual: Millets] |
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=== East Asia === |
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* [http://www.vegparadise.com/highestperch29.html Vegetarians in Paradise: Millet History, Millet Nutrition, Millet Recipe] |
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Proso millet (''Panicum miliaceum'') and foxtail millet (''Setaria italica'') were important crops beginning in the [[Early Neolithic]] of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at [[Cishan culture|Cishan]] (north), where proso millet husk [[phytoliths]] and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in [[storage pit (archaeology)|storage pits]] along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation.<ref name="Lu">{{cite journal |pmid=19383791 |year=2009 |last1=Lu |first1=H. |last2=Zhang |first2=J. |last3=Liu |first3=K. B. |last4=Wu |first4=N. |last5=Li |first5=Y. |last6=Zhou |first6=K. |last7=Ye |first7=M. |last8=Zhang |first8=T. |last9=Zhang |first9=H. |last10=Yang |first10=X. |last11=Shen |first11=L. |last12=Xu |first12=D. |last13=Li |first13=Q. |title=Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago |volume=106 |issue=18 |pages=7367–72 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0900158106 |pmc=2678631 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |display-authors=8|bibcode=2009PNAS..106.7367L |doi-access=free }}</ref> Evidence at ''Cishan'' for foxtail millet dates back to around 8,700 years ago.<ref name="Lu"/> Noodles made from these two varieties of millet were found under a 4,000-year-old earthenware bowl containing well-preserved noodles at the [[Lajia]] archaeological site in north China; this is the oldest evidence of millet noodles in China.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4335160.stm |title=Oldest noodles unearthed in China |work=BBC News |date=12 October 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Houyuan |last2=Yang |first2=Xiaoyan |last3=Ye |first3=Maolin |last4=Liu |first4=Kam-Biu |last5=Xia |first5=Zhengkai |last6=Ren |first6=Xiaoyan |last7=Cai |first7=Linhai |last8=Wu |first8=Naiqin |last9=Liu |first9=Tung-Sheng |title=Millet noodles in Late Neolithic China |journal=Nature |date=12 October 2005 |volume=437 |issue=7061 |pages=967–968 |doi=10.1038/437967a|pmid=16222289 |s2cid=4385122 }}</ref> |
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Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the [[Korean Peninsula]] dating to the Middle [[Jeulmun pottery period]] (around 3500–2000 BC).<ref>{{harvp|Crawford|1992}}; {{harvp|Crawford|Lee|2003}}</ref> Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of the [[Mumun pottery period]] (about 1500–300 BC) in Korea.<ref>{{harvp|Crawford|Lee|2003}}</ref> Millets and their wild ancestors, such as [[barnyard grass]] and [[panic grass]], were also cultivated in Japan during the [[Jōmon period]] sometime after 4000 BC.<ref>{{harvp|Crawford|1983}}; {{harvp|Crawford|1992}}</ref> |
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Chinese myths attribute the domestication of millet to [[Shennong]], a legendary Emperor of China, and [[Hou Ji]], whose name means Lord Millet.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yang |first=Lihui |title=Handbook of Chinese Mythology. |publisher=New York: Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-533263-6 |pages=70, 131–135, 198 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> |
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=== Indian Subcontinent === |
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Little millet (''Panicum sumatrense'') is believed to have been domesticated around 5000 BC in Indian subcontinent and Kodo millet (''Paspalum scrobiculatum'') around 3700 BC, also in Indian subcontinent.<ref name="weber">{{cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=Steven A. |title=Out of Africa: The Initial Impact of Millets in South Asia |journal=Current Anthropology |date=April 1998 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=267–274 |doi=10.1086/204725 |s2cid=143024704 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pokharia |first1=Anil K. |last2=Kharakwal |first2=Jeewan Singh |last3=Srivastava |first3=Alka |title=Archaeobotanical evidence of millets in the Indian subcontinent with some observations on their role in the Indus civilization |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |date=February 2014 |volume=42 |pages=442–455 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2013.11.029 |bibcode=2014JArSc..42..442P }}</ref> Various millets have been mentioned in some of the [[Yajurveda]] texts, identifying [[foxtail millet]] (''priyaṅgu''), [[Barnyard millet]] (''aṇu'') and black [[finger millet]] (''śyāmāka''), indicating that millet cultivation was happening around 1200 BC in India.<ref name="miraroy">{{cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Mira |title=Agriculture in the Vedic Period |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |date=2009 |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=497–520|access-date=13 April 2019 |url=https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol44_4_2_MRoy.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol44_4_2_MRoy.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> Upon request by the [[Government of India|Indian Government]] in 2018, the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations(FAO)]] declared 2023 as [[International Year of Millets]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Year of Millets 2023 - IYM 2023 |url=https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/international-year-of-millets-unleashing-the-potential-of-millets-for-the-well-being-of-people-and-the-environment |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=Food and Agriculture Organisation}}</ref> |
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=== West Africa === |
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Pearl millet (''Pennisetum glaucum'') was domesticated in the Sahel region of West Africa from ''Pennisetum violaceum''.<ref name="D'Andrea Casey 2002"/> Early archaeological evidence in Africa includes finds at [[Kintampo Complex|Birimi]] in northern Ghana (1740 [[Radiocarbon_dating#Reporting_dates|cal BC]]) and [[Dhar Tichitt]] in [[Mauritania]] (1936–1683 cal BC) and the lower Tilemsi valley in [[Mali]] (2500 to 2000 cal BC).<ref name="D'Andrea Casey 2002"/><ref name="Manning Pelling Higham 2011"/> Studies of [[isozyme|isozymes]] suggest domestication took place north east of the [[Senegal River]] in the far west of the Sahel and tentatively around 6000 BC.<ref name="D'Andrea Casey 2002">{{Cite journal |last1=D'Andrea |first1=A. C. |last2=Casey |first2=J. |title=Pearl Millet and Kintampo Subsistence |journal=The African Archaeological Review |date=2002 |access-date=18 May 2024 |jstor=25130746 |issn=0263-0338 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=147–173 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1016518919072 |doi=10.1023/A:1016518919072 |s2cid=162042735}}</ref><ref name="Manning Pelling Higham 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Manning |first1=Katie |last2=Pelling |first2=Ruth |last3=Higham |first3=Tom |last4=Schwenniger |first4=Jean-Luc |last5=Fuller |first5=Dorian Q. |title=4500-Year old domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali: new insights into an alternatives are cereal domestication pathway |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2010.09.007 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=312–322 |year=2011 |bibcode=2011JArSc..38..312M }}</ref> Pearl millet had arrived in the [[Indian subcontinent]] by 2000 BC to 1700 BC.<ref name="Manning Pelling Higham 2011"/> |
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=== East Africa === |
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[[Finger millet]] is originally native to the highlands of [[East Africa]] and was domesticated before the third millennium BC. Its cultivation had spread to South India by 1800 BC.<ref>{{cite book |title=Plant Genetic Resources of Ethiopia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKj__YqTU4AC&q=finger+millet+domesticated+ethiopia&pg=PA162|isbn = 9780521384568|last1 = Engels|first1 = J. M. M.|last2 = Hawkes|first2 = J. G.|last3 = Hawkes|first3 = John Gregory|last4 = Worede|first4 = M.|date = 1991-03-21| publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> |
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== Research == |
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Research on millets is carried out by the [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] (ICRISAT)<ref name="icrisat-overview">{{cite web |title=ICRISAT overview |url=https://www.icrisat.org/icrisat-strategic-plan/ |website=ICRISAT |access-date=17 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="icrisat-pearl">{{cite web |title=Pearl Millet |url=http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Pearl%20Millet/178 |website=ICRISAT |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=29 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529043747/http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Pearl%2520Millet/178 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="icrisat-small">{{cite web |title=Small Millets |url=http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Small%20millets/187 |website=ICRISAT |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=29 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529043858/http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Small%2520millets/187 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research]]<ref name="ICAR-main">{{cite web |title=Indian Institute of Millets Research (IIMR) |url=https://millets.res.in/ |website=millets.res.in |access-date=17 September 2021}}</ref> in [[Telangana]], India, and by the [[Agricultural Research Service|United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service]] at [[Tifton, Georgia|Tifton]], Georgia, United States.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hanna |first1=W. |last2=Wilson |first2=J. |title=Pearl Millet Hybrids for Grain |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/southeast-area/tifton-ga/crop-genetics-and-breeding-research/docs/pearl-millet-hybrids-for-grain/ |website=USDA-ARS |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref> |
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== Cultivation == |
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[[File:A Woman Threshing Sorghum In Northern Ghana.png|thumb|upright|A woman threshing pearl millet in Northern Ghana]] |
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Pearl millet is one of the two major crops in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile agriculture regions of Africa and southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite web |last=Baltensperger |first=David D. |title=Progress with Proso, Pearl and Other Millets |year=2002 |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/pdf/baltensperger.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030421033516/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/pdf/baltensperger.pdf |archive-date=2003-04-21 |url-status=live }}</ref> Millets are not only adapted to poor, dry infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these conditions than most other grain crops. This has, in part, made millet production popular, particularly in countries surrounding the [[Sahara]] in western Africa.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} |
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Millets, however, do respond to high fertility and moisture. On a per-hectare basis, millet grain production can be 2 to 4 times higher with use of irrigation and soil supplements. Improved breeds of millet with enhanced disease resistance can significantly increase farm yield. There has been cooperation between poor countries to improve millet yields. For example, 'Okashana 1', a variety developed in India from a natural-growing millet variety in [[Burkina Faso]], doubled yields. This breed was selected for trials in [[Zimbabwe]]. From there it was taken to [[Namibia]], where it was released in 1990 and enthusiastically adopted by farmers. 'Okashana 1' became the most popular variety in Namibia, the only non-[[Sahel]]ian country where pearl millet—locally known as ''mahangu''—is the dominant food staple for consumers. 'Okashana 1' was then introduced to [[Chad]]. The breed has significantly enhanced yields in [[Mauritania]] and [[Benin]].<ref>{{cite web |author=ICRISAT |title=A New Generation of Pearl Millet on the Horizon |publisher=The World Bank |url=http://www.worldbank.org/html/cgiar/newsletter/Oct96/6millet.html}}</ref> |
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== Production == |
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{{Infobox agricultural production |
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| year = 2022 |
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|plant = Millet |
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| country1 = {{IND}} |
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| amount1 =11.8 |
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| country2 = {{NIG}} |
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| amount2 =3.7 |
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| country3 = {{CHN}} |
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| amount3 =2.7 |
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| country4 = {{NGA}} |
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| amount4 =1.9 |
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| country5 = {{MLI}} |
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| amount5 =1.8 |
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| country6 = {{SUD}} |
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| amount6 =1.7 |
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| country7 = {{ETH}} |
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| amount7 =1.2 |
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| country8 = {{SEN}} |
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| amount8 =1.1 |
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| country9 = {{BFA}} |
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| amount9 =0.9 |
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| country10 = {{CHA}} |
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| amount10 =0.7 |
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| world =30.9 |
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| source =[[FAOSTAT]]<ref name="FAOSTAT2022">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize |website=www.fao.org |access-date=28 February 2024}}</ref> |
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}} |
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[[File:Milletoutput.png|thumb|250px|right|Production of millet (2008)]] |
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In 2022, global production of millet was 30.9 million [[tonnes]]. [[India]] is the top millet producer worldwide, with 11.8 million tonnes grown annually – some 38% of the world total and nearly triple its nearest rival. Eight of the remaining nine nations in the top 10 producers are in Africa, ranging from [[Niger]] (at 3.7 million tonnes) to [[Chad]] (0.7 million tonnes); the sole exception is [[China]], number three in global production, at 2.7 million tonnes. |
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== Uses == |
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=== As food === |
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Millets are major food sources in arid and semiarid regions of the world, and feature in the traditional cuisine of many others. In western India, [[sorghum]] (called ''jowar'', ''jola'', ''dzonnalu'', ''jwaarie'', or ''jondhahlaa'' in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[kannada language|Kannada]], [[telugu language|Telugu]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] languages, respectively; ''mutthaari'', ''kora'', or ''panjappullu'' in [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]; or ''cholam'' in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]) has been commonly used with millet flour (called ''jowari'' in western India) for hundreds of years to make the local staple, hand-rolled (that is, made without a rolling pin) flat bread (''rotla'' in Gujarati, ''[[bhakri]]'' in Marathi, or ''[[roti]]'' in other languages). Another cereal grain popularly used in rural areas and by poor people to consume as a staple in the form of ''roti''. Other millets such as ''ragi'' (finger millet) in [[Karnataka]], ''naachanie'' in [[Maharashtra]], or ''kezhvaragu'' in Tamil, "ragulu" in Telugu, with the popular ''[[ragi rotti]]'' and ''[[Ragi mudde]]'' is a popular meal in Karnataka. Ragi, as it is popularly known, is dark in color like rye, but rougher in texture.{{cn|date=December 2024}} |
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Millet [[porridge]] is a traditional food in [[Russian cuisine|Russian]], [[German cuisine|German]], [[Ukrainian cuisine|Ukrainian]] and [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] cuisines. In Russia, it is eaten sweet (with milk and [[sugar]] added at the end of the cooking process) or savoury with meat or vegetable stews. In China, it is eaten without milk or sugar, frequently with beans, [[sweet potato]], and/or various types of [[squash (plant)|squash]]. In Germany, it is also eaten sweet, boiled in water with [[apple]]s added during the boiling process and [[honey]] added during the cooling process. In [[Ukraine]], millet was historically a very common ingredient in the diet of the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]], particularly in the form of a porridge called "kulish". This dish, primarily made with millet and a variety of stewed vegetables and meat, typically cooked in a cauldron, remains a part of modern [[Ukrainian cuisine]].{{cn|date=December 2024}} |
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Millet is the main ingredient in bánh đa kê, a Vietnamese sweet snack. It contains a layer of smashed millet and mungbean topped with sliced dried [[coconut]] meat wrapped in a crunchy rice cake.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://dulich.vnexpress.net/tin-tuc/dau-chan/ba-nh-da-ke-mo-n-qua-va-t-cu-a-nguo-i-ha-no-i-3467611.html|title=Bánh đa kê - món quà vặt của người Hà Nội|access-date=7 December 2018|language=vi}}</ref> In parts of Africa it is mixed with milk and consumed as [[Brukina]].{{cn|date=December 2024}} |
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<gallery mode=packed widths=160 heights=160> |
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File:Awaokoshi 01.jpg|''{{visible anchor|Awaokoshi}}'', candied millet [[puffed grain|puffs]], are a specialty of [[Osaka]], Japan. |
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File:Bánh đa kê.jpg|Bánh đa kê, a specialty sweet snack in [[Hanoi]], Vietnam |
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File:Tongba.jpg|''[[Tongba]]'', a millet-based alcoholic brew from [[Nepal]] and [[Sikkim, India|Sikkim]] |
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</gallery> |
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=== Alcoholic beverages === |
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In India, various alcoholic beverages are produced from millets.<ref name="Kumar-2018">{{Cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Ashwani|last2=Tomer|first2=Vidisha|last3=Kaur|first3=Amarjeet|last4=Kumar|first4=Vikas|last5=Gupta|first5=Kritika|date=2018-04-27|title=Millets: a solution to agrarian and nutritional challenges|journal=Agriculture & Food Security|volume=7|issue=1 |pages=31|doi=10.1186/s40066-018-0183-3|issn=2048-7010|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018AgFS....7...31K }}</ref> Millet is also the base ingredient for the distilled liquor ''[[rakshi]]''.<ref name="Kumar-2018" /> |
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=== As forage === |
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In addition to being used for seed, millet is also used as a grazing forage crop. Instead of letting the plant reach maturity, it can be grazed by stock and is commonly used for [[sheep]] and cattle. |
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Millet is a [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plant, which means that it has good [[water-use efficiency]] and utilizes high temperature and is therefore a summer crop. A C4 plant uses a different enzyme in [[photosynthesis]] from [[C3 carbon fixation|C3]] plants, and this is why it improves water efficiency. |
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In southern [[Australia]] millet is used as a summer quality pasture, utilizing warm temperatures and summer storms. Millet is frost-sensitive and is sown after the frost period, once soil temperature has stabilised at 14 °C or higher. It is sown at a shallow depth. |
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Millet grows rapidly and can be grazed 5–7 weeks after sowing, when it is 20–30 cm high. The highest feed value is from the young green leaf and shoots. The plant can quickly come to head, so it must be managed accordingly because as the plant matures, the value and palatability of feed reduces. |
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The Japanese millets (''[[Echinochloa esculenta]]'') are considered the best for grazing and in particular Shirohie, a new variety of Japanese millet, is the best suited variety for grazing. This is due to a number of factors: it gives better regrowth and is later to mature compared to other Japanese millets; it is cheap – cost of seed is $2–$3 per kg; it is quick to establish, can be grazed early, and is suitable for both sheep and cattle.{{cn|date=August 2024}} |
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Compared to forage sorghum, which is grown as an alternative grazing forage, animals gain weight faster on millet, and it has better hay or silage potential, although it produces less dry matter. Lambs do better on millet compared to [[sorghum]].<ref name="Collett 2004" /> Millet does not contain [[prussic acid]], which can be in sorghum. Prussic acid poisons animals by inhibiting oxygen utilisation by the cells and is transported in the blood around the body — ultimately the animal will die from [[asphyxia]].<ref name="Robson 2007" /> There is no need for additional feed supplements such as [[sulfur]] or salt blocks with millet. |
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The rapid growth of millet as a grazing crop allows flexibility in its use. Farmers can wait until sufficient late spring / summer moisture is present and then make use of it. It is ideally suited to irrigation where livestock finishing is required.<ref name="Collett 2004">{{cite web |last=Collett |first=Ian J. |title=Forage Sorghum and Millet |url=http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/146616/forage-sorghum-and-millet.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822230144/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/146616/forage-sorghum-and-millet.pdf |archive-date=2008-08-22 |url-status=live |work=District Agronomist, Tamworth |publisher=NSW Department of Primary Industries |access-date=7 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="Robson 2007">{{cite web |last=Robson |first=Sarah |title=Dr |url=http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/111190/prussic-acid-poisoning-in-livestock.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/111190/prussic-acid-poisoning-in-livestock.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |work=primefact 417, Prussic Acid Poisoning in Livestock |publisher=NSW Department of Primary Industries |access-date=7 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="Lonewood Trust">{{cite web |last=Lonewood Trust |url=http://aussiesapphire.com/documents/SHIROHIE_MILLET_GROWING_GUIDE.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://aussiesapphire.com/documents/SHIROHIE_MILLET_GROWING_GUIDE.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title = Shirohie Millet Growing Guide | access-date = 7 November 2013}}</ref> |
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== Human consumption == |
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Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the world, with consumption being the highest in Western Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Millet Industry Statistics in Africa {{!}} SME Blue Pages |url=https://smebluepages.com/millet-industry-statistics-in-africa/ |access-date=2024-08-21 |language=en-US}}</ref> In the Sahel region, millet is estimated to account for about 35 percent of total cereal food consumption in [[Burkina Faso]], [[Chad]] and the [[Gambia]]. In [[Mali]] and [[Senegal]], millets constitute roughly 40 percent of total cereal food consumption per capita, while in [[Niger]] and arid [[Namibia]] it is over 65 percent (see ''[[mahangu]]''). Other countries in Africa where millets are a significant food source include [[Ethiopia]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Uganda]]. Millet is also an important food item for the population living in the drier parts of many other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries of western Africa. In developing countries outside Africa, millet has local significance as a food in parts of some countries, such as [[China]], [[India]], [[Burma]] and [[North Korea]].<ref name=fao1/> |
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People affected by [[gluten-related disorders]], such as [[coeliac disease]], [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity]] and [[wheat allergy]] sufferers,<ref name=LudvigssonLeffler2013>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ludvigsson JF, Leffler DA, Bai JC, Biagi F, Fasano A, Green PH, Hadjivassiliou M, Kaukinen K, Kelly CP, Leonard JN, Lundin KE, Murray JA, Sanders DS, Walker MM, Zingone F, Ciacci C |title=The Oslo definitions for coeliac disease and related terms |journal=Gut |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=43–52 |date=January 2013 |pmc=3440559 |doi=10.1136/gutjnl-2011-301346 |pmid=22345659}}</ref><ref name=MulderWanrooij>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mulder CJ, van Wanrooij RL, Bakker SF, Wierdsma N, Bouma G |title=Gluten-free diet in gluten-related disorders |journal=Dig. Dis. |volume=31|issue=1|pages=57–62|date=2013|pmid=23797124|doi=10.1159/000347180 |s2cid=14124370 |type= Review}}</ref><ref name=VoltaCaio2015>{{cite journal |vauthors=Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE|title=Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol |volume=29|issue=3|pages=477–91|date=Jun 2015|pmid=26060112 |doi=10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006}}</ref> who need a [[gluten-free diet]], can replace [[gluten]]-containing cereals in their diets with millet.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Rai S, Kaur A, Singh B|title=Quality characteristics of gluten free cookies prepared from different flour combinations|journal =J Food Sci Technol|volume=51|issue=4|pages=785–9|date=Apr 2014|pmid=24741176|pmc=3982011|doi=10.1007/s13197-011-0547-1}}</ref> Nevertheless, while millet does not contain [[gluten]], its grains and flour may be contaminated with [[gluten]]-containing cereals.<ref name="SaturniFerretti2010">{{cite journal |vauthors=Saturni L, Ferretti G, Bacchetti T |title=The gluten-free diet: safety and nutritional quality |journal=Nutrients |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=16–34 | date=January 2010 |pmid=22253989 |pmc=3257612 |doi=10.3390/nu2010016 |type=Review|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=24124879|year=2013|last1=Koerner|first1=T. B.|title=Gluten contamination of naturally gluten-free flours and starches used by Canadians with celiac disease|journal=Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A|volume=30|issue=12|pages=2017–21|last2=Cleroux|first2=C|last3=Poirier|first3=C|last4=Cantin|first4=I|last5=La Vieille|first5=S|last6=Hayward|first6=S|last7=Dubois|first7=S|doi=10.1080/19440049.2013.840744|s2cid=24336942}}</ref> |
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== Nutrition == |
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=== Comparison with other staples === |
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The following table shows the nutrient content of millet compared to major staple foods in a raw form.<ref name="usdamillet"/> |
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;" |
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|+ Nutrient profile comparison of proso millet with other food staples<ref name="usdamillet">{{cite web |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169702/nutrients |title=Raw millet per 100 g, Full Report |publisher=USDA National Nutrient Database, Release 28 |date=2015 |access-date=3 December 2015}}</ref> |
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! Component<br> (per 100 g portion, raw grain) !! [[Cassava]]{{efn|Raw, uncooked}}!! [[Wheat]]{{efn|Hard red winter.}}!! [[Rice]]{{efn|White, long-grain, regular, raw, unenriched.}}!! [[Maize]]{{efn|Sweet, yellow, raw.}}!! [[Sorghum]]{{efn|Sorghum, edible portion white variety.}}!! Proso<br> millet{{efn|Millet, proso variety, raw.}} |
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!Kodo<br> millet<ref name="Kumar-2018" /> |
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|- |
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| water (g) || 60 || 13.1 || 12 || 76 || 9.2 || 8.7 |
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| |
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|- |
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| energy (kJ) || 667 || 1368 || 1527 || 360 || 1418 || '''1582''' |
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|1462 |
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|- |
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| protein (g) || 1.4 || '''12.6''' || 7 || 3 || 11.3 || 11 |
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|9.94 |
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|- |
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| fat (g) || 0.3 || 1.5 || 1 || 1 || 3.3 || '''4.2''' |
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|3.03 |
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|- |
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| carbohydrates (g) || 38 || 71.2 || '''79''' || 19 || 75 || 73 |
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|63.82 |
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|- |
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| fiber (g) || 1.8 || '''12.2''' || 1 || 3 || 6.3 || 8.5 |
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|8.2 |
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|- |
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| sugars (g) || 1.7 || 0.4 || >0.1 || '''3''' || 1.9 || |
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| |
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|- |
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| iron (mg) || 0.27 || 3.2 || 0.8 || 0.5 || '''4.4''' || 3 |
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|3.17 |
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|- |
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| manganese (mg) || 0.4 || '''3.9''' || 1.1 || 0.2 || <0.1 || 1.6 |
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| |
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|- |
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| calcium (mg) || 16 || 29 || 28 || 2 || 28 || 8 |
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|'''32.33''' |
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|- |
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| magnesium (mg) || 21 || '''126''' || 25 || 37 || <120 || 114 |
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| |
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|- |
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| phosphorus (mg) || 27 || '''288''' || 115 || 89 || 287 || 285 |
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|300 |
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|- |
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| potassium (mg) || 271 || 363 || 115 || 270 || 350 || 195 |
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| |
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|- |
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| zinc (mg) || 0.3 || '''2.6''' || 1.1 || 0.5 || <1 || 1.7 |
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|32.7 |
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|- |
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| pantothenic acid (mg) || 0.1 || 0.9 || '''1.0''' || 0.7 || <0.9 || 0.8 |
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| |
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|- |
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| vitB6 (mg) || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.2 || 0.1 || <0.3 || '''0.4''' |
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| |
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|- |
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| folate (μg) || 27 || 38 || 8 || 42 || <25 || '''85''' |
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| |
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|- |
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| thiamin (mg) || 0.1 || 0.38 || 0.1 || 0.2 || 0.2 || '''0.4''' |
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|0.15 |
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|- |
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| riboflavin (mg) || <0.1 || 0.1|| >0.1 || 0.1 || 0.1 || '''0.3''' |
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|2.0 |
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|- |
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| niacin (mg) || 0.9 || '''5.5''' || 1.6 || 1.8 || 2.9 || |
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|0.09 |
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|} |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |
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|+ Nutrient content of raw millets compared to other grains<ref name="millets-2009">{{cite book |title=Millets 2009 |publisher=National Forum for Policy Dialogues |location=India |page=4 |url=https://milletindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/II_National_Consulate.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928182351/https://milletindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/II_National_Consulate.pdf |archive-date=2020-09-28 |url-status=live |access-date=17 September 2021}}</ref> |
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|- |
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! Crop / nutrient !! Protein (g) !! Fiber (g) !! Minerals (g) !! Iron (mg) !! Calcium (mg) |
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|- |
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| Sorghum || 10 || 4 || 1.6 || 2.6 || 54 |
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|- |
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| Pearl millet || 10.6 || 1.3 || 2.3 || 16.9 || 38 |
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|- |
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| Finger millet || 7.3 || 3.6 || 2.7 || 3.9 || 344 |
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|- |
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| Foxtail millet || 12.3 || 8 || 3.3 || 2.8 || 31 |
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|- |
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| Proso millet || 12.5 || 2.2 || 1.9 || 0.8 || 14 |
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|- |
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| Kodo millet || 8.3 || 9 || 2.6 || 0.5 || 27 |
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|- |
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| Little millet || 7.7 || 7.6 || 1.5 || 9.3 || 17 |
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|- |
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| Barnyard millet || 11.2 || 10.1 || 4.4 || 15.2 || 11 |
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|- |
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| Brown top millet || 11.5 || 12.5 || 4.2 || 0.65 || 0.01 |
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|- |
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| Quinoa || 14.1 || 7 || * || 4.6 || 47 |
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|- |
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| Teff || 13 || 8 || 0.85 || 7.6 || 180 |
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|- |
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| Fonio || 11 || 11.3 || 5.31 || 84.8 || 18 |
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|- |
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| Rice || 6.8 || 0.2 || 0.6 || 0.7 || 10 |
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|- |
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| Wheat || 11.8 || 1.2 || 1.5 || 5.3 || 41 |
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|} |
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== See also == |
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* [[Fura (food)]] |
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* [[List of ancient dishes|List of ancient dishes and foods]] |
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* [[List of insect pests of millets]] |
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== Notes == |
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{{notelist|30em}} |
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== References == |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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== Bibliography == |
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* {{cite book |last=Crawford |first=Gary W. |title=Paleoethnobotany of the Kameda Peninsula |publisher=Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan |location=Ann Arbor |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-932206-95-4 }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Crawford |first=Gary W. |chapter=Prehistoric Plant Domestication in East Asia |editor1=Cowan C.W. |editor2=Watson P.J |title=The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-87474-990-8 |pages=117–132 }} |
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* {{cite journal |last1=Crawford |first1=Gary W. |first2=Gyoung-Ah |last2=Lee |title=Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula |journal=Antiquity |volume=77 |issue=295 |pages=87–95 |year=2003 |doi=10.1017/s0003598x00061378 |s2cid=163060564 }} |
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== External links == |
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{{Commons category|Millet}} |
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* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Millet |volume=18 |short=x}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|chapter-url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/millet.html |
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|title=Alternative Field Crops Manual |
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|chapter=Millets |
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}} |
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* [https://twobrothersindiashop.com/blogs/food-health/types-of-millets Types of Millets and Names in Different Language] |
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{{Cereals}} |
{{Cereals}} |
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[[Category:Millets| ]] |
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[[Category:Millets|*]] |
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Latest revision as of 16:19, 16 December 2024
Millets (/ˈmɪlɪts/)[1] are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae.
Millets are important crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa, especially in India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger, with 97% of production in developing countries.[2] The crop is favoured for its productivity and short growing season under hot dry conditions. The millets are sometimes understood to include the widely cultivated sorghum; apart from that, pearl millet is the most commonly cultivated of the millets.[3] Finger millet, proso millet, and foxtail millet are other important crop species. Millets may have been consumed by humans for about 7,000 years and potentially had "a pivotal role in the rise of multi-crop agriculture and settled farming societies".[4]
Names and etymology
[edit]Etymologically, millet is a term derived from Latin millium, the Latin name for these plants.
In ancient Egyptian millet was called besha or beṭ-t, in Coptic ⲃϣⲧⲉ (bēshte).[5]
Description
[edit]Millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to the grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other major cereals.[6]
-
Finger millet in the field
-
Ripe head of proso millet
-
Sprouting millet plants
Phylogeny
[edit]The millets are closely related to sorghum and maize within the PACMAD clade of grasses, and more distantly to the cereals of the BOP clade such as wheat and barley.[7]
(Part of Poaceae) |
| ||||||||||||
Taxonomy
[edit]The different species of millets are not all closely related. All are members of the family Poaceae (the grasses), but they belong to different tribes and subfamilies. Commonly cultivated millets are:[8]
Eragrostideae tribe in the subfamily Chloridoideae:
- Eleusine coracana: Finger millet
- Eragrostis tef: Teff; often not considered to be a millet[9]
Paniceae tribe in the subfamily Panicoideae:
- Genus Panicum:
- Panicum miliaceum: Proso millet (common millet, broomcorn millet, hog millet, or white millet, also known as baragu in Kannada, panivaragu in Tamil)
- Panicum sumatrense: Little millet
- Panicum hirticaule: Sonoran millet, cultivated in the American Southwest
- Pennisetum glaucum: Pearl millet
- Setaria italica: Foxtail millet, Italian millet, panic[10]
- Genus Digitaria: of minor importance as crops[9]
- Digitaria exilis: known as white fonio, fonio millet, and hungry rice or acha rice
- Digitaria iburua: Black fonio
- Digitaria compacta: Raishan, cultivated in the Khasi Hills of northeast India
- Digitaria sanguinalis: Polish millet
- Genus Echinochloa: collectively, the members of this genus are called barnyard grasses or barnyard millets
- Echinochloa esculenta: Japanese barnyard millet
- Echinochloa frumentacea: Indian barnyard millet
- Echinochloa oryzoides
- Echinochloa stagnina: Burgu millet
- Echinochloa crus-galli: Common barnyard grass (or cockspur grass)
- Paspalum scrobiculatum: Kodo millet
- Brachiaria deflexa: Guinea millet
- Brachiaria ramosa: Browntop millet[11]
- Spodiopogon formosanus: Taiwan oil millet, endemic to Taiwan[12]
Andropogoneae tribe, also in the subfamily Panicoideae:
- Sorghum bicolor: Sorghum; usually considered a separate cereal, but sometimes known as great millet
- Coix lacryma-jobi: Job's tears, also known as adlay millet[9]
Domestication and spread
[edit]Specialized archaeologists called palaeoethnobotanists, relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in prehistory than rice, especially in northern China and Korea.[13]
The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought,[14] and this has been suggested to have aided its spread.[15] Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region of Europe by 5000 BC.[15]
Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BC, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from the Late Bronze Age in Macedonia and northern Greece.[16] Hesiod describes that "the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer."[17][18] And millet is listed along with wheat in the third century BC by Theophrastus in his "Enquiry into Plants".[19]
East Asia
[edit]Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan (north), where proso millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation.[14] Evidence at Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 8,700 years ago.[14] Noodles made from these two varieties of millet were found under a 4,000-year-old earthenware bowl containing well-preserved noodles at the Lajia archaeological site in north China; this is the oldest evidence of millet noodles in China.[20][21]
Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the Korean Peninsula dating to the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (around 3500–2000 BC).[22] Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of the Mumun pottery period (about 1500–300 BC) in Korea.[23] Millets and their wild ancestors, such as barnyard grass and panic grass, were also cultivated in Japan during the Jōmon period sometime after 4000 BC.[24]
Chinese myths attribute the domestication of millet to Shennong, a legendary Emperor of China, and Hou Ji, whose name means Lord Millet.[25]
Indian Subcontinent
[edit]Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) is believed to have been domesticated around 5000 BC in Indian subcontinent and Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) around 3700 BC, also in Indian subcontinent.[26][27] Various millets have been mentioned in some of the Yajurveda texts, identifying foxtail millet (priyaṅgu), Barnyard millet (aṇu) and black finger millet (śyāmāka), indicating that millet cultivation was happening around 1200 BC in India.[28] Upon request by the Indian Government in 2018, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations(FAO) declared 2023 as International Year of Millets.[29]
West Africa
[edit]Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) was domesticated in the Sahel region of West Africa from Pennisetum violaceum.[30] Early archaeological evidence in Africa includes finds at Birimi in northern Ghana (1740 cal BC) and Dhar Tichitt in Mauritania (1936–1683 cal BC) and the lower Tilemsi valley in Mali (2500 to 2000 cal BC).[30][31] Studies of isozymes suggest domestication took place north east of the Senegal River in the far west of the Sahel and tentatively around 6000 BC.[30][31] Pearl millet had arrived in the Indian subcontinent by 2000 BC to 1700 BC.[31]
East Africa
[edit]Finger millet is originally native to the highlands of East Africa and was domesticated before the third millennium BC. Its cultivation had spread to South India by 1800 BC.[32]
Research
[edit]Research on millets is carried out by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)[33][34][35] and ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research[36] in Telangana, India, and by the United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service at Tifton, Georgia, United States.[37]
Cultivation
[edit]Pearl millet is one of the two major crops in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile agriculture regions of Africa and southeast Asia.[38] Millets are not only adapted to poor, dry infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these conditions than most other grain crops. This has, in part, made millet production popular, particularly in countries surrounding the Sahara in western Africa.[citation needed]
Millets, however, do respond to high fertility and moisture. On a per-hectare basis, millet grain production can be 2 to 4 times higher with use of irrigation and soil supplements. Improved breeds of millet with enhanced disease resistance can significantly increase farm yield. There has been cooperation between poor countries to improve millet yields. For example, 'Okashana 1', a variety developed in India from a natural-growing millet variety in Burkina Faso, doubled yields. This breed was selected for trials in Zimbabwe. From there it was taken to Namibia, where it was released in 1990 and enthusiastically adopted by farmers. 'Okashana 1' became the most popular variety in Namibia, the only non-Sahelian country where pearl millet—locally known as mahangu—is the dominant food staple for consumers. 'Okashana 1' was then introduced to Chad. The breed has significantly enhanced yields in Mauritania and Benin.[39]
Production
[edit]Top Millet producers | |
---|---|
in 2022 | |
Numbers in million tonnes | |
1. India | 11.8 (38.19%) |
2. Niger | 3.7 (11.97%) |
3. China | 2.7 (8.74%) |
4. Nigeria | 1.9 (6.15%) |
5. Mali | 1.8 (5.83%) |
6. Sudan | 1.7 (5.5%) |
7. Ethiopia | 1.2 (3.88%) |
8. Senegal | 1.1 (3.56%) |
9. Burkina Faso | 0.9 (2.91%) |
10. Chad | 0.7 (2.27%) |
World total | 30.9 |
Source: FAOSTAT[40] |
In 2022, global production of millet was 30.9 million tonnes. India is the top millet producer worldwide, with 11.8 million tonnes grown annually – some 38% of the world total and nearly triple its nearest rival. Eight of the remaining nine nations in the top 10 producers are in Africa, ranging from Niger (at 3.7 million tonnes) to Chad (0.7 million tonnes); the sole exception is China, number three in global production, at 2.7 million tonnes.
Uses
[edit]As food
[edit]Millets are major food sources in arid and semiarid regions of the world, and feature in the traditional cuisine of many others. In western India, sorghum (called jowar, jola, dzonnalu, jwaarie, or jondhahlaa in Gujarati, Kannada, Telugu, Hindi and Marathi languages, respectively; mutthaari, kora, or panjappullu in Malayalam; or cholam in Tamil) has been commonly used with millet flour (called jowari in western India) for hundreds of years to make the local staple, hand-rolled (that is, made without a rolling pin) flat bread (rotla in Gujarati, bhakri in Marathi, or roti in other languages). Another cereal grain popularly used in rural areas and by poor people to consume as a staple in the form of roti. Other millets such as ragi (finger millet) in Karnataka, naachanie in Maharashtra, or kezhvaragu in Tamil, "ragulu" in Telugu, with the popular ragi rotti and Ragi mudde is a popular meal in Karnataka. Ragi, as it is popularly known, is dark in color like rye, but rougher in texture.[citation needed]
Millet porridge is a traditional food in Russian, German, Ukrainian and Chinese cuisines. In Russia, it is eaten sweet (with milk and sugar added at the end of the cooking process) or savoury with meat or vegetable stews. In China, it is eaten without milk or sugar, frequently with beans, sweet potato, and/or various types of squash. In Germany, it is also eaten sweet, boiled in water with apples added during the boiling process and honey added during the cooling process. In Ukraine, millet was historically a very common ingredient in the diet of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, particularly in the form of a porridge called "kulish". This dish, primarily made with millet and a variety of stewed vegetables and meat, typically cooked in a cauldron, remains a part of modern Ukrainian cuisine.[citation needed]
Millet is the main ingredient in bánh đa kê, a Vietnamese sweet snack. It contains a layer of smashed millet and mungbean topped with sliced dried coconut meat wrapped in a crunchy rice cake.[41] In parts of Africa it is mixed with milk and consumed as Brukina.[citation needed]
-
Bánh đa kê, a specialty sweet snack in Hanoi, Vietnam
Alcoholic beverages
[edit]In India, various alcoholic beverages are produced from millets.[42] Millet is also the base ingredient for the distilled liquor rakshi.[42]
As forage
[edit]In addition to being used for seed, millet is also used as a grazing forage crop. Instead of letting the plant reach maturity, it can be grazed by stock and is commonly used for sheep and cattle.
Millet is a C4 plant, which means that it has good water-use efficiency and utilizes high temperature and is therefore a summer crop. A C4 plant uses a different enzyme in photosynthesis from C3 plants, and this is why it improves water efficiency.
In southern Australia millet is used as a summer quality pasture, utilizing warm temperatures and summer storms. Millet is frost-sensitive and is sown after the frost period, once soil temperature has stabilised at 14 °C or higher. It is sown at a shallow depth.
Millet grows rapidly and can be grazed 5–7 weeks after sowing, when it is 20–30 cm high. The highest feed value is from the young green leaf and shoots. The plant can quickly come to head, so it must be managed accordingly because as the plant matures, the value and palatability of feed reduces.
The Japanese millets (Echinochloa esculenta) are considered the best for grazing and in particular Shirohie, a new variety of Japanese millet, is the best suited variety for grazing. This is due to a number of factors: it gives better regrowth and is later to mature compared to other Japanese millets; it is cheap – cost of seed is $2–$3 per kg; it is quick to establish, can be grazed early, and is suitable for both sheep and cattle.[citation needed]
Compared to forage sorghum, which is grown as an alternative grazing forage, animals gain weight faster on millet, and it has better hay or silage potential, although it produces less dry matter. Lambs do better on millet compared to sorghum.[43] Millet does not contain prussic acid, which can be in sorghum. Prussic acid poisons animals by inhibiting oxygen utilisation by the cells and is transported in the blood around the body — ultimately the animal will die from asphyxia.[44] There is no need for additional feed supplements such as sulfur or salt blocks with millet.
The rapid growth of millet as a grazing crop allows flexibility in its use. Farmers can wait until sufficient late spring / summer moisture is present and then make use of it. It is ideally suited to irrigation where livestock finishing is required.[43][44][45]
Human consumption
[edit]Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the world, with consumption being the highest in Western Africa.[46] In the Sahel region, millet is estimated to account for about 35 percent of total cereal food consumption in Burkina Faso, Chad and the Gambia. In Mali and Senegal, millets constitute roughly 40 percent of total cereal food consumption per capita, while in Niger and arid Namibia it is over 65 percent (see mahangu). Other countries in Africa where millets are a significant food source include Ethiopia, Nigeria and Uganda. Millet is also an important food item for the population living in the drier parts of many other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries of western Africa. In developing countries outside Africa, millet has local significance as a food in parts of some countries, such as China, India, Burma and North Korea.[9]
People affected by gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers,[47][48][49] who need a gluten-free diet, can replace gluten-containing cereals in their diets with millet.[50] Nevertheless, while millet does not contain gluten, its grains and flour may be contaminated with gluten-containing cereals.[51][52]
Nutrition
[edit]Comparison with other staples
[edit]The following table shows the nutrient content of millet compared to major staple foods in a raw form.[53]
Component (per 100 g portion, raw grain) |
Cassava[a] | Wheat[b] | Rice[c] | Maize[d] | Sorghum[e] | Proso millet[f] |
Kodo millet[42] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
water (g) | 60 | 13.1 | 12 | 76 | 9.2 | 8.7 | |
energy (kJ) | 667 | 1368 | 1527 | 360 | 1418 | 1582 | 1462 |
protein (g) | 1.4 | 12.6 | 7 | 3 | 11.3 | 11 | 9.94 |
fat (g) | 0.3 | 1.5 | 1 | 1 | 3.3 | 4.2 | 3.03 |
carbohydrates (g) | 38 | 71.2 | 79 | 19 | 75 | 73 | 63.82 |
fiber (g) | 1.8 | 12.2 | 1 | 3 | 6.3 | 8.5 | 8.2 |
sugars (g) | 1.7 | 0.4 | >0.1 | 3 | 1.9 | ||
iron (mg) | 0.27 | 3.2 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 4.4 | 3 | 3.17 |
manganese (mg) | 0.4 | 3.9 | 1.1 | 0.2 | <0.1 | 1.6 | |
calcium (mg) | 16 | 29 | 28 | 2 | 28 | 8 | 32.33 |
magnesium (mg) | 21 | 126 | 25 | 37 | <120 | 114 | |
phosphorus (mg) | 27 | 288 | 115 | 89 | 287 | 285 | 300 |
potassium (mg) | 271 | 363 | 115 | 270 | 350 | 195 | |
zinc (mg) | 0.3 | 2.6 | 1.1 | 0.5 | <1 | 1.7 | 32.7 |
pantothenic acid (mg) | 0.1 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 0.7 | <0.9 | 0.8 | |
vitB6 (mg) | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | <0.3 | 0.4 | |
folate (μg) | 27 | 38 | 8 | 42 | <25 | 85 | |
thiamin (mg) | 0.1 | 0.38 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.15 |
riboflavin (mg) | <0.1 | 0.1 | >0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 2.0 |
niacin (mg) | 0.9 | 5.5 | 1.6 | 1.8 | 2.9 | 0.09 |
Crop / nutrient | Protein (g) | Fiber (g) | Minerals (g) | Iron (mg) | Calcium (mg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sorghum | 10 | 4 | 1.6 | 2.6 | 54 |
Pearl millet | 10.6 | 1.3 | 2.3 | 16.9 | 38 |
Finger millet | 7.3 | 3.6 | 2.7 | 3.9 | 344 |
Foxtail millet | 12.3 | 8 | 3.3 | 2.8 | 31 |
Proso millet | 12.5 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 0.8 | 14 |
Kodo millet | 8.3 | 9 | 2.6 | 0.5 | 27 |
Little millet | 7.7 | 7.6 | 1.5 | 9.3 | 17 |
Barnyard millet | 11.2 | 10.1 | 4.4 | 15.2 | 11 |
Brown top millet | 11.5 | 12.5 | 4.2 | 0.65 | 0.01 |
Quinoa | 14.1 | 7 | * | 4.6 | 47 |
Teff | 13 | 8 | 0.85 | 7.6 | 180 |
Fonio | 11 | 11.3 | 5.31 | 84.8 | 18 |
Rice | 6.8 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 10 |
Wheat | 11.8 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 5.3 | 41 |
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ "Definition of millet". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University. Retrieved 21 July 2017.
- ^ McDonough, Cassandrea M.; Rooney, Lloyd W.; Serna-Saldivar, Sergio O. (2000). "The Millets". Food Science and Technology: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. 99 (2nd ed.). CRC Press: 177–210.
- ^ "Annex II: Relative importance of millet species, 1992–94". The World Sorghum and Millet Economies: Facts, Trends and Outlook. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1996. ISBN 978-92-5-103861-1.
- ^ Cherfas, Jeremy (23 December 2015). "Millet: How A Trendy Ancient Grain Turned Nomads Into Farmers". National Public Radio. The Salt. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
- ^ Budge E. A. W., Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Vol 2, 1920
- ^ Fahad, Shah; Bajwa, Ali A.; Nazir, Usman; Anjum, Shakeel A.; Farooq, Ayesha; Zohaib, Ali; Sadia, Sehrish; Nasim, Wajid; Adkins, Steve; Saud, Shah; Ihsan, Muhammad Z.; Alharby, Hesham; Wu, Chao; Wang, Depeng; Huang, Jianliang (29 June 2017). "Crop Production under Drought and Heat Stress: Plant Responses and Management Options". Frontiers in Plant Science. 8: 1147. doi:10.3389/fpls.2017.01147. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 5489704. PMID 28706531.
- ^ Taylor, John R.N.; Duodu, Kwaku G., eds. (2019). Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry, Technology, and Nutritional Attributes (2nd ed.). Elsevier. p. 3. ISBN 9780128115275. eISBN 9780128115282.
- ^ a b c d "Sorghum and millet in human nutrition". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1995. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
- ^ "panic". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) from classical Latin pānicum (or pānīcum) Italian millet.
- ^ "Browntop Millet" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
- ^ Takei, Emiko (October 2013). Millet Culture and Indigenous Cuisine in Taiwan. The 2013 International Conference on Chinese Food Culture, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
- ^ Manjul, Tarannum (21 January 2006). "Millets older than wheat, rice: Archaeologists". Lucknow Newsline. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 14 April 2008.
- ^ a b c Lu, H.; Zhang, J.; Liu, K. B.; Wu, N.; Li, Y.; Zhou, K.; Ye, M.; Zhang, T.; et al. (2009). "Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (18): 7367–72. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.7367L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMC 2678631. PMID 19383791.
- ^ a b Lawler, A. (2009). "Bridging East and West: Millet on the move". Science. 325 (5943): 942–943. doi:10.1126/science.325_940. PMID 19696328.
- ^ Nesbitt, Mark; Summers, Geoffrey (January 1988). "Some Recent Discoveries of Millet (Panicum miliaceum L. and Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.) at Excavations in Turkey and Iran". Anatolian Studies. 38 (38): 85–97. doi:10.2307/3642844. JSTOR 3642844. S2CID 84670275. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
- ^ Hesiod (September 2013). Hesiod, the Poems and Fragments, Done Into English Prose. Theclassics Us. pp. fragments S396–423. ISBN 978-1-230-26344-1.
- ^ "The Poems and Fragments | Online Library of Liberty".
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Bibliography
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External links
[edit]- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). 1911. .
- "Millets". Alternative Field Crops Manual.
- Types of Millets and Names in Different Language