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{{Short description|Edible green plant in the cabbage family}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox Cultivar | name = Broccoli
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
| image = Broccoli bunches.jpg
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
| image_width = 150px
| image_caption = Broccoli, cultivar unknown
{{Infobox cultivar
| name = Broccoli
| image = Broccoli and cross section edit.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| species = ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''
| species = ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''
| group = Italica Group
| group = Italica
| origin = [[Roman Italy|Italy]], more than 2,000 years ago<ref name="OTB">{{cite journal|title=Origin and taxonomy of broccoli|last=Buck|first=P. A.|journal=Economic Botany|volume=10|issue=3|pages=250–253|date=1956|doi=10.1007/bf02899000|s2cid=31365713}}</ref><ref name="JSUOF">{{cite web|url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mv031|title=Broccoli—Brassica oleracea L. (Italica group)|last=Stephens|first=James|publisher=University of Florida|page=1|access-date=14 May 2009|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225193103/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mv031|url-status=live}}</ref>
| origin = possibly [[Ancient Rome]]
| subdivision = Many; see text.
}}
}}


'''Broccoli''' is a plant of the [[Cabbage]] family, [[Brassicaceae]] (formerly Cruciferae). It is classified as the Italica [[Cultivar Group]] of the species ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''. Broccoli possesses abundant fleshy flower heads, usually green in colour, arranged in a tree-like fashion on branches sprouting from a thick, edible stalk. The large mass of flower heads is surrounded by leaves. Broccoli most closely resembles [[cauliflower]], which is a different cultivar group of the same species, but broccoli is green rather than white. In the United States, the term refers exclusively to the form with a single large head. This form is sometimes called "Calabrese" in the United Kingdom, where sprouting (non-heading) types and those with underdeveloped flower buds are also sold as broccoli.
'''Broccoli''' (''[[Brassica oleracea]]'' var. ''italica'') is an edible green plant in the [[Brassicaceae|cabbage family]] (family Brassicaceae, genus ''Brassica'') whose large [[Pseudanthium|flowering head]], [[plant stem|stalk]] and small associated [[leafy greens|leaves]] are eaten as a [[vegetable]]. Broccoli is classified in the Italica [[cultivar group]] of the species ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''. Broccoli has large [[flower head]]s, or florets, usually dark green, arranged in a tree-like structure branching out from a thick [[plant stem|stalk]], which is usually light green. Leaves surround the mass of flower heads. Broccoli resembles [[cauliflower]], a different but closely related cultivar group of the same ''Brassica'' species.

It can be eaten either raw or cooked. Broccoli is a particularly rich source of [[vitamin C]] and [[vitamin K]]. Contents of its characteristic [[sulfur]]-containing [[glucosinolate]] compounds, [[isothiocyanate]]s and [[sulforaphane]], are diminished by boiling but are better preserved by [[steaming]], [[microwave|microwaving]] or [[stir-fry]]ing.<ref name="Nugrahedi">{{cite journal|last1=Nugrahedi|first1=Probo Y.|last2=Verkerk|first2=Ruud|last3=Widianarko|first3=Budi|last4=Dekker|first4=Matthijs|title=A Mechanistic Perspective on Process-Induced Changes in Glucosinolate Content in Brassica Vegetables: A Review|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=55|issue=6|date=2015|issn=1040-8398|pmid=24915330|doi=10.1080/10408398.2012.688076|pages=823–838|s2cid=25728864|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262977227}}</ref>

[[Rapini]], sometimes called "broccoli rabe", is a distinct species from broccoli, forming similar but smaller heads, and is actually a type of [[turnip]] (''[[Brassica rapa]]'').<ref>{{Cite web|last=Main|first=Sandy|title=Rapini/Broccoli Raab|url=https://ucanr.edu/sites/scmg/The_Kitchen_Garden/Feature_Vegetables/Rapini_Broccoli_Raab/|url-status=live|access-date=13 September 2021|website=sonomamg.ucanr.edu|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530100002/http://ucanr.edu/sites/scmg/The_Kitchen_Garden/Feature_Vegetables/Rapini_Broccoli_Raab/ |archive-date=30 May 2015 }}</ref>
[[File:Broccoli plants growing in New Jersey in April.jpg|thumb|right|Broccoli plants in a nursery]]
[[File:sa broccoli florets.jpg|thumb|Close-ups of broccoli florets (click to enlarge)]]

== Taxonomy ==
''Brassica oleracea'' var. ''italica'' was described in 1794 by [[Joseph Jakob Plenck|Joseph Jakob von Plenck]] in ''Icones Plantarum Medicinalium'' 6:29, t. 534.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Missouri Botanical Garden |title=Brassica oleracea var. italica |url=http://legacy.tropicos.org/Name/4102963 |website=tropicos.org |publisher=Missouri Botanical Garden |access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref> Like all the other ''brassicas'', broccoli was developed from the wild cabbage ([[Brassica oleracea var. oleracea]]), also called [[colewort]] or field cabbage.

==Etymology==
The word ''broccoli'', first used in the [[17th century]], comes from the Italian plural of ''{{lang|it|[[wikt:broccolo#Italian|broccolo]]}}'', which means "the flowering crest of a [[cabbage]]", and is the diminutive form of ''brocco'', meaning "small nail" or "sprout".<ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Broccoli|encyclopedia=Online Etymology Dictionary|date=2022|accessdate=18 January 2023|url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=broccoli|archive-date=19 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119002022/https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=broccoli|url-status=live}}</ref>


==History==
==History==
Broccoli resulted from the breeding of [[landrace]] ''Brassica'' crops in the northern Mediterranean starting in about the sixth century BCE.<ref name="VB">{{cite journal|last1=Maggioni|first1=Lorenzo|title=Origin and Domestication of Cole Crops (''Brassica oleracea'' L.): Linguistic and Literary Considerations|journal=Economic Botany|volume=64|issue=2|pages=109–123|date=2010|doi=10.1007/s12231-010-9115-2|last2=Bothmer|first2=Roland|last3=Poulsen|first3=Gert|last4=Branca|first4=Ferdinando|hdl=10568/121874 |s2cid=2771884|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Broccoli has its origins in primitive cultivars grown in the [[Roman Empire]] and was most likely [[Plant breeding|improved]] via [[Selective breeding|artificial selection]] in the southern [[Italian Peninsula]] or in [[Sicily]].<ref name="NI">{{cite book|last=Nonnecke|first=Ib|title=Vegetable Production|publisher=Springer-Verlag New York, LLC|date=November 1989|page=394|isbn=978-0-442-26721-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7i8QJw8BJsC&pg=PA394|access-date=6 October 2020|archive-date=9 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309051152/https://books.google.com/books?id=H7i8QJw8BJsC&pg=PA394|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Stansell|first1=Zachary |last2=Björkman|first2=Thomas|date=1 October 2020|title=From landrace to modern hybrid broccoli: the genomic and morphological domestication syndrome within a diverse ''B. oleracea'' collection|journal=Horticulture Research|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|page=159|doi=10.1038/s41438-020-00375-0|pmid=33082966|pmc=7528014|bibcode=2020HorR....7..159S |issn=2052-7276|s2cid=224724369}}</ref><ref name="Stansell 1–10">{{cite journal|last1=Stansell|first1=Zachary|last2=Hyma|first2=Katie|last3=Fresnedo-Ramírez|first3=Jonathan|last4=Sun|first4=Qi|last5=Mitchell|first5=Sharon|last6=Björkman|first6=Thomas|last7=Hua|first7=Jian|date=1 July 2018|title=Genotyping-by-sequencing of ''Brassica oleracea'' vegetables reveals unique phylogenetic patterns, population structure and domestication footprints|journal=Horticulture Research|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|page=38|doi=10.1038/s41438-018-0040-3|pmid=29977574|pmc=6026498|bibcode=2018HorR....5...38S |issn=2052-7276}}</ref> Broccoli was spread to northern Europe by the 18th century and brought to North America in the 19th century by Italian immigrants.<ref name=":0" /> After the Second World War, the breeding of the [[Agriculture in the United States|United States]] and [[Agriculture in Japan|Japan]]ese [[F1 hybrid#In plants|F1 hybrids]] increased yields, quality, growth speed, and regional adaptation, which produced the cultivars commonly grown since then: 'Premium Crop', 'Packman', and 'Marathon'.<ref name=":0" />
[[Image:Broccoli crop.jpg|thumb|Test-plot-grown broccoli near Salinas, California, USA.]]
[[Image:2005cauliflower and broccoli.PNG|thumb|right|[[Cauliflower]] and broccoli output in 2005. Click the image for the details.]]
The word ''broccoli'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''bracchium'', meaning arm<ref name="VegParadise">[http://www.vegparadise.com/highestperch44.html Broccoli at VegParadise.com]</ref>, via the Italian ''braccio''. Broccoli is a cultivar of [[wild cabbage]], remaining exactly the same species. Wild cabbage originated along the northern and western coasts of the Mediterranean, where it was apparently domesticated thousands of years ago.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gray, A.R.|date=1982|title=Taxonomy and evolution of broccoli ('Brassica oleracea' L. var.
'italica')|journal= Economic Botany||volume=36|pages=397-410}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Boswell, V.R.|date=1949|title=Our vegetable travelers|journal= National Geographic Magazine||volume=96|pages=145-217}}</ref> That domesticated cabbage was eventually bred into widely varying forms, including broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, kale, kohlrabi, and brussels sprouts, all of which remain the same species.


==Description==
[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] references to a cabbage-family vegetable that may have been broccoli are less than perfectly clear: the Roman natural history writer, [[Pliny the Elder]], wrote about a vegetable that fit the description of broccoli. This would imply that the Romans grew their own broccoli for culinary uses during the [[1st century]]<ref name="VegParadise" />. Some vegetable scholars recognize broccoli in the [[cookbook]] of [[Apicius]].
[[File:Broccoli bloem.jpg|thumb|right|Broccoli flower]]


Broccoli is an [[Annual vs. perennial plant evolution|annual]] plant which can grow up to {{cvt|60|–|90|cm|in|-1}} tall.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |last1=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=broccoli, plant |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/broccoli |website=britannica.com |access-date=17 October 2023}}</ref>
Broccoli was an Italian vegetable, as its name suggests, long before it was eaten elsewhere. At that time it was a sprouting type, not the single large head that is seen today. It is first mentioned in [[France]] in [[1560]], but in [[1724]] broccoli was still so unfamiliar in [[England]] that [[Philip Miller]]'s ''Gardener's Dictionary'' (1724 edition) referred to it as a stranger in England and explained it as "sprout colli-flower" or "Italian asparagus." In the American colonies, [[Thomas Jefferson]] was also an experimenting gardener with a wide circle of European correspondents, from whom he got packets of seeds for rare vegetables such as [[tomato]]es. He noted the planting of broccoli at [[Monticello]] along with radishes, lettuce, and cauliflower on [[May 27]] [[1767]]. Nevertheless, broccoli remained exotic in American gardens. In [[1775]], John Randolph, in ''A Treatise on Gardening by a Citizen of Virginia,'' felt he had to explain about broccoli: "The stems will eat like [[Asparagus]], and the heads like [[cauliflower]]."


Broccoli is very similar to [[cauliflower]], but unlike it, its floral buds are well-formed and clearly visible.{{explain|date=December 2023}} The [[inflorescence]] grows at the end of a central, thick stem and is dark green. Violet, yellow, or even white heads have been created, but these varieties are rare. The flowers are yellow with four petals.
Italians brought broccoli to North America by [[1806]]<ref>[http://denver.yourhub.com/Arvada/Stories/Home-Garden/Story~310866.aspx History of Broccoli and Cauliflower at YourHub.com]</ref>, but it did not become popular until the [[1920s]]. Commercial cultivation of broccoli in the [[United States]] can be traced to the D'Arrigo brothers, Stephano and Andrea, Italian immigrants from [[Messina, Italy|Messina]], whose company made some tentative plantings in [[San Jose, California]], in [[1922]]. A few crates were initially shipped to [[Boston]], where there was a thriving [[Italian people|Italian]] immigrant culture in the [[North End]]. The broccoli business boomed, with the D'Arrigo's brand name "Andy Boy" named after Stephano's two-year-old son, Andrew, and backed with advertisements on the [[radio]].


The growth season for broccoli is 14–15 weeks. Broccoli is collected by hand immediately after the head is fully formed yet the flowers are still in their bud stage. The plant develops numerous little "heads" from the lateral shoots which can be harvested later.
Note that some respectable sources claim [[Albert R. Broccoli]]'s ancestors crossbred [[cauliflower]] with either [[pea]]s<ref>[http://www.mi6.co.uk/sections/articles/biography_cubby_broccoli.php3 Albert R. Broccoli's profile at MI6.co.uk]</ref> or [[Rapini|rabe]]<ref>[http://www.klast.net/bond/cubby.html Albert R. Broccoli's profile at Klast.net]</ref> to invent broccoli<ref>[http://www.funtrivia.com/en/Humanities/Definitions-4585.html Definitions at FunTrivia.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/03/03/db0302.xml Profile of Dana Broccoli from The Telegraph]</ref><ref>[http://www.aenews.wsu.edu/1996/jul96.htm Agrichemical and Environmental News at Washington State University]</ref>; this is considered to be an [[urban legend]], and probably untrue.


== Varieties ==
==Varieties==
There are three commonly grown types of broccoli.<ref name=":0" /> The most familiar is ''Calabrese broccoli'', often referred to simply as "broccoli", named after [[Calabria]] in Italy. It has large {{convert|10|to(-)|20|cm|in|0|adj=on}} green heads and thick stalks. It is a cool-season annual crop. ''Sprouting broccoli'' (white or purple) has a larger number of heads with many thin stalks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Broccoli|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/grow-your-own/vegetables/broccoli|website=[[Royal Horticultural Society]]|access-date=24 March 2020|archive-date=24 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200324233555/https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/grow-your-own/vegetables/broccoli|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Purple cauliflower'' or ''violet cauliflower'' is a type of broccoli grown in [[Europe]] and North America. It has a head shaped like cauliflower but consists of many tiny flower buds. Sometimes, but not always, it has a purple cast to the tips of the flower buds. Purple cauliflower may also be white, red, green, or other colors.<ref>{{citation|last=Branca|first=Ferdinando|title=Cauliflower and Broccoli|date=2008|work=Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae|pages=151–186|editor1-last=Prohens|editor1-first=Jaime|editor2-last=Nuez|editor2-first=Fernando|series=Handbook of Plant Breeding|volume=1|place=New York, NY|publisher=Springer|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-30443-4_5|isbn=978-0-387-30443-4}}</ref>


''Beneforté'' is a variety of broccoli containing 2–3 times more [[glucoraphanin]] and produced by crossing broccoli with a wild [[Brassica]] variety, ''Brassica oleracea'' var ''villosa''.<ref>{{cite web|title=British research leads to UK-wide launch of Beneforté broccoli|url=https://quadram.ac.uk/beneforte_uk_wide/|website=Quadram Institute|access-date=24 March 2020|date=25 June 2012}}</ref>
[[Image:PurpleCauliFloret.jpg|thumb|Purple cauliflower, a member of the Italica cultivar group.]]
There are three commonly grown types of broccoli. The most familiar is sometimes called '''Calabrese''' in Great Britain and simply 'broccoli' in North America. It has large (10 - 20 cm) green heads and thick stalks, and is named after [[Calabria]] in [[Italy]] where it was first cultivated. It is a cool season annual crop.


==Other cultivar groups of ''Brassica oleracea''==
'''Sprouting''' broccoli has a larger number of heads with many thin stalks. It is planted in May to be harvested during the winter or early the following year in temperate climates.
{{Main|Brassica oleracea#Cultivars}}
Other cultivar groups of ''Brassica oleracea'' include [[cabbage]] (Capitata Group), [[cauliflower]] and [[Romanesco broccoli]] (Botrytis Group), [[kale]] (Acephala Group), [[Collard (plant)|collard]] (Viridis Group), [[kohlrabi]] (Gongylodes Group), [[Brussels sprout]]s (Gemmifera Group), and [[kai-lan]] (Alboglabra Group).<ref name=Dixon2007>{{cite book|last1=Dixon|first1=G.R.|date=2007|title=Vegetable brassicas and related crucifers|isbn=978-0-85199-395-9|publisher=CABI|location=Wallingford}}</ref> As these groups are the same species, they readily hybridize: for example, [[broccolini]] or "Tenderstem broccoli" is a cross between broccoli and [[kai-lan]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stansell|first1=Zachary|last2=Farnham|first2=Mark|last3=Björkman|first3=Thomas|date=2019|title=Complex Horticultural Quality Traits in Broccoli Are Illuminated by Evaluation of the Immortal BolTBDH Mapping Population|journal=Frontiers in Plant Science|language=en|volume=10|page=1104|doi=10.3389/fpls.2019.01104|pmid=31620146|pmc=6759917|issn=1664-462X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Broccoli cultivars form the genetic basis of the "tropical cauliflowers" commonly grown in South and Southeastern Asia, although they produce a more cauliflower-like head in warmer conditions.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bjorkman|first1=T.|last2=Pearson|first2=K. J.|date=1 January 1998|title=High temperature arrest of inflorescence development in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica L.)|journal=Journal of Experimental Botany|volume=49|issue=318|pages=101–106|doi=10.1093/jxb/49.318.101|issn=0022-0957|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":0" />


{| class="wikitable floatright" style="clear:left; width:18em; text-align:center;"
'''[[Romanesco broccoli]]''' has a distinctive [[fractal]] appearance of its heads, and is yellow-green in colour. It is technically in the Botrytis ([[cauliflower]]) cultivar group
|-
! colspan=2 |Broccoli production — 2021<br /><small>(includes cauliflower)</small>
|-
! style="background:#ddf;"| Country
! style="background:#ddf;"| Production<br /><small>millions of tonnes</small>
|-
| {{CHN}} || 9.5
|-
| {{IND}} || 9.2
|-
| {{USA}} || 1.0
|-
| {{ESP}} || 0.7
|-
| {{MEX}} || 0.7
|-
| '''World''' || '''25.8'''
|-
| colspan=2 |<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]</small><ref name="fao">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Broccoli (and cauliflower) production in 2021, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2023|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=12 October 2023}}</ref>
|}


==Cultivation==
'''Purple cauliflower''' is a type of broccoli sold in southern Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom. It has a head shaped like cauliflower, but consisting of tiny flower buds. It sometimes, but not always, has a purple cast to the tips of the flower buds.
The majority of broccoli cultivars are cool-weather crops that do poorly in hot summer weather. Broccoli grows best when exposed to an average daily temperature between {{convert|18|and|23|°C|°F}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=HGIC 1301 Broccoli|last=Smith|first=Powell|date=June 1999|publisher=[[Clemson University]]|url=http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/plants/vegetables/crops/hgic1301.html|access-date=25 August 2009|archive-date=26 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426013514/http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/plants/vegetables/crops/hgic1301.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Branham|first1=Sandra E.|last2=Stansell|first2=Zachary J.|last3=Couillard|first3=David M.|last4=Farnham|first4=Mark W.|date=1 March 2017|title=Quantitative trait loci mapping of heat tolerance in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) using genotyping-by-sequencing|journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics|language=en|volume=130|issue=3|pages=529–538|doi=10.1007/s00122-016-2832-x|pmid=27900399|s2cid=2361874|issn=1432-2242}}</ref> When the cluster of flowers, also referred to as a "head" of broccoli, appears in the center of the plant, the cluster is generally green. Garden pruners or shears are used to cut the head about {{convert|1|in|mm|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} from the tip. Broccoli should be harvested before the flowers on the head bloom bright yellow.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Broccoli|last=Liptay|first=Albert|date=1988}}</ref> Broccoli cannot be harvested using machines, but rather is hand-harvested.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Broccoli production|url=https://extension.psu.edu/broccoli-production|publisher=Pennsylvania State University, Extension Service|date=20 June 2005|access-date=10 February 2021|archive-date=19 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219130239/https://extension.psu.edu/broccoli-production|url-status=live}}</ref>


==Production==
==Cultivation, preparation and nutritional value==
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Broccoli, raw (edible parts), 100g | kJ=141 | water=89.30g| protein=2.82 g | fat=0.37 g | carbs=6.64 g | fiber=2.6 g | | sugars=1.7 g | iron_mg=0.73 | calcium_mg=47 | magnesium_mg=21 | phosphorus_mg=66 | potassium_mg=316 | zinc_mg=0.41 | vitA_ug = 31| betacarotene_ug=361| vitC_mg=89.2 | pantothenic_mg=0.573 | vitB6_mg=0.175 | folate_ug=63 | thiamin_mg=0.071 | riboflavin_mg=0.117 | niacin_mg=0.639 | right=1 | source_usda=1 }}
Broccoli is a cool-weather crop that does poorly in hot summer weather. Other cultivar groups of ''Brassica oleracea'' include: [[cabbage]] (Capitata Group), [[cauliflower]] (Botrytis Group), [[kale]] and [[collard greens]] (Acephala Group), [[kohlrabi]] (Gongylodes Group), and [[Brussels sprout]]s (Gemmifera Group). [[Chinese broccoli]] (Alboglabra Group) is also a cultivar group of ''Brassica oleracea''. It is usually boiled or steamed, but may be eaten raw and has become popular as a raw vegetable in [[hors-d'oeuvre]] trays. It is high in [[vitamin C]] and [[dietary fiber|soluble fiber]] and contains the multiple nutrients with potent anti-[[cancer]] properties including diindolylmethane and [[selenium]]. The [[3,3'-Diindolylmethane]] found in broccoli is a potent modulator of the innate immune response system with anti-[[virus|viral]], anti-[[bacteria]]l and anti-cancer activity.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.diindolylmethane.org | title = Diindolylmethane Information Resource Center at the University of California, Berkeley | accessdate = 2007-06-10}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.activamune.com/diindolylmethane_dim_immune_activation_data_center.htm | title = Diindolylmethane Immune Activation Data Center | accessdate = 2007-06-10}}</ref> Broccoli also contains the compound glucoraphanin, which can be processed into an anticancer compound [[sulforaphane]], though the benefits of broccoli are reduced if the vegetable is boiled.<ref name='boil'>{{cite news | first= | last=Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick | coauthors= | title= Research Says Boiling Broccoli Ruins Its Anti Cancer Properties | date=May 15, 2007 | publisher= | url =http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/research_says_boiling/ | work = | pages = | accessdate = | language = }}</ref> A high intake of broccoli has been found to reduce the risk of aggressive [[prostate cancer]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Kirsh | first = VA | coauthors = Peters U, Mayne ST, Subar AF, Chatterjee N, Johnson CC, Hayes RB | pmid = 17652276 | title = Prospective study of fruit and vegetable intake and risk of prostate cancer | journal = Journal of the National Cancer Institute | volume = 99 | issue = 15 | pages = 1200-9 | year = 2007 }} ([http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/health/healthmain.html?in_article_id=472491&in_page_id=1774&ICO=HEALTH&ICL=TOPART News article])</ref> Broccoli leaf is also edible and contains far more [[Carotene|betacarotene]] than the florets.


In 2021, global production of broccoli (combined for production reports with [[cauliflower]]s) was 26 million [[tonne]]s, with [[China]] and [[India]] together accounting for 72% of the world total.<ref name=fao/> Secondary producers, each having about one million tonnes or less annually, were the [[United States]], [[Spain]], and [[Mexico]] (table).
==In popular culture==
In 1928, when broccoli was still something of a novelty in the United States, a cartoon appeared in the [[New Yorker magazine]]. A mother and child are seated at the table, and the mother says, "It's broccoli, dear." The child replies, "I say it's [[spinach]], and I say the [[hell]] with it."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://cartoonbank.com/assets/1/38868_m.gif Cartoon featuring broccoli| title = Broccoli cartoon at the Cartoonbank.com}}</ref>


In the United States, broccoli is grown year-round in [[California]] – which produced 92% of the crop nationally – with 95% of the total crop produced for fresh sales in 2018.<ref name="amrc">{{cite web|title=Broccoli|url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/vegetables/broccoli|publisher=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, US Department of Agriculture|date=1 June 2018|access-date=27 June 2019|archive-date=1 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701120609/https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/vegetables/broccoli|url-status=live}}</ref>
==In politics==

United States President [[George H. W. Bush]] was known to have an active disdain for broccoli, having actually said so in an offhand remark during his presidency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law/jan-june98/fooddef_1-20.html |publisher=PBS |title=What's Your Beef? |accessdate=2006-08-05 |date=[[1998-01-20]]}}</ref> In response, a powerful broccoli [[agriculture]] [[lobby (politics)|lobby]] sent several tons of it to the White House. This broccoli was promptly donated to the [[Capital Area Food Bank]].<ref name="chron">{{cite web|url=http://www.capitalareafoodbank.org/downloads/chronology.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-08-05 |title=Chronology |publisher=Capital Area Food Bank}}</ref> His son, President [[George W. Bush]], mentioned during a 2004 question-and-answer session that he doesn't mind broccoli, but does prefer the florets to the stalk.<ref name="whitehouse">{{cite web |url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/09/20040904-2.html |accessdate=2007-05-20 |title=President's Remarks at Ask President Bush Event in Ohio}}</ref>
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Broccoli, raw
| water=89.3 g
| kJ=141
| protein=2.82 g
| fat=0.37 g
| carbs=6.64 g
| fiber=2.6 g
| sugars=1.7 g
| sodium_mg=33
| calcium_mg=47
| iron_mg=0.73
| magnesium_mg=21
| phosphorus_mg=66
| potassium_mg=316
| zinc_mg=0.41
| manganese_mg=0.21
| vitC_mg=89.2
| thiamin_mg=0.071
| riboflavin_mg=0.117
| niacin_mg=0.639
| pantothenic_mg=0.573
| vitB6_mg=0.175
| folate_ug=63
| choline_mg=19
| vitA_ug=31
| betacarotene_ug=361
| lutein_ug=1403
| vitE_mg=0.78
| vitK_ug=101.6
| source_usda=1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/1103170/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

==Nutrition==
Raw broccoli is 89% water, 7% [[carbohydrate]]s, 3% [[protein]], and contains negligible [[fat]] (table). A {{convert|100|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=off|adj=on}} reference amount of raw broccoli provides {{convert|141|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and is a rich source (20% or higher of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[vitamin C]] (107% DV) and [[vitamin K]] (97% DV) (table). Raw broccoli also contains moderate amounts (10–19% DV) of several [[B vitamins]] and the [[dietary mineral]] [[manganese]], whereas other [[micronutrient]]s are low in content (less than 10% DV). Broccoli contains the dietary [[carotenoid]], [[beta-carotene]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farnham |first1=Mark W. |last2=Kopsell |first2=Dean A. |title=Importance of Genotype on Carotenoid and Chlorophyll Levels in Broccoli Heads |journal=HortScience |date=Aug 2009 |volume=44 |issue=5 |page=1248-1253|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.44.5.1248 |url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/44/5/article-p1248.xml|access-date=18 October 2023}} [https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/downloadpdf/journals/hortsci/44/5/article-p1248.xml PDF]</ref>

===Cooking===
{{See also|List of broccoli dishes}}
Boiling substantially reduces the levels of broccoli [[glucosinolate]]s, while other cooking methods, such as [[steaming]], [[Microwave oven|microwaving]], and [[stir-frying]], have no significant effect on glucosinolate levels.<ref name=Nugrahedi/>

==Taste==
The perceived bitterness of cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli, results from [[glucosinolates]] and their hydrolysis products, particularly [[isothiocyanate]]s and other [[sulfur]]-containing compounds.<ref name="Bell">{{cite journal | last1=Bell | first1=Luke | last2=Oloyede | first2=Omobolanle O. | last3=Lignou | first3=Stella | last4=Wagstaff | first4=Carol | last5=Methven | first5=Lisa | title=Taste and flavor perceptions of glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, and related compounds | journal=Molecular Nutrition and Food Research | volume=62 | issue=18 | date=2018-04-30 | issn=1613-4125 | pmid=29578640 | doi=10.1002/mnfr.201700990 | page=1700990| s2cid=206265098 | url=https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/76654/1/mnfr.201700990.pdf }}</ref> Preliminary research indicates that [[genetic inheritance]] through the gene [[TAS2R38]] may be responsible in part for bitter taste perception in broccoli.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=24025627|title=Human bitter perception correlates with bitter receptor messenger RNA expression in taste cells|vauthors=Lipchock SV, Mennella JA, Spielman AI, Reed DR|journal=Am J Clin Nutr|date=2013|volume=98|issue=4|pages=1136–43|doi=10.3945/ajcn.113.066688|pmc=3778862}}</ref>

==Pests==
The larvae of ''[[Pieris rapae]]'', also known as the "small white" butterfly, are a common pest in broccoli and were mostly introduced accidentally to North America, Australia, and New Zealand.<ref>{{cite book|author1-last=Heitzman|author1-first=J. Richard|author2-last=Heitzman|author2-first=Joan E.|editor1-last=Love|editor1-first=Kathy|editor2-last=Larsen|editor2-first=LuAnne|others=Rathert, Jim (principal photographer)|title=Butterflies and moths of Missouri|date=1996|publisher=Missouri Dept. of Conservation|location=Jefferson City, MO|isbn=1-887247-06-8}}</ref>

Additional pests common to broccoli production include:<ref>{{cite web|title=Cabbage, Broccoli & Other Cole Crop Insect Pests|url=https://hgic.clemson.edu/factsheet/cabbage-broccoli-other-cole-crop-insect-pests/|website=Home & Garden Information Center|date=4 May 2020|publisher=Clemson University|location=South Carolina|access-date=28 November 2020|language=en-US|archive-date=7 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207131415/https://hgic.clemson.edu/factsheet/cabbage-broccoli-other-cole-crop-insect-pests/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Aphid]]s
* [[Cabbage looper]]
* [[Hellula undalis|Cabbage webworm]]
* [[Cross-striped cabbageworm]]
* [[Diamondback moth]]
* [[Pieris rapae|Imported cabbageworm]]
* [[Delia radicum|Cabbage maggot]]
* [[Harlequin cabbage bug]]


==Gallery==
==Gallery==
<gallery>
<gallery>
NRCSAZ02078 - Arizona (439)(NRCS Photo Gallery).jpg|[[Surface irrigation#Furrow irrigation|Furrow flood irrigation]] on a field of broccoli raised for seed in [[Yuma, Arizona]].
Image:sa broccoli florets.jpg|Extreme close-up of broccoli florets.
Image:Broccoli bloem.jpg | Broccoli flowers.
Broccoli flowers 2525385935 e13d4de4c4 b.jpg|Broccoli in flower
Cavolfiore Violetto di Sicilia.jpg|Sicilian purple broccoli
<br />
巨無霸青花菜 20191121171730.jpg|Broccoli "giant", whose flowering head and stalk can reach a kilo.
Image:Broccoli DSC00861.png|Two broccoli heads.
Image:Fractal Broccoli.jpg|[[Romanesco broccoli]], showing [[fractal]] forms
Image:Broccoli in a dish 2.jpg|Steamed broccoli
Image:Cavolfiore_Violetto_di_Sicilia.jpg|Sicilian Purple Broccoli
</gallery>
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Agriculture|Food}}
* [[Broccolini]]
* [[Epicuticular wax]]
* [[George H. W. Bush broccoli comments]]; the 41st U.S. president famously disliked the vegetable
* [[Microgreen]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{Commons category|Broccoli}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160210161136/http://database.prota.org/dbtw-wpd/exec/dbtwpub.dll?AC=QBE_QUERY&BU=http%3A%2F%2Fdatabase.prota.org%2Fsearch.htm&TN=PROTAB~1&QB0=AND&QF0=Species+Code&QI0=Brassica+oleracea+cauliflower+and+broccoli&RF=Webdisplay PROTAbase on ''Brassica oleracea (cauliflower and broccoli)''] (archived 10 February 2016)
* [http://cuke.hort.ncsu.edu/cucurbit/wehner/vegcult/broccoli.html List of North American broccoli cultivars], USDA/ARS Vegetable Laboratory


{{Brassica oleraca}}
{{commonscat|Broccoli}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q47722}}
*[http://database.prota.org/dbtw-wpd/exec/dbtwpub.dll?AC=QBE_QUERY&BU=http%3A%2F%2Fdatabase.prota.org%2Fsearch.htm&TN=PROTAB~1&QB0=AND&QF0=Species+Code&QI0=Brassica+oleracea+cauliflower+and+broccoli&RF=Webdisplay PROTAbase on ''Brassica oleracea (cauliflower and broccoli)'']
{{Authority control}}
* [http://www.photo.net/photodb/photo?photo_id=1236856 Photograph of the distinctive Broccoli romanesco.]


[[Category:Brassica]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Europe]]
[[Category:Edible plants]]
[[Category:Food plant cultivars]]
[[Category:Inflorescence vegetables]]
[[Category:Inflorescence vegetables]]
[[Category:Brassica]]
[[Category:Italian words and phrases]]
[[Category:Cultivars]]

[[ar:بروكلي]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chheⁿ-hoe-chhài]]
[[ca:Bròquil]]
[[cs:Brokolice]]
[[da:Broccoli]]
[[de:Broccoli]]
[[el:Μπρόκολο]]
[[es:Brassica oleracea italica]]
[[eo:Brokolo]]
[[fr:Brocoli]]
[[ilo:Broccoli]]
[[id:Brokoli]]
[[it:Brassica oleracea]]
[[he:ברוקולי]]
[[ht:Bwokoli]]
[[lt:Brokolis]]
[[hu:Brokkoli]]
[[ml:ബ്രോക്കൊളി]]
[[mr:ब्रोकली]]
[[nl:Broccoli]]
[[ja:ブロッコリー]]
[[no:Brokkoli]]
[[nn:Brokkoli]]
[[pl:Brokuł]]
[[pt:Brócolis]]
[[ru:Брокколи]]
[[simple:Broccoli]]
[[sl:brokoli]]
[[sr:Броколи]]
[[fi:Parsakaali]]
[[sv:Broccoli]]
[[tr:Brokoli]]
[[zh:西蘭花]]

Latest revision as of 20:50, 3 January 2025

For other uses, see Broccoli (disambiguation).

Broccoli
SpeciesBrassica oleracea
Cultivar groupItalica
OriginItaly, more than 2,000 years ago[1][2]

Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) is an edible green plant in the cabbage family (family Brassicaceae, genus Brassica) whose large flowering head, stalk and small associated leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Broccoli is classified in the Italica cultivar group of the species Brassica oleracea. Broccoli has large flower heads, or florets, usually dark green, arranged in a tree-like structure branching out from a thick stalk, which is usually light green. Leaves surround the mass of flower heads. Broccoli resembles cauliflower, a different but closely related cultivar group of the same Brassica species.

It can be eaten either raw or cooked. Broccoli is a particularly rich source of vitamin C and vitamin K. Contents of its characteristic sulfur-containing glucosinolate compounds, isothiocyanates and sulforaphane, are diminished by boiling but are better preserved by steaming, microwaving or stir-frying.[3]

Rapini, sometimes called "broccoli rabe", is a distinct species from broccoli, forming similar but smaller heads, and is actually a type of turnip (Brassica rapa).[4]

Broccoli plants in a nursery
Close-ups of broccoli florets (click to enlarge)

Taxonomy

Brassica oleracea var. italica was described in 1794 by Joseph Jakob von Plenck in Icones Plantarum Medicinalium 6:29, t. 534.[5] Like all the other brassicas, broccoli was developed from the wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. oleracea), also called colewort or field cabbage.

Etymology

The word broccoli, first used in the 17th century, comes from the Italian plural of broccolo, which means "the flowering crest of a cabbage", and is the diminutive form of brocco, meaning "small nail" or "sprout".[6]

History

Broccoli resulted from the breeding of landrace Brassica crops in the northern Mediterranean starting in about the sixth century BCE.[7] Broccoli has its origins in primitive cultivars grown in the Roman Empire and was most likely improved via artificial selection in the southern Italian Peninsula or in Sicily.[8][9][10] Broccoli was spread to northern Europe by the 18th century and brought to North America in the 19th century by Italian immigrants.[9] After the Second World War, the breeding of the United States and Japanese F1 hybrids increased yields, quality, growth speed, and regional adaptation, which produced the cultivars commonly grown since then: 'Premium Crop', 'Packman', and 'Marathon'.[9]

Description

Broccoli flower

Broccoli is an annual plant which can grow up to 60–90 cm (20–40 in) tall.[11]

Broccoli is very similar to cauliflower, but unlike it, its floral buds are well-formed and clearly visible.[further explanation needed] The inflorescence grows at the end of a central, thick stem and is dark green. Violet, yellow, or even white heads have been created, but these varieties are rare. The flowers are yellow with four petals.

The growth season for broccoli is 14–15 weeks. Broccoli is collected by hand immediately after the head is fully formed yet the flowers are still in their bud stage. The plant develops numerous little "heads" from the lateral shoots which can be harvested later.

Varieties

There are three commonly grown types of broccoli.[9] The most familiar is Calabrese broccoli, often referred to simply as "broccoli", named after Calabria in Italy. It has large 10-to-20-centimetre (4–8 in) green heads and thick stalks. It is a cool-season annual crop. Sprouting broccoli (white or purple) has a larger number of heads with many thin stalks.[12] Purple cauliflower or violet cauliflower is a type of broccoli grown in Europe and North America. It has a head shaped like cauliflower but consists of many tiny flower buds. Sometimes, but not always, it has a purple cast to the tips of the flower buds. Purple cauliflower may also be white, red, green, or other colors.[13]

Beneforté is a variety of broccoli containing 2–3 times more glucoraphanin and produced by crossing broccoli with a wild Brassica variety, Brassica oleracea var villosa.[14]

Other cultivar groups of Brassica oleracea

Main article: Brassica oleracea § Cultivars

Other cultivar groups of Brassica oleracea include cabbage (Capitata Group), cauliflower and Romanesco broccoli (Botrytis Group), kale (Acephala Group), collard (Viridis Group), kohlrabi (Gongylodes Group), Brussels sprouts (Gemmifera Group), and kai-lan (Alboglabra Group).[15] As these groups are the same species, they readily hybridize: for example, broccolini or "Tenderstem broccoli" is a cross between broccoli and kai-lan.[16] Broccoli cultivars form the genetic basis of the "tropical cauliflowers" commonly grown in South and Southeastern Asia, although they produce a more cauliflower-like head in warmer conditions.[17][9]

Broccoli production — 2021
(includes cauliflower)
Country Production
millions of tonnes
 China 9.5
 India 9.2
 United States 1.0
 Spain 0.7
 Mexico 0.7
World 25.8
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[18]

Cultivation

The majority of broccoli cultivars are cool-weather crops that do poorly in hot summer weather. Broccoli grows best when exposed to an average daily temperature between 18 and 23 °C (64 and 73 °F).[19][20] When the cluster of flowers, also referred to as a "head" of broccoli, appears in the center of the plant, the cluster is generally green. Garden pruners or shears are used to cut the head about 25 mm (1 in) from the tip. Broccoli should be harvested before the flowers on the head bloom bright yellow.[21] Broccoli cannot be harvested using machines, but rather is hand-harvested.[22]

Production

In 2021, global production of broccoli (combined for production reports with cauliflowers) was 26 million tonnes, with China and India together accounting for 72% of the world total.[18] Secondary producers, each having about one million tonnes or less annually, were the United States, Spain, and Mexico (table).

In the United States, broccoli is grown year-round in California – which produced 92% of the crop nationally – with 95% of the total crop produced for fresh sales in 2018.[23]

Broccoli, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy141 kJ (34 kcal)
6.64 g
Sugars1.7 g
Dietary fiber2.6 g
0.37 g
2.82 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
3%
31 μg
3%
361 μg
1403 μg
Thiamine (B1)
6%
0.071 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
9%
0.117 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.639 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
11%
0.573 mg
Vitamin B6
10%
0.175 mg
Folate (B9)
16%
63 μg
Choline
3%
19 mg
Vitamin C
99%
89.2 mg
Vitamin E
5%
0.78 mg
Vitamin K
85%
101.6 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
4%
47 mg
Iron
4%
0.73 mg
Magnesium
5%
21 mg
Manganese
9%
0.21 mg
Phosphorus
5%
66 mg
Potassium
11%
316 mg
Sodium
1%
33 mg
Zinc
4%
0.41 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water89.3 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[24] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[25]

Nutrition

Raw broccoli is 89% water, 7% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference amount of raw broccoli provides 141 kilojoules (34 kilocalories) of food energy and is a rich source (20% or higher of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (107% DV) and vitamin K (97% DV) (table). Raw broccoli also contains moderate amounts (10–19% DV) of several B vitamins and the dietary mineral manganese, whereas other micronutrients are low in content (less than 10% DV). Broccoli contains the dietary carotenoid, beta-carotene.[26]

Cooking

See also: List of broccoli dishes

Boiling substantially reduces the levels of broccoli glucosinolates, while other cooking methods, such as steaming, microwaving, and stir-frying, have no significant effect on glucosinolate levels.[3]

Taste

The perceived bitterness of cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli, results from glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products, particularly isothiocyanates and other sulfur-containing compounds.[27] Preliminary research indicates that genetic inheritance through the gene TAS2R38 may be responsible in part for bitter taste perception in broccoli.[28]

Pests

The larvae of Pieris rapae, also known as the "small white" butterfly, are a common pest in broccoli and were mostly introduced accidentally to North America, Australia, and New Zealand.[29]

Additional pests common to broccoli production include:[30]

  • Furrow flood irrigation on a field of broccoli raised for seed in Yuma, Arizona.
    Furrow flood irrigation on a field of broccoli raised for seed in Yuma, Arizona.
  • Broccoli in flower
    Broccoli in flower
  • Sicilian purple broccoli
    Sicilian purple broccoli
  • Broccoli "giant", whose flowering head and stalk can reach a kilo.
    Broccoli "giant", whose flowering head and stalk can reach a kilo.

See also

References

  1. ^ Buck, P. A. (1956). "Origin and taxonomy of broccoli". Economic Botany. 10 (3): 250–253. doi:10.1007/bf02899000. S2CID 31365713.
  2. ^ Stephens, James. "Broccoli—Brassica oleracea L. (Italica group)". University of Florida. p. 1. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 14 May 2009.
  3. ^ a b Nugrahedi, Probo Y.; Verkerk, Ruud; Widianarko, Budi; Dekker, Matthijs (2015). "A Mechanistic Perspective on Process-Induced Changes in Glucosinolate Content in Brassica Vegetables: A Review". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 55 (6): 823–838. doi:10.1080/10408398.2012.688076. ISSN 1040-8398. PMID 24915330. S2CID 25728864.
  4. ^ Main, Sandy. "Rapini/Broccoli Raab". sonomamg.ucanr.edu. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 13 September 2021.
  5. ^ Missouri Botanical Garden. "Brassica oleracea var. italica". tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
  6. ^ "Broccoli". Online Etymology Dictionary. 2022. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
  7. ^ Maggioni, Lorenzo; Bothmer, Roland; Poulsen, Gert; Branca, Ferdinando (2010). "Origin and Domestication of Cole Crops (Brassica oleracea L.): Linguistic and Literary Considerations". Economic Botany. 64 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1007/s12231-010-9115-2. hdl:10568/121874. S2CID 2771884.
  8. ^ Nonnecke, Ib (November 1989). Vegetable Production. Springer-Verlag New York, LLC. p. 394. ISBN 978-0-442-26721-6. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
  9. ^ a b c d e Stansell, Zachary; Björkman, Thomas (1 October 2020). "From landrace to modern hybrid broccoli: the genomic and morphological domestication syndrome within a diverse B. oleracea collection". Horticulture Research. 7 (1): 159. Bibcode:2020HorR....7..159S. doi:10.1038/s41438-020-00375-0. ISSN 2052-7276. PMC 7528014. PMID 33082966. S2CID 224724369.
  10. ^ Stansell, Zachary; Hyma, Katie; Fresnedo-Ramírez, Jonathan; Sun, Qi; Mitchell, Sharon; Björkman, Thomas; Hua, Jian (1 July 2018). "Genotyping-by-sequencing of Brassica oleracea vegetables reveals unique phylogenetic patterns, population structure and domestication footprints". Horticulture Research. 5 (1): 38. Bibcode:2018HorR....5...38S. doi:10.1038/s41438-018-0040-3. ISSN 2052-7276. PMC 6026498. PMID 29977574.
  11. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "broccoli, plant". britannica.com. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  12. ^ "Broccoli". Royal Horticultural Society. Archived from the original on 24 March 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  13. ^ Branca, Ferdinando (2008), Prohens, Jaime; Nuez, Fernando (eds.), "Cauliflower and Broccoli", Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae, Handbook of Plant Breeding, vol. 1, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 151–186, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30443-4_5, ISBN 978-0-387-30443-4
  14. ^ "British research leads to UK-wide launch of Beneforté broccoli". Quadram Institute. 25 June 2012. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  15. ^ Dixon, G.R. (2007). Vegetable brassicas and related crucifers. Wallingford: CABI. ISBN 978-0-85199-395-9.
  16. ^ Stansell, Zachary; Farnham, Mark; Björkman, Thomas (2019). "Complex Horticultural Quality Traits in Broccoli Are Illuminated by Evaluation of the Immortal BolTBDH Mapping Population". Frontiers in Plant Science. 10: 1104. doi:10.3389/fpls.2019.01104. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 6759917. PMID 31620146.
  17. ^ Bjorkman, T.; Pearson, K. J. (1 January 1998). "High temperature arrest of inflorescence development in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica L.)". Journal of Experimental Botany. 49 (318): 101–106. doi:10.1093/jxb/49.318.101. ISSN 0022-0957.
  18. ^ a b "Broccoli (and cauliflower) production in 2021, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
  19. ^ Smith, Powell (June 1999). "HGIC 1301 Broccoli". Clemson University. Archived from the original on 26 April 2009. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
  20. ^ Branham, Sandra E.; Stansell, Zachary J.; Couillard, David M.; Farnham, Mark W. (1 March 2017). "Quantitative trait loci mapping of heat tolerance in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) using genotyping-by-sequencing". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 130 (3): 529–538. doi:10.1007/s00122-016-2832-x. ISSN 1432-2242. PMID 27900399. S2CID 2361874.
  21. ^ Liptay, Albert (1988). Broccoli.
  22. ^ "Broccoli production". Pennsylvania State University, Extension Service. 20 June 2005. Archived from the original on 19 February 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  23. ^ "Broccoli". Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, US Department of Agriculture. 1 June 2018. Archived from the original on 1 July 2019. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
  24. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  25. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Retrieved 5 December 2024.
  26. ^ Farnham, Mark W.; Kopsell, Dean A. (August 2009). "Importance of Genotype on Carotenoid and Chlorophyll Levels in Broccoli Heads". HortScience. 44 (5): 1248-1253. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.44.5.1248. Retrieved 18 October 2023. PDF
  27. ^ Bell, Luke; Oloyede, Omobolanle O.; Lignou, Stella; Wagstaff, Carol; Methven, Lisa (30 April 2018). "Taste and flavor perceptions of glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, and related compounds" (PDF). Molecular Nutrition and Food Research. 62 (18): 1700990. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201700990. ISSN 1613-4125. PMID 29578640. S2CID 206265098.
  28. ^ Lipchock SV, Mennella JA, Spielman AI, Reed DR (2013). "Human bitter perception correlates with bitter receptor messenger RNA expression in taste cells". Am J Clin Nutr. 98 (4): 1136–43. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.066688. PMC 3778862. PMID 24025627.
  29. ^ Heitzman, J. Richard; Heitzman, Joan E. (1996). Love, Kathy; Larsen, LuAnne (eds.). Butterflies and moths of Missouri. Rathert, Jim (principal photographer). Jefferson City, MO: Missouri Dept. of Conservation. ISBN 1-887247-06-8.
  30. ^ "Cabbage, Broccoli & Other Cole Crop Insect Pests". Home & Garden Information Center. South Carolina: Clemson University. 4 May 2020. Archived from the original on 7 December 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
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