Cybercrime: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Type of crime based in computer networks}} |
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{{CrimLaw}} |
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{{Distinguish|Virtual crime}} |
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{{Mergefrom|Cybercrime|date=February 2008}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}} |
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'''Computer crime''', '''[[cybercrime]]''', '''e-crime''', '''hi-tech crime''' or '''electronic crime''' generally refers to criminal activity where a [[computer]] or [[Computer networking|network]] is the source, tool, target, or place of a [[crime]]. These categories are not exclusive and many activities can be characterized as falling in one or more category. Additionally, although the terms computer crime or [[cybercrime]] are more properly restricted to describing criminal activity in which the computer or network is a necessary part of the crime, these terms are also sometimes used to include traditional crimes, such as [[fraud]], [[theft]], [[blackmail]], [[forgery]], and [[embezzlement]], in which computers or networks are used to facilitate the illicit activity. Cyber crime is also a major issue these days in the world as many people are hacking into the computer systems. |
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{{Criminology}} |
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'''Cybercrime''' encompasses a wide range of criminal activities that are carried out using [[digital devices]] and/or [[Computer network|networks]]. These crimes involve the use of technology to commit fraud, identity theft, data breaches, computer viruses, scams, and expanded upon in other malicious acts. Cybercriminals exploit vulnerabilities in computer systems and networks to gain unauthorized access, steal sensitive information, disrupt services, and cause financial or reputational harm to individuals, organizations, and governments.<ref name="Sukhai 128–132">{{Cite book |last=Sukhai |first=Nataliya B. |chapter=Hacking and cybercrime |date=2004-10-08 |pages=128–132 |title=Proceedings of the 1st annual conference on Information security curriculum development |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1059524.1059553 |location=New York, NY, USA |publisher=ACM |doi=10.1145/1059524.1059553 |isbn=1-59593-048-5 |s2cid=46562809 |access-date=10 December 2023 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054810/https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1059524.1059553 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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In 2000, the tenth [[United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders]] classified cyber crimes into five categories: unauthorized access, damage to computer data or programs, sabotage to hinder the functioning of a computer system or network, unauthorized interception of data within a system or network, and computer espionage.<ref name="Sukhai 128–132"/> |
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Computer crime can broadly be defined as criminal activity involving an information technology infrastructure, including illegal access (unauthorized access), illegal interception (by technical means of non-public transmissions of computer data to, from or within a computer system), data interference (<nowiki>unauthorized damaging</nowiki>, deletion, deterioration, alteration or suppression of computer data), systems interference (interfering with the functioning of a computer system by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing computer data), misuse of devices, forgery (ID theft), and electronic fraud. |
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Internationally, both state and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including [[espionage]], financial [[theft]], and other cross-border crimes. Cybercrimes crossing international borders and involving the actions of at least one nation-state are sometimes referred to as [[cyberwarfare]]. [[Warren Buffett]] has described that cybercrime is the "number one problem with mankind",<ref>{{Cite web|title=BUFFETT: This is 'the number one problem with mankind'|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/buffett-this-is-the-number-one-problem-with-mankind/articleshow/58555300.cms|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Business Insider|archive-date=9 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609040043/https://www.businessinsider.in/BUFFETT-This-is-the-number-one-problem-with-mankind/articleshow/58555300.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> and that it "poses real risks to humanity".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Warren Buffett: 'Cyber poses real risks to humanity'|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/warren-buffett-cyber-attacks-131445079.html|access-date=2021-05-17|website=finance.yahoo.com|date=30 April 2019|language=en-US|archive-date=2 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602052925/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/warren-buffett-cyber-attacks-131445079.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==Discussion== |
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A common example is when a person starts to steal information from sites, or cause damage to, a computer or [[computer network]]. This can be entirely virtual in that the information only exists in digital form, and the damage, while real, has no physical consequence other than the machine ceases to function. In some legal systems, intangible property cannot be stolen and the damage must be visible, e.g. as resulting from a blow from a hammer. Yet [[denial of service]] attacks for the purposes of [[extortion]] may result in significant damage both to the system and the profitability of the site targeted. A further problem is that many definitions have not kept pace with the technology. For example, where the offense requires proof of a trick or deception as the operative cause of the theft, this may require the mind of a human being to change and so do or refrain from doing something that causes the loss. Increasingly, computer systems control access to goods and services. If a criminal manipulates the system into releasing the goods or authorizing the services, has there been a "trick", has there been a "deception", does the machine act because it "believes" payment to have been made, does the machine have "knowledge", does the machine "do" or "refrain from doing" something it has been programmed to do (or not). Where human-centric terminology is used for crimes relying on [[natural language]] skills and innate gullibility, definitions have to be modified to ensure that fraudulent behavior remains criminal no matter how it is committed. |
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The [[World Economic Forum|World Economic Forum's]] (WEF) 2020 [[Global Risks Report]] highlighted that organized cybercrime groups are joining forces to commit criminal activities online, while estimating the likelihood of their detection and prosecution to be less than 1 percent in the US.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=15 January 2020|title=The Global Risk Report 2020|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risk_Report_2020.pdf|journal=World Economic Forum|volume=15th Edition|pages=102|access-date=17 May 2021|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927171154/https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risk_Report_2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> There are also many [[Internet privacy|privacy]] concerns surrounding cybercrime when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, legally or otherwise. |
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Issues surrounding [[hacking]], [[copyright infringement]] through [[warez]], [[child pornography]], and [[child grooming]], have become high-profile. But this emphasis fails to consider the equally real but less spectacular issues of [[obscenity]], [[graffiti]] appearing on websites and "[[cyberstalking]]" or [[harassment]] that can affect everyday life. There are also problems of [[privacy]] when [[confidential]] information is lost, say, when an [[e-mail]] is intercepted whether through illegal hacking, legitimate monitoring (increasingly common in the workplace) or when it is simply read by an unauthorized or unintended person. |
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The World Economic Forum’s 2023 Global Risks Report ranked cybercrime as one of the top 10 risks facing the world today and for the next 10 years.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Heading |first1=Sophie |last2=Zahidi |first2=Saadia |date=January 2023 |title=The Global Risks Report 2023, 18th Edition |url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risks_Report_2023.pdf |website=World Economic Forum |access-date=3 February 2024 |archive-date=5 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240205151654/https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risks_Report_2023.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> If viewed as a nation state, cybercrime would count as the third largest economy in the world.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Freeze |first=Di |date=2023-10-12 |title=Cybercrime To Cost The World $9.5 trillion USD annually in 2024 |url=https://cybersecurityventures.com/cybercrime-to-cost-the-world-9-trillion-annually-in-2024/ |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=Cybercrime Magazine |language=en-US |archive-date=1 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201193635/https://cybersecurityventures.com/cybercrime-to-cost-the-world-9-trillion-annually-in-2024/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In numbers, cybercrime is predicted to cause over 9 trillion US dollars in damages worldwide in 2024.<ref name=":4" /> |
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[[E-mail]] and Short Message Service [[SMS]] messages are regarded as casual communication including many things that would never be put in a letter. But unlike spoken communication, there is no intonation and accenting, so the message can be more easily distorted or interpreted as offensive. |
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Secondly, a computer can be the tool, used, for example, to plan or commit an offense such as [[larceny]] or the distribution of child pornography. The growth of international [[data communication]]s and in particular the Internet has made these crimes both more common and more difficult to police. And using [[encryption]] techniques, criminals may [conspire] or exchange data with fewer opportunities for the [[police]] to monitor and intercept. This requires modification to the standard [[warrant (law)|warrants]] for [[search warrant|search]], [[telephone tapping]], etc. |
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== Classifications == |
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Thirdly, a computer can be a source of [[evidence]] Even though the computer is not directly used for criminal purposes, it is an excellent device for record keeping, particularly given the power to encrypt the data. If this evidence can be obtained and decrypted, it can be of great value to criminal investigators. |
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Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities, including computer fraud, [[financial crime]]s, scams, [[cybersex trafficking]], and [[Ad fraud|ad-fraud]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gordon |first=Sarah |date=25 July 2006 |title=On the definition and classification of cybercrime |journal=Journal in Computer Virology |volume=2 |pages=13–20 |doi=10.1007/s11416-006-0015-z |s2cid=3334277}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite journal|last=Richet|first=Jean-Loup|date=2022-01-01|title=How cybercriminal communities grow and change: An investigation of ad-fraud communities|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|volume=174|issue=121282|page=121282|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121282|s2cid=239962449|issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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=== |
=== Computer fraud === |
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{{Main|Computer fraud}} |
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Computer fraud is the act of using a computer to take or alter electronic data, or to gain unlawful use of a computer or system.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehman |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Phelps |first2=Shirelle |title=West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 3 | edition=2 |date=2005 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |location=Detroit |isbn=9780787663742 |page=137}}</ref> Computer fraud that involves the use of the internet is also called [[internet fraud]]. The legal definition of computer fraud varies by jurisdiction, but typically involves accessing a computer without permission or authorization. |
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Forms of computer fraud include [[hack (computer security)|hacking]] into computers to alter information, distributing malicious code such as [[computer worm]]s or [[computer virus|viruses]], installing [[malware]] or [[spyware]] to steal data, [[phishing]], and [[advance-fee scam]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Computer and Internet Fraud|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/computer_and_internet_fraud|access-date=2020-11-01|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|archive-date=10 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810065203/https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/computer_and_internet_fraud|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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[[Computer]] fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to induce another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss. In this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by: |
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Other forms of fraud may be committed using computer systems, including [[bank fraud]], [[Carding (fraud)|carding]], [[identity theft]], [[extortion]], and [[Classified information|theft of classified information]]. These types of crimes often result in the loss of personal or financial information. |
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* altering computer input in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise and is not an uncommon form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or entering false data, or by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized processes; |
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* altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized transactions: this is difficult to detect; |
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* altering or deleting stored data; or |
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* altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages, or altering or writing code for fraudulent purposes. This requires real programming skills and is not common. |
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====Fraud Factory==== |
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Manipulating banking systems to make unauthorized identity theft with reference to ATM fraud. |
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{{Main|Fraud Factory}} |
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Fraud factory is a collection of large fraud organizations usually involving cyber fraud and [[human trafficking]] operations. |
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===Cyberterrorism=== |
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{{Main|Cyberterrorism}} |
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The content of websites and other electronic communications may be harmful, distasteful or offensive for a variety of reasons. Most countries have enacted law that place some limits on the [[freedom of speech]] and ban [[racist]], [[blasphemy|blasphemous]], politically subversive, seditious or inflammatory material that tends to incite [[hate crimes]]. This is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with entrenched beliefs, each convinced that their point of view has been unreasonably attacked. Therefore, it is equally an offense to show hostility to a person who practices a particular faith as to a person who has no religious belief or faith. |
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The term ''cyberterrorism'' refers to acts of [[terrorism]] committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources.<ref>Parker D (1983) ''Fighting Computer Crime,'' U.S.: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]].</ref> Acts of disruption of [[computer network]]s and personal computers through [[computer viruses|viruses]], [[computer worm|worm]]s, [[phishing]], [[malicious software]], hardware, or programming scripts can all be forms of cyberterrorism.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Botnets, Cybercrime, and Cyberterrorism: Vulnerabilities and Policy Issues for Congress|url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL32114.html|access-date=5 September 2021|website=www.everycrsreport.com|language=en|archive-date=29 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929021137/https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL32114.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Government officials and [[information technology]] (IT) security specialists have documented a significant increase in network problems and server scams since early 2001. In the United States there is an increasing concern from agencies such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morgan |first=Steve |date=2020-11-13 |title=Cybercrime To Cost The World $10.5 Trillion Annually By 2025 |url=https://cybersecurityventures.com/hackerpocalypse-cybercrime-report-2016/ |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=Cybercrime Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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===Harassment=== |
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Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, harassment directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals focusing for example on gender, race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation. This often occurs in chat rooms, through newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to interested parties (see [[cyber bullying]], [[harassment by computer]], [[stalking]], and cyberstalking). |
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===Cyberextortion=== |
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Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to or threatened with attacks by malicious hackers, often through [[denial-of-service attack]]s. Cyber extortionists demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks and provide "protection". According to the FBI, cyber extortionists are increasingly attacking corporate websites and networks, crippling their ability to operate, and demanding payments to restore their service. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI, and many go unreported in order to keep the victim's name out of the public domain. Perpetrators often use a [[distributed denial-of-service attack]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lepofsky |first=Ron |title=Cyberextortion by Denial-of-Service Attack |url=http://www.ere-security.ca/PDF/Cyberextortion%20by%20DoS,%20Risk%20Magazine%20June%202006.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706175959/http://www.ere-security.ca/PDF/Cyberextortion%20by%20DoS%2C%20Risk%20Magazine%20June%202006.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> However, other cyberextortion techniques exist, such as [[doxing]] and [[bug poaching]]. An example of cyberextortion was [[Sony Pictures Entertainment hack|the Sony Hack of 2014]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mohanta |first=Abhijit |date=6 December 2014 |title=Latest Sony Pictures Breach : A Deadly Cyber Extortion |url=http://www.cyphort.com/latest-sony-pictures-breach-deadly-cyber-extortion/ |access-date=20 September 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925133121/http://www.cyphort.com/latest-sony-pictures-breach-deadly-cyber-extortion/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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Drug traffickers are increasingly taking advantage of the Internet to sell their illegal substances through encrypted e-mail and other Internet Technology. Some drug traffickers arrange deals at internet cafes, use courier Web sites to track illegal packages of pills, and swap recipes for amphetamines in restricted-access chat rooms. |
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The rise in Internet drug trades could also be attributed to the lack of face-to-face communication. These virtual exchanges allow more intimidated individuals to more comfortably purchase illegal drugs. The sketchy effects that are often associated with drug trades are severely minimized and the filtering process that comes with physical interaction fades away. |
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Furthermore, traditional drug recipes were carefully kept secrets. But with modern computer technology, this information is now being made available to anyone with computer access. Boob |
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=== Ransomware === |
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{{main|Ransomware}} |
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Ransomware is a type of malware used in cyberextortion to restrict access to files, sometimes threatening permanent data erasure unless a ransom is paid. Ransomware is a global issue, with more than 300 million attacks worldwide in 2021. According to the 2022 Unit 42 Ransomware Threat Report, in 2021 the average ransom demand in cases handled by [[Norton AntiVirus|Norton]] climbed 144 percent to $2.2 million, and there was an 85 percent increase in the number of victims who had their personal information shown on dark web information dumps.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 25, 2022 |title=The Growing Ransomware Threat: 4 Trends and Insights |url=https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/resources/infographics/2022-unit-42-ransomware-threat-report-infographic |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=Palo Alto Networks |language=en-US |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054810/https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/resources/infographics/2022-unit-42-ransomware-threat-report-infographic |url-status=live }}</ref> A loss of nearly $400 million in 2021 and 2022 is just one of the statistics showing the impact of ransomware attacks on everyday people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=100+ ransomware statistics for 2023 and beyond - Norton |url=https://us.norton.com/blog/emerging-threats/ransomware-statistics |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=us.norton.com |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054811/https://us.norton.com/blog/emerging-threats/ransomware-statistics |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Cybersex trafficking=== |
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Government officials and IT security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet probes and server scans since early 2001. There is a growing concern among federal officials {{Who|date=October 2007}} that such intrusions are part of an organized effort by cyberterrorists, foreign |
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{{Main|Cybersex trafficking}} |
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intelligence services, or other groups to map potential security holes in critical systems. |
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Cybersex trafficking is the transportation of victims for such purposes as coerced prostitution or the [[live streaming]] of coerced sexual acts or [[rape]] on webcam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carback |first=Joshua T. |date=2018 |title=Cybersex Trafficking: Toward a More Effective Prosecutorial Response |journal=Criminal Law Bulletin |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=64–183 |ref=none}} p. 64.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 28, 2016 |title=IJM Seeks to End Cybersex Trafficking of Children and #RestartFreedom this Cyber Monday and Giving Tuesday |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ijm-seeks-to-end-cybersex-trafficking-of-children-and-restartfreedom-this-cyber-monday-and-giving-tuesday-300368744.html |website=PR Newswire |access-date=9 May 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417112847/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ijm-seeks-to-end-cybersex-trafficking-of-children-and-restartfreedom-this-cyber-monday-and-giving-tuesday-300368744.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Cybersex Trafficking |url=https://www.ijmuk.org/our-work/cybersex-trafficking |website=IJM |access-date=9 May 2020 |archive-date=21 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521145630/https://www.ijmuk.org/our-work/cybersex-trafficking |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=July 18, 2013 |title=Cyber-sex trafficking: A 21st century scourge |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/17/world/asia/philippines-cybersex-trafficking/index.html |website=CNN |access-date=9 May 2020 |archive-date=18 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718165038/https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/17/world/asia/philippines-cybersex-trafficking/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Victims are abducted, threatened, or deceived and transferred to "cybersex dens".<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 13, 2020 |title=Senator warns of possible surge in child cybersex traffic |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/04/13/2006955/senator-warns-possible-surge-child-cybersex-traffic |website=The Philippine Star |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=18 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418114854/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/04/13/2006955/senator-warns-possible-surge-child-cybersex-traffic |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=October 18, 2019 |title=Duterte's drug war and child cybersex trafficking |url=https://theaseanpost.com/article/dutertes-drug-war-and-child-cybersex-trafficking |website=The ASEAN Post |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=22 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522000102/https://theaseanpost.com/article/dutertes-drug-war-and-child-cybersex-trafficking |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 1, 2020 |title=Norwegian national, partner nabbed; 4 rescued from cybersex den |url=https://news.mb.com.ph/2020/05/01/norwegian-national-partner-nabbed-4-rescued-from-cybersex-den/ |website=Manila Bulletin |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729013030/https://news.mb.com.ph/2020/05/01/norwegian-national-partner-nabbed-4-rescued-from-cybersex-den/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The dens can be in any location where the cybersex traffickers have a computer, tablet, or phone with an internet connection.<ref name="auto1"/> Perpetrators use [[social media]] networks, [[Videotelephony|video conferences]], dating pages, online chat rooms, apps, [[dark web]] sites,<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |date=June 30, 2018 |title=Cheap tech and widespread internet access fuel rise in cybersex trafficking |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/cheap-tech-widespread-internet-access-fuel-rise-cybersex-trafficking-n886886 |website=NBC News |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=24 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124163943/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/cheap-tech-widespread-internet-access-fuel-rise-cybersex-trafficking-n886886 |url-status=live }}</ref> and other platforms.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 11, 2019 |title=Senate to probe rise in child cybersex trafficking |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/11/11/1967750/senate-probe-rise-child-cybersex-trafficking |website=The Philippine Star |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=13 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113001822/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/11/11/1967750/senate-probe-rise-child-cybersex-trafficking |url-status=live }}</ref> They use [[online payment|online payment systems]]<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 15, 2019 |title=Global taskforce tackles cybersex child trafficking in the Philippines |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-trafficking-children/global-taskforce-tackles-cybersex-child-trafficking-in-the-philippines-idUSKCN1RR1D1 |website=Reuters |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=16 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416114212/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-trafficking-children/global-taskforce-tackles-cybersex-child-trafficking-in-the-philippines-idUSKCN1RR1D1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=June 17, 2018 |title=Webcam slavery: tech turns Filipino families into cybersex child traffickers |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-trafficking-technology/webcam-slavery-tech-turns-filipino-families-into-cybersex-child-traffickers-idUSKBN1JE00X |website=Reuters |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=12 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912045346/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-trafficking-technology/webcam-slavery-tech-turns-filipino-families-into-cybersex-child-traffickers-idUSKBN1JE00X |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[cryptocurrencies]] to hide their identities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2, 2019 |title=How the internet fuels sexual exploitation and forced labor in Asia |url=https://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/3008403/how-internet-fuels-sexual-exploitation-and-forced-labour |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=29 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429221407/https://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/3008403/how-internet-fuels-sexual-exploitation-and-forced-labour |url-status=live }}</ref> Millions of reports of cybersex incidents are sent to authorities annually.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 18, 2018 |title=1st Session, 42nd Parliament, Volume 150, Issue 194 |url=https://sencanada.ca/en/content/sen/chamber/421/debates/194db_2018-04-18-e |website=Senate of Canada |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827203845/https://sencanada.ca/en/content/sen/chamber/421/debates/194db_2018-04-18-e |url-status=live }}</ref> New legislation and police procedures are needed to combat this type of cybercrime.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 11, 2019 |title=Cybersex trafficking spreads across Southeast Asia, fuelled by internet boom. And the law lags behind |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3026664/how-cambodias-outdated-laws-make-it-harder-tackle-cybersex |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=16 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516104350/https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3026664/how-cambodias-outdated-laws-make-it-harder-tackle-cybersex |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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A cyberterrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a government or organization to |
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advance his or her political or social objectives by launching computer-based attack |
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against computers, network, and the information stored on them. |
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There are an estimated 6.3 million victims of cybersex trafficking, according to a recent report by the International Labour Organization.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Estimates of Modern Slavery Forced Labour and Forced Marriage |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_854733.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=22 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222090009/https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_854733.pdf |access-date=22 December 2022 |website=International Labour Organization}}</ref> This number includes about 1.7 million [[Child sexual abuse|child victims]]. An example of cybersex trafficking is the 2018–2020 [[Nth room case]] in [[South Korea]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 24, 2020 |title=What is 'Nth Room' case and why it matters |url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20200424000512 |website=Korea Herald |access-date=9 May 2020 |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519160804/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20200424000512 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Cyberterrorism in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources. As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. At worst, cyberterrorist may use the Internet or computer resources to carry out an actual attack. |
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===Cyberwarfare=== |
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As well there are also hacking activities directed towards individuals, families, organised by groups within networks, tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power, collecting information relevant for ruining people lives, robberies, blackmailing etc |
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{{Main|Cyberwarfare}} |
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According to the U.S. [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], cyberspace has emerged as an arena for national-security threats through several recent events of geostrategic importance, including the attack on [[Estonia]]'s infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. In August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyberattacks against [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. Fearing that such attacks may become a normal part of future warfare among nation-states, military commanders see a need to develop cyberspace operations.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Dennis |last=Murphy |date=February 2010 |title=War is War? The utility of cyberspace operations in the contemporary operational environment.. |url=http://www.carlisle.army.mil/DIME/documents/War%20is%20War%20Issue%20Paper%20Final2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320012856/http://www.carlisle.army.mil/DIME/documents/War%20is%20War%20Issue%20Paper%20Final2.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2012 |publisher=Center for Strategic Leadership}}</ref> |
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===Computers as a tool=== |
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==Documented Cases of Computer Crimes== |
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{{Main|Internet fraud|Spamming|Phishing|Carding (fraud)}} |
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* The Yahoo! website was attacked at 10:30 PST on Monday, [[7 February]] [[2000]]. The attack lasted three hours. Yahoo was pinged at the rate of one gigabyte/second. |
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When an individual is the target of cybercrime, the computer is often the tool rather than the target. These crimes, which typically exploit human weaknesses, usually do not require much technical expertise. These are the types of crimes which have existed for centuries in the offline world. Criminals have simply been given a tool that increases their pool of potential victims and makes them all the harder to trace and apprehend.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Cybercrime definition|date = June 28, 2006|url = http://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06/|access-date = |website = www.crime-research.org|first = Aghatise E.|last = Joseph|archive-date = 18 July 2024|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054813/https://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06/|url-status = live}}</ref> |
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* On [[3 August]] [[2000]], Canadian federal prosecutors charged [[MafiaBoy]] with 54 counts of illegal access to computers, plus a total of ten counts of mischief to data for his attacks on [[Amazon.com]], [[eBay]], [[Dell Computer]], Outlaw.net, and [[Yahoo]]. MafiaBoy had also attacked other websites, but prosecutors decided that a total of 66 counts was enough. MafiaBoy pled not guilty. |
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* About fifty computers at [[Stanford University]], and also computers at the University of California at Santa Barbara, were amongst the [[zombie computer]]s sending pings in DoS attacks. |
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* In [[26 March]] [[1999]], the [[Melissa (computer worm)|Melissa worm]] infected a document on a victim's computer, then automatically sent that document and copy of the virus via e-mail to other people. |
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Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include: |
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'''Types Of Computer Crimes''' |
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*Fraud and identity theft (although this increasingly uses malware, hacking or phishing, making it an example of "computer as target" as well as "computer as tool") |
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<br> |
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*Information warfare |
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-Cyber Crime |
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*Phishing scams |
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<br> |
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*[[E-mail spam|Spam]] |
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-Malware/Malicious Code |
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*Propagation of illegal, obscene, or [[offensive content]], including harassment and threats |
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<br> |
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-Denial-Of-Service Attack |
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<br> |
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-Hacker/Hacking |
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<br> |
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-Computing Virus |
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<br> |
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-Cyber Terrorism |
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<br> |
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-Information Warfare |
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<br> |
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-Cyber Stalking |
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<br> |
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-Fraud and Identity Theft |
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<br> |
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-Phishing |
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<br> |
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-Virtual Crime |
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<br> |
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The unsolicited sending of bulk [[email]] for commercial purposes (spam) is unlawful [[E-mail spam legislation by country|in some jurisdictions]]. |
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==Applicable laws== |
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===United States=== |
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Phishing is mostly propagated via email. Phishing emails may contain links to other websites that are affected by malware.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Save browsing |url=http://googleonlinesecurity.blogspot.jp/2012/06/safe-browsing-protecting-web-users-for.html |website=google |access-date=5 October 2014 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305144600/https://googleonlinesecurity.blogspot.jp/2012/06/safe-browsing-protecting-web-users-for.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Or they may contain links to fake online banking or other websites used to steal private account information. |
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*ACCESS DEVICE FRAUD. [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sec_18_00001029----000-.html 18 U.S.C. § 1029]. Fraud and related activity in connection with access devices. |
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===Obscene or offensive content=== |
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*[[Computer Fraud and Abuse Act|COMPUTER FRAUD AND ABUSE ACT]]. [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sec_18_00001030----000-.html 18 U.S.C. § 1030]. Fraud and related activity in connection with computers. |
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The content of websites and other electronic communications may be distasteful, [[obscene]], or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances, it may be illegal. What content is unlawful varies greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs. |
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One area of [[internet pornography]] that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is [[child pornography]], which is illegal in most jurisdictions in the world.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} |
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*CAN-SPAM ACT. [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode15/usc_sec_15_00007704----000-.html 15 U.S.C. § 7704]. Controlling The Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act of 2003. |
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===Ad-fraud=== |
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*EXTORTION AND THREATS. [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sec_18_00000875----000-.html 18 U.S.C. § 875]. EXTORTION and THREATS. Interstate communications. |
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{{See also|Ad fraud|Click fraud}} |
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Ad-frauds are particularly popular among cybercriminals, as such frauds are lucrative and unlikely to be prosecuted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wilbur|first1=Kenneth C.|last2=Zhu|first2=Yi|date=2008-10-24|title=Click Fraud|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mksc.1080.0397|journal=Marketing Science|volume=28|issue=2|pages=293–308|doi=10.1287/mksc.1080.0397|issn=0732-2399|access-date=30 October 2021|archive-date=5 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005143633/https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mksc.1080.0397|url-status=live}}</ref> Jean-Loup Richet, a professor at the [[Sorbonne Business School]], classified the large variety of ad-frauds committed by cybercriminals into three categories: identity fraud, attribution fraud, and ad-fraud services.<ref name="auto2"/> |
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*IDENTITY THEFT AND ASSUMPTION DETERRENCE ACT of 1998. [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sec_18_00001028----000-.html 18 U.S.C. § 1028]. Fraud and related activity in connection with identification documents, authentication features, and information. |
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Identity fraud aims to impersonate real users and inflate audience numbers. The techniques used for identity fraud include traffic from bots (coming from a hosting company, a data center, or compromised devices); [[cookie stuffing]]; falsification of user characteristics, such as location and browser type; fake social traffic (misleading users on social networks into visiting the advertised website); and fake social media accounts that make a bot appear legitimate. |
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*WIRE FRAUD. [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sec_18_00001343----000-.html 18 U.S.C. § 1343]. Fraud by wire, radio, or television. |
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Attribution fraud impersonates the activities of real users, such as clicks and conversations. Many ad-fraud techniques belong to this category: the use of hijacked and malware-infected devices as part of a [[botnet]]; click farms (companies where low-wage employees are paid to click or engage in conversations); incentivized browsing; video placement abuse (delivered in display banner slots); hidden ads (which will never be viewed by real users); domain spoofing (ads served on a fake website); and clickjacking, in which the user is forced to click on an ad. |
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*No Electronic Theft ("NET") Act. [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode17/usc_sec_17_00000506----000-.html 17 U.S.C. § 506]. Criminal Offenses. (criminal copyright infringement) |
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Ad-fraud services include all online infrastructure and hosting services that might be needed to undertake identity or attribution fraud. Services can involve the creation of spam websites (fake networks of websites that provide artificial backlinks); link building services; hosting services; or fake and scam pages impersonating a famous brand. |
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*Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 ([[DMCA]]) . [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode17/usc_sec_17_00001201----000-.html 17 U.S.C. § 1201]. Circumvention of copyright protection systems. |
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===Online harassment{{anchor|Harassment}}=== |
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*Electronic Communications Privacy Act, [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sup_01_18_10_I_20_121.html 18 U.S.C. § 2701, et seq]. (STORED WIRE AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSACTIONAL RECORDS ACCESS) |
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{{See also|Cyberbullying|Online predator|Cyberstalking|4=Cyber Racism|5=Internet troll}} |
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{{Globalize|section|date=March 2016}} |
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Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, [[harassment]] directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals, often focusing on gender, [[Cyber racism|race]], religion, nationality, or sexual orientation. |
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*Trade Secrets Act. [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sec_18_00001832----000-.html 18 U.S.C. § 1832]. Theft of trade secrets. |
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Committing a crime using a computer can lead to an enhanced sentence. For example, in the case of ''[[United States v. Neil Scott Kramer]]'', the defendant was given an enhanced sentence according to the [[U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual]] §2G1.3(b)(3) for his use of a [[cell phone]] to "persuade, induce, entice, coerce, or facilitate the travel of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct." Kramer appealed the sentence on the grounds that there was insufficient evidence to convict him under this statute because his charge included persuading through a computer device and his cellular phone technically is not a computer. Although Kramer tried to argue this point, the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual states that the term "computer" means "an electronic, magnetic, optical, [[Electrochemistry|electrochemical]], or other high-speed data processing device performing logical, arithmetic, or storage functions, and includes any data storage facility or communications facility directly related to or operating in conjunction with such device." |
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*Economic Espionage Act. [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode18/usc_sec_18_00001831----000-.html 18 U.S.C. § 1831]. Economic Espionage. |
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In the United States, at least 41 states have passed laws and regulations that regard extreme online harassment as a criminal act. These acts can also be prosecuted on the federal level, because of US Code 18 Section 2261A, which states that using computers to threaten or harass can lead to a sentence of up to 20 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal CyberStalking Bill Info |url=http://www.haltabuse.org/resources/laws/federal.shtml |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=www.haltabuse.org |archive-date=6 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106105338/http://www.haltabuse.org/resources/laws/federal.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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*[http://nsi.org/Library/Compsec/computerlaw/statelaws.html US Computer Crime Laws by State] |
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Several countries besides the US have also created laws to combat online harassment. In China, a country with over 20 percent of the world's internet users, in response to the [[Human flesh search engine|Human Flesh Search Engine]] bullying incident, the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council passed a strict law against cyberbullying.<ref>{{Cite web |title=China has more internet users than any other country, according to Mary Meeker's Internet Trends Report |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/06/most-people-on-the-internet-live-in-this-country/ |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=World Economic Forum|date=27 June 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chinese Authorities Address Online Bullying – Cybersmile |url=https://www.cybersmile.org/news/chinese-authorities-address-online-bullying |access-date=2019-11-02 |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054813/https://www.cybersmile.org/news/chinese-authorities-address-online-bullying |url-status=live }}</ref> The United Kingdom passed the [[Malicious Communications Act 1988|Malicious Communications Act]], which states that sending messages or letters electronically that the government deems "indecent or grossly offensive" and/or language intended to cause "distress and anxiety" can lead to a prison sentence of six months and a potentially large fine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Legal Perspective – Cybersmile |url=https://www.cybersmile.org/advice-help/category/cyberbullying-and-the-law |access-date=2019-11-02 |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054816/https://www.cybersmile.org/advice-help/category/cyberbullying-and-the-law |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Malicious Communications Act 1988 |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1988/27/section/1/data.htm |access-date=2019-11-02 |website=www.legislation.gov.uk |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055342/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1988/27/section/1/data.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia, while not directly addressing the issue of harassment, includes most forms of online harassment under the Criminal Code Act of 1995. Using telecommunication to send threats, harass, or cause offense is a direct violation of this act.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Criminal Code Act 1995 |url=http://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2019C00043/Html/Volume_1 |access-date=2019-11-02 |website=www.legislation.gov.au |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055324/https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2019C00043/Html/Volume_1 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===[[Canada]]=== |
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*[[Criminal Code of Canada]], Section 342. [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/C-46/280843.html#Section-342.1 Unauthorized Use of Computer.] |
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*[[Criminal Code of Canada]], Section 184. [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/c-46/280634.html Interception of Communications] |
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Although [[freedom of speech]] is protected by law in most democratic societies, it does not include all types of speech. Spoken or written threats can be criminalized because they harm or intimidate. This applies to online or network-related threats. |
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===[[United Kingdom]]=== |
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Cyberbullying has increased drastically with the growing popularity of online social networking. As of January 2020, 44 percent of adult internet users in the United States had "personally experienced online harassment".<ref>{{Cite web|title=U.S. internet users who have experienced online harassment 2020|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/333942/us-internet-online-harassment-severity/|access-date=2021-04-05|website=Statista|language=en|archive-date=18 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055336/https://www.statista.com/statistics/333942/us-internet-online-harassment-severity/|url-status=live}}</ref> Online harassment of children often has negative and even life-threatening effects. According to a 2021 survey, 41 percent of children develop social anxiety, 37 percent develop depression, and 26 percent have suicidal thoughts.<ref>{{Cite web|title=All the Latest Cyber Bullying Statistics and What They Mean In 2021|url=https://www.broadbandsearch.net/blog/cyber-bullying-statistics|access-date=2021-04-05|website=BroadbandSearch.net|language=en|archive-date=23 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423045240/https://www.broadbandsearch.net/blog/cyber-bullying-statistics|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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*The [[Computer Misuse Act 1990]] (chapter 18.) |
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The [[United Arab Emirates]] was found to have purchased the [[NSO Group]]'s mobile spyware [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]] for mass surveillance and a campaign of harassment of prominent activists and journalists, including [[Ahmed Mansoor]], [[Latifa bint Mohammed Al Maktoum|Princess Latifa]], [[Princess Haya bint Hussein|Princess Haya]], and others. [[Ghada Owais]] was one of the many high-profile female journalists and activists who were targeted. She filed a lawsuit against UAE ruler [[Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]] along with other defendants, accusing them of sharing her photos online.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/i-will-not-be-silenced-women-targeted-hack-leak-attacks-n1275540|title='I will not be silenced': Women targeted in hack-and-leak attacks speak out about spyware|accessdate=1 August 2021|website=NBC News|date=August 2021|archive-date=1 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801101606/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/i-will-not-be-silenced-women-targeted-hack-leak-attacks-n1275540|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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*The [[Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000]] (chapter 23.) |
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===Drug trafficking=== |
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*The [[Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001]] (chapter 24.) |
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[[Darknet market]]s are used to buy and sell [[Recreational drug use|recreational drugs]] online. Some [[drug trafficker]]s use [[End-to-end encryption|encrypted]] messaging tools to communicate with drug mules or potential customers. The dark web site [[Silk Road (marketplace)|Silk Road]], which started operations in 2011, was the first major online marketplace for drugs. It was permanently shut down in October 2013 by the FBI and Europol. After Silk Road 2.0 went down, Silk Road 3 Reloaded emerged. However, it was just an older marketplace named [[Darknet market|Diabolus Market]] that used the Silk Road name in order to get more exposure from the Silk Road brand's earlier success.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2014 |title=We talked to the opportunist imitator behind Silk Road 3.0 |website=[[The Daily Dot]] |url=http://www.dailydot.com/layer8/silk-road-3-blake-benthall/ |access-date=2016-10-04 |archive-date=5 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005205525/http://www.dailydot.com/layer8/silk-road-3-blake-benthall/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Darknet markets have had a rise in traffic in recent years for many reasons, such as the anonymous purchases and often a system of reviews by other buyers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arora |first=Beenu |title=Council Post: Five Key Reasons Dark Web Markets Are Booming |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2020/04/23/five-key-reasons-dark-web-markets-are-booming/ |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729020116/https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2020/04/23/five-key-reasons-dark-web-markets-are-booming/ |url-status=live }}</ref> There are many ways in which darknet markets can financially drain individuals. Vendors and customers alike go to great lengths to keep their identities a secret while online. Commonly used tools for hiding their online presence include [[virtual private networks|virtual private networks (VPNs)]], [[Tails (operating system)|Tails]], and the [[Tor Browser]]. Darknet markets entice customers by making them feel comfortable. Although people can easily gain access to a Tor browser, actually gaining access to an illicit market is not as simple as typing it in on a search engine, as one would with Google. Darknet markets have special links that change frequently, ending in [[.onion]] as opposed to the typical [[.com]], .net, and [[.org]] domain extensions. To add to privacy, the most prevalent currency on these markets is Bitcoin, which allows transactions to be anonymous.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Guide: What is Bitcoin and how does Bitcoin work? - CBBC Newsround |language=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/25622442 |access-date=2020-06-23 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407042830/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/25622442 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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*The [[Data Protection Act]] 1998 (chapter 29.) |
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A problem that marketplace users sometimes face is exit scamming.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Christian |first=Jon |date=2015-02-04 |title=The 'Exit Scam' Is the Darknet's Perfect Crime |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/xyw7xn/darknet-slang-watch-exit-scam |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=Vice |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055329/https://www.vice.com/en/article/xyw7xn/darknet-slang-watch-exit-scam |url-status=live }}</ref> That is, a vendor with a high rating acts as if they are selling on the market and have users pay for products they never receive.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 'Exit Scam' Is the Darknet's Perfect Crime |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/xyw7xn/darknet-slang-watch-exit-scam |access-date=2020-07-14 |website=www.vice.com |date=4 February 2015 |language=en |archive-date=24 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624105505/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/xyw7xn/darknet-slang-watch-exit-scam |url-status=live }}</ref> The vendor then closes their account after receiving money from multiple buyers and never sending what was paid for. The vendors, all of whom are involved in illegal activities, have no reason not to engage in exit scamming when they no longer want to be a vendor. In 2019, an entire market known as Wall Street Market allegedly exit scammed, stealing $30 million dollars in bitcoin.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Winder|first=Davey|title=Did A Bitcoin Exit Scam Cause Dark Web Wall Street Market Crash?|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/daveywinder/2019/05/03/did-a-bitcoin-exit-scam-cause-dark-web-wall-street-market-crash/|access-date=2021-09-25|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref> |
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*The [[Fraud Act 2006]] (chapter 35.) |
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The FBI has cracked down on these markets. In July 2017, the FBI seized one of the biggest markets, commonly called [[AlphaBay|Alphabay]], which re-opened in August 2021 under the control of DeSnake, one of the original administrators.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brandom |first=Russell |date=2019-02-17 |title=The golden age of dark web drug markets is over |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/2/17/18226718/alphabay-takedown-drug-marketplace-federal-arrest |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref><ref name="WIRED">{{cite magazine |last1=Greenberg |first1=Andy |title=He Escaped the Dark Web's Biggest Bust. Now He's Back |url=https://www.wired.com/story/alphabay-desnake-dark-web-interview/ |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast Publications]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923132523/https://www.wired.com/story/alphabay-desnake-dark-web-interview/ |archive-date=September 23, 2021 |date=September 23, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Investigators pose as buyers and order products from darknet vendors in the hope that the vendors leave a trail the investigators can follow. In one case an investigator posed as a firearms seller, and for six months people purchased from them and provided home addresses.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=7 Ways the Cops Will Bust You on the Dark Web |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/vv73pj/7-ways-the-cops-will-bust-you-on-the-dark-web |access-date=2020-07-14 |website=www.vice.com |date=26 June 2016 |language=en |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715015429/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/vv73pj/7-ways-the-cops-will-bust-you-on-the-dark-web |url-status=live }}</ref> The FBI was able to make over a dozen arrests during this six-month investigation.<ref name=":12" /> Another crackdown targeted vendors selling [[fentanyl]] and [[opiates]]. With thousands of people dying each year due to drug overdose, investigators have made internet drug sales a priority.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-24 |title=America's Drug Overdose Epidemic: Data to Action |url=https://www.cdc.gov/injury/features/prescription-drug-overdose/index.html |access-date=2020-07-14 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref> Many vendors do not realize the extra criminal charges that go along with selling drugs online, such as money laundering and illegal use of the mail.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Consequences of Mailing Drugs and Other Banned Substances |url=https://www.cottenfirm.com/blog/2019/september/the-consequences-of-mailing-drugs-and-other-bann/ |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=www.cottenfirm.com}}</ref> In 2019, a vendor was sentenced to 10 years in prison after selling cocaine and methamphetamine under the name JetSetLife.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Darknet drug vendor sentenced to 10 years prison |url=https://www.dea.gov/press-releases/2019/04/12/darknet-drug-vendor-sentenced-10-years-prison |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=www.dea.gov |language=en}}</ref> But despite the large amount of time investigators spend tracking down people, in 2018 only 65 suspects who bought and sold illegal goods on some of the biggest markets were identified.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Feds Crack Down on Darknet Vendors of Illicit Goods |url=https://www.bankinfosecurity.com/feds-crack-down-on-darknet-vendors-illicit-goods-a-11145 |access-date=2020-07-14 |website=www.bankinfosecurity.com |language=en |archive-date=14 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714200159/https://www.bankinfosecurity.com/feds-crack-down-on-darknet-vendors-illicit-goods-a-11145 |url-status=live }}</ref> Meanwhile, thousands of transactions take place daily on these markets. |
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*Potentially the [http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?LegType=All+Primary&PageNumber=47&NavFrom=2&parentActiveTextDocId=1267132&activetextdocid=1267154 Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981 (chapter 45)] may also apply in relation to forgery of electronic payment instruments accepted within the United Kingdom. |
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===Emerging trends in Cybercrime=== |
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*The CMA was recently amended by the [[Police and Justice Act 2006]] (chapter 48) |
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Through rapid technological advances, the tactics of cybercriminals are ever evolving with instances of AI (artificial intelligence) being used and exploited for criminal activity. These trends highlight the dynamic nature of cybercrime, emphasizing the need for evolving countermeasures to combat future online threats. The use of AI has been able to replicate voices to impersonate, fraudulently obtain money and other finical related crimes. The dark web is seeing an increase in artificial chatbots specifically designed to aid hackers and help with various phishing techniques. Cybercriminals can now use AI deepfakes to pose as individuals who may be connected or have authority over the victim of the attack. Personal data is something that in the future will be more accessible than ever, with almost everything having a history that is possible to access on black markets, fueling issues such as identity theft, finical fraud, and targeted advertisements. |
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{{Cite journal| issn = 1015-2385| volume = 116| issue = 11| pages = 20–25| last = Geldenhuys| first = Kotie| title = The darker side of Artificial Intelligence| journal = Servamus Community-based Safety & Security Magazine| date = November 2023}} |
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{{Cite journal| pages = | last = Lin| first = Belle| title = Welcome to the Era of BadGPTs| journal = Wall Street Journal - Online Edition| date = 2024-02-29}} |
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{{Citation| publisher = Social Science Research Network| doi = 10.2139/ssrn.3897380| last1 = Bispham| first1 = Mary| last2 = Creese| first2 = Sadie| last3 = Dutton| first3 = William H.| last4 = Esteve-Gonzalez| first4 = Patricia| last5 = Goldsmith| first5 = Michael| title = Cybersecurity in Working from Home: An Exploratory Study| location = Rochester, NY| access-date = 2024-12-07| date = 2021-08-01| ssrn = 3897380| url = https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3897380}} |
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{{Cite journal| doi = 10.9785/ovs-cri-2012-169| issn = 2194-4164| volume = 13| issue = 6| pages = 169–175| last = Kilian| first = Wolfgang| title = Personal Data: The Impact of Emerging Trends in the Information Society: How the marketability of personal data should affect the concept of data protection law| journal = Computer Law Review International| access-date = 2024-12-07| date = 2012-12-01| url = https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9785/ovs-cri-2012-169/html}} |
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==Notable incidents== |
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*The [[Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003]] (Statutory Instrument 2003 No. 2426.) |
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* One of the highest-profile banking computer crimes occurred over a course of three years beginning in 1970. The chief teller at the Park Avenue branch of New York's [[Union Dime Savings Bank]] embezzled over $1.5 million from hundreds of accounts.<ref name="Weitzer" /> |
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* In 2014, the [[Sony Pictures Entertainment hack]] not only exposed sensitive company data but also led to extortion demands, marking one of the most publicized corporate cyberattacks to date. For more detailed insights on cyber blackmail and notable incidents, visit [C9 Journal](https://c9journal.com/cyber-blackmail-definition-prevention-and-response/). |
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* A hacking group called MOD (Masters of Deception) allegedly stole passwords and technical data from [[Pacific Bell]], [[Nynex]], and other telephone companies as well as several big credit agencies and two major universities. The damage caused was extensive; one company, [[Southwestern Bell]], suffered losses of $370,000.<ref name="Weitzer" /> |
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* In 1983, a 19-year-old UCLA student used his PC to break into a Defense Department International Communications system.<ref name="Weitzer">{{Cite book |last=Weitzer |first=Ronald |title=Current Controversies in Criminology |publisher=Pearson Education Press |year=2003 |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |page=150}}</ref> |
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* Between 1995 and 1998 the [[News Corporation (1980–2013)|Newscorp]] satellite pay-to-view encrypted [[Sky Digital (UK & Ireland)|SKY-TV]] service was hacked several times during an ongoing technological [[arms race]] between a pan-European hacking group and Newscorp. The original motivation of the hackers was to watch ''Star Trek'' reruns in Germany, which was something which Newscorp did not have the copyright permission to allow.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=David |last1=Mann |first2=Mike |last2=Sutton |date=6 November 2011 |title=>>Netcrime |journal=British Journal of Criminology |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=201–229 |citeseerx=10.1.1.133.3861 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a014232 }}</ref> |
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* On 26 March 1999, the [[Melissa (computer virus)|Melissa worm]] infected a document on a victim's computer, then automatically emailed that document and a copy of the virus to other people. |
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* In February 2000, an individual going by the alias of [[MafiaBoy]] began a series of [[denial-of-service attack]]s against high-profile websites, including [[Yahoo!]], [[Dell, Inc.]], [[E*TRADE]], [[eBay]], and [[CNN]]. About 50 computers at [[Stanford University]], along with computers at the University of California at Santa Barbara, were among the [[zombie computer]]s sending pings in the [[DDoS|distributed denial-of-service]] attacks. On 3 August 2000, Canadian federal prosecutors charged MafiaBoy with 54 counts of illegal access to computers. |
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* The [[Stuxnet]] worm corrupted SCADA microprocessors, particularly the types used in [[Siemens]] centrifuge controllers. |
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* The [[Russian Business Network]] (RBN) was registered as an internet site in 2006. Initially, much of its activity was legitimate. But apparently the founders soon discovered that it was more profitable to host illegitimate activities and to offer its services to criminals. The RBN has been described by [[VeriSign]] as "the baddest of the bad".<ref name="econ20070930">{{Cite news |date=30 September 2007 |title=A walk on the dark side |newspaper=The Economist |url=http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9723768 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110134626/http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9723768 |archive-date=10 November 2007}}</ref> It provides web hosting services and internet access to all kinds of criminal and objectionable activities that earn up to $150 million in one year. It specializes in [[Personally identifiable information|personal identity theft]] for resale. It is the originator of [[MPack (software)|MPack]] and an alleged operator of the now defunct [[Storm botnet]]. |
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* On 2 March 2010, Spanish investigators arrested three men suspected of infecting over 13 million computers around the world. The botnet of infected computers included PCs inside more than half of the [[Fortune 1000]] companies and more than 40 major banks, according to investigators.<ref>{{Cite news|date=3 March 2010|title=Spanish police crack massive 'zombie computer' network|work=France 24|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20100303-spanish-police-crack-massive-zombie-computer-network}}</ref> |
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* In August 2010, the US Department of Homeland Security shut down the international [[pedophile ring]] Dreamboard. The website had approximately 600 members and may have distributed up to 123 [[terabyte]]s of child pornography (roughly equivalent to 16,000 DVDs). To date this is the single largest US prosecution of an international child pornography ring; 52 arrests were made worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=DHS: Secretary Napolitano and Attorney General Holder Announce Largest U.S. Prosecution of International Criminal Network Organized to Sexually Exploit Children |url=https://www.dhs.gov/ynews/releases/20110803-napolitano-holder-announce-largest-prosecution-criminal-network.shtm |access-date=2011-11-10 |publisher=Dhs.gov |archive-date=17 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617182832/https://www.dhs.gov/news/2011/08/03/secretary-napolitano-and-attorney-general-holder-announce-largest-us-prosecution |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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* In January 2012, [[Zappos.com]] experienced a security breach compromising the credit card numbers, personal information, and billing and shipping addresses of as many as 24 million customers.<ref>{{Cite news |first=David K. |last=Li |date=17 January 2012 |title=Zappos cyber attack |work=New York Post |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/news/national/zappos_cyber_attack_pWsrU60crm8SGHJWYGuP7K |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=18 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418113048/http://www.nypost.com/p/news/national/zappos_cyber_attack_pWsrU60crm8SGHJWYGuP7K |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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* In June 2012, [[LinkedIn]] and [[eHarmony]] were attacked, and 65 million [[password hash]]es were compromised. Thirty thousand passwords were cracked, and 1.5 million eHarmony passwords were posted online.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Salvador |last=Rodriguez |date=6 June 2012 |title=Like LinkedIn, eHarmony is hacked; 1.5 million passwords stolen |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-xpm-2012-jun-06-la-fi-tn-eharmony-hacked-linkedin-20120606-story.html |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-date=28 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028034448/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/jun/06/business/la-fi-tn-eharmony-hacked-linkedin-20120606 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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* In December 2012, the [[Wells Fargo]] website experienced a denial-of-service attack that potentially compromised 70 million customers and 8.5 million active viewers. Other banks thought to be compromised included [[Bank of America]], [[J. P. Morgan]], [[U.S. Bancorp|U.S. Bank]], and [[PNC Bank|PNC Financial Services]].<ref>{{Cite news |first=Rick |last=Rothacker |date=12 Oct 2012 |title=Cyber attacks against Wells Fargo "significant," handled well: CFO |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/net-us-wellsfargo-cyberattacks-idUSBRE89B1C620121012}}</ref> |
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* On 23 April 2013, the Twitter account of the Associated Press was hacked. The hacker posted a hoax tweet about fictitious attacks on the White House that they claimed left then-[[Barack Obama|President Obama]] injured.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 April 2013 |title=AP Twitter Hack Falsely Claims Explosions at White House |publisher=Samantha Murphy |url=http://mashable.com/2013/04/23/ap-hacked-white-house/ |access-date=23 April 2013}}</ref> The hoax tweet resulted in a brief plunge of 130 points in the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]], the removal of $136 billion from the [[S&P 500]] index,<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 April 2013 |title=Fake Tweet Erasing $136 Billion Shows Markets Need Humans |work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-04-23/fake-report-erasing-136-billion-shows-market-s-fragility.html |access-date=23 April 2013 |archive-date=23 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423204458/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-04-23/fake-report-erasing-136-billion-shows-market-s-fragility.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the temporary suspension of AP's Twitter account. The Dow Jones later restored its session gains. |
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*In May 2017, 74 countries logged a [[ransomware]] cybercrime called "[[WannaCry]]".<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 May 2017 |title=Unprecedented cyber attacks wreak global havoc |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/unprecedented-cyberattacks-wreak-global-havoc |website=Straits Times |access-date=13 May 2017 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055914/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/unprecedented-cyberattacks-wreak-global-havoc |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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* Illicit access to camera sensors, microphone sensors, phonebook contacts, all internet-enabled apps, and metadata of mobile telephones running Android and iOS was reportedly provided by Israeli spyware that was found to be in operation in at least 46 nation-states around the world. Journalists, royalty, and government officials were among the targets.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/sep/18/israeli-spyware-found-phones-45-countries-us-inclu/|title=Israeli spyware found on phones in 45 countries, U.S. included|work=[[The Washington Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sfgate.com/business/technology/article/Researchers-find-hints-of-Israeli-spyware-around-13237819.php |title=Researchers find hints of Israeli spyware around globe - SFGate |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924105848/https://www.sfgate.com/business/technology/article/Researchers-find-hints-of-Israeli-spyware-around-13237819.php |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2018 |title=Your Smartphone could be running Israeli Spyware! |url=https://www.siasat.com/news/smartphone-or-israeli-spywarehow-safe-your-smartphone-1400791/ |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924110052/https://www.siasat.com/news/smartphone-or-israeli-spywarehow-safe-your-smartphone-1400791/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Earlier accusations that Israeli weapons companies were meddling in international telephony<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2016 |title=Phone hackers for hire: A peek into the discreet, lucrative business tapped by the FBI |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/3062396/security/phone-hackers-for-hire-a-peek-into-the-discreet-lucrative-business-tapped-by-the-fbi.html |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=16 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516013335/http://www.pcworld.com/article/3062396/security/phone-hackers-for-hire-a-peek-into-the-discreet-lucrative-business-tapped-by-the-fbi.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and smartphones<ref>{{Cite news |last=Beaumont |first=Peter |date=26 August 2016 |title=Israeli firm accused of creating iPhone spyware |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/26/israeli-firm-accused-of-creating-iphone-spyware |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060430/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/26/israeli-firm-accused-of-creating-iphone-spyware |url-status=live }}</ref> have been eclipsed by the [[Pegasus (spyware)|2018 Pegasus spyware revelations]]. |
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*In December 2019, [[United States Intelligence Community|US intelligence officials]] and ''[[The New York Times]]'' revealed that [[ToTok (app)|ToTok]], a messaging application widely used in the [[United Arab Emirates]], is a [[Espionage|spying]] tool for the UAE. An investigation revealed that the Emirati government was attempting to track every conversation, movement, relationship, appointment, sound, and image of those who installed the app on their phones.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chat App ToTok Is Spy Tool For UAE – Report |url=https://www.silicon.co.uk/mobility/mobile-apps/totok-spy-tool-for-uae-325873 |access-date=27 December 2019 |website=Silicon UK Tech News |date=27 December 2019 |archive-date=27 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227191240/https://www.silicon.co.uk/mobility/mobile-apps/totok-spy-tool-for-uae-325873 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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==Combating computer crime== |
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*See also the [http://www.internetrights.org.uk/factsheets.shtml?cmd%5B512%5D=i-512-0da9b65d93e7d072d6117d4de146d8a4&x=53236 UK Internet Rights] web site and the [http://www.apcomms.org.uk/apig/archive/activities-2004/computer-misuse-inquiry/CMAReportFinalVersion1.pdf All Party Internet Group report] on recommended amendments to the CMA. |
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Due to cybercriminals using the internet for cross-border attacks and crimes, the process of prosecuting cybercriminals has been difficult. The number of vulnerabilities that a cybercriminal could use as points of opportunity to exploit has also increased over the years. From 2008 to 2014 alone, there has been a 17.75% increase in vulnerabilities across all online devices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jardine |first=Eric |date=2015 |title=Global Cyberspace Is Safer than You Think: Real Trends in Cybercrime |url=http://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2634590 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |language=en |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2634590 |issn=1556-5068 |access-date=10 December 2023 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060424/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2634590 |url-status=live }}</ref> The internet's expansive reach causes the damage inflicted to people to be magnified since many methods of cybercrime have the opportunity to reach many people. The availability of virtual spaces<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barnard-Wills |first1=David |last2=Ashenden |first2=Debi |date=2012-03-21 |title=Securing Virtual Space: Cyber War, Cyber Terror, and Risk |journal=Space and Culture |language=en |doi=10.1177/1206331211430016 |s2cid=146501914}}</ref> has allowed cybercrime to become an everyday occurrence.<ref name=":0" /> In 2018, the [[Internet Crime Complaint Center]] received 351,937 complaints of cybercrime, which led to $2.7 billion lost.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Facts + Statistics: Identity theft and cybercrime |url=https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics-identity-theft-and-cybercrime |access-date=2 December 2019 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060424/https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics-identity-theft-and-cybercrime |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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=== |
===Investigation=== |
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In a criminal investigation, a computer can be a source of evidence (see [[digital forensics]]). Even when a computer is not directly used for criminal purposes, it may contain records of value to criminal investigators in the form of a [[logfile]]. In many countries,<ref name="Zehra Ali">{{Cite web |last=Zehra Ali |date=21 January 2018 |title=Mandatory Data Retention Worldwide |url=https://www.privacyend.com/mandatory-data-retention/ |access-date=17 December 2018 |archive-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217110743/https://www.privacyend.com/mandatory-data-retention/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Internet Service Providers]] are required by law to keep their logfiles for a predetermined amount of time. |
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There are many ways for cybercrime to take place, and investigations tend to start with an [[IP Address]] trace; however, that does not necessarily enable detectives to solve a case. Different types of high-tech crime may also include elements of low-tech crime, and vice versa, making cybercrime investigators an indispensable part of modern law enforcement. Methods of cybercrime detective work are dynamic and constantly improving, whether in closed police units or in the framework of international cooperation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/RS_No79/No79_15RC_Group2.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319194419/http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/RS_No79/No79_15RC_Group2.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2015 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> |
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*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca2001112/sch1.html ''Cybercrime Act 2001'' (Commonwealth)] |
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[[File:Tommy Tuberville touring the National Computer Forensic Institute in 2021.jpg|thumb|Senator [[Tommy Tuberville]] touring the National Computer Forensic Institute in [[Hoover, Alabama]], in 2021]] |
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*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/ ''Crimes Act 1900'' (NSW)]: Part 6, ss 308-308I. |
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In the United States, the FBI<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Cyber Crime |url=https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/cyber |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=Federal Bureau of Investigation |language=en-us}}</ref> and the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] (DHS)<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2012-06-19 |title=Combating Cyber Crime |url=https://www.dhs.gov/cisa/combating-cyber-crime |access-date=2019-11-01 |website=Department of Homeland Security |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060426/https://www.cisa.gov/combatting-cyber-crime |url-status=live }}</ref> are government agencies that combat cybercrime. The FBI has trained agents and analysts in cybercrime placed in their field offices and headquarters.<ref name=":1" /> In the DHS, the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] has a Cyber Intelligence Section that works to target financial cybercrimes. They combat international cybercrime and work to protect institutions such as banks from intrusions and information breaches. Based in Alabama, the Secret Service and the Alabama Office of Prosecution Services work together to train professionals in law enforcement at the National Computer Forensic Institute.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=NCFI - About |url=https://www.ncfi.usss.gov/ncfi/pages/about.xhtml?dswid=-4902 |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=www.ncfi.usss.gov |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231015231/https://www.ncfi.usss.gov/ncfi/pages/about.xhtml?dswid=-4902 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Investigation |url=https://www.secretservice.gov/investigation/ |access-date=2019-12-03 |website=www.secretservice.gov |archive-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916015010/https://www.secretservice.gov/investigation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The NCFI provides "state and local members of the law enforcement community with training in cyber incident response, investigation, and forensic examination in cyber incident response, investigation, and forensic examination."<ref name=":3" /> |
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*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cc94/s440a.html ''Criminal Code'' (WA): Section 440a, Unlawful Operation of a Computer System] |
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Investigating cyber crime within the United States and globally often requires partnerships. Within the United States, cyber crime may be investigated by law enforcement, the Department of Homeland Security, among other federal agencies. However, as the world becomes more dependent on technology, cyber attacks and cyber crime are going to expand as threat actors will continue to exploit weaknesses in protection and existing vulnerabilities to achieve their end goals, often being data theft or exfiltration. To combat cybercrime, the United States Secret Service maintains an Electronic Crimes Task Force which extends beyond the United States as it helps to locate threat actors that are located globally and performing cyber related crimes within the United States. The Secret Service is also responsible for the National Computer Forensic Institute which allows law enforcement and people of the court to receive cyber training and information on how to combat cyber crime. The United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement is responsible for the Cyber Crimes Center (C3) providing cyber crime related services for federal, state, local and international agencies. Finally, the United States also has resources relating to Law Enforcement Cyber Incident Reporting to allow local and state agencies to understand how, when, and what should be reported as a cyber incident to the federal government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Combatting Cyber Crime {{!}} CISA |url=https://www.cisa.gov/combatting-cyber-crime |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=www.cisa.gov |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060453/https://www.cisa.gov/combatting-cyber-crime |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===[[Singapore]]=== |
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*[http://agcvldb4.agc.gov.sg/non_version/cgi-bin/cgi_retrieve.pl?actno=REVED-50A&doctitle=COMPUTER%20MISUSE%20ACT%0a&date=latest&method=part&sl=1 Computer Misuse Act 1993 (Chapter 50A)] |
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Because cybercriminals commonly use encryption and other techniques to hide their identity and location, it can be difficult to trace a perpetrator after a crime is committed, so prevention measures are crucial.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Brenner |first=Susan W. |title=Cybercrime : criminal threats from cyberspace |date=2010 |publisher=Praeger |isbn=9780313365461 |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |oclc=464583250}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-08-18 |title=The Importance of Understanding Encryption in Cybersecurity |url=https://www.floridatechonline.com/blog/information-technology/the-importance-of-understanding-encryption-in-cybersecurity/ |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=Florida Tech Online |language=en-US |archive-date=4 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204014723/https://www.floridatechonline.com/blog/information-technology/the-importance-of-understanding-encryption-in-cybersecurity/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Others=== |
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=== Prevention === |
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*[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=185&CM=8&DF=20/12/01&CL=ENG Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime] |
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The Department of Homeland Security also instituted the Continuous Diagnostics and Mitigation (CDM) Program.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cisa.gov/cdm|title=Continuous Diagnostics and Mitigation Program | CISA|website=www.cisa.gov|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=6 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406154053/https://www.cisa.gov/cdm|url-status=live}}</ref> The CDM Program monitors and secures government networks by tracking network risks and informing system personnel so that they can take action. In an attempt to catch intrusions before the damage is done, the DHS created the Enhanced Cybersecurity Services (ECS).<ref name=ECS_1>{{cite web| url=https://www.cisa.gov/enhanced-cybersecurity-services-ecs| title=Enhanced Cybersecurity Services (ECS)| publisher=[[Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency]]| date=2024| access-date=6 January 2024| archive-date=23 February 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223022025/https://www.cisa.gov/enhanced-cybersecurity-services-ecs| url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency|Cyber Security and Infrastructure Security Agency]] approves the private partners that provide intrusion detection and prevention services through the ECS.<ref name=ECS_1/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Detection and Prevention {{!}} CISA |url=https://www.cisa.gov/detection-and-prevention |access-date=2019-11-01 |website=www.cisa.gov |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107023624/https://www.cisa.gov/detection-and-prevention |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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*[http://www.cybercrimelaw.net/laws/survey.html Global Survey of Cybercrime Law] |
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*[http://www.mosstingrett.no/info/legal.html Unauthorized Access Penal Laws in 44 Countries] |
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Cybersecurity professionals have been skeptical of prevention-focused strategies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-26 |title=Report: 74% of security leaders say that prevention-first strategies will fail |url=https://venturebeat.com/2022/04/26/report-74-of-security-leaders-say-that-prevention-first-strategies-will-fail/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US |archive-date=28 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728111735/https://venturebeat.com/2022/04/26/report-74-of-security-leaders-say-that-prevention-first-strategies-will-fail/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The mode of use of cybersecurity products has also been called into question. [[Shuman Ghosemajumder]] has argued that individual companies using a combination of products for security is not a scalable approach and has advocated for the use of cybersecurity technology primarily at the platform level.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ghosemajumder |first=Shuman |date=2017-12-04 |title=You Can't Secure 100% of Your Data 100% of the Time |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2017/12/you-cant-secure-100-of-your-data-100-of-the-time |access-date=2022-05-03 |issn=0017-8012 |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828214607/https://hbr.org/2017/12/you-cant-secure-100-of-your-data-100-of-the-time |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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*[[Convention on Cybercrime]] |
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On a personal level, there are some strategies available to defend against cybercrime:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nikishin |first=A. |date=2015 |chapter=ICS Threats. A Kaspersky Lab view, predictions and reality |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/ic.2015.0003 |title=Cyber Security for Industrial Control Systems |pages=01 (43 .) |publisher=Institution of Engineering and Technology |doi=10.1049/ic.2015.0003 |isbn=978-1-78561-010-3}}</ref> |
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==Academic resources== |
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*[http://cybercrimes.net/ Cybercrimes.net] and [http://steeplemedia.com/blogs/cyb3r_crim3/ Cyb3rCrim3.org] Susan W. Brenner |
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*[http://www.jisclegal.ac.uk/cybercrime/cybercrime.htm Cybercrime - High Tech crime] JISC Legal Information Service |
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*[http://legal.practitioner.com/computer-crime/ A Guide to Computer Crime] Practitioner.Com |
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*[http://www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/crimjust/cybercri.htm Criminal Justice Resources - Cybercrime] |
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*[http://information-retrieval.info/cybercrime/ Cybercrime NYLS] |
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*[http://www.cybertelecom.org/crime.htm Cybertelecom :: Crime] |
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* Keeping your software and operating system update to benefit from security patches |
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==Government resources== |
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* Using anti-virus software that can detect and remove malicious threats |
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* Use strong passwords with a variety of characters that aren't easy to guess |
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* Refrain from opening attachments from spam emails |
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* Do not click on links from scam emails |
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* Do not give out personal information over the internet unless you can verify that the destination is safe |
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* Contact companies about suspicious requests of your information |
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===Legislation=== |
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*[http://www.cybercrime.gov/ Cybercrime.gov] US Department of Justice CCIPS |
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Because of weak laws, cybercriminals operating from developing countries can often evade detection and prosecution. In countries such as the [[Philippines]], laws against cybercrime are weak or sometimes nonexistent. Cybercriminals can then strike from across international borders and remain undetected. Even when identified, these criminals can typically avoid being extradited to a country such as the US that has laws that allow for prosecution. For this reason, agencies such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] have used deception and subterfuge to catch criminals. For example, two Russian hackers had been evading the FBI for some time. The FBI set up a fake computing company based in Seattle, Washington. They proceeded to lure the two Russian men into the United States by offering them work with this company. Upon completion of the interview, the suspects were arrested. Clever tricks like that are sometimes a necessary part of catching cybercriminals when weak laws and limited international cooperation make it impossible otherwise.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kshetri |first=Nir |title=Diffusion and Effects of Cyber Crime in Developing Countries |url=http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=21efdb54-ad43-447f-ab46-ce7fa854a98f%40sessionmgr4003&hid=4109&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=buh&AN=55328703/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018103250/http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=21efdb54-ad43-447f-ab46-ce7fa854a98f%40sessionmgr4003&hid=4109&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=buh&AN=55328703/ |archive-date=18 October 2015 |access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref> |
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*[http://www.us-cert.gov/ US CERT] United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) |
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*[http://www.fbi.gov/cyberinvest/cyberhome.htm FBI Cyber Investigations Home Page] |
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*[http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/financial_crimes.shtml#Computer US Secret Service Computer Fraud] |
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*[http://onguardonline.gov/index.html On Guard] OnGuardOnline.gov provides practical tips from the federal government and the technology industry to help you be on guard against Internet fraud, secure your computer, and protect your personal information. |
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*[http://www.consumer.gov/idtheft/ ID Theft] one-stop national resource to learn about the crime of identity theft |
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*[http://www.findlaw.com/01topics/10cyberspace/computercrimes/index.html FindLaw Computer Crime] |
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*[http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/scams/ccprev_e.htm RCMP Computer Crime Prevention] Royal Canadian Mounted Police |
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The first cyber related law in the United States was the Privacy Act of 1974 which was only required for federal agencies to follow to ensure privacy and protection of personally identifiable information (PII). However, since 1974, in the United States other laws and regulations have been drafted and implemented, but there is still a gap in responding to current cyber related crime. The most recent cyber related law, according to NIST, was the NIST Small Business Cybersecurity Act, which came out in 2018, and provides guidelines to small businesses to ensure that cybersecurity risks are being identified and addressed accurately.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NIST Cybersecurity Program History and Timeline {{!}} CSRC |url=https://csrc.nist.gov/nist-cyber-history |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=csrc.nist.gov |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060958/https://csrc.nist.gov/nist-cyber-history |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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==Other external links== |
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* [http://www.ahtcc.gov.au/ Australian High Tech Crime Centre] |
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During President Barack Obama's presidency three cybersecurity related bills were signed into order in December 2014. The first was the Federal Information Security Modernization Act of 2014, the second was the National Cybersecurity Protection Act of 2014, and the third was the Cybersecurity Enhancement Act of 2014. Although the Federal Information Security Modernization Act of 2014 was just an update of an older version of the act, it focused on the practices federal agencies were to abide by relating to cybersecurity. While the National Cybersecurity Protection Act of 2014 was aimed toward increasing the amount of information sharing that occurs across the federal and private sector to improve cybersecurity amongst the industries. Finally, the Cybersecurity Enhancement Act of 2014 relates to cybersecurity research and education.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kesan |first1=Jay P. |title=Cybersecurity and privacy law in a nutshell |last2=Hayes |first2=Carol M. |date=2019 |publisher=West Academic Publishing |isbn=978-1-63460-272-3 |series=Nutshell series |location=St. Paul, MN}}</ref> |
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* [http://www.police.nsw.gov.au/crimestoppers/detail.cfm?ObjectID=29&Section=education Australian Computer Abuse Research Bureau] (ACARB) introduction to computer abuse concepts |
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* European Convention on Cybercrime [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/185.htm] |
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In April 2015, then-President Barack Obama released an executive order that allows the US to freeze the assets of convicted cybercriminals and block their economic activity within the United States.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Northam |first=Jackie |title=U.S. Creates First Sanctions Program Against Cybercriminals |newspaper=NPR |date=April 2015 |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2015/04/01/396811276/u-s-creates-first-sanctions-program-against-cybercriminals/ |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060933/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/04/01/396811276/u-s-creates-first-sanctions-program-against-cybercriminals/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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* [http://www.crime-research.org Computer Crime Research Center] - Daily news about computer crime, Internet fraud and cyber terrorism |
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* [http://www.cybercrimelaw.org Cyber Crime Law] - News and commentary on preventing, detecting, and prosecuting computer crimes |
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The European Union adopted cybercrime directive 2013/40/EU, which was elaborated upon in the [[Council of Europe]]'s [[Convention on Cybercrime]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Adrian Cristian |last=Moise |year=2015 |title=Analysis of Directive 2013/40/EU on attacks against information systems in the context of approximation of law at the European level |url=http://jolas.ro/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/jolas_sia38.pdf |journal=Journal of Law and Administrative Sciences |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208231600/http://jolas.ro/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/jolas_sia38.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2015}}</ref> |
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* [http://blogs.ittoolbox.com/security/investigator/ Information Security Investigations] - Real-life stories of hunting down computer criminals and cyber terrorists |
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* http://www.cybercrime.gov - [[U.S. Department of Justice]] cybercrime web site |
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It is not only the US and the European Union that have been introducing measures against cybercrime. On 31 May 2017, China announced that its new cybersecurity law was taking effect.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2017 |title=China's new cybersecurity law takes effect today |website=[[CNBC]] |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/31/chinas-new-cybersecurity-law-takes-effect-today.html |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060935/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/31/chinas-new-cybersecurity-law-takes-effect-today.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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*http://www.e-crimecongress.org - Annual e-Crime Conference Serving Europe & International corporations |
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*http://www.ecce-conference.com/ - e-crime and computer evidence conference (first held in 2005 - now an annual event) |
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In Australia, legislation to combat cybercrime includes the [[Criminal Code Act 1995]], the [[Telecommunications Act 1997]], and the [[Enhancing Online Safety Act 2015]]. |
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*[http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/topics/ecrime/welcome.html U.S. Department of Justice] National Institute of Justice Electronic Crime Program |
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* http://www.mosstingrett.no/info/legal.html#28 - The Legal Framework - Unauthorized Access to Computer Systems |
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===Penalties=== |
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* http://www.cybercrimelaw.org/index.cfm - Cybercrime Law |
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Penalties for computer-related crimes in [[New York (state)|New York State]] can range from a fine and a short period of jail time for a Class A misdemeanor, such as unauthorized use of a computer, up to 3 to 15 years in prison for a Class C felony, such as computer tampering in the first degree.<ref name="OMH">{{Cite web |title=Criminal Justice System for Adults in NYS |url=https://www.omh.ny.gov/omhweb/forensic/manual/html/chapter1.htm |access-date=17 December 2018 |archive-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217111209/https://www.omh.ny.gov/omhweb/forensic/manual/html/chapter1.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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* http://www.rbs2.com/ccrime.htm#anchor666666 - Computer Crimes, Ronald B. Standler |
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* [http://politicalhacking.blogspot.com/ Politically Motivated Computer Crime] News and analysis |
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However, some former cybercriminals have been hired as information security experts by private companies due to their inside knowledge of computer crime, a phenomenon which theoretically could create [[Moral hazard|perverse incentives]]. A possible counter to this is for courts to ban convicted hackers from using the internet or computers, even after they have been released from prison{{Spaced ndash}}though as computers and the internet become more and more central to everyday life, this type of punishment becomes more and more draconian. Nuanced approaches have been developed that manage cyber offenders' behavior without resorting to total computer or internet bans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2011 |title=Managing the Risks Posed by Offender Computer Use - Perspectives |url=http://appaweb.csg.org/Perspectives/Perspectives_V35_N4_P40.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105202421/http://appaweb.csg.org/Perspectives/Perspectives_V35_N4_P40.pdf |archive-date=5 November 2013 |access-date=25 January 2015}}</ref> These approaches involve restricting individuals to specific devices which are subject to monitoring or searches by probation or parole officers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=Art |url=http://www.ccthomas.com/details.cfm?P_ISBN13=9780398087289 |title=The Cybercrime Handbook for Community Corrections: Managing Risk in the 21st Century |publisher=Thomas |year=2012 |isbn=9780398087289 |location=Springfield |access-date=25 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402094342/http://www.ccthomas.com/details.cfm?P_ISBN13=9780398087289 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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=== Awareness === |
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Cybercrime is becoming more of a threat in our society. According to Accenture's State of Cybersecurity, security attacks increased 31% from 2020 to 2021. The number of attacks per company increased from 206 to 270. Due to this rising threat, the importance of raising awareness about measures to protect information and the tactics criminals use to steal that information is paramount. However, despite cybercrime becoming a mounting problem, many people are not aware of the severity of this problem. This could be attributed to a lack of experience and knowledge of technological issues. There are 1.5 million cyber-attacks annually, which means that there are over 4,000 attacks a day, 170 attacks every hour, or nearly three attacks every minute, with studies showing that only 16 percent of victims had asked the people who were carrying out the attacks to stop.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feinberg |first=T |year=2008 |title=Whether it happens at school or off-campus, cyberbullying disrupts and affects. |journal=Cyberbullying |pages=10}}</ref> Comparitech's 2023 study shows that cybercrime victims have peaked to 71 million annually, which means there is a cyberattack every 39 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-07 |title=The Ultimate List of Cyber Attack Stats (2024) |url=https://explodingtopics.com/blog/cybersecurity-stats |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=Exploding Topics |language=en |archive-date=23 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323183440/https://explodingtopics.com/blog/cybersecurity-stats |url-status=live }}</ref> Anybody who uses the internet for any reason can be a victim, which is why it is important to be aware of how to be protected while online. |
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=== Intelligence === |
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As cybercrime proliferated, a professional ecosystem evolved to support individuals and groups seeking to profit from cybercrime activities. The ecosystem has become quite specialized, and includes malware developers, botnet operators, professional cybercrime groups, groups specializing in the sale of stolen content, and so forth. A few of the leading cybersecurity companies have the skills and resources to follow the activities of these individuals and groups.<ref name=DT_1>{{cite web| title=Dridex: Tidal waves of spam pushing dangerous financial Trojan| url=https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/dridex-financial-trojan| publisher=[[Gen Digital|Symantec]]| date=16 February 2016| access-date=6 January 2024| archive-date=6 January 2024| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106135415/https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/dridex-financial-trojan| url-status=live}}</ref> A wide variety of information that can be used for defensive purposes is available from these sources, for example, technical indicators such as hashes of infected files<ref name="fireeye.com">{{Cite web |title=Insights into Iranian Cyber Espionage: APT33 Targets Aerospace and Energy Sectors and has Ties to Destructive Malware « Insights into Iranian Cyber Espionage: APT33 Targets Aerospace and Energy Sectors and has Ties to Destructive Malware |url=https://www.fireeye.com/blog/threat-research/2017/09/apt33-insights-into-iranian-cyber-espionage.html |access-date=2018-01-03 |website=FireEye |archive-date=6 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006082415/https://www.fireeye.com/blog/threat-research/2017/09/apt33-insights-into-iranian-cyber-espionage.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and malicious IPs/URLs,<ref name="fireeye.com" /> as well as strategic information profiling the goals and techniques of the profiled groups. Much of it is freely available, but consistent, ongoing access typically requires a subscription. Some in the corporate sector see a crucial role for [[artificial intelligence]] in the future development of cybersecurity.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Janofsky |first=Adam |date=19 September 2018 |title=How AI Can Help Stop Cyberattacks |language=en-US |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-ai-can-help-stop-cyberattacks-1537322940 |access-date=2018-09-20 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920123113/https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-ai-can-help-stop-cyberattacks-1537322940 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Noyes |first=Katherine |title=This company uses A.I. to stop cyberattacks before they start |language=en |work=Computerworld |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/3081326/security/this-company-uses-ai-to-stop-cyberattacks-before-they-start.html |access-date=2018-09-20 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920122924/https://www.computerworld.com/article/3081326/security/this-company-uses-ai-to-stop-cyberattacks-before-they-start.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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Interpol's Cyber Fusion Center began a collaboration with key cybersecurity players to distribute information on the latest online scams, cyber threats, and risks to internet users. Since 2017, reports on social engineering frauds, ransomware, phishing, and other attacks have been distributed to security agencies in over 150 countries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cybercrime threat response|url=https://www.interpol.int/en/Crimes/Cybercrime/Cybercrime-threat-response|access-date=2021-05-17|website=www.interpol.int|language=en|archive-date=28 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428163611/https://www.interpol.int/en/Crimes/Cybercrime/Cybercrime-threat-response|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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===Spread of cybercrime=== |
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The increasing prevalence of cybercrime has resulted in more attention to computer crime detection and prosecution. |
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Hacking has become less complex as hacking communities disseminate their knowledge through the internet.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}} Blogs and social networks have contributed substantially to information sharing, so that beginners can benefit from older hackers' knowledge and advice. |
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Furthermore, hacking is cheaper than ever. Before the [[cloud computing]] era, in order to spam or scam, one needed a variety of resources, such as a dedicated server; skills in server management, network configuration, and network maintenance; and knowledge of internet service provider standards. By comparison, a [[software-as-a-service]] for mail is a scalable and inexpensive bulk e-mail-sending service for marketing purposes that could be easily set up for spam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richet |first=Jean-Loup |date=2011 |title=Adoption of deviant behavior and cybercrime 'Know how' diffusion |journal=York Deviancy Conference}}</ref> Cloud computing could help cybercriminals leverage their attacks, whether brute-forcing a password, improving the reach of a botnet, or facilitating a spamming campaign.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richet |first=Jean-Loup |date=2012 |title=How to Become a Black Hat Hacker? An Exploratory Study of Barriers to Entry Into Cybercrime. |journal=17th AIM Symposium}}</ref> |
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==Agencies== |
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* [[ASEAN]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 November 2017 |title=ASEAN Declaration to Prevent and Combat Cybercrime |url=https://asean.org/asean-declaration-prevent-combat-cybercrime/ |access-date=5 June 2022 |website=ASEAN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703044553/https://asean.org/asean-declaration-prevent-combat-cybercrime/ |archive-date=3 July 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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* [[Australian High Tech Crime Centre]] |
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* [[Cyber Crime Investigation Cell]], a wing of Mumbai Police, India |
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* [[Cyber Crime Unit (Hellenic Police)]], established in Greece in 2004 |
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* [[Europol|EUROPOL]] |
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* [[Interpol|INTERPOL]] |
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* [[National Cyber Crime Unit]], in the United Kingdom |
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* [[National Security Agency]], in the United States |
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* [[National Special Crime Unit (Denmark)|National Special Crime Unit]], in Denmark. |
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* [[National White Collar Crime Center]], in the United States |
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* [[Cyber Terror Response Center]] - Korea National Police Agency |
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* [[:ja:サイバー警察局|Cyber Police Department]] - Japan National Police Agency |
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* [[Siber suçlarla mücadele]] - Turkish Cyber Agency |
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==See also== |
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em| |
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*[[Computer Fraud and Abuse Act]] |
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*[[Computer security]] |
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*[[Computer trespass]] |
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*[[Cloud computing security]] |
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*[[Convention on Cybercrime]] |
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*[[Cybercrime countermeasures]] |
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*[[Cyber defamation law]] |
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*[[Cyber-]] |
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*[[Cyberheist]] |
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*[[Data diddling]] |
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*[[Darknet]] |
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*[[Deep web]] |
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*[[Domain hijacking]] |
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*[[Electronic evidence]] |
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*[[Hacking back]] |
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* (Illegal) [[drop catching]] |
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*[[Industrial espionage|Economic and industrial espionage]] |
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*[[Immigration and Customs Enforcement]] (ICE) |
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*[[Initial access broker]] |
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*[[Internet homicide]] |
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*[[Internet suicide pact]] |
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*[[Legal aspects of computing]] |
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*[[List of computer criminals]] |
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*[[Metasploit Project]] |
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*[[National Crime Agency]] (NCA) |
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*[[Penetration test]] |
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*[[Police National E-Crime Unit]] |
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*[[Protected computer]] |
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*[[Techno-thriller]] |
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*[[Trespass to chattels]] |
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*[[United States Secret Service]] |
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*[[Virtual crime]] |
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*[[White-collar crime]] |
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* [[Web shell]]}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{reflist|1=30em}} |
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Cyber Crime. (n.d.). [Folder]. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved April 24, 2024, from https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/cyber |
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Herrero, J., Torres, A., Vivas, P., & Urueña, A. (2022). Smartphone Addiction, Social Support, and Cybercrime Victimization: A Discrete Survival and Growth Mixture Model: Psychosocial Intervention. Psychosocial Intervention, 31(1), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2022a3 |
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==Further reading== |
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* Balkin, J., Grimmelmann, J., Katz, E., Kozlovski, N., Wagman, S. & Zarsky, T. (2006) (eds) ''Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment'', [[New York University Press]], New York. |
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* Bowker, Art (2012) "The Cybercrime Handbook for Community Corrections: Managing Risk in the 21st Century" [[Charles C. Thomas Publishers, Ltd.]] Springfield. |
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* Brenner, S. (2007) ''Law in an Era of Smart Technology,'' Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]] |
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* Broadhurst, R., and Chang, Lennon Y.C. (2013) "[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-5218-8_4#page-1 Cybercrime in Asia: trends and challenges]", in B. Hebenton, SY Shou, & J. Liu (eds), Asian Handbook of Criminology (pp. 49–64). New York: Springer ({{ISBN|978-1-4614-5217-1}}) |
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* Chang, L.Y. C. (2012) ''[http://www.e-elgar.com/shop/cybercrime-in-the-greater-china-region?___website=uk_warehouse Cybercrime in the Greater China Region: Regulatory Responses and Crime Prevention across the Taiwan Strait]''. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. ({{ISBN|978-0-85793-667-7}}) |
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* Chang, Lennon Y.C., & Grabosky, P. (2014) "[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-349-67284-4_15#page-1 Cybercrime and establishing a secure cyber world]", in M. Gill (ed) Handbook of Security (pp. 321–339). NY: Palgrave. |
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*Csonka P. (2000) Internet Crime; the Draft council of Europe convention on cyber-crime: A response to the challenge of crime in the age of the internet? ''Computer Law & Security Report'' Vol.16 no.5. |
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* Easttom, C. (2010) ''Computer Crime Investigation and the Law'' |
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* Fafinski, S. (2009) ''Computer Misuse: Response, regulation and the law'' Cullompton: Willan |
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* Glenny, M. [https://archive.org/details/darkmarketcybert0000glen ''DarkMarket : cyberthieves, cybercops, and you''], New York, NY : Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-307-59293-4}} |
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* Grabosky, P. (2006) ''Electronic Crime,'' New Jersey: [[Prentice Hall]] |
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* Halder, D., & Jaishankar, K. (2016). [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/cyber-crimes-against-women-in-india/book253900 Cyber Crimes against Women in India]. New Delhi: SAGE Publishing. {{ISBN|978-9385985775}}. |
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* Jaishankar, K. (Ed.) (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cWOQWx4QPFYC Cyber Criminology: Exploring Internet Crimes and Criminal behavior.] Boca Raton, FL, US: CRC Press, Taylor, and Francis Group. |
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* McQuade, S. (2006) ''Understanding and Managing Cybercrime,'' Boston: [[Allyn & Bacon]]. |
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* McQuade, S. (ed) (2009) ''The Encyclopedia of Cybercrime,'' Westport, CT: [[Greenwood Press]]. |
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* Parker D (1983) ''Fighting Computer Crime,'' U.S.: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]]. |
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* Pattavina, A. (ed) ''Information Technology and the Criminal Justice System,'' Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. |
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*{{Cite book |first=Paul |last=Taylor |title=Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime |publisher=Routledge; 1 edition |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-18072-6 |edition=3 November 1999 |page=200}} |
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* Richet, J.L. (2013) From Young Hackers to Crackers, ''International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction (IJTHI)'', 9(3), 53–62. |
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* {{Cite journal|last=Richet|first=J.L.|date=2022|title=How cybercriminal communities grow and change: An investigation of ad-fraud communities|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|volume=174|issue=121282|page=121282|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121282|s2cid=239962449|issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free}} |
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* Robertson, J. (2 March 2010). Authorities bust 3 in infection of 13m computers. Retrieved 26 March 2010, from Boston News: [https://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2010/03/02/authorities_bust_3_in_infection_of_13m_computers/ Boston.com] |
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* Rolón, D. N. [http://de.scribd.com/doc/215756732/Dario-N-Rolon-Vigilancia-informatica-y-responsabilidad-penal-de-proveedores-de-internet Control, vigilancia y respuesta penal en el ciberespacio], Latin American's New Security Thinking, Clacso, 2014, pp. 167/182 |
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* Walden, I. (2007) ''Computer Crimes and Digital Investigations,'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
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* Wall, D.S. (2007) ''Cybercrimes: The transformation of crime in the information age,'' Cambridge: Polity. |
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* Williams, M. (2006) ''Virtually Criminal: Crime, Deviance and Regulation Online,'' Routledge, London. |
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* Yar, M. (2006) ''Cybercrime and Society,'' London: Sage. |
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==External links== |
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''' |
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{{Commons category|Cybercrime}} |
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{{wikibooks|1= The Computer Revolution |2= Security/Computer Crime |3= Computer Crime}} |
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*[http://www.cybercrimejournal.com International Journal of Cyber Criminology] |
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*[https://www.ibm.com/services/business-continuity/cyber-attack Common types of cyber attacks] |
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*[https://www.ibm.com/services/business-continuity/ransomware-attack Countering ransomware attacks] |
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===Government resources=== |
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*[http://www.cybercrime.gov/ Cybercrime.gov] from the [[United States Department of Justice]] |
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100528122405/http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/topics/technology/electronic-crime/welcome.htm National Institute of Justice Electronic Crime Program] from the [[United States Department of Justice]] |
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213634/https://www2.fbi.gov/cyberinvest/cyberhome.htm FBI Cyber Investigators home page] |
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080608160657/http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/financial_crimes.shtml#Computer US Secret Service Computer Fraud] |
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041118085257/http://www.ahtcc.gov.au/ Australian High Tech Crime Centre] |
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131014171419/http://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/about-us/what-we-do/national-cyber-crime-unit UK National Cyber Crime Unit] from the [[National Crime Agency]] |
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{{Information security}} |
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[[Category:Criminal law]] |
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{{English criminal law navbox}} |
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[[Category:Computer law]] |
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{{Scams and confidence tricks}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Cybercrime| ]] |
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[[de:Computerkriminalität]] |
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[[Category:Crime by type]] |
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[[nl:Computercriminaliteit]] |
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[[Category:Computer security]] |
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[[ja:サイバー犯罪]] |
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[[Category:Organized crime activity]] |
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[[pt:Crime informático]] |
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[[Category:Harassment and bullying]] |
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[[zh:电脑犯罪]] |
Latest revision as of 14:51, 20 December 2024
Criminology |
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Main Theories |
Methods |
Subfields and other major theories |
Browse |
Cybercrime encompasses a wide range of criminal activities that are carried out using digital devices and/or networks. These crimes involve the use of technology to commit fraud, identity theft, data breaches, computer viruses, scams, and expanded upon in other malicious acts. Cybercriminals exploit vulnerabilities in computer systems and networks to gain unauthorized access, steal sensitive information, disrupt services, and cause financial or reputational harm to individuals, organizations, and governments.[1]
In 2000, the tenth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders classified cyber crimes into five categories: unauthorized access, damage to computer data or programs, sabotage to hinder the functioning of a computer system or network, unauthorized interception of data within a system or network, and computer espionage.[1]
Internationally, both state and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes. Cybercrimes crossing international borders and involving the actions of at least one nation-state are sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare. Warren Buffett has described that cybercrime is the "number one problem with mankind",[2] and that it "poses real risks to humanity".[3]
The World Economic Forum's (WEF) 2020 Global Risks Report highlighted that organized cybercrime groups are joining forces to commit criminal activities online, while estimating the likelihood of their detection and prosecution to be less than 1 percent in the US.[4] There are also many privacy concerns surrounding cybercrime when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, legally or otherwise.
The World Economic Forum’s 2023 Global Risks Report ranked cybercrime as one of the top 10 risks facing the world today and for the next 10 years.[5] If viewed as a nation state, cybercrime would count as the third largest economy in the world.[6] In numbers, cybercrime is predicted to cause over 9 trillion US dollars in damages worldwide in 2024.[6]
Classifications
[edit]Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities, including computer fraud, financial crimes, scams, cybersex trafficking, and ad-fraud.[7][8]
Computer fraud
[edit]Computer fraud is the act of using a computer to take or alter electronic data, or to gain unlawful use of a computer or system.[9] Computer fraud that involves the use of the internet is also called internet fraud. The legal definition of computer fraud varies by jurisdiction, but typically involves accessing a computer without permission or authorization.
Forms of computer fraud include hacking into computers to alter information, distributing malicious code such as computer worms or viruses, installing malware or spyware to steal data, phishing, and advance-fee scams.[10]
Other forms of fraud may be committed using computer systems, including bank fraud, carding, identity theft, extortion, and theft of classified information. These types of crimes often result in the loss of personal or financial information.
Fraud Factory
[edit]Fraud factory is a collection of large fraud organizations usually involving cyber fraud and human trafficking operations.
Cyberterrorism
[edit]The term cyberterrorism refers to acts of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources.[11] Acts of disruption of computer networks and personal computers through viruses, worms, phishing, malicious software, hardware, or programming scripts can all be forms of cyberterrorism.[12]
Government officials and information technology (IT) security specialists have documented a significant increase in network problems and server scams since early 2001. In the United States there is an increasing concern from agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).[13]
Cyberextortion
[edit]Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to or threatened with attacks by malicious hackers, often through denial-of-service attacks. Cyber extortionists demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks and provide "protection". According to the FBI, cyber extortionists are increasingly attacking corporate websites and networks, crippling their ability to operate, and demanding payments to restore their service. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI, and many go unreported in order to keep the victim's name out of the public domain. Perpetrators often use a distributed denial-of-service attack.[14] However, other cyberextortion techniques exist, such as doxing and bug poaching. An example of cyberextortion was the Sony Hack of 2014.[15]
Ransomware
[edit]Ransomware is a type of malware used in cyberextortion to restrict access to files, sometimes threatening permanent data erasure unless a ransom is paid. Ransomware is a global issue, with more than 300 million attacks worldwide in 2021. According to the 2022 Unit 42 Ransomware Threat Report, in 2021 the average ransom demand in cases handled by Norton climbed 144 percent to $2.2 million, and there was an 85 percent increase in the number of victims who had their personal information shown on dark web information dumps.[16] A loss of nearly $400 million in 2021 and 2022 is just one of the statistics showing the impact of ransomware attacks on everyday people.[17]
Cybersex trafficking
[edit]Cybersex trafficking is the transportation of victims for such purposes as coerced prostitution or the live streaming of coerced sexual acts or rape on webcam.[18][19][20][21] Victims are abducted, threatened, or deceived and transferred to "cybersex dens".[22][23][24] The dens can be in any location where the cybersex traffickers have a computer, tablet, or phone with an internet connection.[20] Perpetrators use social media networks, video conferences, dating pages, online chat rooms, apps, dark web sites,[25] and other platforms.[26] They use online payment systems[25][27][28] and cryptocurrencies to hide their identities.[29] Millions of reports of cybersex incidents are sent to authorities annually.[30] New legislation and police procedures are needed to combat this type of cybercrime.[31]
There are an estimated 6.3 million victims of cybersex trafficking, according to a recent report by the International Labour Organization.[32] This number includes about 1.7 million child victims. An example of cybersex trafficking is the 2018–2020 Nth room case in South Korea.[33]
Cyberwarfare
[edit]According to the U.S. Department of Defense, cyberspace has emerged as an arena for national-security threats through several recent events of geostrategic importance, including the attack on Estonia's infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. In August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyberattacks against Georgia. Fearing that such attacks may become a normal part of future warfare among nation-states, military commanders see a need to develop cyberspace operations.[34]
Computers as a tool
[edit]When an individual is the target of cybercrime, the computer is often the tool rather than the target. These crimes, which typically exploit human weaknesses, usually do not require much technical expertise. These are the types of crimes which have existed for centuries in the offline world. Criminals have simply been given a tool that increases their pool of potential victims and makes them all the harder to trace and apprehend.[35]
Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:
- Fraud and identity theft (although this increasingly uses malware, hacking or phishing, making it an example of "computer as target" as well as "computer as tool")
- Information warfare
- Phishing scams
- Spam
- Propagation of illegal, obscene, or offensive content, including harassment and threats
The unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes (spam) is unlawful in some jurisdictions.
Phishing is mostly propagated via email. Phishing emails may contain links to other websites that are affected by malware.[36] Or they may contain links to fake online banking or other websites used to steal private account information.
Obscene or offensive content
[edit]The content of websites and other electronic communications may be distasteful, obscene, or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances, it may be illegal. What content is unlawful varies greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs.
One area of internet pornography that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is child pornography, which is illegal in most jurisdictions in the world.[citation needed]
Ad-fraud
[edit]Ad-frauds are particularly popular among cybercriminals, as such frauds are lucrative and unlikely to be prosecuted.[37] Jean-Loup Richet, a professor at the Sorbonne Business School, classified the large variety of ad-frauds committed by cybercriminals into three categories: identity fraud, attribution fraud, and ad-fraud services.[8]
Identity fraud aims to impersonate real users and inflate audience numbers. The techniques used for identity fraud include traffic from bots (coming from a hosting company, a data center, or compromised devices); cookie stuffing; falsification of user characteristics, such as location and browser type; fake social traffic (misleading users on social networks into visiting the advertised website); and fake social media accounts that make a bot appear legitimate.
Attribution fraud impersonates the activities of real users, such as clicks and conversations. Many ad-fraud techniques belong to this category: the use of hijacked and malware-infected devices as part of a botnet; click farms (companies where low-wage employees are paid to click or engage in conversations); incentivized browsing; video placement abuse (delivered in display banner slots); hidden ads (which will never be viewed by real users); domain spoofing (ads served on a fake website); and clickjacking, in which the user is forced to click on an ad.
Ad-fraud services include all online infrastructure and hosting services that might be needed to undertake identity or attribution fraud. Services can involve the creation of spam websites (fake networks of websites that provide artificial backlinks); link building services; hosting services; or fake and scam pages impersonating a famous brand.
Online harassment
[edit]The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (March 2016) |
Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, harassment directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals, often focusing on gender, race, religion, nationality, or sexual orientation.
Committing a crime using a computer can lead to an enhanced sentence. For example, in the case of United States v. Neil Scott Kramer, the defendant was given an enhanced sentence according to the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual §2G1.3(b)(3) for his use of a cell phone to "persuade, induce, entice, coerce, or facilitate the travel of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct." Kramer appealed the sentence on the grounds that there was insufficient evidence to convict him under this statute because his charge included persuading through a computer device and his cellular phone technically is not a computer. Although Kramer tried to argue this point, the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual states that the term "computer" means "an electronic, magnetic, optical, electrochemical, or other high-speed data processing device performing logical, arithmetic, or storage functions, and includes any data storage facility or communications facility directly related to or operating in conjunction with such device."
In the United States, at least 41 states have passed laws and regulations that regard extreme online harassment as a criminal act. These acts can also be prosecuted on the federal level, because of US Code 18 Section 2261A, which states that using computers to threaten or harass can lead to a sentence of up to 20 years.[38]
Several countries besides the US have also created laws to combat online harassment. In China, a country with over 20 percent of the world's internet users, in response to the Human Flesh Search Engine bullying incident, the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council passed a strict law against cyberbullying.[39][40] The United Kingdom passed the Malicious Communications Act, which states that sending messages or letters electronically that the government deems "indecent or grossly offensive" and/or language intended to cause "distress and anxiety" can lead to a prison sentence of six months and a potentially large fine.[41][42] Australia, while not directly addressing the issue of harassment, includes most forms of online harassment under the Criminal Code Act of 1995. Using telecommunication to send threats, harass, or cause offense is a direct violation of this act.[43]
Although freedom of speech is protected by law in most democratic societies, it does not include all types of speech. Spoken or written threats can be criminalized because they harm or intimidate. This applies to online or network-related threats.
Cyberbullying has increased drastically with the growing popularity of online social networking. As of January 2020, 44 percent of adult internet users in the United States had "personally experienced online harassment".[44] Online harassment of children often has negative and even life-threatening effects. According to a 2021 survey, 41 percent of children develop social anxiety, 37 percent develop depression, and 26 percent have suicidal thoughts.[45]
The United Arab Emirates was found to have purchased the NSO Group's mobile spyware Pegasus for mass surveillance and a campaign of harassment of prominent activists and journalists, including Ahmed Mansoor, Princess Latifa, Princess Haya, and others. Ghada Owais was one of the many high-profile female journalists and activists who were targeted. She filed a lawsuit against UAE ruler Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan along with other defendants, accusing them of sharing her photos online.[46]
Drug trafficking
[edit]Darknet markets are used to buy and sell recreational drugs online. Some drug traffickers use encrypted messaging tools to communicate with drug mules or potential customers. The dark web site Silk Road, which started operations in 2011, was the first major online marketplace for drugs. It was permanently shut down in October 2013 by the FBI and Europol. After Silk Road 2.0 went down, Silk Road 3 Reloaded emerged. However, it was just an older marketplace named Diabolus Market that used the Silk Road name in order to get more exposure from the Silk Road brand's earlier success.[47]
Darknet markets have had a rise in traffic in recent years for many reasons, such as the anonymous purchases and often a system of reviews by other buyers.[48] There are many ways in which darknet markets can financially drain individuals. Vendors and customers alike go to great lengths to keep their identities a secret while online. Commonly used tools for hiding their online presence include virtual private networks (VPNs), Tails, and the Tor Browser. Darknet markets entice customers by making them feel comfortable. Although people can easily gain access to a Tor browser, actually gaining access to an illicit market is not as simple as typing it in on a search engine, as one would with Google. Darknet markets have special links that change frequently, ending in .onion as opposed to the typical .com, .net, and .org domain extensions. To add to privacy, the most prevalent currency on these markets is Bitcoin, which allows transactions to be anonymous.[49]
A problem that marketplace users sometimes face is exit scamming.[50] That is, a vendor with a high rating acts as if they are selling on the market and have users pay for products they never receive.[51] The vendor then closes their account after receiving money from multiple buyers and never sending what was paid for. The vendors, all of whom are involved in illegal activities, have no reason not to engage in exit scamming when they no longer want to be a vendor. In 2019, an entire market known as Wall Street Market allegedly exit scammed, stealing $30 million dollars in bitcoin.[52]
The FBI has cracked down on these markets. In July 2017, the FBI seized one of the biggest markets, commonly called Alphabay, which re-opened in August 2021 under the control of DeSnake, one of the original administrators.[53][54] Investigators pose as buyers and order products from darknet vendors in the hope that the vendors leave a trail the investigators can follow. In one case an investigator posed as a firearms seller, and for six months people purchased from them and provided home addresses.[55] The FBI was able to make over a dozen arrests during this six-month investigation.[55] Another crackdown targeted vendors selling fentanyl and opiates. With thousands of people dying each year due to drug overdose, investigators have made internet drug sales a priority.[56] Many vendors do not realize the extra criminal charges that go along with selling drugs online, such as money laundering and illegal use of the mail.[57] In 2019, a vendor was sentenced to 10 years in prison after selling cocaine and methamphetamine under the name JetSetLife.[58] But despite the large amount of time investigators spend tracking down people, in 2018 only 65 suspects who bought and sold illegal goods on some of the biggest markets were identified.[59] Meanwhile, thousands of transactions take place daily on these markets.
Emerging trends in Cybercrime
[edit]Through rapid technological advances, the tactics of cybercriminals are ever evolving with instances of AI (artificial intelligence) being used and exploited for criminal activity. These trends highlight the dynamic nature of cybercrime, emphasizing the need for evolving countermeasures to combat future online threats. The use of AI has been able to replicate voices to impersonate, fraudulently obtain money and other finical related crimes. The dark web is seeing an increase in artificial chatbots specifically designed to aid hackers and help with various phishing techniques. Cybercriminals can now use AI deepfakes to pose as individuals who may be connected or have authority over the victim of the attack. Personal data is something that in the future will be more accessible than ever, with almost everything having a history that is possible to access on black markets, fueling issues such as identity theft, finical fraud, and targeted advertisements.
Geldenhuys, Kotie (November 2023). "The darker side of Artificial Intelligence". Servamus Community-based Safety & Security Magazine. 116 (11): 20–25. ISSN 1015-2385. Lin, Belle (29 February 2024). "Welcome to the Era of BadGPTs". Wall Street Journal - Online Edition. Bispham, Mary; Creese, Sadie; Dutton, William H.; Esteve-Gonzalez, Patricia; Goldsmith, Michael (1 August 2021), Cybersecurity in Working from Home: An Exploratory Study, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3897380, SSRN 3897380, retrieved 7 December 2024 Kilian, Wolfgang (1 December 2012). "Personal Data: The Impact of Emerging Trends in the Information Society: How the marketability of personal data should affect the concept of data protection law". Computer Law Review International. 13 (6): 169–175. doi:10.9785/ovs-cri-2012-169. ISSN 2194-4164. Retrieved 7 December 2024.
Notable incidents
[edit]- One of the highest-profile banking computer crimes occurred over a course of three years beginning in 1970. The chief teller at the Park Avenue branch of New York's Union Dime Savings Bank embezzled over $1.5 million from hundreds of accounts.[60]
- In 2014, the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack not only exposed sensitive company data but also led to extortion demands, marking one of the most publicized corporate cyberattacks to date. For more detailed insights on cyber blackmail and notable incidents, visit [C9 Journal](https://c9journal.com/cyber-blackmail-definition-prevention-and-response/).
- A hacking group called MOD (Masters of Deception) allegedly stole passwords and technical data from Pacific Bell, Nynex, and other telephone companies as well as several big credit agencies and two major universities. The damage caused was extensive; one company, Southwestern Bell, suffered losses of $370,000.[60]
- In 1983, a 19-year-old UCLA student used his PC to break into a Defense Department International Communications system.[60]
- Between 1995 and 1998 the Newscorp satellite pay-to-view encrypted SKY-TV service was hacked several times during an ongoing technological arms race between a pan-European hacking group and Newscorp. The original motivation of the hackers was to watch Star Trek reruns in Germany, which was something which Newscorp did not have the copyright permission to allow.[61]
- On 26 March 1999, the Melissa worm infected a document on a victim's computer, then automatically emailed that document and a copy of the virus to other people.
- In February 2000, an individual going by the alias of MafiaBoy began a series of denial-of-service attacks against high-profile websites, including Yahoo!, Dell, Inc., E*TRADE, eBay, and CNN. About 50 computers at Stanford University, along with computers at the University of California at Santa Barbara, were among the zombie computers sending pings in the distributed denial-of-service attacks. On 3 August 2000, Canadian federal prosecutors charged MafiaBoy with 54 counts of illegal access to computers.
- The Stuxnet worm corrupted SCADA microprocessors, particularly the types used in Siemens centrifuge controllers.
- The Russian Business Network (RBN) was registered as an internet site in 2006. Initially, much of its activity was legitimate. But apparently the founders soon discovered that it was more profitable to host illegitimate activities and to offer its services to criminals. The RBN has been described by VeriSign as "the baddest of the bad".[62] It provides web hosting services and internet access to all kinds of criminal and objectionable activities that earn up to $150 million in one year. It specializes in personal identity theft for resale. It is the originator of MPack and an alleged operator of the now defunct Storm botnet.
- On 2 March 2010, Spanish investigators arrested three men suspected of infecting over 13 million computers around the world. The botnet of infected computers included PCs inside more than half of the Fortune 1000 companies and more than 40 major banks, according to investigators.[63]
- In August 2010, the US Department of Homeland Security shut down the international pedophile ring Dreamboard. The website had approximately 600 members and may have distributed up to 123 terabytes of child pornography (roughly equivalent to 16,000 DVDs). To date this is the single largest US prosecution of an international child pornography ring; 52 arrests were made worldwide.[64]
- In January 2012, Zappos.com experienced a security breach compromising the credit card numbers, personal information, and billing and shipping addresses of as many as 24 million customers.[65]
- In June 2012, LinkedIn and eHarmony were attacked, and 65 million password hashes were compromised. Thirty thousand passwords were cracked, and 1.5 million eHarmony passwords were posted online.[66]
- In December 2012, the Wells Fargo website experienced a denial-of-service attack that potentially compromised 70 million customers and 8.5 million active viewers. Other banks thought to be compromised included Bank of America, J. P. Morgan, U.S. Bank, and PNC Financial Services.[67]
- On 23 April 2013, the Twitter account of the Associated Press was hacked. The hacker posted a hoax tweet about fictitious attacks on the White House that they claimed left then-President Obama injured.[68] The hoax tweet resulted in a brief plunge of 130 points in the Dow Jones Industrial Average, the removal of $136 billion from the S&P 500 index,[69] and the temporary suspension of AP's Twitter account. The Dow Jones later restored its session gains.
- In May 2017, 74 countries logged a ransomware cybercrime called "WannaCry".[70]
- Illicit access to camera sensors, microphone sensors, phonebook contacts, all internet-enabled apps, and metadata of mobile telephones running Android and iOS was reportedly provided by Israeli spyware that was found to be in operation in at least 46 nation-states around the world. Journalists, royalty, and government officials were among the targets.[71][72][73] Earlier accusations that Israeli weapons companies were meddling in international telephony[74] and smartphones[75] have been eclipsed by the 2018 Pegasus spyware revelations.
- In December 2019, US intelligence officials and The New York Times revealed that ToTok, a messaging application widely used in the United Arab Emirates, is a spying tool for the UAE. An investigation revealed that the Emirati government was attempting to track every conversation, movement, relationship, appointment, sound, and image of those who installed the app on their phones.[76]
Combating computer crime
[edit]Due to cybercriminals using the internet for cross-border attacks and crimes, the process of prosecuting cybercriminals has been difficult. The number of vulnerabilities that a cybercriminal could use as points of opportunity to exploit has also increased over the years. From 2008 to 2014 alone, there has been a 17.75% increase in vulnerabilities across all online devices.[77] The internet's expansive reach causes the damage inflicted to people to be magnified since many methods of cybercrime have the opportunity to reach many people. The availability of virtual spaces[78] has allowed cybercrime to become an everyday occurrence.[79] In 2018, the Internet Crime Complaint Center received 351,937 complaints of cybercrime, which led to $2.7 billion lost.[80]
Investigation
[edit]In a criminal investigation, a computer can be a source of evidence (see digital forensics). Even when a computer is not directly used for criminal purposes, it may contain records of value to criminal investigators in the form of a logfile. In many countries,[81] Internet Service Providers are required by law to keep their logfiles for a predetermined amount of time.
There are many ways for cybercrime to take place, and investigations tend to start with an IP Address trace; however, that does not necessarily enable detectives to solve a case. Different types of high-tech crime may also include elements of low-tech crime, and vice versa, making cybercrime investigators an indispensable part of modern law enforcement. Methods of cybercrime detective work are dynamic and constantly improving, whether in closed police units or in the framework of international cooperation.[82]
In the United States, the FBI[83] and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)[84] are government agencies that combat cybercrime. The FBI has trained agents and analysts in cybercrime placed in their field offices and headquarters.[83] In the DHS, the Secret Service has a Cyber Intelligence Section that works to target financial cybercrimes. They combat international cybercrime and work to protect institutions such as banks from intrusions and information breaches. Based in Alabama, the Secret Service and the Alabama Office of Prosecution Services work together to train professionals in law enforcement at the National Computer Forensic Institute.[84][85][86] The NCFI provides "state and local members of the law enforcement community with training in cyber incident response, investigation, and forensic examination in cyber incident response, investigation, and forensic examination."[86]
Investigating cyber crime within the United States and globally often requires partnerships. Within the United States, cyber crime may be investigated by law enforcement, the Department of Homeland Security, among other federal agencies. However, as the world becomes more dependent on technology, cyber attacks and cyber crime are going to expand as threat actors will continue to exploit weaknesses in protection and existing vulnerabilities to achieve their end goals, often being data theft or exfiltration. To combat cybercrime, the United States Secret Service maintains an Electronic Crimes Task Force which extends beyond the United States as it helps to locate threat actors that are located globally and performing cyber related crimes within the United States. The Secret Service is also responsible for the National Computer Forensic Institute which allows law enforcement and people of the court to receive cyber training and information on how to combat cyber crime. The United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement is responsible for the Cyber Crimes Center (C3) providing cyber crime related services for federal, state, local and international agencies. Finally, the United States also has resources relating to Law Enforcement Cyber Incident Reporting to allow local and state agencies to understand how, when, and what should be reported as a cyber incident to the federal government.[87]
Because cybercriminals commonly use encryption and other techniques to hide their identity and location, it can be difficult to trace a perpetrator after a crime is committed, so prevention measures are crucial.[79][88]
Prevention
[edit]The Department of Homeland Security also instituted the Continuous Diagnostics and Mitigation (CDM) Program.[89] The CDM Program monitors and secures government networks by tracking network risks and informing system personnel so that they can take action. In an attempt to catch intrusions before the damage is done, the DHS created the Enhanced Cybersecurity Services (ECS).[90] The Cyber Security and Infrastructure Security Agency approves the private partners that provide intrusion detection and prevention services through the ECS.[90][91]
Cybersecurity professionals have been skeptical of prevention-focused strategies.[92] The mode of use of cybersecurity products has also been called into question. Shuman Ghosemajumder has argued that individual companies using a combination of products for security is not a scalable approach and has advocated for the use of cybersecurity technology primarily at the platform level.[93]
On a personal level, there are some strategies available to defend against cybercrime:[94]
- Keeping your software and operating system update to benefit from security patches
- Using anti-virus software that can detect and remove malicious threats
- Use strong passwords with a variety of characters that aren't easy to guess
- Refrain from opening attachments from spam emails
- Do not click on links from scam emails
- Do not give out personal information over the internet unless you can verify that the destination is safe
- Contact companies about suspicious requests of your information
Legislation
[edit]Because of weak laws, cybercriminals operating from developing countries can often evade detection and prosecution. In countries such as the Philippines, laws against cybercrime are weak or sometimes nonexistent. Cybercriminals can then strike from across international borders and remain undetected. Even when identified, these criminals can typically avoid being extradited to a country such as the US that has laws that allow for prosecution. For this reason, agencies such as the FBI have used deception and subterfuge to catch criminals. For example, two Russian hackers had been evading the FBI for some time. The FBI set up a fake computing company based in Seattle, Washington. They proceeded to lure the two Russian men into the United States by offering them work with this company. Upon completion of the interview, the suspects were arrested. Clever tricks like that are sometimes a necessary part of catching cybercriminals when weak laws and limited international cooperation make it impossible otherwise.[95]
The first cyber related law in the United States was the Privacy Act of 1974 which was only required for federal agencies to follow to ensure privacy and protection of personally identifiable information (PII). However, since 1974, in the United States other laws and regulations have been drafted and implemented, but there is still a gap in responding to current cyber related crime. The most recent cyber related law, according to NIST, was the NIST Small Business Cybersecurity Act, which came out in 2018, and provides guidelines to small businesses to ensure that cybersecurity risks are being identified and addressed accurately.[96]
During President Barack Obama's presidency three cybersecurity related bills were signed into order in December 2014. The first was the Federal Information Security Modernization Act of 2014, the second was the National Cybersecurity Protection Act of 2014, and the third was the Cybersecurity Enhancement Act of 2014. Although the Federal Information Security Modernization Act of 2014 was just an update of an older version of the act, it focused on the practices federal agencies were to abide by relating to cybersecurity. While the National Cybersecurity Protection Act of 2014 was aimed toward increasing the amount of information sharing that occurs across the federal and private sector to improve cybersecurity amongst the industries. Finally, the Cybersecurity Enhancement Act of 2014 relates to cybersecurity research and education.[97]
In April 2015, then-President Barack Obama released an executive order that allows the US to freeze the assets of convicted cybercriminals and block their economic activity within the United States.[98]
The European Union adopted cybercrime directive 2013/40/EU, which was elaborated upon in the Council of Europe's Convention on Cybercrime.[99]
It is not only the US and the European Union that have been introducing measures against cybercrime. On 31 May 2017, China announced that its new cybersecurity law was taking effect.[100]
In Australia, legislation to combat cybercrime includes the Criminal Code Act 1995, the Telecommunications Act 1997, and the Enhancing Online Safety Act 2015.
Penalties
[edit]Penalties for computer-related crimes in New York State can range from a fine and a short period of jail time for a Class A misdemeanor, such as unauthorized use of a computer, up to 3 to 15 years in prison for a Class C felony, such as computer tampering in the first degree.[101]
However, some former cybercriminals have been hired as information security experts by private companies due to their inside knowledge of computer crime, a phenomenon which theoretically could create perverse incentives. A possible counter to this is for courts to ban convicted hackers from using the internet or computers, even after they have been released from prison – though as computers and the internet become more and more central to everyday life, this type of punishment becomes more and more draconian. Nuanced approaches have been developed that manage cyber offenders' behavior without resorting to total computer or internet bans.[102] These approaches involve restricting individuals to specific devices which are subject to monitoring or searches by probation or parole officers.[103]
Awareness
[edit]Cybercrime is becoming more of a threat in our society. According to Accenture's State of Cybersecurity, security attacks increased 31% from 2020 to 2021. The number of attacks per company increased from 206 to 270. Due to this rising threat, the importance of raising awareness about measures to protect information and the tactics criminals use to steal that information is paramount. However, despite cybercrime becoming a mounting problem, many people are not aware of the severity of this problem. This could be attributed to a lack of experience and knowledge of technological issues. There are 1.5 million cyber-attacks annually, which means that there are over 4,000 attacks a day, 170 attacks every hour, or nearly three attacks every minute, with studies showing that only 16 percent of victims had asked the people who were carrying out the attacks to stop.[104] Comparitech's 2023 study shows that cybercrime victims have peaked to 71 million annually, which means there is a cyberattack every 39 seconds.[105] Anybody who uses the internet for any reason can be a victim, which is why it is important to be aware of how to be protected while online.
Intelligence
[edit]As cybercrime proliferated, a professional ecosystem evolved to support individuals and groups seeking to profit from cybercrime activities. The ecosystem has become quite specialized, and includes malware developers, botnet operators, professional cybercrime groups, groups specializing in the sale of stolen content, and so forth. A few of the leading cybersecurity companies have the skills and resources to follow the activities of these individuals and groups.[106] A wide variety of information that can be used for defensive purposes is available from these sources, for example, technical indicators such as hashes of infected files[107] and malicious IPs/URLs,[107] as well as strategic information profiling the goals and techniques of the profiled groups. Much of it is freely available, but consistent, ongoing access typically requires a subscription. Some in the corporate sector see a crucial role for artificial intelligence in the future development of cybersecurity.[108][109]
Interpol's Cyber Fusion Center began a collaboration with key cybersecurity players to distribute information on the latest online scams, cyber threats, and risks to internet users. Since 2017, reports on social engineering frauds, ransomware, phishing, and other attacks have been distributed to security agencies in over 150 countries.[110]
Spread of cybercrime
[edit]The increasing prevalence of cybercrime has resulted in more attention to computer crime detection and prosecution.
Hacking has become less complex as hacking communities disseminate their knowledge through the internet.[citation needed] Blogs and social networks have contributed substantially to information sharing, so that beginners can benefit from older hackers' knowledge and advice.
Furthermore, hacking is cheaper than ever. Before the cloud computing era, in order to spam or scam, one needed a variety of resources, such as a dedicated server; skills in server management, network configuration, and network maintenance; and knowledge of internet service provider standards. By comparison, a software-as-a-service for mail is a scalable and inexpensive bulk e-mail-sending service for marketing purposes that could be easily set up for spam.[111] Cloud computing could help cybercriminals leverage their attacks, whether brute-forcing a password, improving the reach of a botnet, or facilitating a spamming campaign.[112]
Agencies
[edit]- ASEAN[113]
- Australian High Tech Crime Centre
- Cyber Crime Investigation Cell, a wing of Mumbai Police, India
- Cyber Crime Unit (Hellenic Police), established in Greece in 2004
- EUROPOL
- INTERPOL
- National Cyber Crime Unit, in the United Kingdom
- National Security Agency, in the United States
- National Special Crime Unit, in Denmark.
- National White Collar Crime Center, in the United States
- Cyber Terror Response Center - Korea National Police Agency
- Cyber Police Department - Japan National Police Agency
- Siber suçlarla mücadele - Turkish Cyber Agency
See also
[edit]- Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
- Computer security
- Computer trespass
- Cloud computing security
- Convention on Cybercrime
- Cybercrime countermeasures
- Cyber defamation law
- Cyber-
- Cyberheist
- Data diddling
- Darknet
- Deep web
- Domain hijacking
- Electronic evidence
- Hacking back
- (Illegal) drop catching
- Economic and industrial espionage
- Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
- Initial access broker
- Internet homicide
- Internet suicide pact
- Legal aspects of computing
- List of computer criminals
- Metasploit Project
- National Crime Agency (NCA)
- Penetration test
- Police National E-Crime Unit
- Protected computer
- Techno-thriller
- Trespass to chattels
- United States Secret Service
- Virtual crime
- White-collar crime
- Web shell
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Further reading
[edit]- Balkin, J., Grimmelmann, J., Katz, E., Kozlovski, N., Wagman, S. & Zarsky, T. (2006) (eds) Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment, New York University Press, New York.
- Bowker, Art (2012) "The Cybercrime Handbook for Community Corrections: Managing Risk in the 21st Century" Charles C. Thomas Publishers, Ltd. Springfield.
- Brenner, S. (2007) Law in an Era of Smart Technology, Oxford: Oxford University Press
- Broadhurst, R., and Chang, Lennon Y.C. (2013) "Cybercrime in Asia: trends and challenges", in B. Hebenton, SY Shou, & J. Liu (eds), Asian Handbook of Criminology (pp. 49–64). New York: Springer (ISBN 978-1-4614-5217-1)
- Chang, L.Y. C. (2012) Cybercrime in the Greater China Region: Regulatory Responses and Crime Prevention across the Taiwan Strait. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. (ISBN 978-0-85793-667-7)
- Chang, Lennon Y.C., & Grabosky, P. (2014) "Cybercrime and establishing a secure cyber world", in M. Gill (ed) Handbook of Security (pp. 321–339). NY: Palgrave.
- Csonka P. (2000) Internet Crime; the Draft council of Europe convention on cyber-crime: A response to the challenge of crime in the age of the internet? Computer Law & Security Report Vol.16 no.5.
- Easttom, C. (2010) Computer Crime Investigation and the Law
- Fafinski, S. (2009) Computer Misuse: Response, regulation and the law Cullompton: Willan
- Glenny, M. DarkMarket : cyberthieves, cybercops, and you, New York, NY : Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. ISBN 978-0-307-59293-4
- Grabosky, P. (2006) Electronic Crime, New Jersey: Prentice Hall
- Halder, D., & Jaishankar, K. (2016). Cyber Crimes against Women in India. New Delhi: SAGE Publishing. ISBN 978-9385985775.
- Jaishankar, K. (Ed.) (2011). Cyber Criminology: Exploring Internet Crimes and Criminal behavior. Boca Raton, FL, US: CRC Press, Taylor, and Francis Group.
- McQuade, S. (2006) Understanding and Managing Cybercrime, Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
- McQuade, S. (ed) (2009) The Encyclopedia of Cybercrime, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
- Parker D (1983) Fighting Computer Crime, U.S.: Charles Scribner's Sons.
- Pattavina, A. (ed) Information Technology and the Criminal Justice System, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Taylor, Paul (1999). Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime (3 November 1999 ed.). Routledge; 1 edition. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-415-18072-6.
- Richet, J.L. (2013) From Young Hackers to Crackers, International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction (IJTHI), 9(3), 53–62.
- Richet, J.L. (2022). "How cybercriminal communities grow and change: An investigation of ad-fraud communities". Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 174 (121282): 121282. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121282. ISSN 0040-1625. S2CID 239962449.
- Robertson, J. (2 March 2010). Authorities bust 3 in infection of 13m computers. Retrieved 26 March 2010, from Boston News: Boston.com
- Rolón, D. N. Control, vigilancia y respuesta penal en el ciberespacio, Latin American's New Security Thinking, Clacso, 2014, pp. 167/182
- Walden, I. (2007) Computer Crimes and Digital Investigations, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Wall, D.S. (2007) Cybercrimes: The transformation of crime in the information age, Cambridge: Polity.
- Williams, M. (2006) Virtually Criminal: Crime, Deviance and Regulation Online, Routledge, London.
- Yar, M. (2006) Cybercrime and Society, London: Sage.
External links
[edit]- International Journal of Cyber Criminology
- Common types of cyber attacks
- Countering ransomware attacks
Government resources
[edit]- Cybercrime.gov from the United States Department of Justice
- National Institute of Justice Electronic Crime Program from the United States Department of Justice
- FBI Cyber Investigators home page
- US Secret Service Computer Fraud
- Australian High Tech Crime Centre
- UK National Cyber Crime Unit from the National Crime Agency