Kerala: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|State in southwestern India}} |
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{{Infobox Indian Jurisdiction |
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{{About|the Indian state}} |
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{{Pp|small=yes}} |
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|native_name = Kerala |
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{{multiple issues| |
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|other_name = <big>{{Kerala in Malayalam}}</big><sup>[[WP:COMPLEX|<span class="t_nihongo_icon" style="color:#00e;font:bold 80% sans-serif;text-decoration:none;padding:0 .1em;">?</span>]]</sup> · <small>''{{Unicode|Kēraḷaṁ}}''</small> |
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{{Duplicated citations|reason=[[User:Polygnotus/DuplicateReferences|DuplicateReferences]] detected:<br> |
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|state_name = Kerala |
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* https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/malayalam-is-officiallanguage-from-may-1/article18259641.ece (refs: 6, 411) |
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|capital = [[Thiruvananthapuram]] |
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* https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ (refs: 143, 163) |
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|latd = 08.47 |
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* https://web.archive.org/web/20130513015050/https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf (refs: 227, 229) |
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|longd = 76.95 |
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* https://web.archive.org/web/20150530204904/http://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf (refs: 342, 400) |
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|largest_city = [[Thiruvananthapuram]] |
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* https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece (refs: 412, 528) |
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|largest_metro = [[Kochi metropolitan area]] |
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* https://web.archive.org/web/20040904094648/https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm (refs: 603, 615) |
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|abbreviation = IN-KL |
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|date=September 2024}} |
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|official_languages = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] |
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{{very long|date=August 2024}} |
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|legislature_type = Unicameral |
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}} |
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|legislature_strength = 141<sup>‡</sup> |
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{{Good article}} |
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|leader_title_1 = [[Governors of Kerala|Governor]] |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}} |
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|leader_name_1 = [[R. L. Bhatia]] |
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{{Use Indian English|date=September 2023}} |
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|leader_title_2 = [[Chief Ministers of Kerala|Chief Minister]] |
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{{Infobox Indian state or territory |
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|leader_name_2 = [[V.S. Achuthanandan|V.S. Achuthanandan]] |
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| name = Kerala |
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|established_date = [[November 1]], [[1956]] |
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| official_name = State of Kerala |
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|area_total = 38863 |
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| type = State |
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|area_rank = 21st |
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| image_seal = Government of Kerala Logo.svg |
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|area_magnitude = 10 |
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| etymology = Land of '[[Chera dynasty|Cheras]]' or Land of coconut trees |
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|area_order = 10 |
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| image_skyline = {{multiple image |
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|population_total = 31838619 |
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| border = infobox |
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| total_width = 280 |
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| image_style = |
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| perrow = 1/2/2/2/1 |
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| caption_align = center |
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|major cities = [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kochi, India|Kochi]], [[Thrissur]], [[Kollam]], and [[Kozhikode]] |
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| image1 = Alappuzha loves Wikimedia IMG 7698.JPG |
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|website = kerala.gov.in |
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| caption1 = [[Kerala backwaters]] |
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|seal = KeralaSeal.jpg |
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| image2 = Athirapally Waterfalls after the Monsoons.jpg |
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|portal = Kerala |
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| caption2 = [[Athirappilly Falls]] |
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|footnotes = <sup>‡</sup> 140 elected, 1 nominated |
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| image3 = Munnar hillstation kerala.jpg |
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|nickname = "God's Own Country" |
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| caption3 = [[Munnar]] |
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| image4 = Jatayu adventure centre.jpg |
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| caption4 = [[Jatayu Earth's Center Nature Park|Jatayu Earth's Center]] |
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| image5 = Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple Thiruvananthapuram, kerala.jpg |
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| caption5 = [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] |
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| image6 = Kerala Government Secretariat, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.jpg |
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| caption6 = [[Kerala Government Secretariat]] |
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| image7 = FORT KOCHI BEACH SUNSET,KERALA - panoramio (2).jpg |
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| caption7 = [[Chinese fishing nets]] |
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| image8 = Kochi Skyline.jpg |
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| caption8 = [[Marine Drive, Kochi]] |
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}} |
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| nickname = "God's own country" |
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| motto = [[Satyameva Jayate]] (Truth alone triumphs) |
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| image_map = IN-KL.svg |
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| coordinates = {{coord|10.0|N|76.3|E|region:IN-KL|display=inline,title}} |
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| region = South India |
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| before_was = [[Travancore–Cochin]]<br>[[Malabar District]]<br>[[South Canara]] |
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| formation_date4 = 1 November 1956 |
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| capital = Thiruvananthapuram |
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| districts = [[List of districts of Kerala|14]] |
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| Governor = [[Arif Mohammad Khan]] |
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| Chief_Minister = [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] |
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| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] |
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| judiciary = [[Kerala High Court]] |
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| Chief_secretary = Sharada Muraleedharan, IAS |
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| legislature_type = Unicameral |
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| assembly = [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] |
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| assembly_seats = 140 seats |
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| rajya_sabha_seats = 9 seats |
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| lok_sabha_seats = 20 seats |
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| area_total_km2 = 38863 |
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| area_rank = 21st |
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| length_km = 560 |
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| width_km = 70 |
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| elevation_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala Physiography {{!}} Geographical location {{!}} Kerala {{!}} Kerala |url=https://kerala.me/geography |access-date=24 March 2023 |language=en-US |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324220056/https://kerala.me/geography |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| elevation_m = 900 |
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| elevation_max_m = 2,695 |
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| elevation_max_point = [[Anamudi]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anamudi – Peakbagger.com |url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10664 |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=www.peakbagger.com |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324210042/https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10664 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| elevation_min_m = −2.7 |
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| elevation_min_point = [[Kuttanad]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kuttanadan.com : Explore the Rice Bowl of Kerala |url=https://kuttanadan.com/ |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=Kuttanadan Website |language=en-US |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324210043/https://kuttanadan.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| population_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2018.pdf |title=Annual Vital Statistics Report – 2018 |publisher=Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Kerala |year=2020 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |pages=55 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511142922/http://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2018.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2022 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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| population_total = 34,630,192 |
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| population_as_of = 2018 |
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| population_rank = 13th |
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| population_urban = 47.7% |
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| population_rural = 52.3% |
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| population_density = 890 |
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| population_demonym = [[Keralite]], [[Malayalis|Malayali]] |
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| 0fficial_Langs = [[Malayalam]]<ref name="langoff">{{Cite web |date=29 March 2016 |title=52nd report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (July 2014 to June 2015) |url=https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/https://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 |website=Ministry of Minority Affairs (Government of India) |page=132}}</ref> |
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| additional_official = [[English language|English]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 April 2017 |title=Malayalam to be official language |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/malayalam-is-officiallanguage-from-may-1/article18259641.ece |access-date=4 April 2022 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=2 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102132324/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/malayalam-is-officiallanguage-from-may-1/article18259641.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=12 July 2014 |title=Hindi is not an 'official' language in Kerala Assembly |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/hindi-is-not-an-official-language-in-kerala-assembly/article6190937.ece |access-date=4 April 2022 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=2 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102132316/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/hindi-is-not-an-official-language-in-kerala-assembly/article6190937.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| official_script = [[Malayalam script]] |
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| GDP_footnotes = <ref name="GSDP">{{cite report|url=https://esankhyiki.mospi.gov.in/datacatalogue/NASdata/SDP/SDP-as%20on%2001.08.2024/State_wise_SDP-01082024_GSDP_Current.xlsx|title=Gross State Domestic Product (Current Prices)|publisher=[[Government of India]]|access-date=1 November 2024}}</ref><ref name="NSDP">{{cite report|url=https://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_as_on_15032024.xls|title=Per Capita Net State Domestic Product (Current Prices)|publisher=[[Government of India]]|access-date=1 November 2024}}</ref> |
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| GDP_total = {{Increase}} {{INRConvert|11.46|t|lk=r}} |
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| GDP_year = 2023–24 |
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| GDP_rank = 2nd |
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| GDP_per_capita = {{Increase}} {{INRConvert|281001|lk=r}} |
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| GDP_per_capita_rank = 11th |
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| HDI = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 0.814 {{colour|#090|High}}<ref name="snhdi-gdl" /> |
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| HDI_year = 2024 |
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| HDI_rank = 1st |
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| literacy = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 96.2%<ref name="Literacy survey_2018">{{Cite web |date=8 September 2020 |title=Literacy Survey, India (2017–18) |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/at-96-2-kerala-tops-indias-literacy-rate-chart-again-andhra-pradesh-ranks-lowest-with-66-4-8796401.html |access-date=9 September 2020 |publisher=Firstpost |archive-date=2 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102214441/https://www.firstpost.com/india/at-96-2-kerala-tops-indias-literacy-rate-chart-again-andhra-pradesh-ranks-lowest-with-66-4-8796401.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| literacy_year = 2018 |
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| literacy_rank = 1st |
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| sex_ratio = 1084[[female|♀]]/1000 [[male|♂]]<ref name="pc-census2011">{{Cite web |title=Census 2011 (Final Data) – Demographic details, Literate Population (Total, Rural & Urban) |url=https://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127163347/https://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |archive-date=27 January 2018 |access-date=3 October 2018 |website=planningcommission.gov.in |publisher=Planning Commission, Government of India}}</ref> |
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| sexratio_year = 2011 |
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| sexratio_rank = 17th |
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| iso_code = IN-KL |
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| registration_plate = KL |
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| website = kerala.gov.in |
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| foundation_day = 1 November |
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| mammal = [[Indian elephant]]<ref name="ENVIS">{{Cite web |date=1 December 2017 |title=State Symbols of India |url=http://wiienvis.nic.in/KidsCentre/state_symbols_india_8411.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415100206/http://wiienvis.nic.in/KidsCentre/state_symbols_india_8411.aspx |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=3 June 2022 |publisher=ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas}}</ref> |
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| bird = [[Great hornbill]]<ref name="ENVIS" /> |
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| fish = [[Green chromide]] |
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| butterfly = [[Papilio buddha]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jacob |first=Aneesh |title='Budha Mayoori' to be named Kerala's state butterfly |language=en |work=Mathrubhumi |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/technology/science/budha-mayoori-to-be-named-kerala-s-state-butterfly-1.3305480 |url-status=dead |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330094056/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/technology/science/budha-mayoori-to-be-named-kerala-s-state-butterfly-1.3305480 |archive-date=30 March 2019}}</ref> |
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| flower = [[Cassia fistula|Golden shower tree]]<ref name="ENVIS" /> |
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| tree = [[Coconut]] Tree<ref name="ENVIS" /> |
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| fruit = [[Jackfruit]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 March 2018 |title=Jackfruit to be Kerala's state fruit; declaration on March 21 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]] |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/jackfruit-to-be-keralas-state-fruit-declaration-on-march-21-5101170/ |access-date=22 March 2018 |archive-date=22 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322144926/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/jackfruit-to-be-keralas-state-fruit-declaration-on-march-21-5101170/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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| image_highway = SH IN-KL.png |
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| SH_numbers = [[List of state highways in Kerala|SH KL1 – SH KL79]] |
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}} |
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{{Infobox ethnonym |
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|person=Malayāḷi, Kēraḷīyaṉ |
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|people=Malayāḷikaḷ, Kēraḷīyaṟ |
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|language=Malayāḷam |
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|country= |
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}} |
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'''Kerala''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|k|ɛr|ə|l|ə|audio=Kerala (English Pronunciation).ogg}}/ {{respell|KERR|ə|lə}}; {{IPA-ml|keːɾɐɭɐm|lang|Ml-Keralam.ogg}}), is a [[States and union territories of India|state]] on the [[Malabar Coast]] of India.<ref name="mlb">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Malabar Coast |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Malabar-Coast |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002140/https://www.britannica.com/place/Malabar-Coast |url-status=live }}</ref> It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the [[States Reorganisation Act]], by combining [[Malayalam]]-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]], [[Malabar District|Malabar]], [[South Canara]], and [[Travancore]].<ref name="Malabar" /><ref name="Kerala" /> Spread over {{cvt|38863|km2|sqmi|0}}, Kerala is the 21st [[List of states and union territories of India by area|largest Indian state by area]]. It is bordered by [[Karnataka]] to the north and northeast, [[Tamil Nadu]] to the east and south, and the [[Laccadive Sea|Lakshadweep Sea]]<ref>{{Cite web |year=1953 |title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition |url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005131902/https://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2018 |access-date=28 December 2020 |publisher=International Hydrographic Organization}}</ref> to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], Kerala is the [[List of states of India by population|13th-largest Indian state by population]]. It is divided into 14 [[List of districts of Kerala|districts]] with the capital being [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. [[Malayalam]] is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala – Principal Language |url=https://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=73 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610111356/https://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=73 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |access-date=27 November 2018 |website=Government of India}}</ref> |
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'''Kerala''' ({{IPAudio|Kerala.ogg|['keːɹəˌɭɐ]}}; [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]: [[Malayalam script|{{Kerala in Malayalam}}]]<!--PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE MALAYALAM TEXT. If the "e" vowel looks like it's in the wrong place, your browser needs to be configured properly. See WP:COMPLEX for details.--><sup>[[WP:COMPLEX|<span class="t_nihongo_icon" style="color:#00e;font:bold 80% sans-serif;text-decoration:none;padding:0 .1em;">?</span>]]</sup>; ''{{Unicode|Kēraḷaṁ}}'') is a [[States and territories of India|state]] on the tropical [[Malabar|Malabar Coast]] of southwestern [[India]]. To its east and northeast, Kerala borders [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]]; to its west and south lie the [[Indian Ocean]] islands of [[Lakshadweep]] and the [[Maldives]], respectively. Kerala nearly envelops [[Mahé, India|Mahé]], a coastal exclave of [[Pondicherry]]. Kerala is one of four states that compose the linguistic-cultural region known as [[South India]]. The principal spoken language is [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], but other languages are also spoken. Kerala ranks 12th by population nationwide and is the most densely populated state in India<ref>"Kerala." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 June 2008</ref>. |
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The [[Chera dynasty]] was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The [[Ay kingdom]] in the deep south and the [[Mushika dynasty|Ezhimala kingdom]] in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the [[Common Era]] (CE). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 [[Common Era|BCE]].<ref name="spiceHindu">{{Cite news |title=Route it through the seas |newspaper=The Hindu |date=December 2016 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/children/ROUTE-it-through-the-seas/article16735515.ece |access-date=2024-01-08 |archive-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305035957/https://www.thehindu.com/children/ROUTE-it-through-the-seas/article16735515.ece |url-status=live |last1=Subramanian |first1=Archana }}</ref> The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of [[Pliny the elder|Pliny]] as well as the [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus]] around {{CE|100|link=y}}. In the 15th century, the [[spice trade]] attracted [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] traders to Kerala, and paved the way for [[Colonial India|European colonisation]] of India. At the time of [[Indian independence movement]] in the early 20th century, there were two major [[princely states]] in Kerala: [[Travancore State|Travancore]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]]. They united to form the state of [[Thiru-Kochi]] in 1949. The [[Malabar District|Malabar region]], in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the [[Madras province]] of [[British India]], which later became a part of the [[Madras State]] post-independence. After the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956]], the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the [[Malabar district]] of [[Madras State]] (excluding [[Gudalur taluk]] of [[The Nilgiris District|Nilgiris district]], [[Lakshadweep]] Islands, [[Topslip]], the [[Attappadi]] Forest east of Anakatti), the taluk of [[Kasaragod]] (now [[Kasaragod District]]) in [[South Canara]], and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of [[Kanyakumari district]], and Shenkottai taluks).<ref name="Kerala" /> |
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First settled in around 1000 BC by speakers of [[Proto-Dravidian|Proto-South Dravidian]]{{fact|date = May 2008}}, Kerala was influenced by the [[Mauryan Empire]]. Later, the [[Chera dynasty|Cheran Kingdom]] and feudal [[Nair]] and [[Namboothiri]] [[Brahmin]]ical city-states became major powers in the region.<ref name="keralagovl">{{cite web |title=Early history of Kerala |publisher=Government of Kerala |accessdate=2007-05-16 |url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/history&culture/earlyhistory.htm }}</ref> Early contact with overseas lands culminated in struggles between colonial and native powers. The [[States Reorganisation Act]] of [[1 November]] [[1956]] elevated Kerala to statehood. |
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Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highest [[Human Development Index]] (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest [[literacy]] rate, 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India;<ref name="Literacy survey_2018" /> the highest life expectancy, 77.3 years; and the highest [[sex ratio]], 1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is the [[List of Indian states and union territories by poverty rate|least impoverished state]] in India according to [[NITI Aayog]]'s Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and [[Reserve Bank of India]]'s ''Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SDG India – Index 2021–22 – Partnerships in the Decade of Action |url=https://sdgindiaindex.niti.gov.in/#/ranking |date=2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613021943/https://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/SDG_3.0_Final_04.03.2021_Web_Spreads.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2021 |website=[[NITI Aayog]] |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy. Table 154 : Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line. (2011-12) |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=19887 |access-date=13 September 2021 |website=Reserve Bank of India |archive-date=13 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913133540/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=19887 |url-status=live }}</ref> Kerala is the [[Urbanisation in India|second-most urbanised major state]] in the country with [[List of cities in Kerala by urban area growth|47.7% urban population]] according to the [[2011 Census of India]].<ref name="ubn" /> The state topped in the country to achieve the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] according to the annual report of [[NITI Aayog]] published in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gireesh Chandra Prasad |date=30 December 2019 |title=Kerala tops sustainable development goals index |work=Livemint |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/kerala-tops-sustainable-development-goals-index-11577729046641.html |access-date=4 December 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107210208/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/kerala-tops-sustainable-development-goals-index-11577729046641.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The state has the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]] with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly [[Malayalam]] and sometimes [[English language|English]]. [[Hinduism in Kerala|Hinduism]] is practised by more than half of the population, followed by [[Islam in Kerala|Islam]] and [[Christianity in Kerala|Christianity]]. |
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Social reforms enacted in the late 19th century by [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] and [[Travancore]] were expanded upon by post-[[Independence of India|independence]] governments, making Kerala, India's longest-lived, healthiest, most gender-equitable, and most literate regions.<ref>{{cite news |author=McKibben B |title=The Enigma of Kerala: One state in India is proving development experts wrong |publisher=DoubleTake |date=1995 |accessdate=2007-11-12 |url=http://www.utne.com/archives/TheEnigmaofKerala.aspx }}</ref><ref name="McKibben_2006"/> Kerala has one of the most advanced educational systems in India<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>. Though the state's basic human development indices are roughly equivalent to those in the [[developed country|developed world]], the state is substantially more environmentally sustainable than [[Europe]] and [[North America]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Douthwaite R |title=The Growth Illusion: How Economic Growth has Enriched the Few, Impoverished the Many, and Endangered the Planet |publisher=New Society Publishers |year=1999 |pages=pp. 310–312 |isbn=0-8657-1396-0 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9ZxJRc5_vbcC }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Heinberg R |title=Powerdown: Options And Actions For A Post-Carbon World |publisher=New Society Publishers |year=2004 |pages=p. 105 |isbn=0-8657-1510-6 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iAx1Jmyvz5wC }}</ref> Nevertheless, Kerala's suicide, alcoholism, and unemployment rates rank among India's highest.<ref>{{cite web |title=The extent of problem of Mental Health in the State |work=Kerala State Mental Health Authority |publisher=Government of Kerala |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.ksmha.org/kerala.htm }}</ref> A survey conducted in 2005 by [[Transparency International]] ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=India Corruption Study — 2005 |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |date=June 2005 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/news_archive__1/india_corruption_study_2005 }}</ref> |
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In 2019–20, the [[economy of Kerala]] was the [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|8th-largest]] in India with {{INRConvert|8.55|t}} in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of {{INRConvert|222|k}}.<ref name="MOSPI">{{Cite web |date=15 March 2021 |title=MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India |url=https://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls |access-date=23 June 2021 |archive-date=17 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617193238/http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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In 2019–20, the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|tertiary sector]] contributed around 65% to state's [[Gross value added|GSVA]], while the [[Primary sector of the economy|primary sector]] contributed only 8%.<ref name="eco">{{Cite book |last=Government of Kerala |url=https://spb.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/English-Vol-1_0.pdf |title=Economic Review 2020 – Volume I |publisher=Kerala State Planning Board |year=2021 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |access-date=18 June 2021 |archive-date=2 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502171017/https://spb.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/English-Vol-1_0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]] during the [[Kerala Gulf diaspora#The Gulf Boom|Gulf Boom]] of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on [[remittances]] from a large [[Malayali]] expatriate community. The production of [[Black pepper|pepper]] and [[natural rubber]] contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, [[coconut]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[cashew]] and spices are important. The state is situated between [[Arabian Sea]] to the west and [[Western Ghats]] mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for {{convert|595|km|mi}}, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by [[National Geographic Traveler]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 February 2014 |title=Kerala: A vacation in paradise |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/kerala-a-vacation-in-paradise/articleshow/26251595.cms |access-date=17 January 2023 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190237/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/kerala-a-vacation-in-paradise/articleshow/26251595.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Kerala is one of the prominent [[Tourism in Kerala|tourist destinations]] of India, with [[Beaches in Kerala|coconut-lined sandy beaches]], [[Kerala Backwaters|backwaters]], [[hill station]]s, [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic tourism]] and [[tropical]] greenery as its major attractions. |
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== Etymology == |
== Etymology == |
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The word ''Kerala'' is first recorded as ''Keralaputo'' ('son of [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the [[Maurya empire|Maurya emperor]] [[Ashoka]] (274–237 BCE), one of [[Edicts of Ashoka|his edicts]] pertaining to welfare.<ref>{{Cite book |last=P. C. Alexander |title=Buddhism in Kerala |pages=23}}</ref> At that time, one of three states in the region was called [[Chera Dynasty|{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Cheralam}}]] in Classical Tamil: {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Chera}} and {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Kera}} are variants of the same word.<ref name="Sainz1972">{{Cite book |last=Nicasio Silverio Sainz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOEBAAAAMAAJ |title=Cuba y la Casa de Austria |publisher=Ediciones Universal |year=1972 |page=120 |access-date=6 January 2013}}</ref> The word {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Cheral}} refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the [[Old Tamil]] word for 'lake'.<ref name="Marr1985">{{Cite book |last=John R. Marr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3gOAAAAYAAJ |title=The Eight Anthologies: A Study in Early Tamil Literature |publisher=Institute of Asian Studies |year=1985 |page=263}}</ref> {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Keralam}} may stem from the Classical [[Tamil language|Tamil]] {{transliteration|ta|ISO|cherive-alam}} 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope'<ref name="AlexDeborah2014">{{Cite book |last1=Rayson K. Alex |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1swxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226 |title=Culture and Media: Ecocritical Explorations |last2=S. Susan Deborah |last3=Sachindev P.S. |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4438-6190-8 |page=226}}</ref> or {{transliteration|ta|ISO|chera alam}} 'land of the Cheras'. |
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One [[folk etymology]] derives ''Kerala'' from the [[Malayalam]] word {{transliteration|ml|ISO|kera}} 'coconut tree' and {{transliteration|ml|ISO|alam}} 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts',<ref name="Sadasivan2000">{{Cite book |last=S. N. Sadasivan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Be3PCvzf-BYC&pg=PA101 |title=A Social History of India |publisher=APH Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-8176481700 |page=101}}</ref> which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.<ref name="PreedyWatson2011">{{Cite book |last1=Victor R. Preedy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C6lYoH8rwywC&pg=PT400 |title=Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention |last2=Ronald Ross Watson |last3=Vinood B. Patel |publisher=Academic Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-12-375689-3 |page=400}}</ref> |
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The [[etymology]] of ''Kerala'' is a matter of conjecture. In the prevailing theory, ''Kerala'' is an imperfect Malayalam portmanteau that fuses ''kera'' ("coconut palm tree") and ''alam'' ("land" or "location").<ref>{{cite book |author=Dobbie A |title=India: The Elephant's Blessing |publisher=Melrose Press |year=2006 |pages=p. 122 |isbn=1-9052-2685-3 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ckpEd4emnCkC }}</ref> Another theory is that the name originated from the phrase ''chera alam'' ("Land of the Chera").<ref>{{cite book |author=George KM |title=A Survey of Malayalam Literature |publisher=Asia Publishing House |year=1968 |pages=p. 2 }}</ref> Natives of Kerala, known as ''Keralites'' or ''[[Malayali]]s'', thus refer to their land as ''Keralam''. |
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The earliest [[Sanskrit]] text to mention Kerala as ''Cherapadha'' is the late Vedic text [[Aitareya Aranyaka]]. Kerala is also mentioned in the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]], the two Hindu epics.<ref name="Menon3" /> The ''[[Skanda Purana]]'' mentions the ecclesiastical office of the [[Thachudaya Kaimal]] who is referred to as {{transliteration|ml|ISO|Manikkam Keralar}}, synonymous with the deity of the [[Koodalmanikyam]] temple.<ref>See Sahyadri Kanda Chapter 7 in Skanda Purana. Rocher, Ludo (1986). The Puranas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. {{ISBN|978-3447025225}}.</ref><ref>Who's Who in Madras 1934</ref> The [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] trade map ''[[Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' refers to Kerala as ''Celobotra''.<ref name="Caldwell1998">{{Cite book |last=Robert Caldwell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&pg=PA92 |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1998 |isbn=978-8120601178 |page=92 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> |
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== History == |
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=== Malabar === |
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{{main|History of Kerala}} |
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Kerala was alternatively called ''[[Malabar Coast|Malabar]]'' in the [[Indian Ocean trade|foreign trade circles]]. Earlier, the term ''Malabar'' had also been used to denote [[Tulu Nadu]] and [[Kanyakumari district|Kanyakumari]] which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web |last=J. Sturrock |year=1894 |title=Madras District Manuals – South Canara (Volume-I) |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3200/page/n1/mode/2up |publisher=Madras Government Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=V. Nagam Aiya |url=https://archive.org/details/travancorestate00aiyagoog/page/n10/mode/2up |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Travancore Government Press |year=1906}}</ref> The people of Malabar were known as ''[[Malabars]]''. Until the arrival of the [[East India Company]], the term ''Malabar'' was used as a general name for Kerala, along with the term ''Kerala''.<ref name="Malabar">{{Cite book |last=Sreedhara Menon |first=A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |title=''Kerala Charitram'' |publisher=DC Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8126415885 |edition=2007 |location=Kottayam |access-date=19 July 2020 |archive-date=13 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113141403/https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |url-status=live }}</ref> From the time of [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] (6th century CE) itself, the [[Arabs|Arab]] sailors used to call Kerala as ''Male''. The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the ''Topography'' written by [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]]. This mentions a pepper emporium called ''Male'', which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name ''Male'' is thought to come from the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] word ''Mala'' ('hill').<ref>C. A. Innes and F. B. Evans, ''Malabar and Anjengo, volume 1'', Madras District Gazetteers (Madras: Government Press, 1915), p. 2.</ref><ref>M. T. Narayanan, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kHtbkuXruzwC Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar]'' (New Delhi: Northern Book Centre, 2003), xvi–xvii.</ref> [[Al-Biruni]] ({{CE|973–1048}}) is the first known writer to call this country ''Malabar''.<ref name="Malabar" /> Authors such as [[Ibn Khordadbeh]] and [[Al-Baladhuri]] mention Malabar ports in their works.<ref name="KMMohammad">Mohammad, K.M. "Arab relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries" Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 60 (1999), pp. 226–34.</ref> The Arab writers had called this place ''Malibar'', ''Manibar'', ''Mulibar'', and ''Munibar''. ''Malabar'' is reminiscent of the word ''Malanad'' which means ''the land of hills''.<ref name="Logan" /> According to [[William Logan (author)|William Logan]], the word ''Malabar'' comes from a combination of the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] word ''Mala'' (hill) and the [[Persian Language|Persian]]/[[Arabic]] word ''Barr'' (country/continent).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Logan |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/malabarmanual0000loga/page/1/mode/1up |title=Malabar Manual, Vol. 1 |date=1887 |publisher=Superintendent, Government Press (Madras) |others=Servants of Knowledge |isbn=978-81-206-0446-9 |pages=1}}</ref> |
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== History == |
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Kerala is first mentioned (as Keralaputra) in a 3rd-century-BC rock inscription left by the Mauryan emperor [[Asoka]].<ref> "Kerala." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 June 2008</ref> |
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{{Main|History of Kerala}} |
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=== Traditional sources === |
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According to legend, Kerala was an [[Asura]] Kingdom and was ruled by Asura kings. The last of the Asura kings, [[Maveli]] was killed by [[Vamana]], one of the avatars of [[Mahavishnu]]. According to folk songs there was no caste system in Kerala during that period and the kingdom had very high ethical values. People of Kerala celebrate [[Onam]] in Maveli's memory. Maveli is referred to as [[Mahabali]] in [[Sanskrit]] texts. |
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[[File:Parashurama with axe.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright=.8|Portrait of [[Parashurama]] by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] relating to [[Keralolpathi]].]] |
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According to the Sangam classic ''[[Purananuru]]'', the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] king [[Senguttuvan|Senkuttuvan]] conquered the lands between [[Kanyakumari]] and the [[Himalayas]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=Kerala History and its Makers |publisher=D C Books |year=1987 |isbn=978-8126421992 |page=24}}</ref> Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it.<ref name=":0" /><ref>''Ancient Indian History'' By Madhavan Arjunan Pillai, p. 204 {{ISBN?}}</ref> According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work ''[[Keralolpathi]]'', the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage [[Parashurama]], the sixth [[Daśāvatāra|avatar]] of [[Vishnu]] (hence, Kerala is also called ''Parashurama Kshetram'' 'The Land of Parashurama' in Hindu mythology).<ref>S.C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava (2006) "Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: Volume 14.", p. 18</ref> Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from [[Gokarna, India|Gokarna]] to [[Kanyakumari]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aiya VN |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RdzaPW-kEvQC |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Travancore Government Press |year=1906 |pages=210–12 |access-date=12 November 2007 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190257/https://books.google.com/books?id=RdzaPW-kEvQC |url-status=live }}</ref> The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parashurama invoked the Snake King [[Vasuki]], who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. [[P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar]] theorised, that [[Senguttuvan]] may have been inspired by the Parashurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Srinivisa Iyengar |first=P. T. |title=History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1929 |isbn=978-8120601451 |location=Madras |page=515}}</ref> |
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Another much earlier [[Puranic]] character associated with Kerala is [[Mahabali]], an [[Asura]] and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]], driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord ''Vishnu'', who took his fifth incarnation as ''[[Vamana]]'' and pushed Mahabali down to [[Patala|netherworld]] to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the [[Onam]] festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.<ref name="Rinehart2004">{{Cite book |last=Robin Rinehart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PA146 |title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-57607-905-8 |page=146 |access-date=28 July 2012}}</ref> The [[Matsya Purana]], among the oldest of the 18 [[Puranas]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldberg |first=Ellen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xUhlxBozntoC&pg=PA20 |title=The Lord who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7914-5325-4 |page=20 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kemmerer |first=Lisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFEL2yjkbAAC&pg=PA78 |title=Animals and World Religions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-991255-1 |page=78 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> uses the [[Malaya Mountains]] as the setting for the story of [[Matsya]], the first [[Dashavatara|incarnation]] of Vishnu, and [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], the first man and the king of the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA250 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |page=250 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ragozin |first=Zenaide A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T16d-eRG5VkC&pg=PA341 |title=Vedic India As Embodied Principally in the Rig-veda |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4179-4463-7 |page=341 |access-date=21 March 2013}}</ref> |
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According to another legend, [[Parasurama]], who was the next [[avatar]] of [[Mahavishnu]], threw his battle axe into the sea. As a result, the land of Kerala arose and was reclaimed from the waters.<ref>{{cite book |author=Aiya VN |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Travancore Government Press |pages=pp. 210–212 |year=1906 |accessdate=2007-11-12 |url=http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&id=RdzaPW-kEvQC }}</ref> During [[Neolithic]] times, humans largely avoided Kerala's rainforests and wetlands. There is evidence of the emergence of prehistoric pottery and granite burial monuments in the 10th century BC that resemble their counterparts in Western Europe and the rest of Asia. These were produced by speakers of a proto-Tamil language.<ref name="GOK_2005">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005}}.</ref> Thus, Kerala and [[Tamil Nadu]] once shared a common language, ethnicity and culture; this common area was known as [[Tamilakam]]. Kerala became a linguistically separate region by the early 14th century. The ancient [[Chera dynasty|Cherans]], whose [[mother tongue]] and court language was [[Tamil language|Tamil]], ruled Kerala from their capital at [[Vanchi (Indian Capital)|Vanchi]] and was the first major recorded kingdom. Allied with the [[Pallava]]s, they continually warred against the neighbouring [[Chola]] and [[Pandya]] kingdoms. A Keralite identity—distinct from the [[Tamil people|Tamils]] and associated with the second Chera empire—and the development of Malayalam evolved between the 8th and 14th centuries. In written records, Kerala was mentioned in the [[Sanskrit]] [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''Aitareya Aranyaka''. Later, figures such as [[Katyayana]], [[Patanjali]], [[Pliny the Elder]], and the unknown author of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' displayed familiarity with Kerala.<ref name="Veliath007">Pliny's ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'', Book 6, Chapter 26</ref> |
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In the last centuries BC this region became famous among the [[Greeks]] and [[Romans]] for its spices (especially pepper).<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> |
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[[Poovar]] is often identified with biblical [[Ophir]] region, known for its wealth.<ref>[https://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ophir "Ophir"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071854/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ophir |date=4 March 2016 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> |
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[[Image:Parshuramsaraswats.jpg|thumb|left|Lord [[Parshuram]] with settlers commanding Lord [[Varuna]] to make the seas recede to make the Kerala.]] |
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[[Image:Muniyara.jpg|thumb|right|''Muniyaras'' (Keralite dolmens or [[megalithic tomb]]s) in [[Marayoor]], erected by Neolithic tribesmen.]] |
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[[Image:Kottayam Valia Palli01.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Syrian Orthodox Church|Syrian Orthodox]] Valia Palli ([[St. Mary]]’s Church) in Thazhathangadi, [[Kottayam]]. Built in 1550 AD, it hosts an 8th-century Persian cross and [[Sassanid]] [[Pahlavi script|Pahlavi]] inscriptions.]] |
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[[Image:Pazhasi.jpg|thumb|right|Memorial of [[Pazhassi Raja|Veera Pazhassi Raja]] (the "Lion of Kerala") in Mananthavady, [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]]. Pazhassi Raja launched a guerilla war against the British in the late 18th century.]] |
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==== Cheraman Perumals ==== |
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The Chera kings' dependence on trade meant that merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.<ref>{{harvnb|Iyengar|2001|pp=192–195}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Iyengar|2001|pp=303–307}}.</ref> Many, especially Jews and Christians, escaped persecution and established the [[Syrian Malabar Nasrani|Nasrani Mappila]] and [[Mappila|Muslim Mappila]] communities.<ref>{{cite book |author=Milton J, Skeat WW, Pollard AW, Brown L |title=The Indian Christians of St Thomas |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=p. 171 |date=[[1982-08-31]] |isbn=0-5212-1258-8 }}</ref> According to several scholars, the Jews first arrived in Kerala in 573 [[Before Christ|BC]].<ref>De Beth Hillel, David (1832). ''Travels'' ([[Madras]] publication).</ref><ref>Lord, James Henry (1977). ''The Jews in India and the Far East''; Greenwood Press Reprint; ISBN.</ref> The works of scholars and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] writings state that [[Thomas the Apostle]] visited [[Muziris]] in Kerala in 52 AD to proselytize amongst Kerala's Jewish settlements.<ref name= "GPress">Medlycott, A E. 1905 "India and the Apostle Thomas"; Gorgias Press LLC; ISBN</ref><ref> Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas", The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II.</ref> However, archeological evidences of existence are dating from 6th century. [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] writings points to migration of Christian families to Kerala in 3rd and 8th century respectively.<ref name="Mundadan_1984">{{cite book |author=Mundadan AM |year=1984 |title=Volume I: From the Beginning up to the Sixteenth Century (up to 1542) |series=History of Christianity in India |publisher=Theological Publications |others=Church History Association of India |location=Bangalore }}</ref> [[Malik ibn Dinar|Muslim merchants]] ([[Malik ibn Dinar]]) settled in Kerala by the 8th century AD. After [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival in 1498, the Portuguese gained control of the lucrative [[spice trade|pepper trade]] by subduing Keralite communities and commerce.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ravindran PN |title=Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum |publisher=CRC Press |year=2000 |pages=3 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Curtin PD |title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |pages=144 |isbn=0-5212-6931-8}}</ref> |
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{{Main|Legend of Cheraman Perumals}} |
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[[File:Chera King's Sword given to the Zamorin of Calicut.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Portrait of the sword of [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins of Kozhikode]], relating to the legend of Cheraman Perumal.]] |
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The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the ''Cheraman Perumals'' (literally the [[Chera dynasty|Chera kings]]) of Kerala.<ref name="a">Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 31–32.</ref> The validity of the legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians.<ref>Kesavan Veluthat, 'The ''Keralolpathi'' as History', in ''The Early Medieval in South India'', New Delhi, 2009, pp. 129–46.</ref> The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal).<ref name="b">Noburu Karashima (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146–47.</ref><ref name="c">Frenz, Margret. 2003. 'Virtual Relations, Little Kings in Malabar', in ''Sharing Sovereignty. The Little Kingdom in South Asia,'' eds Georg Berkemer and Margret Frenz, pp. 81–91. Berlin: Zentrum Moderner Orient.</ref> According to the legend, ''Rayar'', the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the [[Western Ghats|Ghats]], invaded Kerala during the rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like ''Udaya Varman Kolathiri'', ''Manichchan'', and ''Vikkiran'' of [[Eranad]]). The ''Cheraman Perumal'' was assured by the ''Eradis'' (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the ''Rayar''.<ref name="d">Logan, William. ''Malabar.'' Madras: Government Press, Madras, 1951 (reprint). 223–40.</ref> The battle lasted for three days and the ''Rayar'' eventually evacuated his fort (and it was seized by the Perumal's troops).<ref name="d" /> Then the last ''Cheraman Perumal'' divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him.<ref name="a" /><ref name="b" /><ref name="c" /> The ''Eradis'' of [[Nediyiruppu]], who later came to be known as the [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins of Kozhikode]], who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the ''Cheraman Perumal''{{'s}} sword (with the permission to "die, and kill, and seize").<ref name="c" /><ref name="d" /> |
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=== Pre-history === |
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Conflicts between the cities of [[Kozhikode]] (Calicut) and [[Kochi, India|Kochi]] (Cochin) provided an opportunity for the Dutch to oust the Portuguese. In turn, the Dutch were ousted at the 1741 [[Battle of Colachel]] by [[Marthanda Varma]] of [[Travancore]] (Thiruvathaamkoor). [[Hyder Ali]], heading the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], conquered northern Kerala, capturing Kozhikode in 1766. In the late 18th century, [[Tipu Sultan]], Ali’s son and successor, launched campaigns against the expanding [[British East India Company]]; these resulted in two of the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]. He ultimately ceded [[Malabar District]] and [[South Kanara]] to the Company in the 1790s. The Company then forged tributary alliances with Kochi (1791) and Travancore (1795). Malabar and South Kanara became part of the [[Madras Presidency]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Superintendent of Government Printing |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India (Provincial Series): Madras |publisher=Government of India |location=Calcutta |year=1908 |pages=22 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xXglUxeS_WkC }}</ref> |
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| image1 = MarayoorDolmen.JPG |
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| caption1 = A [[dolmen]] erected by Neolithic people in [[Marayur]] |
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| image2 = Edakkal Stone Age Carving.jpg |
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| caption2 = [[Stone Age]] (6,000 BCE) writings of [[Edakkal Caves]] |
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}} |
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A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near [[Changanassery]], thus supporting the hypothesis.<ref name="Menon2007">{{Cite book |last=A Sreedhara Menon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA20 |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |publisher=DC Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=20–21 |access-date=27 July 2012}}</ref> Pre-historical archaeological findings include [[dolmen]]s of the [[Neolithic]] era in the [[Marayur]] area of the [[Idukki district]], which lie on the eastern highland made by [[Western Ghats]]. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from ''muni'' ([[hermit]] or [[Index of religious honorifics and titles|sage]]) and ''ara'' (dolmen).<ref name="Unlocking the secrets of history">{{Cite news |date=6 December 2004 |title=Unlocking the secrets of history |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |url=https://www.hindu.com/2004/12/06/stories/2004120604900300.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050126210416/https://www.hindu.com/2004/12/06/stories/2004120604900300.htm |archive-date=26 January 2005}}</ref> Rock engravings in the [[Edakkal Caves]], in [[Wayanad]] date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE.<ref name="Kapoor2002">{{Cite book |last=Subodh Kapoor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxIpYtnyzu4C&pg=PA2184 |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia |publisher=Cosmo Publications |year=2002 |isbn=978-8177552577 |page=2184 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Wayanad |url=https://www.kerala.gov.in/web/guest/wayanad |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528022259/https://kerala.gov.in/web/guest/wayanad |archive-date=28 May 2021 |access-date=12 November 2015 |website=kerala.gov.in |publisher=Government of Kerala}}</ref> Archaeological studies have identified [[Mesolithic]], Neolithic and [[Megalithic]] sites in Kerala.<ref name="AroraSingh116">{{Cite book |last1=Udai Prakash Arora |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122 |title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology |last2=A. K. Singh |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |year=1999 |isbn=978-8186565445 |page=116 |access-date=6 October 2012}}</ref> The studies point to the development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the [[Paleolithic]] Age, through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages.<ref name="google">{{Cite book |last1=Udai Prakash Arora |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122 |title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology |last2=A. K. Singh |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |year=1999 |isbn=978-8186565445 |pages=118, 123 |access-date=6 October 2012}}</ref> Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation;<ref name="AroraSingh1999">{{Cite book |last1=Udai Prakash Arora |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122 |title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology |last2=A. K. Singh |publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors |year=1999 |isbn=978-8186565445 |page=123 |access-date=6 October 2012}}</ref> historians suggest a possible relationship with [[Indus Valley civilisation]] during the late [[Bronze Age]] and early [[Iron Age]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 September 2009 |title=Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Kerala |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/states/article26324.ece |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114080354/http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/article26324.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Kerala saw comparatively little defiance of the [[British Raj]]. Nevertheless, several rebellions occurred, including the 1946 Punnapra-Vayalar revolt,<ref>{{cite web |year=2002 |title=Emergence of Nationalism: Punnapra-Vayalar revolt |publisher=Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala) |accessdate=2006-01-14 |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/vayalar.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20050223090751/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/prd2/keralam/vayalar.htm |archivedate=2005-02-23 }}</ref> and leaders like [[Velayudan Thampi Dalava]], [[Kunjali Marakkar]], and [[Pazhassi Raja]] earned their place in history and folklore. Many actions, spurred by such leaders as [[Sree Narayana Guru]] and [[Chattampi Swamikal]], instead protested such conditions as [[Dalit (outcaste)|untouchability]]; notable was the 1924 ''[[Vaikom Satyagraham]]''. In 1936, [[Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma]] of Travancore issued the [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] that opened Hindu temples to all castes; [[Cochin]] and [[Malabar]] soon did likewise. The 1921 [[Moplah Rebellion]] involved Mappila Muslims rioting against Hindus and the [[British Raj]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Qureshi |first=MN |title=Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924 |year=1999 |pages=445–447 |isbn=9-0041-0538-7}}</ref> |
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=== Ancient period === |
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After India gained its independence in 1947, [[Travancore]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] were merged to form [[Travancore-Cochin]] on [[July 1]], [[1949]]. On [[January 1]], [[1950]] ([[Republic Day of India|Republic Day]]), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Madras Presidency was organised to form [[Madras State]] several years prior, in 1947. Finally, the [[Government of India]]'s [[November 1]], [[1956]] [[States Reorganisation Act]] inaugurated the state of Kerala, incorporating Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the [[tehsil|taluk]] of [[Kasargod]], [[South Kanara]].<ref name="Plunkett">{{harvnb|Plunkett|Cannon|Harding|2001|p=24}}.</ref> A new legislative assembly was also created, for which elections were first held in 1957. These resulted in a [[communist]]-led government through ballot - the world's first of its kind - headed by [[E.M.S. Namboodiripad]].<ref name="Plunkett">{{harvnb|Plunkett|Cannon|Harding|2001|p=24}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Jose D |title=EMS Namboodiripad dead |work=[[Rediff.com|Rediff]] |publisher=Press Trust of India |date=[[1998-03-19]] |accessdate=2007-11-12 |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/1998/mar/19ems.htm}}</ref> Subsequent social reforms favoured tenants and labourers.<ref name="Cheriyan_2004_22-23">{{harvnb|Cheriyan|2004|pp=22–23}}.</ref><ref name="Cheriyan_2004_43-44">{{harvnb|Cheriyan|2004|pp=43–44}}.</ref> As a result, living standards, education, and life expectancy improved dramatically. |
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[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|Ancient [[Silk Road]] map showing the then trade routes. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).|right]] |
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[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|thumbnail|Names, routes and locations of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE)]] |
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[[File:Ezhimala beach.JPG|thumb|[[Ezhimala (hill, Kannur)|Ezhimala]], the early historic headquarters of [[Mushika dynasty]], which was succeeded by the kingdom of [[Kolathunadu|Kannur]] later.]] |
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Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to [[Sumer]]ian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pradeep Kumar |first=Kaavya |date=28 January 2014 |title=Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/of-kerala-egypt-and-the-spice-link/article5625620.ece |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220035118/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/of-kerala-egypt-and-the-spice-link/article5625620.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006" />{{rp|79}} Kerala's spices attracted ancient [[Arab]]s, [[Babylonians]], [[Assyria]]ns and [[Egyptians]] to the [[Malabar Coast]] in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [[Phoenicians]] established trade with Kerala during this period.<ref name="Menon57">{{Cite book |last=A Sreedhara Menon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA57 |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |publisher=DC Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=57–58 |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> [[Arab]]s and [[Phoenicians]] were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade [[Spice]]s.<ref name="Menon57" /> The Arabs on the coasts of [[Yemen]], [[Oman]], and the [[Persian Gulf]], must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other [[Eastern world|eastern countries]].<ref name="Menon57" /> They must have brought the [[Cinnamon]] of Kerala to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Menon57" /> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.<ref name="Menon57" /> |
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It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king [[Uthiyan Cheralathan]] ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in [[Kuttanad]],<ref name="Singh2008">{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA385 |access-date=10 October 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131716779 |page=384}}</ref><ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9380607344 |pages=60–61}}</ref> and controlled the port of [[Muziris]], but its southern tip was in the kingdom of [[Pandyas]],{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=385}} which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as ''[[Nelcynda]]'' (or ''Neacyndi'') in [[Quilon]].<ref name="Books.google.co.in">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQipbjusDyQC&q=nelcynda&pg=PA301 |title=History of ancient geography – Google Books |author=James Oliver Thomson |publisher=Biblo & Tannen Publishers |access-date=30 July 2009 |isbn=978-0-8196-0143-8 |year=1948 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190728/https://books.google.com/books?id=rQipbjusDyQC&q=nelcynda&pg=PA301#v=snippet&q=nelcynda&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Tyndis]]'' was a major centre of trade, next only to [[Muziris]], between the Cheras and the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India, Yogesh Sharma, Primus Books 2010</ref> The lesser known [[Ay kingdom|Ays]] and [[Ezhimala kingdom|Mushikas]] kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively.<ref name="Shashi1996">{{cite book |author=S. S. Shashi |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwswAQAAIAAJ |access-date=10 October 2012 |year=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-8170418597 |page=1207}}</ref><ref name="Ramunny1993">{{cite book |author=Murkot Ramunny |title=Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Hue54bWk6IC&pg=PA3 |access-date=10 October 2012 |year=1993 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8172110529 |page=3}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century CE) states that the port of ''[[Tyndis]]'' was located at the northwestern border of ''Keprobotos''.<ref name=":2">Gurukkal, R., & Whittaker, D. (2001). In search of Muziris. ''Journal of Roman Archaeology,'' ''14'', 334–350.</ref> The [[North Malabar]] region, which lies north of the port at ''[[Tyndis]]'', was ruled by the kingdom of [[Ezhimala]] during [[Sangam period]].<ref name="Malabar" /> The port at ''[[Tyndis]]'' which was on the northern side of ''[[Muziris]]'', as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Malabar" /> Its exact location is a matter of dispute.<ref name="Malabar" /> The suggested locations are [[Ponnani]], [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Beypore]]-[[Chaliyam]]-[[Kadalundi]]-[[Vallikkunnu]], and [[Koyilandy]].<ref name="Malabar" /> |
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== Geography == |
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Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.<ref name="google2">{{cite book |author=Iyengar PTS |year=2001 |title=History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-8120601451 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |pages=192–95 |access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref> The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE.<ref name="Orpa Slapak">[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&q=two+millennia ''The Israelis (Jews) of India: A Story of Three Communities''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226115854/https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn%3A9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA |date=26 December 2016 }} by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. {{ISBN|978-9652781796}}.</ref><ref name="Hillel1832">{{cite book |author=David D'Beth Hillel |title=The Travels of Rabbi David D'Beth Hillel: From Jerusalem, Through Arabia, Koordistan, Part of Persia, and Indudasam (India) to Madras |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5NeAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR9 |year=1832 |publisher=author |page=135}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Jews in India and the Far East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_v-nQEACAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=24–26 |isbn=978-0-8371-2615-9}}</ref> Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as [[Herodotus]] (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden.<ref name="Kusuman">{{cite book |author=K. K. Kusuman |title=A History of Trade & Commerce in Travancore |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1987 |isbn=978-8170990260 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbNuyHswr1cC |pages=1–2 |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125200729/https://books.google.com/books?id=qbNuyHswr1cC |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 4th century, the [[Knanaya]] or Southist Christians also migrated from [[Persia]] and lived alongside the early [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syriac Christian]] community known as the [[Saint Thomas Christians]] who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of [[Thomas the Apostle]] in the 1st century.<ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&q=Muziris ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226115908/https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn%3A9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA |date=26 December 2016 }} by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0802824172}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-link1=Geoffrey Wainwright|editor-first1=Geoffrey|editor-last1=Wainwright|editor-first2=Karen B.|editor-last2=Westerfield Tucker|editor-link2=Karen B. Westerfield Tucker|chapter=Mission and Inculturation: East Asian and the Pacific|author-link=Anscar Chupungco|first=Anscar J.|last=Chupungco|title=[[The Oxford History of Christian Worship]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-513886-3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5VQUdZhx1gC |page=666 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> |
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{{main|Geography of Kerala}} |
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=== Early medieval period === |
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{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTHOUR}} mod 3}} |
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[[File:3rd Tiruvalla Copper Plate.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] granted to [[Saint Thomas Christians]] by [[Venad]] ruler [[Sthanu Ravi Varma]], testified about merchant guilds and trade corporations in medieval Kerala. The 6th plate contains witness signatures in [[Arabic]], [[Middle Persian]] and [[Judeo-Persian]].<ref name="cereti">{{Cite book |last=Cereti |first=C. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams |title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=2009 |isbn=978-3-447-05937-4 |editor-last=Sundermann |editor-first=W. |location=Wiesbaden |pages= |chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates |editor-last2=Hintze |editor-first2=A. |editor-last3=de Blois |editor-first3=F. |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125200731/https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams#v=snippet&q=Exegisti%20Monumenta%3A%20Festschrift%20in%20Honour%20of%20Nicholas%20Sims-%20Williams&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>]] |
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|0 = [[Image:Landscape Tekkady Kerala India.jpg|thumb|left|Landscape near [[Thekkady]], [[Idukki district|Iddukki]].]] |
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A second [[Chera Dynasty|Chera Kingdom]] (c. 800–1102), also known as [[Kulasekhara dynasty (Venad)|Kulasekhara dynasty]] of Mahodayapuram (present-day [[Kodungallur]]), was established by [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara Varman]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar |last=M. T. Narayanan |publisher=Northern Book Centre |year=2003}}</ref> which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from [[Nagercoil]] to [[Thiruvalla]] was ruled by [[Ays (Kerala)|Ay kings]], who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire.<ref name="Balachand">{{cite book |author=K. Balachandran Nayar |title=In quest of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXIeAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 August 2012 |year=1974 |publisher=Accent Publications |page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=8 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=97}}</ref> Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a developing period of art, literature, trade and the [[Bhakti movement]] of Hinduism.<ref name="Sreedhar123">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=8 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=123–31}}</ref> A [[Malayali|Keralite]] identity, distinct from the [[Tamil people|Tamils]], became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century.<ref name="Asher2013">{{cite book |author=R Asher |title=Malayalam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRNTAQAAQBAJ&pg=PR24 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-10084-0 |at=Introduction p. xxiv}}</ref> The origin of [[Malayalam calendar]] dates back to year 825 CE.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |title=Kollam Era |publisher=Indian Journal History of Science |access-date=30 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527163650/https://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Time measurement and calendar construction |author=Broughton Richmond |year=1956 |pages=218 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUlmAAAAMAAJ |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=24 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824121337/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUlmAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=History of Kerala |author=R. Leela Devi |publisher=Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot |year=1986 |pages=408 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=24 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824121335/https://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of [[Naduvazhi]]s, with each province comprising a number of ''Desams'' under the control of chieftains, called as ''Desavazhis''.<ref name="Sreedhar123" /> [[Mamankam festival]], which was the largest native festival, was held at [[Tirunavaya]] near [[Kuttippuram]], on the bank of river [[Bharathappuzha]].<ref name="Logan" /><ref name="Malabar" /> [[Athavanad]], the headquarters of ''[[Azhvanchery Thamprakkal]]'', who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the [[Nambudiri]] [[Brahmin]]s of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.<ref name="Logan" /><ref name="Malabar" /> |
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|1 = [[Image:temple pond kerala.jpg|thumb|left|A temple pond in [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]].]] |
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|2 = [[Image:Wayanad scenery.JPG|thumb|left|Rice paddies in the [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]] countryside.]] |
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}} |
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[[Sulaiman al-Tajir]], a [[Persians|Persian]] merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of [[Sthanu Ravi Varma]] (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and [[China]] at that time, based at the port of [[Kollam]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=India Charitram |last=Menon |first=A. Shreedhara |publisher=DC Books |year=2016 |isbn=9788126419395 |location=Kottayam |pages=219}}</ref> A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable [[Muslim]] population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as [[Al-Masudi]] of [[Baghdad]] (896–956 CE), [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] (1100–1165 CE), [[Abulfeda]] (1273–1331 CE), and [[Al-Dimashqi (geographer)|Al-Dimashqi]] (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar |last=Razak |first=Abdul |publisher= |year=2013}}</ref> Some historians assume that the [[Mappila]]s can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book |author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt |title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458 |access-date=25 July 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004079298 |pages=458–59 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191234/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kulakarṇī1996">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC&pg=PA54 |title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi |author=A. Rā Kulakarṇī |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=1996 |isbn=978-8171545797 |pages=54–55 |access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref> The known earliest mention about [[Muslim]]s of Kerala is in the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates]].<ref name="cereti" /> |
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[[Image:Kerala geographic map.png|right|thumb|Topographic map of Kerala]] |
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[[File:Calicut 1572 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A panorama of port [[Kozhikode]], shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged, sparsely populated interior ([[Georg Braun]] and [[Frans Hogenberg]]'s atlas ''Civitates orbis terrarum'', 1572)]] |
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Kerala’s 38,863 km² landmass (1.18% of India) is wedged between the [[Arabian Sea]] to the west and the [[Western Ghats]]—identified as one of the world's twenty-five [[biodiversity hotspot]]s<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_5">{{harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=5}}.</ref>—to the east. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 72°22',<ref name="GOK_2005b">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005b}}.</ref> Kerala is well within the humid [[equatorial]] tropics. Kerala’s coast runs for some 580 km (360 miles), while the state itself varies between 35 and 120 km (22–75 miles) in width. Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip of the [[Indian subcontinent]], Kerala lies near the centre of the [[Indian Plate|Indian]] [[tectonic plate]]; as such, most of the state is subject to comparatively little [[earthquake|seismic]] and volcanic activity.<ref>{{cite map |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |year=2002 |title=Map Showing Multi Hazard Zones in Kerala |url=http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/Multihazard/Maps/Multihazard/kerala.jpg |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061108004906/http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/Multihazard/Maps/Multihazard/kerala.jpg |archivedate=2006-11-08 |accessdate=2006-01-12 }}</ref> [[Pre-Cambrian]] and [[Pleistocene]] geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala’s terrain. |
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The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of [[Jainism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010321010740/https://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 March 2001 |title=The Buddhist History of Kerala |publisher=Kerala.cc |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> The social system became fractured with divisions on [[Caste system in kerala|caste]] lines.<ref>{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=9 August 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=138}}</ref> Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of [[Pandyan dynasty|Later Pandyas]] and [[Later Cholas]].<ref name="Balachand" /> However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern [[Venad]] kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. |
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[[Image:Kerala ecozones map labelled3.png|left|125px|Map of agroecological zones of Kerala]] |
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=== The rise of Kozhikode === |
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Eastern Kerala lies immediately west of the Western Ghats's [[rain shadow]]; it consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys. 41 of Kerala’s west-flowing rivers, and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. Here, the Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad, where the [[Palakkad Gap]] breaks through to provide access to the rest of India. The Western Ghats rises on average to 1,500 m (4920 ft) above sea level, while the highest peaks may reach to 2,500 m (8200 ft). Just west of the mountains lie the midland plains composing central Kerala; rolling hills and valleys dominate.<ref name="GOK_2005b">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005b}}.</ref> Generally ranging between elevations of 250–1,000 m (820–3300 ft), the eastern portions of the [[Nilgiri Hills|Nilgiri]] and [[Palni Hills]] include such formations as [[Agastyamalai]] and [[Anamalai]]. |
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After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into 30 small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorin of Kozhikode]] in the north, [[Venad|Kollam]] in the far-south, [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]] in the south, and [[Kolathunadu|Kannur]] in the far north. The port at [[Kozhikode]] held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while [[Kollam]] (Quilon), [[Kochi]], and [[Kannur]] (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.<ref name="Malekandathil">''The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800''. Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K. S. Mathew (2001). Edited by: Pius Malekandathil and T. Jamal Mohammed. Fundacoa Oriente. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR (Kerala)</ref> The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of [[Eranad]], which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day [[Malappuram district]].<ref name="Malabar" /><ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the [[Malayalam]] speaking region during the [[Middle Age]]s.<ref name="Varier">Varier, M. R. Raghava. "Documents of Investiture Ceremonies" in K. K. N. Kurup, Edit., "India's Naval Traditions". Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997</ref><ref name="KrishnaIyer2">K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.</ref> |
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[[File:Uru.jpg|thumbnail|''[[Uru (boat)|Uru]]'', a type of ship that was historically used for maritime trade, built at [[Beypore]], Kozhikode]] |
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At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam ([[Quilon]]) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam ([[Koyilandy]]) in the north.<ref name="Varier" /><ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> [[Ibn Battuta]] (1342–1347), who visited the city of [[Kozhikode]] six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city.<ref>{{cite book |last=Battuta |first=Ibn |author-link=Ibn Battuta |editor-last1=Gibb |editor-first1=H. A. R. |editor-link1=H. A. R. Gibb |editor-last2=Beckingham |editor-first2=C. F. |editor-link2=Charles Fraser Beckingham |title=The Travels of Ibn Battuta, A.D. 1325–1354 |url=https://archive.org/details/travels-of-ibn-battuta |year=1994 |volume=IV |location=London |publisher=[[The Hakluyt Society]] |isbn=0-904180-37-9|access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> [[Ma Huan]] (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho ([[Zheng He]])<ref>[[Ma Huan]]: Ying Yai Sheng Lan, ''The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores'', translated by J.V.G. Mills, 1970 [[Hakluyt Society]], reprint 1997 White Lotus Press. {{ISBN|9748496783}}</ref> states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. [[Abdur Razzaq (traveller)|Abdur Razzak]] (1442–43), [[Niccolò de' Conti]] (1445), [[Afanasy Nikitin]] (1468–74), [[Ludovico di Varthema]] (1503–1508), and [[Duarte Barbosa]] witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in the [[Indian subcontinent]] where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.<ref>Varthema, Ludovico di, ''The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, A.D.1503–08'', translated from the original 1510 Italian ed. by John Winter Jones, Hakluyt Society, London</ref><ref>Gangadharan. M., ''The Land of Malabar: The Book of Barbosa'' (2000), Vol II, M.G University, Kottayam.</ref> |
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=== Vijayanagara Conquests === |
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{{#switch: {{#expr: {{CURRENTHOUR}} mod 2}} |
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The king [[Deva Raya II]] (1424–1446) of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] conquered the entirety of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> He defeated the [[Zamorin]] of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of [[Kollam]] around 1443.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> [[Fernão Nunes]] says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> He built a fort at [[Ponnani]] in 1498.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> |
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|0 = [[Image:Kollam (78).JPG|thumb|right|A ''[[Chinese fishing nets (of Kochi)|cheena vala]]'' (fishing net) in the [[Kerala Backwaters|Backwaters]] region of [[Kollam]].]] |
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|1 = [[Image:Vazhachal-falls1.jpg|thumb|right|A view of [[Vazhachal falls]]]] |
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}} |
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=== Early modern period === |
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Kerala’s western coastal belt is relatively flat, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected [[brackish]] [[canal]]s, lakes, [[estuary|estuaries]], and rivers known as the [[Kerala Backwaters]]. Lake [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad]]—Kerala’s largest body of water—dominates the Backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is more than 200 km² in area. Around 8% of India's waterways (measured by length) are found in Kerala.<ref name="IWAI_2005">{{harvnb|Inland Waterways Authority of India|2005}}.</ref> The most important of Kerala’s [[List of rivers in Kerala|forty four rivers]] include the [[Periyar River|Periyar]] (244 km), the [[Bharathapuzha]] (209 km), the [[Pamba]] (176 km), the [[Chaliyar River|Chaliyar]] (169 km), the Kadalundipuzha (130 km) and the [[Achankovil River|Achankovil]] (128 km). The average length of the rivers of Kerala is 64 km. Most of the remainder are small and entirely fed by [[monsoon]] rains.<ref name="GOK_2005b">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005b}}.</ref> These conditions result in the nearly year-round water logging of such western regions as [[Kuttanad]], 500 km² of which lies below sea level. As Kerala's rivers are small and lack [[river delta|deltas]], they are more prone to environmental factors. Kerala's rivers face many problems, including summer droughts, the building of large dams, sand mining, and pollution. |
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[[File:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|The path [[Vasco da Gama]] took to reach Kozhikode (black line) in 1498, which was also the [[Age of Discovery|discovery of a sea route]] from [[Europe]] to India, and eventually paved way for the [[Colonial India|European colonisation]] of [[Indian subcontinent]].]] |
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[[File:Bolgatty Palace.jpg|thumbnail|[[Bolgatty Palace]], built in 1744 by [[Dutch Malabar]], also acted as the [[Resident minister|British Residency]] in [[Kochi]]]] |
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The maritime [[spice trade]] monopoly in the [[Arabian Sea]] stayed with the Arabs during the [[High Middle Ages|High]] and [[Late Middle Ages]]. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European [[Age of Discovery]]. After [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival in [[Kappad]], [[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode]] in 1498, the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.{{efn|According to historian [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] Vasco da Gama arrived in [[Koyilandy]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Vasco da Gama never landed at Kappad: MGS |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/Vasco-da-Gama-never-landed-at-Kappad-MGS/article17198107.ece |access-date=20 April 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=5 February 2017 |language=en-IN |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423032718/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/Vasco-da-Gama-never-landed-at-Kappad-MGS/article17198107.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Charles Corn |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1998 |title=The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade |publisher=Kodansha America |pages=4–5 |isbn=978-1-56836-249-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=PN Ravindran |year=2000 |title=Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum |publisher=CRC Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C |page=3 |isbn=978-9057024535 |access-date=11 November 2007 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191246/https://books.google.com/books?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Curtin1984">{{cite book |author=Philip D. Curtin |year=1984 |title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4IiYFhliv4C |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=144 |isbn=978-0-521-26931-5}}</ref> Following the discovery of sea route from [[Europe]] to [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]] in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between [[Ormus]] and the Malabar Coast and south to [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Knox, Robert |author-link=Robert Knox (sailor) |year=1681 |title=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon |pages=19–47 |publisher=Reprint. Asian Educational Services |place=London |title-link=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon}}</ref> They established a trading centre at [[Tangasseri]] in [[Quilon]] during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/thangasseri-kollam/296 |title=Kollam – Kerala Tourism |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=5 November 2015 |archive-date=14 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514011139/https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/thangasseri-kollam/296 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Bekal Fort Kasargod.jpg|thumbnail|[[Bekal Fort]] at [[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]] built in 1650 CE, the largest fort in Kerala]] |
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The ruler of the [[Kingdom of Tanur]], who was a vassal to the [[Zamorin of Calicut]], sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode.<ref name="Malabar" /> As a result, the [[Kingdom of Tanur]] (''[[Tirur Taluk|Vettathunadu]]'') became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. However, the [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the [[Battle of Cochin (1504)]].<ref name="Logan">{{Cite book |title=Malabar Manual (Volume-I) |last=Logan |first=William |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2010 |isbn=978-8120604476 |location=New Delhi |pages=631–66}}</ref> However, the allegiance of the [[Mappila]] merchants in [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]] region still stayed under the [[Zamorin of Calicut]].<ref name="Makhdoom">{{cite book |author=S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar |year=1942 |title=Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language |publisher=University of Madras |url=https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage}}</ref> |
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The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When [[Francisco de Almeida]] was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at [[Fort Kochi]] ([[Fort Emmanuel]]) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast.<ref name="Mehta2005">{{cite book |author=J. L. Mehta |year=2005 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707–1813 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA324 |access-date=9 August 2012 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-1-932705-54-6 |pages=324–27}}</ref> However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in [[South Malabar]]; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organising the first naval defence of the Indian coast.<ref>{{cite news |last=Singh |first=Arun Kumar |title=Give Indian Navy its due |url=https://www.asianage.com/opinion/columnists/110217/give-indian-navy-its-due.html |access-date=23 January 2021 |work=[[The Asian Age]] |date=11 February 2017 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925000822/https://www.asianage.com/opinion/columnists/110217/give-indian-navy-its-due.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]], who is considered as the father of modern [[Malayalam literature]], was born at [[Tirur]] (''[[Kingdom of Tanur|Vettathunadu]]'') during Portuguese period.<ref name="Logan" /><ref name="Malabar" /> |
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In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the [[Kingdom of Tanur#Battles at Chaliyam Fort|battle at Chaliyam Fort]].<ref>{{cite book |author=K. K. N. Kurup |year=1997 |title=India's Naval Traditions: The Role of Kunhali Marakkars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HKmXcBCKEcAC&pg=PA51 |access-date=9 August 2012 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8172110833 |pages=37–38 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191234/https://books.google.com/books?id=HKmXcBCKEcAC&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> An insurrection at the [[Port of Quilon]] between the [[Arabs]] and the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] led to the end of the Portuguese era in [[Quilon]]. The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of [[Arakkal kingdom]], near [[Kannur]], who were the vassals of the [[Kolathiri]], ruled over the [[Lakshadweep]] islands.<ref name="MorseStephens1897">{{cite book |author=Henry Morse Stephens |title=Albuquerque |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm |series=[[Rulers of India series]] |year=1897 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-8120615243 |chapter=Chapter 1 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121221405/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Bekal Fort]] near [[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]], which is also largest fort in the state, was built in 1650 by [[Shivappa Nayaka]] of [[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi]].<ref name="Bekal">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/a-portion-of-kasaragods-bekal-forts-observation-post-caves-in/article28993345.ece/amp/ |title=A Portion of Kasaragod's Bekal Forts Observation Post Caves in |date=12 August 2019 |work=The Hindu |access-date=18 April 2021 |archive-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420213932/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/a-portion-of-kasaragods-bekal-forts-observation-post-caves-in/article28993345.ece/amp/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Portuguese were ousted by the [[Dutch East India Company]], who during the conflicts between the [[Saamoothiri|Kozhikode]] and the [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]], gained control of the trade.<ref name="South Asia 2006">{{cite book |title=South Asia 2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG8bAQAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=289 |isbn=978-1-85743-318-0}}</ref> |
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== Climate == |
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The arrival of [[East India Company|British]] on [[Malabar Coast]] can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain [[William Keeling]] arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships.<ref name="Malabar" /> It was in these ships that Sir [[Thomas Roe]] went to visit [[Jahangir]], the fourth [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]], as [[British Empire|British envoy]].<ref name="Malabar" /> In 1664, the municipality of [[Fort Kochi]] was established by [[Dutch Malabar]], making it the first municipality in the [[Indian subcontinent]], which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.<ref name="d_1664" /> |
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=== The Kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin, and British influences === |
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{{main|Climate of Kerala}} |
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The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] in turn were weakened by constant battles with [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[Travancore Royal Family]], and were defeated at the [[Battle of Colachel]] in 1741.<ref name="google3">{{cite book |author=Murkot Ramunny |year=1993 |title=Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Hue54bWk6IC&pg=PA57 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Northern Book Centre |isbn=978-8172110529 |pages=57–70}}</ref> An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region.<ref name="Singh2010">{{cite book |author=Anjana Singh |title=Fort Kochi in Kerala, 1750–1830: The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFy4pWUlnfwC&pg=PA22 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004168169 |pages=22–52 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191247/https://books.google.com/books?id=LFy4pWUlnfwC&pg=PA22#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Iyer1995">{{cite book |author=S. Krishna Iyer |title=Travancore Dutch relations, 1729–1741 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUtuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1995 |publisher=CBH Publications |isbn=978-8185381428 |page=49}}</ref><ref name="Lannoy1997">{{cite book |author=Mark de Lannoy |title=The Kulasekhara Perumals of Travancore: history and state formation in Travancore from 1671 to 1758 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKjZAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1997 |publisher=Leiden University |isbn=978-9073782921 |page=190}}</ref> In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree [[Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma]] annexed all the kingdoms up to [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |title=Political History of Modern Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC&pg=PA140 |access-date=10 August 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=D C Books |isbn=978-8126421565 |page=140}}</ref> The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala ([[Malabar District]]), along with [[Fort Kochi]], [[Tangasseri]], and [[Anchuthengu]] in southern Kerala, came under direct [[British raj|British rule]] until [[Independence of India|India became independent]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Educational Britannica Educational |title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xPUvqtdfjyAC&pg=PA311 |access-date=15 September 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-61530-202-4 |page=311}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Territories and States of India |url=https://www.gbv.de/dms/goettingen/342157450.pdf |publisher=Europa |access-date=14 April 2012 |year=2002 |pages=144–46 |archive-date=31 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531013158/http://www.gbv.de/dms/goettingen/342157450.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Kozhikode]] in the battle of [[Purakkad]] in 1755.<ref name="AHoT 162">{{cite book |last1=Shungoony Menon |first1=P. |title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times |date=1878 |publisher=Higgin Botham & Co. |location=Madras |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog/page/n212 162]–164 |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog |access-date=5 May 2016 |language=en |format=pdf}}</ref> |
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[[File:Kanakakkunnu Palace DSW.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Kanakakkunnu Palace]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]]. Thiruvananthapuram became a major city on [[Malabar Coast]] after the ruler [[Marthanda Varma]] annexed all minor kingdoms up to [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] to form [[Travancore]] in the 18th century CE.]] |
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[[File:British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg|left|thumbnail|Kerala in [[British Raj|British India (1909)]]. [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Kochi]], and [[Kannur]], were the major cities of the state at that time as indicated in the map]] |
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In 1761, the British captured [[Mahé, India|Mahé]], and the settlement was handed over to the ruler of [[Kadathanadu]].<ref name="Mahé" /> The British restored [[Mahé, India|Mahé]] to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris.<ref name="Mahé" /> In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of [[Mahé, India|Mahé]].<ref name="Mahé" /> In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and [[Mahé, India|Mahé]] was handed over to the French in 1785.<ref name="Mahé">{{cite web |url=https://mahe.gov.in/mws/leftmenupages/history.html |title=History of Mahé |access-date=19 April 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230232052/https://mahe.gov.in/mws/leftmenupages/history.html |archive-date=30 December 2013}}</ref> |
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In 1757, to resist the invasion of the [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorin of Kozhikode]], the [[Palakkad]] Raja sought the help of the [[Hyder Ali]] of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]].<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – an [[East India Company]] ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala ([[Malabar District|Malabar region]]) including [[Kolathunadu]], [[Kingdom of Kottayam|Kottayam]], [[Kadathanadu]], [[Zamorin of Calicut|Kozhikode]], [[Kingdom of Tanur|Tanur]], [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]], and [[Palakkad]] were unified under the rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger [[Kingdom of Mysore]].<ref name="Rai">{{cite book |author=Raghunath Rai |title=History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4-8Z0gqBkoC&pg=PA14 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=FK Publications |isbn=978-8187139690 |pages=14–}}</ref> His son and successor, [[Tipu Sultan]], [[Mysorean invasion of Kerala#Invasions by Tipu Sultan|launched campaigns]] against the expanding [[British East India Company]], resulting in two of the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].<ref name="MuseumDallapiccola2010">{{cite book |author1=British Museum |author2=Anna Libera Dallapiccola |title=South Indian Paintings: A Catalogue of the British Museum Collection |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIzWapiacQcC&pg=PA12 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Mapin Publishing Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-0-7141-2424-7 |pages=12– |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191236/https://books.google.com/books?id=FIzWapiacQcC&pg=PA12 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ThorpeEdgar">{{cite book |author1=Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe |author2=Thorpe Edgar |title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuBFs6yFRwcC&pg=RA1-PA99 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131758304 |page=99 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191238/https://books.google.com/books?id=WuBFs6yFRwcC&pg=RA1-PA99#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Tipu ultimately ceded the [[Malabar District]] and [[South Kanara]] to the company in the 1790s as a result of the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] and the subsequent [[Treaty of Seringapatam]]; both were annexed to the [[Bombay Presidency]] (which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) of [[British India]] in the years 1792 and 1799, respectively.<ref name="The Edinburgh Gazetteer: Or, Geographical Dictionary: Containing a Description of the Various Countries, Kingdoms, States, Cities, Towns, Mountains, &c. of the World; an Account of the Government, Customs, and Religion of the Inhabitants; the Boundaries and Natural Productions of Each Country, &c. &c. Forming a Complete Body of Geography, Physical, Political, Statistical, and Commercial with Addenda, Containing the Present State of the New Governments in South America...">{{cite book |title=The Edinburgh Gazetteer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xRIyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA63 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1827 |publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green |pages=63– |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191238/https://books.google.com/books?id=xRIyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kumar1965">{{cite book |author=Dharma Kumar |title=Land and Caste in South India: Agricultural Labor in the Madras Presidency During the Nineteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=psw5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA87 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1965 |publisher=CUP Archive |pages=87– |id=GGKEY:T72DPF9AZDK |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191251/https://books.google.com/books?id=psw5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA87#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ittaman2003">{{cite book |author=K.P. Ittaman |title=History of Mughal Architecture Volume Ii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQ5lFywZAqYC&pg=PA30 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-8170170341 |pages=30– |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191745/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQ5lFywZAqYC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under [[suzerainty]].<ref name="RajTharakan1981">{{cite report |last1=Raj |first1=Kakkadan Nandanath |author-link1=K. N. Raj |last2=Tharakan |first2=Michael |author-link2=P. K. Michael Tharakan |title=Agrarian reform in Kerala and its impact on the rural economy: a preliminary assessment, issue 49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JF6FAAAAIAAJ |year=1981 |pages=2–3 |series=World Employment Programme research working paper |location=Geneva |publisher=[[International Labour Office]] |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of [[Pazhassi Raja|Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja]], who had popular support in [[Thalassery]]-[[Wayanad]] region.<ref name="Malabar" /><ref name="Ref1">{{cite web |url=https://www.lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc |title=Chronological List of Central Acts (Updated up to 17-10-2014) |website=Lawmin.nic.in |access-date=7 August 2016 |archive-date=7 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107091128/http://lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="c1881">{{cite book |last1=Lewis McIver |first1=G. Stokes |title=Imperial Census of 1881 Operations and Results in the Presidency of Madras |year=1883 |publisher=E.Keys at the Government Press |location=Madras |page=444 |edition=(Vol II) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_YIAAAAQAAJ |access-date=5 December 2020 |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063433/https://books.google.com/books?id=b_YIAAAAQAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="google.co.in">{{cite book |last1=Presidency |first1=Madras (India |title=Madras District Gazetteers, Statistical Appendix For Malabar District. |year=1915 |publisher=The Superintendent, Government Press |location=Madras |page=20 |edition=Vol.2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUEwnQEACAAJ |access-date=2 December 2020 |language=en |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063433/https://books.google.com/books?id=aUEwnQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="frowde">{{cite book |last1=Henry Frowde, M.A. |first1=Imperial Gazetteer of India |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908–1909 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |edition=New |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=16 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216124143/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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With 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the [[Monsoon#South-West Summer Monsoon|southwest summer monsoon]].<ref name="Chacko_2002">{{harvnb|Chacko|Renuka|2002|p=80}}.</ref> In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107 mm annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm; the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm of [[Precipitation (meteorology)#Orographic precipitation|orographic precipitation]], the highest in the state. |
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=== As a state of the Republic of India === |
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In summers, most of Kerala is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, [[cyclone]]-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level and storm activity resulting from [[global warming]].<ref name="Brenkert_2003_46">{{harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=46}}.</ref><ref name="Brenkert_2003_26">{{harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=26}}.</ref><ref name="Brenkert_2003_52">{{harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=52}}.</ref> Kerala’s maximum daily temperature averages 36.7 °C; the minimum is 19.8 °C.<ref name="GOK_2005b">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005b}}.</ref> Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the highlands.<ref name="Brenkert_2003_65">{{harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=65}}.</ref> |
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After India was [[Partition of India|partitioned]] in 1947 into [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], [[Travancore]] and [[Kochi]], part of the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] were merged on 1 July 1949 to form [[Travancore-Cochin]].<ref name="Sabharwal2007">{{cite book |author=Gopa Sabharwal |title=India Since 1947: The Independent Years |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LKySGJAGVEQC&pg=PA23 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-310274-8 |pages=23– |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191801/https://books.google.com/books?id=LKySGJAGVEQC&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> On 1 November 1956, the [[taluk]] of [[Kasaragod District|Kasargod]] in the [[South Kanara District (Madras Presidency)|South Kanara district]] of Madras, the [[Malabar district]] of Madras (excluding the islands of [[Lakshadweep]]), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks and [[Sengottai]] taluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form the state of Kerala under the [[States Reorganisation Act]].<ref name="Kerala">{{Cite web |url=https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1956-37.pdf |title=The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 |website=legislative.gov.in |publisher=Government of India |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-date=17 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117014954/https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1956-37.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nossiter |first1=Thomas Johnson |title=Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation |year=1982 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04667-2 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC&pg=PA12 |language=en |access-date=7 August 2018 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191747/https://books.google.com/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="SinghKarafin2009">{{cite book |author1=Sarina Singh |author2=Amy Karafin |author3=Anirban Mahapatra |title=South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC |access-date=6 January 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74179-155-6 |archive-date=24 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924112157/https://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC |url-status=live }}</ref> A [[Communist]]-led government under [[E. M. S. Namboodiripad]] resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in [[1957 Kerala Legislative Assembly election|1957]].<ref name="SinghKarafin2009" /> It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere.<ref name=Hindu>{{cite news |title=50 years of development |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-others/tp-states/50-years-of-development/article1655056.ece?ref=archive |access-date=30 August 2013 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=12 April 2007 |author=K.G. Kumar |archive-date=27 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927111636/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-others/tp-states/50-years-of-development/article1655056.ece?ref=archive |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Desai2006">{{cite book |author=Manali Desai |title=State Formation and Radical Democracy in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=60m9znJQmmkC&pg=PA142 |access-date=31 August 2013 |year=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-96774-4 |page=142 |archive-date=24 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924112157/https://books.google.com/books?id=60m9znJQmmkC&pg=PA142 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ChitkaraŚarmā1997">{{cite book |author1=Madan Gopal Chitkara |author2=Baṃśī Rāma Śarmā |title=Indian Republic: Issues and Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YrmNURVoroC&pg=PA134 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1997 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=978-8170248361 |pages=134– |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191803/https://books.google.com/books?id=7YrmNURVoroC&pg=PA134#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> His government implemented [[Land reform in Kerala|land]] and [[Kerala Education Act 1958 (Act 6 of 1959)|educational reforms]] which in turn, reduced [[income inequality]] in the state.<ref name="Encyclopædia">"Kerala." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 June 2008</ref> |
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== Geography == |
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{{Main|Geography of Kerala}} |
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|1 = [[Image:Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace) Kerala India.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Blue Tiger|blue tiger]] (''Tirumala limniace'') butterfly in [[Chalakudy]], near [[Thrissur]].]] |
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|0 = [[Image:Blue Tiger Tirumala limniace Kerala India.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Blue Tiger|blue tiger]] (''Tirumala limniace'') butterfly.]] |
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|2 = [[Image:Fulvous forest skimmer.jpg|thumb|right|A [[fulvous forest skimmer]] (''Neurothemis fulvia'') in [[Chalakudy]], near [[Thrissur]].]] |
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|image1 = AnaimudiPeak DSC 4834.jpg |
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|caption1 = [[Anamudi]], the highest peak in [[South India]]. |
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|image2 = DR0071DSC 9245.jpg |
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|caption2 = [[Tea]] and [[Coffee]] are produced in the hilly terrains of [[Wayanad]]. |
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|image3 = Kumarkom.jpg |
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|caption3 = [[Vembanad]], a portion of [[Kerala backwaters]], is the longest lake in India. |
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|image4 = Light house in Ponnani.jpg |
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|caption4 = [[Ponnani Lighthouse]] beach |
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}} |
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The state is wedged between the [[Lakshadweep Sea]] and the [[Western Ghats]]. Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical and Anatomical Characteristic of Wood of Some Less-Known Tree Species of Kerala |url=https://docs.kfri.res.in/KFRI-RR/KFRI-RR096.pdf |work=Kerala Forest Research Institute |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-date=9 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709150101/http://docs.kfri.res.in/KFRI-RR/KFRI-RR096.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Kerala experiences humid [[tropical rainforest climate]] with some cyclones. The state has a coast of {{cvt|590|km|mi}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Marine Fisheries |url=https://www.fisheries.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=76&Itemid=44 |website=fisheries.kerala.gov.in |publisher=Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117021802/http://www.fisheries.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=76&Itemid=44 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the width of the state varies between {{convert|11|and|121|km|mi|0}}.<ref name="Nair1994">{{cite book |author=V. Balakrishnan Nair |title=Social Development and Demographic Changes in South India: Focus on Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTS4OO9lcdgC&pg=PA15 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1994 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-8185880501 |page=15}}</ref> Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006">{{cite book |author1=Srikumar Chattopadhyay |author2=Richard W. Franke |title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC&pg=PA110 |access-date=19 March 2019 |year=2006 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180692949}}</ref>{{rp|110}} [[Pre-Cambrian]] and [[Pleistocene]] geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.<ref name="Geological Survey Water-supply Paper">{{cite book |title=Geological Survey Water-supply Paper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qUYAQAAIAAJ&pg=SL4-PA6 |access-date=19 March 2019 |year=1961 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=4}}</ref><ref name="SharmaKumari2008">{{cite book |author1=Pradeep Sharma |author2=Y. Dharnai Kumari |author3=Tirunagaram Lakshmamma |title=Status Of Women And Family Planning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2b6Ok2EcnBIC&pg=PA217 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8183563260 |page=217}}</ref> A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.<ref name="LimitedKitchen2010">{{cite book |author1=Murdoch Books Pty Limited |author2=Murdoch Books Test Kitchen |title=India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_cHBuYD3CQC&pg=PA100 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Murdoch Books |isbn=978-1-74196-438-7 |page=100}}</ref> |
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The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' [[rain shadow]].<ref name=ChattopadhyayFranke2006 />{{rp|110}} 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,<ref name="Sadasivan2003">{{cite book |author=S. N. Sadasivan |title=River Disputes in India: Kerala Rivers Under Siege |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhrRboi5kOcC&pg=PA223 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-8170999133 |page=223}}</ref> and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.<ref name="Darpan2006">{{cite book |author=Pratiyogita Darpan |title=Pratiyogita Darpan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QegDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT72 |access-date=18 November 2012 |date=September 2006 |publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan |page=72}}</ref><ref name="India2008">{{cite book |author=Motilal (UK) Books of India |title=Tourist Guide Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYfRBcLdTNYC&pg=PA11 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Sura Books |isbn=978-8174781642 |page=11}}</ref> The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near [[Palakkad]]; hence also known Pal''ghat'', where the [[Palakkad Gap]] breaks.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chandran Nair |first1=Dr.S.Sathis |title=India – Silent Valley Rainforest Under Threat Once More |url=https://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/wrr2004/silentvalley.htm |website=rainforestinfo.org.au |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924084520/http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/wrr2004/silentvalley.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Western Ghats rise on average to {{convert|1500|m|ft|lk=out|abbr=off}} [[above sea level]],<ref name="Biju2006">{{cite book |author=M.R. Biju |title=Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkAdvTbg0dEC&pg=PA63 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-8183241298 |page=63}}</ref> while the highest peaks reach around {{convert|2500|m|ft|abbr=off}}.<ref name="Hussain">{{cite book |author=Hussain |title=Geography Of India For Civil Ser Exam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUzKCZxvNQoC&pg=SA2-PA9 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-07-066772-3 |page=2}}</ref> [[Anamudi]] in the [[Idukki]] district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of {{cvt|2,695|m}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hunter |first=William Wilson |author2=James Sutherland Cotton |author3=Richard Burn |author4=William Stevenson Meyer |author5=Great Britain India Office |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |volume=11 |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1909 |access-date=16 May 2015 |ref=imp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216124143/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |archive-date=16 December 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s.<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/flora-fauna/UN-designates-Western-Ghats-as-world-heritage-site/articleshow/14595602.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131192257/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/flora-fauna/32507340_1_world-heritage-list-western-ghats-border-town |url-status=live |archive-date=31 January 2013 |title=UN designates Western Ghats as world heritage site |date=2 July 2012 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=27 November 2018}}</ref> The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains.<ref name="UNESCO" /> The [[Athirappilly Falls]], which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as ''The [[Niagara Falls|Niagara]] of India''.<ref name="Athirappilly">{{cite news |url=https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-05-30/travel/33064279_1_palm-trees-trek-coconut-trees |title=The Times of India: Latest News India, World & Business News, Cricket & Sports, Bollywood |access-date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621233624/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-05-30/travel/33064279_1_palm-trees-trek-coconut-trees |archive-date=21 June 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is located in the [[Chalakudy River]] and is the largest waterfall in the state.<ref name="Athirappilly" /> [[Wayanad]] is the sole [[Plateau]] in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book |author=William Logan |year=1887 |title=Malabar Manual (Volume-II) |publisher=Madras Government Press |url=https://archive.org/details/malabar_manual_volume2/mode/2up}}</ref> The eastern regions in the districts of [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]], [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]] ([[Chaliyar]] valley at [[Nilambur]]), and [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]] ([[Attappadi]] Valley), which together form parts of the [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]] and a continuation of the [[Mysore Plateau]], are known for natural [[Gold]] fields, along with the adjoining districts of [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dmg.kerala.gov.in/mineral-resources/ |title=Mineral Resources |website=Department of Mining and Geology – Government of Kerala |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513124121/https://dmg.kerala.gov.in/mineral-resources/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Minerals including [[Ilmenite]], [[Monazite]], [[Thorium]], and [[Titanium]], are found in the coastal belt of Kerala.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=343}} Kerala's coastal belt of [[Karunagappally]] is known for high background radiation from [[thorium]]-containing [[monazite]] sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 [[Gray (unit)#Effect on the body|mGy/yr]] and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.<ref>{{Cite news |vauthors=Nair RR, Rajan B, Akiba S, Jayalekshmi P, Nair MK, Gangadharan P, Koga T, Morishima H, Nakamura S, Sugahara T |title=Background radiation and cancer incidence in Kerala, India-Karanagappally cohort study. |publisher=Health Physics |date=January 2009 |pmid=19066487}}</ref> |
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[[File:Topography of Kerala.png|left|thumb|Topography of Kerala]] |
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Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region,<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006" />{{rp|33}} and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected [[brackish]] canals, lakes, [[estuaries]],<ref name="Moss2010">{{cite book |author=Danny Moss |title=Public Relations Cases: International Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0-CJ3djEdEC&pg=PA41 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-77336-2 |page=41}}</ref> and rivers known as the [[Kerala Backwaters]].<ref name="Thorpe2012">{{cite book |author=Edgar Thorpe |title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cruroSVFoUC&pg=RA3-PA38 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131767344 |page=3}}</ref> [[Kuttanad]], also known as ''The Rice Bowl of Kerala'', has the [[List of extreme points of India#Altitudes|lowest altitude in India]], and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala Boat Ferries Lone Passenger To Help Her Take Exam |url=https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/coronavirus-lockdown4-kerala-government-boat-ferries-lone-passenger-sandra-babu-to-help-her-take-exam-2238752 |last=Press Trust of India |date=1 June 2020 |access-date=17 November 2020 |work=NDTV |archive-date=16 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116093316/https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/coronavirus-lockdown4-kerala-government-boat-ferries-lone-passenger-sandra-babu-to-help-her-take-exam-2238752 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/07/13/stories/2003071300600200.htm |title=Thirst below sea level |last=Suchitra |first=M |date=13 August 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922101804/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/thirst-below-sea-level/article28523147.ece |archive-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> The country's longest lake [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad]], dominates the backwaters; it lies between [[Alappuzha]] and [[Kochi]] and is about {{cvt|200|km2|sqmi}} in area.<ref name="Husain">{{cite book |author=Majid Husain |title=Understanding: Geographical: Map Entries: for Civil Services Examinations: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9VGKfQ-sQsC&pg=RA9-PT18 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-07-070288-2 |page=9 |year=2011}}</ref> Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.<ref name="IWAI_2005">{{Cite journal |author=Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI—Ministry of Shipping) |year=2005 |title=Introduction to Inland Water Transport |journal=IWAI (Ministry of Shipping) |url=https://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20050204175110/http://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 February 2005 |access-date=19 January 2006}}</ref> Kerala's [[List of rivers in Kerala|44 rivers]] include the [[Periyar River|Periyar]]; {{convert|244|km|mi|0}}, [[Bharathapuzha]]; {{convert|209|km|mi|0}}, [[Pamba River|Pamba]]; {{convert|176|km|mi|0}}, [[Chaliyar River|Chaliyar]]; {{convert|169|km|mi|0}}, [[Kadalundipuzha River|Kadalundipuzha]]; {{convert|130|km|mi|0}}, [[Chalakudy River|Chalakudipuzha]]; {{convert|130|km|mi|0}}, [[Valapattanam River|Valapattanam]]; {{convert|129|km|mi|0}} and the [[Achankovil River]]; {{convert|128|km|mi|0}}. The average length of the rivers is {{convert|64|km|mi|0}}. Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.<ref name=riverreport>{{cite book |last=India. |first=Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8171885942}}</ref> As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in [[river delta|delta]], they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.<ref name="Padmalal">{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z | doi=10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z | title=Environmental effects of river sand mining: A case from the river catchments of Vembanad lake, Southwest coast of India | year=2008 | last1=Padmalal | first1=D. | last2=Maya | first2=K. | last3=Sreebha | first3=S. | last4=Sreeja | first4=R. | journal=Environmental Geology | volume=54 | issue=4 | pages=879–889 | bibcode=2008EnGeo..54..879P | s2cid=129312081 | access-date=12 February 2020 | archive-date=25 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191757/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z | url-status=live | issn = 0943-0105 }}</ref> The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the [[2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]],<ref name="Jha2010">{{cite book |author=M.K. Jha |title=Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C&pg=PA81 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9048124978 |page=81}}</ref> and in 2018 received [[2018 Kerala floods|the worst flooding]] in nearly a century.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-worst-floods-flooding-death-monsoon-rain-dead-kerala-kochi-a8493011.html |title=Worst floods in nearly a century kill 44 in India's Kerala state amid torrential monsoon rains |last=Baynes |first=Chris |date=15 August 2018 |work=The Independent |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-date=23 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523232643/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-worst-floods-flooding-death-monsoon-rain-dead-kerala-kochi-a8493011.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst [[2024 Wayanad landslides|landslides]] in history.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/07/30/wayand-landslide-kerala-rain-live.html |title=Wayanad landslides: 133 dead, 481 saved, at least 98 missing |date=30 July 2024 |work=[[Onmanorama]] |access-date=31 July 2024 |archive-date=30 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730073647/https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/07/30/wayand-landslide-kerala-rain-live.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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=== Climate === |
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Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the [[Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve]] in the eastern hills. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 [[flowering plant]] species (1,272 of which are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of highly sought [[Herbalism|medicinal plant]]s.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_11">{{harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=11}}.</ref><ref name="GOK_2004f_141">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004f|p=141}}.</ref> |
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With around 120–140 rainy days per year,<ref name="Chacko_2002">{{Cite journal |last1=Chacko |first1=T. |last2=Renuka |first2=G. |year=2002 |title=Temperature mapping, thermal diffusivity and subsoil heat flux at Kariavattom, Kerala |journal=Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci) |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=79 |title-link=Kariavattom |bibcode=2002InEPS.111...79T |doi=10.1007/BF02702224 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|80}} Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the [[Southwest monsoon|southwest summer monsoon]] and [[Northeast monsoon|northeast winter monsoon]].<ref name="Devrep">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=223 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon.<ref name="Devrep" /> The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the [[Indian Peninsula]], because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".<ref name="Jain">{{cite book |author=RK Jain |title=Geography 10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7hOybWJeZN0C&pg=PA110 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Ratna Sagar |isbn=978-8183320818 |page=110}}</ref> The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats,<ref name="Together with Social Science Term II">{{cite book |title=Together with Social Science Term II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOA1nsSU8JYC&pg=PA112 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Rachna Sagar |isbn=978-8181373991 |page=112}}</ref> making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.<ref name="google6">{{cite book |author1=Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe |author2=Thorpe Edgar |title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuBFs6yFRwcC&pg=SL7-PA168 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131758304 |page=7}}</ref><ref name="Aggarwal">{{cite book |author1=N.N. Kher |author2=Jaideep Aggarwal |title=A Text Book of Social Sciences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jV6k0FvIC4sC&pg=RA5-PA16 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Pitambar Publishing |isbn=978-8120914667 |page=5}}</ref> The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India.<ref name="google7">{{cite book |author1=Sarina Singh |author2=Amy Karafin |author3=Anirban Mahapatra |title=South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC&pg=PA15 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74179-155-6 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Reddy">{{cite book |author=S.V. Jeevananda Reddy |title=Climate Change: Myths and Realities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_GMTXRtxJ8C&pg=PA71 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Jeevananda Reddy |page=71 |id=GGKEY:WDFHBL1XHK3}}</ref> In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Rao |title=Agricultural Meteorology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd-3lt-yAtAC&pg=PA173 |publisher=PHI Learning |year=2008 |isbn=978-8120333383 |pages=173–74 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually.<ref name="IMD">{{cite web |url=https://www.imd.gov.in/section/hydro/dynamic/rfmaps/updated.html |title=Hydromet Division Updated/Real Time Maps |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |access-date=21 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305062728/https://www.imd.gov.in/section/hydro/dynamic/rfmaps/updated.html |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of the eastern [[Idukki district]] receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of [[Precipitation (meteorology)#Orographic precipitation|orographic precipitation]]: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Brenkert |first1=A. |last2=Malone |first2=E. |year=2003 |title=Vulnerability and resilience of India and Indian states to climate change: a first-order approximation |journal=Joint Global Change Research Institute}}</ref>{{rp|26, 46, 52}} The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.<ref name="moef">{{cite web |last=Sudha |first=T. M. |title=Opportunities in participatory planning to Evolve a Landuse Policy for Western Ghats Region in Kerala |url=https://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/tenth/Annexure%203.pdf |publisher=Department of Town and Country Planning, Kerala |page=14 |access-date=18 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325095604/https://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/tenth/Annexure%203.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003" />{{rp|65}} |
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{{Weather box |
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|location = Kerala |
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|metric first = Yes |
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|single line = Yes |
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|Jan high C = 30 |
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|Feb high C = 31 |
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|Mar high C = 32 |
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|Apr high C = 34 |
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|May high C = 34 |
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|Jun high C = 30 |
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|Jul high C = 29 |
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|Aug high C = 29 |
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|Sep high C = 29 |
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|Oct high C = 30 |
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|Nov high C = 30 |
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|Dec high C = 31 |
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|year high C = 34 |
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|Jan low C = 22 |
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|Feb low C = 23 |
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|Mar low C = 24 |
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|Apr low C = 25 |
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|May low C = 25 |
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|Jun low C = 24 |
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|Jul low C = 23 |
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|Aug low C = 23 |
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|Sep low C = 23 |
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|Oct low C = 23 |
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|Nov low C = 23 |
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|Dec low C = 22 |
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|year low C = 22 |
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|rain colour=green |
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|Jan rain mm = 8.7 |
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|Feb rain mm = 14.7 |
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|Mar rain mm = 30.4 |
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|Apr rain mm = 109.5 |
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|May rain mm = 239.8 |
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|Jun rain mm = 649.8 |
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|Jul rain mm = 726.1 |
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|Aug rain mm = 419.5 |
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|Sep rain mm = 244.2 |
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|Oct rain mm = 292.3 |
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|Nov rain mm = 150.9 |
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|Dec rain mm = 37.5 |
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|source 1 =<ref name="IMD" /><ref name="moef" /> |
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|date=May 2012}} |
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=== Flora and fauna === |
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[[Image:Gloriosa lilly.jpg|thumb|left|125px|Petals of the [[gloriosa (plant)|gloriosa lily]] (''Gloriosa superba'') flower curve upward into a claw-like shape; below, its stamens grow radially outwards.]] |
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{{Main|Flora and fauna of Kerala}} |
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[[Image:Nelliampathi-Monkey.jpg|thumb|left|125px|upright|Monkey ([[Bonnet Macaque]]) seen in [[Nelliampathi]] mountains ]] |
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|image1 = Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus Kadalundi.jpg |
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|caption1 = A migratory ''[[Ichthyaetus]]'' in [[Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary]] |
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|image2 = Highland Grassland Shola of Silent Valley National Park.jpg |
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|caption2 = [[Silent Valley National Park]] |
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|image3 = Munnarhills.jpg |
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|caption3 = The [[Cardamom Hills]] are notable for [[biodiversity]] |
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}} |
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Most of the [[biodiversity]] is concentrated and protected in the [[Western Ghats]]. Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century.<ref name="History">{{cite web |url=https://www.forest.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=2 |title=History |access-date=12 August 2015 |publisher=Kerala forests and wildlife department |archive-date=12 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912231001/http://www.forest.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{As of|2004}}, over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 [[flowering plant]] species; 1,272 of which are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to Kerala, 900 are [[Herbalism|medicinal]], and 159 are [[Threatened species|threatened]].<ref name="Sreedharan_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Sreedharan TP |year=2004 |title=Biological Diversity of Kerala: A survey of Kalliasseri panchayat, Kannur district |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054155/https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|11}} Its 9,400 km<sup>2</sup> of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km<sup>2</sup>), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km<sup>2</sup> and 100 km<sup>2</sup>, respectively), and montane subtropical and [[temperate]] (''shola'') forests (highest elevations—100 km<sup>2</sup>). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004" />{{rp|12}} Four of the world's [[Ramsar Convention]] listed [[wetland]]s—[[Sasthamkotta Lake|Lake Sasthamkotta]], [[Ashtamudi Lake]], [[Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands]], and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala,{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=342}} as well as 1455.4 km<sup>2</sup> of the vast [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]] and 1828 km<sup>2</sup> of the [[Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=347}} Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,<ref name="Jayarajan_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Jayarajan M |year=2004 |title=Sacred Groves of North Malabar |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054142/https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|6–7}} much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from [[clearfelling]].<ref name="Evans2008">{{cite book |author=Julian Evans |title=The Forests Handbook, Applying Forest Science for Sustainable Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ol_CCkYQNKIC&pg=PA235 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75683-6 |page=235}}</ref> Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forests]] and [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]], which are common in the Western Ghats.<ref name="google8">{{cite book |author1=R. P. Singh |author2=Zubairul Islam |title=Environmental Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaQptMlw3X8C&pg=PA172 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180697746 |page=172 |year=2012 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191749/https://books.google.com/books?id=gaQptMlw3X8C&pg=PA172#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Geer2008">{{cite book |author=Alexandra Anna Enrica van der Geer |title=Animals in Stone: Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ3quxh9gsgC&pg=PA7 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004168190 |page=7}}</ref> The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in [[Nilambur]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-world-s-oldest-teak-trees-dying-in-kerala-1255723 |title=World's oldest teak trees dying in Kerala |date=13 May 2009 |website=DNA India |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415102931/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-world-s-oldest-teak-trees-dying-in-kerala-1255723 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of [[mammal]]s (1 endemic), [[List of birds of Kerala|500 species of birds]], 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of [[amphibian]]s (36 endemic).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1999/3443 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007224232/https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1999/3443 |url-status=dead |title=View of A checklist of the vertebrates of Kerala State, India | Journal of Threatened Taxa |archive-date=7 October 2016 |website=threatenedtaxa.org}}</ref> These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, [[Soil salinity|salinisation]], and resource extraction. In the forests, ''sonokeling'', ''[[Dalbergia]] latifolia'', ''anjili'', ''mullumurikku'', ''[[Erythrina]]'', and ''[[Cinnamomum aromaticum|Cassia]]'' number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include [[bamboo]], wild black pepper, wild [[cardamom]], the [[calamus (palm)|calamus]] [[rattan]] palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, ''Vetiveria zizanioides''.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004" />{{rp|12}} [[Indian elephant]], [[Bengal tiger]], [[Indian leopard]], [[Nilgiri tahr]], [[common palm civet]], and [[grizzled giant squirrel]]s are also found in the forests.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004" />{{rp|12, 174–75}} Reptiles include the [[king cobra]], [[Viperidae|viper]], [[Pythonidae|python]], and [[mugger crocodile]]. Kerala's birds include the [[Malabar trogon]], the [[great hornbill]], [[Kerala laughingthrush]], [[darter]] and [[southern hill myna]]. In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as [[Heteropneustes fossilis|Kadu]], [[Red Line Torpedo Barb]] and ''choottachi''; [[orange chromide]]—''Etroplus maculatus'' are found.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Institute |first1=Kerala Forest Research |title=Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala: Freshwater fishes |year=2003 |publisher=Kerala Forest Research Institute |isbn=978-8185041544 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYcPAQAAMAAJ&q=fishes+in+kerala |language=en |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125192259/https://books.google.com/books?id=SYcPAQAAMAAJ&q=fishes+in+kerala |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sreedharan_2004" />{{rp|163–65}} Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; ''[[Stygarctus keralensis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vishnudattan |first1=N. K. |display-authors=etal |title=A new Tardigrade species, Stygarctus keralensis sp. nov. (Arthrotardigrada: Stygarctidae) from the intertidal zone of Southwest coast of India |url=https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/42726 |date=15 June 2021 |journal=[[Zootaxa]] |volume=4985 |issue=3 |page=381391 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4985.3.5 |pmid=34186802 |s2cid=235688035 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127214807/https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4985.3.5 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Its 9,400 km² of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km²), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km² and 100 km², respectively), and montane subtropical and [[temperate]] (''shola'') forests (highest elevations—100 km²). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_12">{{harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=12}}.</ref> Two of the world’s [[Ramsar Convention]] listed [[wetland]]s—[[Sasthamkotta Lake|Lake Sasthamkotta]] and the [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad-Kol wetlands]]—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km² of the vast [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]]. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,<ref name="Jayarajan_2004_6-7">{{harvnb|Jayarajan|2004|pp=6–7}}.</ref> much of Kerala's forest cover is now protected from [[clearfelling]]. Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of [[mammal]]s (56 of which are endemic), 476 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater [[fish]]es, 169 species of [[reptile]]s (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of [[amphibian]]s (86 endemic).<ref name="GOK_2004f_141">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004f|p=141}}.</ref> These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and resource extraction.<ref name="GOK_2004f_142-145">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004f|pp=142–145}}.</ref> |
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== Divisions, districts and cities == |
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[[Image:Bengal Tiger Kerala India.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Bengal Tiger]] inhabits Kerala's eastern forests.]] |
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[[File:Administrative Divisions of Kerala (2020).svg|thumb|230px|Administrative subdivisions]] |
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{{Main|Districts of Kerala|Corporations, municipalities and taluks of Kerala|List of cities and towns in Kerala}}{{See also|Local governance in Kerala}} |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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! colspan=2 |State administrative divisions |
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|- |
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! Administrative structure |
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! Numbers |
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|- |
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| [[List of districts of Kerala|Districts]] |
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| 14 |
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|- |
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| [[List of revenue divisions of Kerala|Revenue Divisions]] |
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| 27 |
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|- |
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| [[List of taluks of Kerala|Taluks]] |
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| 75 |
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|-90 |
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| [[Revenue Village]]s |
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| 1453 |
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|- |
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!Local-Self Governments<ref>{{Cite web |title=Local Self Government Institutions {{!}} Deparyment of Panchayats |url=https://dop.lsgkerala.gov.in/en/article/158 |access-date=27 May 2023 |website=dop.lsgkerala.gov.in |archive-date=27 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527140442/https://dop.lsgkerala.gov.in/en/article/158 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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!Numbers |
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|- |
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|[[District Panchayat]]s |
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|14 |
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|- |
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|[[Local government in Kerala|Block Panchayats]] |
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|152 |
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|- |
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|[[Local government in Kerala|Grama Panchayats]] |
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|941 |
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|- |
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|[[List of municipal corporations in Kerala|Municipal Corporations]] |
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|6 |
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|- |
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|[[Municipalities of Kerala|Municipalities]] |
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|87 |
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|- |
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|} |
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The state's [[List of districts of Kerala|14 districts]] are distributed among six regions: [[North Malabar]] (far-north Kerala), [[South Malabar]] (north-central Kerala), [[Kochi]] (central Kerala), [[Northern Travancore]] (south-central Kerala), [[Central Travancore]] (southern Kerala) and [[Southern Travancore]] (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into [[Revenue Divisions of Kerala|27 revenue subdivisions]] and [[List of talukas of Kerala|77 taluks]], which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ildm.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Revenue-Guide-2018.pdf |title=Revenue Guide 2018 |date= |website=[[Government of Kerala]] |access-date=28 September 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920133932/https://ildm.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Revenue-Guide-2018.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://kerala.gov.in/revenue-department |title=Revenue department, government of Kerala |access-date=28 September 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817225825/https://kerala.gov.in/revenue-department |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forests]] and [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]], which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, ''sonokeling'' (Indian [[rosewood]]), ''anjili'', ''mullumurikku'' (''[[Erythrina]]''), and ''[[Cassia]]'' number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild [[black pepper]], wild [[cardamom]], the [[calamus (palm genus)|calamus]] [[rattan]] palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic [[vetiver]] grass (''[[Vetiver|Vetiveria zizanioides]]'').<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_12">{{harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=12}}.</ref> Living among them are such fauna as [[Asian Elephant]], [[Bengal Tiger]], [[Leopard]] (''Panthera pardus''), [[Nilgiri Tahr]], [[Common Palm Civet]], and [[Grizzled Giant Squirrel]].<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_12">{{harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=12}}.</ref><ref name="Sreedharan_2004_174-175">{{harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|pp=174–175}}.</ref> Reptiles include the [[King Cobra|king cobra]], [[viper]], [[Pythonidae|python]], and [[crocodile]]. Kerala's birds are legion—[[Peafowl]], the [[Great Hornbill]], [[Indian Grey Hornbill]], [[Indian Cormorant]], and [[Jungle Myna]] are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as ''kadu'' ([[Catfish|stinging catfish]] and ''Choottachi'' (Orange chromide—''Etroplus maculatus''; valued as an [[aquarium]] specimen) are found.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_163-165">{{harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=163–165}}.</ref> |
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Since the [[List of amendments of the Constitution of India|73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India]], the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 [[District Panchayat]]s, 152 [[Block panchayat]]s, 941 [[Gram panchayat|Grama Panchayats]], [[Municipalities of Kerala|87 Municipalities]], [[List of municipal corporations in Kerala|six Municipal Corporations]] and one [[Township]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Local Self Governance in Kerala |url=https://kerala.gov.in/local-self-governance#:~:text=Local%20Self-Governance%20Page&text=At%20present,%20there%20are%201200,Municipalities%20and%206%20Municipal%20Corporations |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=28 September 2020 |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928223404/https://kerala.gov.in/local-self-governance#:~:text=Local%20Self-Governance%20Page&text=At%20present,%20there%20are%201200,Municipalities%20and%206%20Municipal%20Corporations |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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[[Mahé, India|Mahé]], a part of the Indian [[union territory]] of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/https://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999 |archive-date=16 June 2004 |title=Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional) |access-date=1 November 2008 |publisher=Census Commission of India}}</ref> though {{convert|647|km}} away from it,<ref name="ShiraAssociates.2012">{{cite book |author1=Dezan Shira |author2=Associates. |title=Doing Business in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9YjXW41yMwQC&pg=PT313 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-27618-7 |pages=313–}}</ref> is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth.<ref name="Menon2002">{{cite book |author1=D Banerjea |author2=N. R. Madhava Menon |title=Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Axfuc5A8mxMC&pg=PA9 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-8177648713 |pages=9–}}</ref> |
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In 1664, the municipality of [[Fort Kochi]] was established by [[Dutch Malabar]], making it the first municipality in the [[Indian subcontinent]], which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.<ref name="d_1664">{{Cite news |title=50 years on, Kochi still has a long way to go |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/50-years-on-kochi-still-has-a-long-way-to-go/articleshow/60835311.cms |last=M K Sunil Kumar |date=26 September 2017 |access-date=1 June 2021 |work=The Times of India |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602230954/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/50-years-on-kochi-still-has-a-long-way-to-go/articleshow/60835311.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The municipalities of [[Kozhikode]], [[Palakkad]], [[Fort Kochi]], [[Kannur]], and [[Thalassery]], were founded on 1 November 1866<ref name="Ref1" /><ref name="c1881" /><ref name="google.co.in" /><ref name="frowde" /> of the [[British Indian Empire]], making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of [[Thiruvananthapuram]] came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of [[Sree Chithira Thirunal]], Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |title=Thiruvananthapuram |url=https://www.corporationoftrivandrum.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=11 |date=2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918085703/https://www.corporationoftrivandrum.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=11 |archive-date=18 September 2010 |access-date=4 April 2022}} Year of becoming a corporation</ref> The first Municipal Corporation founded after the independence of [[India]] as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at [[Kozhikode Municipal Corporation|Kozhikode]] in the year 1962.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080209134539/https://www.hindu.com/2008/02/05/stories/2008020561140500.htm Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency redrawn Delimitation impact], ''The Hindu'' 5 February 2008</ref> There are six [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipal corporations]] in Kerala that govern [[Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kozhikode Municipal Corporation|Kozhikode]], [[Kochi Municipal Corporation|Kochi]], [[Kollam Municipal Corporation|Kollam]], [[Thrissur Municipal Corporation|Thrissur]], and [[Kannur Municipal Corporation|Kannur]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project |url=https://www.ksudp.org/ |publisher=Local Self Government Department |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920051936/http://ksudp.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation]] is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named [[Kochi UA]] is the largest urban agglomeration.<ref>{{cite web |title=City Information |url=https://cial.aero/contents/viewcontent.aspx?linkIdLvl2=32&linkid=32 |work=Cochin International Airport |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-date=10 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121210070804/http://cial.aero/contents/viewcontent.aspx?linkIdLvl2=32&linkid=32 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Kochi]], [[Kollam]], [[Thrissur]] are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cities best to earn a living are not the best to live: Survey |url=https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-11-26/news/27682663_1_cities-entertainment-indicus-analytics |work=The Times of India |date=26 November 2007 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305021646/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-11-26/news/27682663_1_cities-entertainment-indicus-analytics |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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== Subdivisions == |
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{{main|Districts of Kerala}} |
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[[Image:House-in-Kerala.jpg|right|thumb|A typical Kerala style house with ''Thulasi thara'' (platform for [[Ocimum tenuiflorum|Holy Basil]]) in front.]] |
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== Government and administration == |
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[[Districts of Kerala|Kerala's fourteen districts]] are distributed among Kerala's three historical regions: Malabar (northern Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), and Travancore (southern Kerala). Kerala's modern-day districts (listed in order from north to south) correspond to them as follows: |
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{{Main|Government of Kerala|Kerala Legislature}} |
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{{See also|Politics of Kerala|Political parties in Kerala}} |
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{{Multiple image |
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| align = right |
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| direction = vertical |
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| width = 220 |
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| header_align = left/right/center |
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| footer_align = left/right/center |
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| image1 = High Court of Kerala Building.jpg |
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| caption1 = The Kerala High Court complex in [[Kochi]] |
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| image2 = Kerala Government Secretariat.jpg |
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| caption2 = The Kerala Secretariat in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] – seat of executive administration of Kerala, and formerly of the legislative assembly |
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| image3 = Niyamasabha Mandiram.JPG |
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| caption3 = The [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] Building in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] |
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}} |
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The state is governed by a [[parliamentary system]] of [[representative democracy]]. Kerala has a [[unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature. The [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] also known as Niyamasabha, consists of 140 members who are elected for five-year terms.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Kerala Legislature |url=https://kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3776&Itemid=3022 |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=17 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619040353/https://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3776&Itemid=3022 |archive-date=19 June 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The state elects 20 members to the [[Lok Sabha]], the lower house of the Indian Parliament, and 9 members to the [[Rajya Sabha]], the upper house.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/intro/p1.htm |title=Our Parliament |publisher=Parliamentofindia.nic.in |access-date=25 February 2010 |archive-date=10 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210043333/http://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/intro/p1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[Image:Kerala density map1.PNG|left|125px|Population density map of Kerala graded from darkest shading (most dense) to lightest (least dense).]] |
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The [[Government of Kerala]] is a [[Democracy|democratically]] elected body in India with the [[Governors of Kerala|governor]] as its constitutional head and is appointed by the [[president of India]] for a five-year term.<ref name="govern">{{cite web |url=https://www.rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=44&Itemid=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731095433/https://rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=44&Itemid=2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 July 2009 |title=Responsibilities |access-date=13 November 2015 |publisher=Kerala Rajbhavan}}</ref> The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the [[List of chief ministers of Kerala|chief minister]] by the governor, and the council of ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister.<ref name=govern /> The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by the [[Kerala Government Secretariat|Chief Secretary]] assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by an [[Additional Chief Secretary (India)|Additional Chief Secretary]] or a [[Principal Secretary (India)|Principal Secretary]], who is usually an officer of [[Indian Administrative Service]] (IAS), the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary serve as the administrative head of the department they are assigned to. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary etc. assisting the Minister and the [[Additional Chief Secretary (India)|Additional Chief Secretary]]/[[Principal Secretary (India)|Principal Secretary]] |
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* '''[[Malabar]]''': [[Kasaragod District|Kasaragod]], [[Kannur District|Kannur]], [[Wayanad District|Wayanad]], [[Kozhikode District|Kozhikode]], [[Malappuram District|Malappuram]], [[Palakkad District|Palakkad]] |
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Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called [[District collector]] for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as ''[[Panchayati raj|panchayat]]s'', for which [[Local Body Election in Kerala|local body elections]] are regularly held, govern local affairs.<ref name="Chaudhary2009">{{cite book |author=Shyam Nandan Chaudhary |title=Tribal Development Since Independence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBX1EJVhjGEC&pg=PA235 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180696220 |page=235}}</ref> The [[judiciary]] consists of the [[Kerala High Court]] and a system of lower courts.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Judiciary |url=https://www.allindiajudges.org/Judgment/FNJPC2.htm |publisher=All-India Judges Association |access-date=29 April 2015 |archive-date=1 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001072113/http://www.allindiajudges.org/Judgment/FNJPC2.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The High Court, located in Kochi,<ref name="Congress (US)2010">{{cite book |author1=U S Congress |author2=Congress (U.S.) |title=Congressional Record, V. 153, Pt. 1, January 4, 2007 to January 17, 2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3bLOwbeOZYC&pg=PA1198 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-16-086824-5 |page=1198}}</ref> has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional ''[[pro tempore]]'' justices {{As of|2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=High Court of Kerala Profile |url=https://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/profile.html |publisher=High Court of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-date=31 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031233641/http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/profile.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of [[Lakshadweep]].<ref name="Banerjea2002">{{cite book |author=D. Banerjea |title=Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6NWL-a14mkC&pg=PA80 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-8177648720 |page=80}}</ref><ref name="SharmaB.k.2007">{{cite book |author1=Sharma |author2=Sharma B.k. |title=Intro. to the Constitution of India, 4/e |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srDytmFE3KMC&pg=PA261 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-8120332461 |page=261}}</ref> |
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* '''[[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi]]''': [[Thrissur District|Thrissur]], [[Ernakulam District|Ernakulam]] |
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In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by the central government.<ref name="Capdeck">{{cite web |url=https://www.lenobl.ru/Document/1412700121.pdf |title=An Introduction to local self governments in Kerala |publisher=SDC CAPDECK |access-date=17 November 2012 |author=Mariamma Sanu George |pages=17–20 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530224012/http://www.lenobl.ru/Document/1412700121.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a 3-tier system for local governance.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513015050/https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2013 |title=Kerala – A Case Study of Classical Democratic Decentralisation |publisher=Kerala Institute of Local Administration |date=April 2009 |access-date=17 November 2012 |author=S M Vijayanand |page=12}}</ref> This system includes Gram Panchayat, Block Panchayat, and District Panchayat.<ref name="TandonMohanty2006">{{cite book |author1=Rajesh Tandon |author2=Ranjita Mohanty |title=Participatory Citizenship: Identity, Exclusion, Inclusion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oPByu7CWoUEC&pg=PA199 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-0-7619-3467-7 |page=199}}</ref> The Acts define clear powers for these institutions.<ref name="Capdeck" /> For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act follows a single-tier system, equivalent to Gram Panchayat.These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513015050/https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2013 |title=Kerala – A Case Study of Classical Democratic Decentralisation |publisher=Kerala Institute of Local Administration |date=April 2009 |access-date=17 November 2012 |author=S M Vijayanand |page=13}}</ref> Currently, the state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments.<ref name="IsaacFranke2002">{{cite book |author1=T. M. Thomas Isaac |author2=Richard W. Franke |title=Local Democracy and Development: The Kerala People's Campaign for Decentralized Planning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6v6F2a3Gs0C&pg=PR13 |year=2002 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1607-6 |page=13}}</ref> Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 by [[Transparency International]], is considered the least corrupt state in India.<ref>{{Cite book |title=India Corruption Survey 2019 – Report |last= |publisher=Transparency International India |year=2019 |location= |pages=22 |url=https://transparencyindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/India-Corruption-Survey-2019.pdf |access-date=18 June 2021 |archive-date=10 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710100154/https://transparencyindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/India-Corruption-Survey-2019.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala the first digital State |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/kerala-the-first-digital-state/article8291466.ece |last=Special currespondent |date=28 February 2016 |access-date=17 November 2020 |work=The Hindu |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415102347/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/kerala-the-first-digital-state/article8291466.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Goa best governed States: report |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala-goa-and-chandigarh-best-governed-states-ut-report/article32985716.ece |last=PTI |date=30 October 2020 |access-date=20 June 2021 |work=The Hindu |archive-date=7 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007210542/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala-goa-and-chandigarh-best-governed-states-ut-report/article32985716.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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* '''[[Travancore]]''': [[Kottayam District|Kottayam]], [[Idukki District|Idukki]], [[Alappuzha District|Alappuzha]], [[Pathanamthitta District|Pathanamthitta]], [[Kollam District|Kollam]], [[Thiruvananthapuram District|Thiruvananthapuram]] |
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Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the [[United Democratic Front (India)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF), led by the [[Indian National Congress]]; and the [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|Left Democratic Front]] (LDF), led by the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)). {{As of|2021|alt=As of}} [[2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]], the LDF is the ruling coalition; [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while [[V. D. Satheesan]] of the Indian National Congress is the [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Kerala Legislative Assembly|Leader of the Opposition]]. According to the [[Constitution of India]], Kerala has a [[parliamentary system]] of [[representative democracy]]; [[universal suffrage]] is granted to residents.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://niyamasabha.org/codes/govt_2.htm |title=Kerala Government – Legislature |publisher=Government of kerala |access-date=19 November 2012 |archive-date=8 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208011357/http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/govt_2.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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{{main|Corporations, Municipalities and Taluks of Kerala}} |
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Kerala's 14 revenue districts are further divided into 62 [[Taluks of Kerala|taluks]], 1453 revenue villages and 1007 [[Gram panchayat]]s. |
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== Economy == |
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Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry (Pondicherry), is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. [[Thiruvananthapuram]] (Trivandrum) is the state capital and most populous city.<ref name=largestcity>[http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&dat=32&geo=-104&srt=dnpn&col=aohdq&pt=c&va=x&srt=pdnn "World Gazetteer:India - largest cities (per geographical entity")]</ref> [[Kochi, India|Kochi]] is the most populous [[urban agglomeration]]<ref name=largestUA>[http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&dat=32&geo=-104&srt=pdnn&col=aohdq&pt=a&va=x&srt=pdnn "World Gazetteer: India - largest cities (per geographical entity")]</ref> and the major port city in Kerala. [[Kozhikode]] and [[Thrissur]] are the other major commercial centres of the state. The [[High Court of Kerala]] is at [[Ernakulam]]. Kerala's districts, which serve as the administrative regions for taxation purposes, are further subdivided into 63 [[tehsil|taluks]]; these have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. |
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{{Main|Economy of Kerala}} |
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{{Panorama |
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|image = File:Marine Drive Kochi Night View DSW.jpg |
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|alt = Marine Drive, Kochi |
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|caption = {{centre|1=The city of [[Kochi]] is the largest financial, commercial, and industrial hub in Kerala, with the highest [[GDP]] as well as the highest [[List of Kerala cities by GDP per capita|GDP per capita]] in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://spb.kerala.gov.in/ER2017/web_e/ch12.php?id=1&ch=12 |title=National and State Income |publisher=[[Kerala State Planning Board]] |access-date=28 August 2018 |archive-date=27 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827210016/http://spb.kerala.gov.in/ER2017/web_e/ch12.php?id=1&ch=12 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://community.data.gov.in/top-5-districts-of-kerala-on-the-basis-of-gdp-at-current-price-from-2004-05-to-2012-13 |title=Top 5 districts of Kerala on the basis of GDP at current price from 2004–05 to 2012–13 |publisher=[[Government of India]] |access-date=28 August 2018 |archive-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129185113/https://community.data.gov.in/top-5-districts-of-kerala-on-the-basis-of-gdp-at-current-price-from-2004-05-to-2012-13/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}} |
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}} |
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After independence, the state was managed as a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] [[welfare economy]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=A virus, social democracy, and dividends for Kerala |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-virus-social-democracy-and-dividends-for-kerala/article31370554.ece |last=Heller |first=Patrick |date=18 April 2020 |access-date=2 February 2021 |work=The Hindu |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119130557/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-virus-social-democracy-and-dividends-for-kerala/article31370554.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The "Kerala phenomenon" or "[[Kerala model]] of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003" />{{rp|48}}<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005">{{Cite journal |author=Tharamangalam J |year=2005 |title=The Perils of Social Development without Economic Growth: The Development Debacle of Kerala, India |journal=Political Economy for Environmental Planners |url=https://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115072025/https://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2013 |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|1}} In 2019–20, the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|tertiary sector]] contributed around 63% of the state's [[Gross value added|GSVA]], compared to 28% by [[Secondary sector of the economy|secondary sector]], and 8% by [[Primary sector of the economy|primary sector]].<ref name="eco" /> In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.<ref name="eco" /> |
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The state's [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sector]] which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon [[hospitality industry]], [[Tourism in Kerala|tourism]], [[Ayurveda]] and medical services, pilgrimage, [[information technology]], [[Roads in Kerala|transportation]], financial sector, and [[Education in Kerala|education]].<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |url=https://slbckerala.com/Economy.aspx |title=Economy of Kerala – 2016 |website=slbckerala.com |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328191455/http://slbckerala.com/Economy.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Major initiatives under the industrial sector include [[Cochin Shipyard]], shipbuilding, oil refinery, software industry, coastal mineral industries,{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=343}} food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon [[cash crop]]s.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as [[coconut]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[Malabar pepper|pepper]], [[natural rubber]], [[cardamom]], and [[cashew]] in India.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since the 1950s.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} |
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Kerala's economy depends significantly on [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|emigrants working in foreign countries]], mainly in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]], and the [[remittance]]s annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.<ref name="rem1">{{cite report |author1=K.P. Kannan |author2=K.S. Hari |title=Kerala's Gulf connection: Emigration, remittances and their macroeconomic impact, 1972–2000 |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/ind/cdswpp/328.html |year=2002 |website=[[Research Papers in Economics]] |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=28 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628135450/https://ideas.repec.org/p/ind/cdswpp/328.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The state witnessed significant emigration during the [[Kerala Gulf diaspora#The Gulf Boom|Gulf Boom]] of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/remittances--kerala-drives-dollar-flows-to-india-053414379.html |title=Remittances: Kerala drives dollar flows to India |work=[[Yahoo! Finance]] |date=5 November 2013 |access-date=8 November 2013 |archive-date=7 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107053009/http://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/remittances--kerala-drives-dollar-flows-to-india-053414379.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over {{INRConvert|1|lc}}, amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about {{INRConvert|7|lc}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/nri/other-news/NRI-deposits-in-Kerala-banks-cross-Rs-1-lakh-crore/articleshow/47769012.cms |title=NRI deposits in Kerala banks cross Rs 1 lakh crore |date=22 June 2015 |access-date=13 November 2015 |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-date=25 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150625121200/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/nri/other-news/NRI-deposits-in-Kerala-banks-cross-Rs-1-lakh-crore/articleshow/47769012.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Malappuram district]] has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state.<ref name="eco" /> A study commissioned by the [[Kerala State Planning Board]], suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.<ref name="Commission2008b">{{cite book |author=India. Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA457 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=396}}</ref> |
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== Government == |
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As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.<ref name="RBI_2002">{{cite web |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/35585.pdf |title=State/Union Territory-Wise Number of Branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks and Average Population Per Bank Branch |date=March 2002 |work=Reserve Bank of India |access-date=28 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810094850/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/35585.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2007}}</ref> On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Now-you-can-bank-on-every-village-in-Kerala/articleshow/10194261.cms |work=The Times of India |title=Now, you can bank on every village in Kerala |date=1 October 2011 |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=4 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104180910/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Now-you-can-bank-on-every-village-in-Kerala/articleshow/10194261.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Unemployment in Kerala|Unemployment in 2007]] was estimated at 9.4%;<ref>{{cite news |author=Kumar KG |title=Jobless no more? |newspaper=Business Line |date=8 October 2007 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/article1671367.ece |quote=A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1[%] in 2003 to 9.4[%] in 2007. |access-date=16 November 2012 |archive-date=6 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106032604/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/article1671367.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> chronic issues are [[underemployment]], low employability of youth, and a low female [[labour force|labour participation rate]] of only 13.5%,<ref name="Nair_2004">{{Cite book |author=Nair NG |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |title=Measurement of Employment, Unemployment, and Underemployment |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621751 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/72.pdf |access-date=31 December 2008 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530210334/http://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/72.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|5, 13}} as was the practice of ''[[Nokku kooli]]'', "wages for looking on".<ref name="Outlook-2008">{{cite news |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?237419 |first=John |last=Mary |title=Men (Not) At Work |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |date=12 May 2008 |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=6 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106032651/http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?237419 |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.<ref name="princeton6">{{Cite report |last=Deaton |first=Angus |title=Regional poverty estimates for India, 1999–2000 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/pdfs/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf |date=22 August 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628193845/https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/pdfs/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=dead |page=10 |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> |
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{{main|Government of Kerala }} |
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[[File:Intercropping coconut n Tagetes erecta.jpg|alt=|thumb|Coconuts are an important regional cash crop.]] |
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The state's budget of 2020–2021 was {{INRConvert|1.15|lc}}.<ref name="Budget">{{cite web |url=https://www.finance.kerala.gov.in/bdgtDcs.jsp |title=Budget In Brief |format=PDF |website=finance.kerala.gov.in |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=4 December 2020 |archive-date=25 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125214731/http://www.finance.kerala.gov.in/bdgtDcs.jsp |url-status=live }}</ref> The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to {{INRConvert|674|b}} in 2020–21; up from {{INRConvert|557|b}} in 2019–20. Its [[non-tax revenue]]s (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached {{INRConvert|146|b}} in 2020–2021.<ref name="Budget" /> However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/https://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008 |title=Memoranda from States: Kerala |website=fincomindia.nic.in |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> A record total of 223 [[hartal]]s were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over {{INRConvert|20|b}}.<ref>[https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06kerala.htm Kerala: Hartals Own Country?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043808/https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06kerala.htm |date=4 March 2016 }} 6 July 2008</ref> Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralacm.gov.in/index.php/news2catleist/2443-23-12-2013-india-today |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224091613/https://www.keralacm.gov.in/index.php/news2catleist/2443-23-12-2013-india-today |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 December 2013 |title=India Today On Cm |publisher=Keralacm.gov.in |access-date=11 January 2014}}</ref> |
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The [[Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board]] is a government owned [[financial institution]] in the state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/big-push-for-infrastructure-in-budget/article17403255.ece |title=Big push for infrastructure in Budget |newspaper=The Hindu |date=3 March 2017 |via=www.thehindu.com |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129210933/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/big-push-for-infrastructure-in-budget/article17403255.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2017/mar/04/kerala-budget-infrastructure-projects-get-a-major-fillip-1577360.html |title=Kerala Budget: Infrastructure projects get a major fillip |website=The New Indian Express |date=4 March 2017 |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-date=30 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130030958/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2017/mar/04/kerala-budget-infrastructure-projects-get-a-major-fillip-1577360.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[Image:Assembly11.jpg|thumb|right|The Legislative Assembly Building in Trivandrum.]] |
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In November 2015, the [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs|Ministry of Urban Development]] selected seven cities of Kerala for a [[List of government schemes in India|comprehensive development program]] known as the [[Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation]] (AMRUT).<ref>{{cite news |title=Modi to address heads of civic bodies on urban revamp |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/modi-to-address-heads-of-civic-bodies-on-urban-revamp/article7336851.ece |date=20 June 2015 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=25 June 2015 |archive-date=2 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202155935/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/modi-to-address-heads-of-civic-bodies-on-urban-revamp/article7336851.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> A package of {{INRConvert|2.5|m}} was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad.<ref>{{cite news |last=R. Ramabhadran |first=Pillai |title=AMRUT to roll out on a smaller scale |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/amrut-to-roll-out-on-a-smaller-scale/article7868199.ece |access-date=12 November 2015 |work=The Hindu |issue=12 November 2015 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207052652/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/amrut-to-roll-out-on-a-smaller-scale/article7868199.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Grand Kerala Shopping Festival]] (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes.<ref name="GKSF begins">{{cite news |title=Shopping festival begins |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/shopping-festival-begins/article1959420.ece |work=The Hindu |date=2 December 2007 |access-date=24 January 2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927054507/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/shopping-festival-begins/article1959420.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lulu Mall, Thiruvananthapuram|Lulu International Mall]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]] is the largest [[Shopping Mall|shopping mall]] in India.<ref>{{cite news |title=LuLu Group: Going places |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/local/lulu-group-going-places |work=[[Khaleej Times]] |access-date=13 November 2020 |archive-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426172244/https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/local/lulu-group-going-places |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.<ref name="Hindu2021">{{cite journal |title=Making sense of Kerala |journal=The Hindu |date=13 December 2021 |last1=Heller |first1=Patrick |last2=Törnquist |first2=Olle |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/making-sense-of-kerala/article37942860.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214151547/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/making-sense-of-kerala/article37942860.ece |accessdate=5 March 2022 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |quote=Kerala has specific challenges: persistently high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. More broadly, as the 21st century unfolds, it becomes increasingly clearer that the role of the State in supporting development must fundamentally change. First, in highly educated societies like Kerala, industrialisation is no longer the path to economic prosperity.}}</ref> |
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Like other Indian states and most [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries, Kerala is governed through a [[parliamentary system]] of [[representative democracy]]; [[universal suffrage]] is granted to state residents. There are three branches of government. The [[unicameralism|unicameral]] [[legislature]], known as the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]], comprises elected members and special office bearers (the Speaker and Deputy Speaker) elected by assemblymen. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker. The Assembly is presided over by the Deputy Speaker whenever the Speaker is absent. Kerala has 140 Assembly constituencies. The state sends 20 members to the [[Lok Sabha]] and 9 to the [[Rajya Sabha]], the [[Parliament of India|Indian Parliament]]'s upper house. |
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=== Industries === |
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[[Image:High Court of Kerala.jpg|thumb|left|The Kerala High Court in Ernakulam.]] |
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Traditional industries manufacturing items; [[coir]], [[handloom]]s, and [[handicraft]]s employ around one million people.<ref name="KumarKerala2007">{{cite book |author1=S. Rajitha Kumar |author2=University of Kerala |title=Traditional Industries of India in the Globalised World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aBvtAAAAMAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=University of Kerala |isbn=978-8177081435 |page=223}}</ref> Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in [[Alleppey]] in 1859–60.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Coir Industry |url=https://www.indianmirror.com/indian-industries/coir.html |work=Indian Mirror |access-date=29 April 2014}}</ref> The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census by [[SIDBI]], there are {{formatnum:1468104}} [[Small and medium enterprises#India|micro, small and medium enterprises]] in Kerala employing {{formatnum:3031272}} people.<ref name="SIDBI Report 2010">{{cite book |title=SIDBI Report on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Sector, 2010 |publisher=Small Industries Development Bank of India |year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=A Study on the Position of Small and Medium Enterprises in Kerala vis a vis the National Scenario |author=N. Rajeevan |journal=International Journal of Research in Commerce, Economics and Management |date=March 2012 |volume=2 |issue=3}}</ref> The [[KSIDC]] has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ksidc.org/about-functions.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709062837/https://www.ksidc.org/about-functions.php |archive-date=9 July 2014 |title=Functions, KSIDC, Thiruvananthapuram |publisher=Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation |access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of [[ilmenite]], [[kaolin]], [[bauxite]], [[silica]], [[quartz]], [[rutile]], [[zircon]], and [[sillimanite]].<ref name="GOK_2005c">{{Cite journal |author=Government of Kerala |year=2005 |title=Kerala at a Glance |journal=Government of Kerala |url=https://www.kerala.gov.in/ |access-date=22 January 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060118031516/https://www.kerala.gov.in/ |archive-date=18 January 2006}}</ref> Other major sectors are [[tourism in Kerala|tourism]], medical sector, [[Education in Kerala|educational sector]], banking, [[Cochin shipyard|ship building]], [[Kochi Refineries|oil refinery]], infrastructure, manufacturing, [[Residential garden|home gardens]], animal husbandry and [[business process outsourcing]]. |
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=== Agriculture === |
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Like other Indian states, the constitutional head of state is the [[Governors of Kerala|Governor of Kerala]], who is appointed by the [[President of India]]. The [[executive (government)|executive authority]] is headed by the [[Chief Minister of Kerala]], who is the ''de facto'' head of state and is vested with most of the executive powers; the Legislative Assembly's majority party leader is appointed to this position by the Governor. The Council of Ministers, which answers to the Legislative Assembly, has its members appointed by the Governor; the appointments receive input from the Chief Minister. |
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[[File:Ripe jackfruit.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Jackfruit]]s are the state fruit, and are a cultural icon of Kerala. The "Jack" in Jackfruit itself is from the Malayalam word "chakka", through Portuguese "jaca".]] |
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[[File:Nemmara-paddy.jpg|alt=A field|thumb|A paddy field at [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]], also known as ''The Granary of Kerala'']] |
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[[File:Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) fruits.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Black pepper]] is an important cash crop in Kerala, which leads the country in production.]] |
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The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.<ref name="Sinha2003">{{cite book |author=B.R. Sinha |title=Encyclopaedia Of Professional Education (10 Vol.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdjGoXN3y1AC&pg=PA205 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-8176254106 |pages=204–05}}</ref> Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.<ref name="Remesh2010">{{cite book |author=Babu P. Remesh |title=Dynamics of Rural Labour: A Study of Small Holding Rubber Tappers in Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOyNsKXSa0gC&pg=PA52 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180696602 |pages=52–}}</ref><ref name="Commission2008">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA66 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=66–}}</ref> Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.<ref name="google9">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=66 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least curresponding rate in India.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=406}} |
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Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper<ref name="Limca Book of Records">{{cite book |title=Limca Book of Records |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-JtAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2001 |publisher=Bisleri Beverages Limited |page=97}}</ref> and accounts for 85% of the [[natural rubber]] in the country.<ref name="google10">{{cite book |title=South Asia 2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG8bAQAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=291 |isbn=978-1-85743-318-0}}</ref><ref name="Economic Affairs">{{cite book |title=Economic Affairs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StHsAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=H. Roy |page=47}}</ref> [[Coconut]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[cashew]], and spices—including cardamom, [[vanilla]], [[cinnamon]], and [[nutmeg]] are the main agricultural products.<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006" />{{rp|74}}<ref name="Newton">{{cite book |author=James Newton |title=Jay Rai's Kitchen – Keralan Cuisine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zDWhOU-I04C&pg=PT3 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Springwood emedia |isbn=978-1-4761-2308-0 |pages=3–}}</ref><ref name="B.L.MarkoseMarkose2007">{{cite book |author1=Rajan, S. & B.L.Markose |author2=Baby Lissy Markose |title=Propagation of Horticultural Crops: Vol.06. Horticulture Science Series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19zgbxw-YhYC&pg=PA212 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-8189422486 |pages=212–}}</ref><ref name="Pradhan2009">{{cite book |author=Pradhan |title=Retailing Management 3E |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8y7Zb_D-_oYC&pg=PA256 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-07-015256-4 |pages=256–}}</ref><ref name="PradeepkumarPradeep2008">{{cite book |author1=T. Pradeepkumar |author2=Kumar, Pradeep |title=Management of Horticultural Crops: Vol.11 Horticulture Science Series: In 2 Parts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHmokNZXbHUC&pg=PA509 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-8189422493 |pages=509–}}</ref><ref name="OsellaOsella2000">{{cite book |author1=Filippo Osella |author2=Caroline Osella |title=Social Mobility In Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&pg=PA235 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-7453-1693-2 |pages=235–}}</ref> Around 80% of [[India]]'s export quality cashew kernels are prepared in [[Kollam]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cashew-sector-in-a-tailspin/article8767346.ece |title=Cashew sector in a tailspin |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> The key cash crop is [[coconut]] and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=407}} Around 90% of the total [[Cardamom]] produced in India is from Kerala.<ref name="eco" /> India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world.<ref name="eco" /> About 20% of the total [[Coffee]] produced in India are from Kerala.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.<ref name="VarshneyRzóska1976">{{cite book |author1=C.K. Varshney |author2=J. Rzóska |title=Aquatic Weeds in South East Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lW3fHiDjHNcC&pg=PA100 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9061935568 |pages=100–}}</ref> Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.<ref name="Dobbie2006">{{cite book |author=Aline Dobbie |title=India the Elephants Blessing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckpEd4emnCkC&pg=PA123 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Melrose Press |isbn=978-1-905226-85-6 |pages=123–}}</ref> |
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The [[judiciary]] comprises the [[Kerala High Court]] (including a Chief Justice combined with 26 permanent and two additional (''pro tempore'') justices) and a system of lower courts. The High Court of Kerala is the highest court for the state; it also decides cases from the Union Territory of [[Lakshadweep]]. Auxiliary authorities known as ''[[panchayat]]s'', for which [[Local Body Election in Kerala|local body elections]] are regularly held, govern local affairs. |
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=== Fisheries === |
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The state's 2005–2006 budget was 219 billion [[Indian Rupee|INR]].<ref>[http://www.kerala.gov.in/budget2005-6/a01.pdf Budget at a Glance]</ref> The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to 111,248 million [[Indian Rupee|INR]] in 2005, up from 63,599 million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian Finance Commissions reached 10,809 million INR in 2005, nearly double the 6,847 million INR revenues of 2000.<ref>[http://fincomindia.nic.in/ Finance Commission (Ministry of Finance, Government of India)]</ref> However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, impacting social services.<ref>[http://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf Memoranda from States: Kerala]</ref> |
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[[File:Chinese Fishing Nets with Blue Cloudy Sky in Background at Fort Kochi, Kerala, India.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Cheena vala]]'' (Chinese fishing net)]] |
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With {{convert|590|km|mi|lk=out|abbr=off}} of coastal belt,<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala: Natural Resources |url=https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=70 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218084509/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=70 |archive-date=18 December 2011 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> 400,000 hectares of inland water resources<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala: April 2012 |url=https://www.ibef.org/download/Kerala_060710.pdf |publisher=Indian Brand Equity Fund |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,<ref name="Commission1961">{{cite book |author=India. Planning Commission |title=Third five year plan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_G5AAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1961 |publisher=Manager of Publications |page=359}}</ref> Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.<ref name="google13">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA51 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=51}}</ref> According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1 million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000 tons in 2003–04.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=51 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala.<ref name="Handbook" /> During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally called ''[[chakara]]''.<ref name="Gulati1984">{{cite book |author=Leela Gulati |title=Fisherwomen on the Kerala Coast: Demographic and Socio-Economic Impact of a Fisheries Development Project |url=https://archive.org/details/fisherwomenonker0000gula |url-access=registration |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1984 |publisher=International Labour Organization |isbn=978-9221036265 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fisherwomenonker0000gula/page/103 103]}}</ref><ref name="Journal of Kerala Studies">{{cite book |title=Journal of Kerala Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgSSAAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=University of Kerala. |page=201}}</ref> The waters provide a large variety of fish: [[Pelagic fish|pelagic species]]; 59%, [[Demersal fish|demersal species]]; 23%, [[crustacean]]s, [[Mollusca|molluscs]] and others for 18%.<ref name="Handbook">{{cite book |title=Handbook of Marine Fisheries Conservation and Management |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookmarinefi00graf |url-access=limited |publisher=Oxford University Press |author1=R. Quentin Grafton |author2=Ray Hilborn |author3=Dale Squires |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookmarinefi00graf/page/n24 10]–12 |isbn=978-0-19-537028-7}}</ref> Around 1050,000(1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the {{convert|590|km|adj=on|abbr=off}} coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland. |
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== Transportation == |
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=== Roads === |
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{{Main|Roads in Kerala}} |
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| caption1 = [[National Highway 544 (India)|NH 544]] Six lane [[Thrissur]] – [[Vadakkencherry]] |
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| caption2 = [[Thamarassery Churam]] ([[Mountain pass]]) |
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Kerala has {{convert|331904|km|mi}} of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total.<ref name="eco" /><ref name="road">{{Cite book |title=Ministry Annual Report (2019–20) |publisher=Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India |year=2020 |location=New Delhi |url=https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Ministry%20Annual%20Report_2019-20.pdf}}</ref> This translates to about {{convert|9.94|km|mi|2}} of road per thousand people, compared to an average of {{convert|4.87|km|mi|2}} in the country.<ref name="eco" /><ref name="road" /> Roads in Kerala include {{convert|1812|km|mi}} of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, {{convert|4342|km|mi}} of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, {{convert|27470|km|mi}} of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, {{convert|33201|km|mi}} of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and {{convert|158775|km|mi}} of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total.<ref name=":16-17">{{Cite book |title=Basic Road Statistics of India (2016–17) |publisher=Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India |year=2019 |location=New Delhi |pages=7–18 |url=https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Basic%20_Road_Statics_of_India.pdf}}</ref> [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]] has the maximum length of roads among the [[List of districts of Kerala|districts of Kerala]], while [[Wayanad]] accounts for minimum.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=422}} Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the [[National Highway 66 (India)|NH 66]] (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.<ref name="Kerala PWD">{{cite web |title=National Highways in Kerala |url=https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php%3Fpage%3DNH%2520in%2520Kerala%26pageId%3D301&ved=2ahUKEwjRh7jHod7YAhWFmZQKHWSeAeoQFjAOegQIBxAB&usg=AOvVaw15WM6wG3ueKFD1qj28WEps |work=Kerala Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala}} {{dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced under [[Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board|KIIFB]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Coastal, Hill Highways to become a reality |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/coastal-hill-highways-to-become-a-reality/article19262450.ece |date=12 July 2017 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref> National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road ({{convert|1622|km|mi}}) connects [[Kanyakumari]] to [[Mumbai]]; it enters Kerala via [[Talapady]] in [[Kasargod]] and passes through [[Kannur]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Malappuram]], [[Guruvayur]], [[Kochi]], [[Alappuzha]], [[Kollam]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]] before entering [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Kerala PWD" /> [[Palakkad district]] is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern ([[Malabar region|Malabar]]) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint, [[Walayar]], is on [[National Highway 544 (India)|NH 544]], in the border town between Kerala and [[Tamil Nadu]], through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/districts/palakkad/ |title=District of Palakkad – the granary of Kerala, Silent Valley National Park, Nelliyampathy |publisher=keralatourism.org |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> |
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Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the [[United Democratic Front (India)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF—led by the [[Indian National Congress]]) and the [[Left Democratic Front]] (LDF—led by the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)). At present, the LDF is the ruling coalition in government; [[V.S. Achuthanandan]] of the CPI(M) is the Chief Minister of Kerala and [[Oommen Chandy]] of the UDF is the Chief Opposition leader. |
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[[File:Vyttila Mobility Hub BNC.jpg|thumb|700px|left|A panoramic view of [[Vyttila Mobility Hub]] integrated transit terminal in the city of [[Kochi]]]] |
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The [[Department of Public Works (Kerala)|Department of Public Works]] is responsible for maintaining and expanding the [[List of State Highways in Kerala|state highways system]] and major district roads.<ref>{{cite web |title=About us |url=https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php?page=About%20Us&pageId=256&link=About%20PWD |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201055142/https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php?page=About%20Us&pageId=256&link=About%20PWD |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 December 2010 |work=Kerala Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the [[GIS]]-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Kumar VS |title=Kerala State transport project second phase to be launched next month |work=The Hindu |date=20 January 2006 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012002272100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070304181402/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012002272100.htm |archive-date=4 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Kumar VS |title=Institutional Strengthening Action Plan (ISAP) |work=Kerala Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2003 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512054304/https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp |archive-date=12 May 2008}}</ref> Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Kumar KG |title=Accidentally notorious |work=The Hindu |date=22 September 2003 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2003/09/22/stories/2003092201111300.htm}}</ref> National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are {{convert|45|m|abbr=off}} wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, {{convert|60|m|abbr=off}} wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/kerala-parties-finally-toe-nhai-line-of-45m-wide-highways/661729/ |title=Kerala parties finally toe NHAI line of 45-m wide highways |work=Indian Express |date=18 August 2010 |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-indias-13-super-highways/20110705.htm |title=Check out India's 13 super expressways |work=Rediff.com |date=5 July 2011 |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala against development of five NHs |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-against-development-of-five-nhs/article4555024.ece |url-access=subscription |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> {{As of|2013}}, Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/states-troubled-highways-a-shocking-revelation-for-centre/article4865464.ece |title=State's troubled highways a shocking revelation for Centre |journal=The Hindu |date=30 June 2013 |access-date=25 September 2013 |author=Staff Reporter}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Cpmernakulam (40).jpg|thumb|left|125px|A CPI(M) rally in Ernakulam.]] |
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==== Kerala State Road Transport Corporation ==== |
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Kerala is one of the few regions in the world where communist parties are democratically elected in a parliamentary democracy. Compared with most other Indians, Keralites are well versed and keen participants in the political process; many elections are decided by razor-thin margins of victory. Strikes, protests, rallies, and marches are ubiquitous.<ref>{{cite web |title= Protest against frequent strikes |work=The Hindu |publisher=The Hindu |date=[[5 July]] [[2005]] |accessdate=2007-11-26 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/05/stories/2005070513110300.htm}}</ref> |
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{{Main|Kerala State Road Transport Corporation}} |
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Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) is a state-owned road transport corporation. It is one of the country's oldest state-run public bus transport services. Its origins can be traced back to Travancore State Road Transport Department, when the Travancore government headed by Sri. Chithra Thirunnal decided to set up a public road transportation system in 1937. |
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The corporation is divided into three zones (North, Central and South), with the headquarters in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] (Kerala's capital city). Daily scheduled service has increased from {{convert|1200000|km}} to {{convert|1422546|km}},<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralartc.com/html/aboutus.html |title=All about KSRTC |publisher=Keralartc.com |access-date=16 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625184242/https://www.keralartc.com/html/aboutus.html |archive-date=25 June 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> using 6,241 buses on 6,389 routes. At present the corporation has 5373 buses running on 4795 schedules.<ref>{{cite web |title=KeralaRTC Official Website |url=https://www.keralartc.com/history.html |website=www.keralartc.com |access-date=13 May 2019 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121221950/https://www.keralartc.com/history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gunaseelan |first1=G. John |title=Indian Transport System: An Appraisal of Nationalised Bus Services |year=1994 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-8170995562 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Cm_MZcVo-MC&q=Kerala+State+Road+Transport+Corporation%2C&pg=PA194 |language=en}}</ref> |
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== Economy == |
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The [[Kerala Urban Road Transport Corporation]] (KURTC) was formed under KSRTC in 2015 to manage affairs related to urban transportation.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=422}} It was inaugurated on 12 April 2015 at [[Thevara]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=423}} |
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{{main|Economy of Kerala}} |
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=== Railways === |
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[[Image:SouthernIndia1b.jpg|thumb|right|In the Backwaters, waterways are key thoroughfares for merchants selling fish, rice, and other products. Pictured is a waterway bordering a farm.]] |
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{{Main|List of Railway Stations in Kerala}} |
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[[Southern Railway (India)|Southern Railway]] zone of [[Indian Railways]] operates all railway lines in the state connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of [[Idukki district|Idukki]] and [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://khsrcl.com/downloads/ch-1.pdf |publisher=Delhi Metro Rail Corporation |access-date=18 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906213234/https://khsrcl.com/downloads/ch-1.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the [[Southern Railway zone|Southern Railway]]; [[Thiruvananthapuram Railway division]] headquartered at [[Thiruvananthapuram]] and [[Palakkad Railway Division]] headquartered at [[Palakkad]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Zonal Dream Of Railway Kerala |url=https://www.yentha.com/news/view/features/the-zonal-dream-of-railway-kerala |work=yentha.com |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025033001/https://www.yentha.com/news/view/features/the-zonal-dream-of-railway-kerala |archive-date=25 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Thiruvananthapuram Central]] (TVC) is the busiest railway station in the state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article1807051.ece |title=Thiruvananthapuram Central to be made a world-class station |date=7 March 2007 |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=8 May 2016}}</ref> Kerala's major railway stations are: |
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Since its incorporation as a state, Kerala's economy largely operated under [[welfare economy|welfare]] based [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] principles. In recent years, the state has [[Neoliberalism|liberalised]] its increasingly [[mixed economy]], allowing greater participation by the [[free market]] and [[foreign direct investment]]. Kerala's nominal [[gross domestic product]] (as of 2004–2005) is an estimated 89451.99 crore [[Indian rupee|INR]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala's GDP hits an all-time high |work=[[Rediff.com|Rediff]] |publisher=Press Trust of India |date=[[2006-03-09]] |accessdate=2007-11-12 |url=http://www.rediff.com/money/2006/feb/09ker.htm }}</ref> while recent GDP growth (9.2% in 2004–2005 and 7.4% in 2003–2004) has been robust compared to historical averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8">{{harvnb|Mohindra|2003|p=8}}.</ref> and 5.99%<ref name="GOK_2004_2">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=2}}.</ref> in the 1990s).<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8">{{harvnb|Mohindra|2003|p=8}}.</ref><!--Rapid expansion in services like banking, real estate, and tourism (13.8% growth in 2004–2005) outpaced growth in both agriculture (2.5% in 2004–2005) and the industrial sector (−2% in 2004–2005).<ref name="PTI_2006"/>--> Nevertheless, relatively few major corporations and manufacturing plants choose to operate in Kerala.<ref name="Brenkert_2003_49">{{harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=49}}.</ref> This is mitigated by [[remittance]]s sent home by overseas Keralites,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/07/world/asia/07migrate.html?_r=1&oref=slogin|title=Jobs Abroad Support 'Model' State in India |date= |year=2007 |month=[[September 07]] |work=New York Times|accessdate=2007-09-07}}</ref> which contributes around 20% of state GDP.<ref name="Hari_Kannan_2002">Hari, KS & KP Kannan (2002), "Kerala's Gulf Connection: Emigration, Remittances and their Macro Economic Impact (Working Paper 328)", Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum).</ref> Kerala's per capita [[GDP]] of 11,819 [[Indian rupee|INR]]<ref name="Raman_2005">{{harvnb|Raman|2005}}.</ref> is significantly higher than the all India average,<ref name="Mohindra_2003_8">{{harvnb|Mohindra|2003|p=8}}.</ref> although it still lies far below the world average. Additionally, Kerala's [[Human Development Index]] and [[standard of living]] statistics are the nation's best.<ref name="Varma_2005">{{cite news |author=Varma MS |title=Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap |work=The Financial Express |date=2005-04-04 |accessdate=2007-11-12 |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 }}</ref> This apparent paradox—high human development and low economic development—is often dubbed the ''Kerala phenomenon'' or the ''[[Kerala model]]'' of development,<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_1">{{harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Brenkert_2003_48">{{harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=48}}.</ref> and arises mainly from Kerala's strong service sector. |
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{{columns-list|colwidth=19em| |
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[[Image:Tea Estate Munnar Kerala India.jpg|thumb|left|125px|Tea gardens near [[Munnar]], Idukki district.]] |
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* [[Thiruvananthapuram Central]] (TVC) |
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* [[Ernakulam Junction railway station|Ernakulam Junction (South)]] (ERS) |
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* [[Kozhikode]] (CLT) |
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* [[Kollam Junction railway station|Kollam Junction]] (QLN) |
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* [[Thrissur railway station|Thrissur]] (TCR) |
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* [[Palakkad Junction]] (PGT) |
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* [[Kannur]] (CAN) |
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* [[Shornur Junction|Shoranur Junction]] (SRR) |
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* [[Ernakulam Town]] (North) (ERN) |
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* [[Kottayam]] (KTYM) |
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* [[Chengannur railway station|Chengannur]] (CNGR) |
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* [[Alappuzha railway station|Alappuzha]] (ALLP) |
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* [[Kochuveli]] (KCVL) |
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* [[Kayamkulam]] Junction (KYJ) |
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* [[Tirur railway station|Tirur]] (TIR) |
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* [[Kasaragod railway station|Kasaragod]] (KGQ) |
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* [[Aluva railway station|Aluva]] (AWY) |
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* [[Thalassery]] (TLY)}} |
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The first railway line in the state was laid from [[Tirur]] to [[Chaliyam]] ([[Kozhikode]]), with the oldest Railway Station at [[Tirur railway station|Tirur]], passing through [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Parappanangadi]], [[Vallikkunnu]], and [[Kadalundi]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/lifeline-of-malabar-turns-125/article4250472.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |title='Lifeline' of Malabar turns 125 |date=29 December 2012 |access-date=19 December 2020 |last1=Radhakrishnan |first1=S. Anil}}</ref><ref name="Trr">{{Cite news |title=ആ ചൂളംവിളി പിന്നെയും പിന്നെയും... |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/malappuram/specials/50-years-of-malappuram/kerala-first-railway-line-tirur-to-beypore-1.3880175 |date=17 June 2019 |access-date=19 December 2020 |work=Mathrubhumi |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130082010/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/malappuram/specials/50-years-of-malappuram/kerala-first-railway-line-tirur-to-beypore-1.3880175 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The railway was extended from [[Tirur]] to [[Kuttippuram]] through [[Tirunavaya]] in the same year.<ref name="Trr" /> It was again extended from [[Kuttippuram]] to [[Shoranur]] through [[Pattambi]] in 1862, resulting in the establishment of [[Shoranur Junction railway station]], which is also the largest railway junction in the state.<ref name="Trr" /> Major railway transport between [[Chaliyam]]–[[Tirur]] began on 12 March 1861,<ref name="Trr" /> from [[Tirur]]-[[Shoranur]] in 1862,<ref name="Trr" /> from [[Shoranur–Cochin Harbour section]] in 1902, from [[Kollam–Sengottai branch line|Kollam–Sengottai]] on 1 July 1904, [[Kollam–Thiruvananthapuram trunk line|Kollam–Thiruvananthapuram]] on 4 January 1918, from Nilambur-[[Shoranur]] in 1927, from [[Ernakulam]]–Kottayam in 1956, from Kottayam–Kollam in 1958, from Thiruvananthapuram–Kanyakumari in 1979 and from the [[Thrissur-Guruvayur Section]] in 1994.<ref>{{cite web |title=RailKerala |url=https://www.trainweb.org/railkerala/articles/history.htm |publisher=Trainweb |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-date=3 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103182822/http://www.trainweb.org/railkerala/articles/history.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Nilambur–Shoranur line]] is one of the shortest [[broad gauge]] railway lines in [[India]].<ref name="nbr">{{cite web |url=https://nilamburnews.com/m_train.htm |title=The Nilambur news |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=13 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920133828/https://nilamburnews.com/m_train.htm |archive-date=20 September 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It was established in the British era for the transportation of [[Nilambur]] teaks and [[Angadipuram Laterite]] to [[United Kingdom]] through the port at [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="nbr" /> The presence of [[Palakkad Gap]] on [[Western Ghats]] makes the [[Shoranur Junction railway station]] important as it connects the southwestern coast of India ([[Mangalore]]) with the southeastern coast ([[Chennai]]).<ref name="Trade">{{Cite news |last=Subramanian |first=T. S |date=28 January 2007 |title=Roman connection in Tamil Nadu |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th |url-status=live |access-date=28 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919235748/https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007%2F01%2F28%2F&prd=th |archive-date=19 September 2013}}</ref> |
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==== Kochi Metro ==== |
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The service sector (including tourism, public administration, banking and finance, transportation, and communications—63.8% of statewide GDP in 2002–2003) along with the agricultural and fishing industries (together 17.2% of GDP) dominate Kerala's economy.<ref name="GOK_2004_2">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=2}}.</ref><ref name="GOK_2004c_24">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=24}}.</ref> Nearly half of Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income.<ref name="GOK_2005c">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005c}}.</ref> Some 600 varieties<ref name="Sreedharan_2004_5">{{harvnb|Sreedharan|2004|p=5}}.</ref> of rice (Kerala's most important [[staple food]] and [[cereal]] crop<ref name="Balachandran_2004_5">{{harvnb|Balachandran|2004|p=5}}.</ref>) are harvested from 3105.21 km² (a decline from 5883.4 km² in 1990<ref name="Balachandran_2004_5">{{harvnb|Balachandran|2004|p=5}}.</ref>) of [[paddy field]]s; 688,859 [[tonne]]s are produced per annum.<ref name="GOK_2005c">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005c}}.</ref> Other key crops include coconut (899,198 ha), tea, coffee (23% of Indian production,<ref name="Joy_2004_13">{{harvnb|Joy|2004|p=13}}.</ref> or 57,000 tonnes<ref name="Joy_2004_6-7">{{harvnb|Joy|2004|pp=6–7}}.</ref>), rubber, cashews, and spices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 1.050 million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes (1999–2000 estimate); 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590 km coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland. |
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{{Main|Kochi Metro}} |
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[[File:Kochi Metro train at Palarivattom, Aug 2017.jpg|right|thumb|[[Kochi Metro]] train at [[Palarivattom]] Metro station]] |
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[[Image:Bhavaniinterior.jpg|thumb|right|Interior of the [[Technopark, Kerala|Technopark]], Thiruvananthapuram.]] |
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[[Kochi Metro]] is the metro rail system in the city of Kochi. It is the only metro rail system in Kerala. Construction began in 2012, with the first phase being set up at an estimated cost of {{INRConvert|51.81|b}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/article3219584.ece |title=Metro rail: DMRC demands prompt handing over of land, funds |date=24 March 2012 |newspaper=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India |access-date=24 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/DMRC-sets-early-deadline-for-Kochi-Metro-rail-project/articleshow/20266738.cms |title=DMRC sets early deadline for Kochi Metro rail project |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=26 May 2013 |access-date=27 June 2013}}</ref> The Kochi Metro uses 65-metre long [[Alstom Metropolis|Metropolis]] train sets built and designed by [[Alstom]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/infrastructure/alstoms-new-metropolis-train-set-for-kochi-metro/slideshow/48952471.cms |title=Alstom's new Metropolis train set for Kochi Metro |website=The Economic Times |access-date=21 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.alstom.com/press-centre/2015/9/alstoms-metropolis-for-kochi-design-unveiled-for-the-first-time/ |title=Alstom's Metropolis for Kochi – design unveiled for the first time |website=www.alstom.com |access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref><ref name="The Hindu">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/metro-train-to-ply-every-5-minutes-carry-1000-persons/article4747161.ece |title=Metro train to ply every 5 minutes, carry 1,000 persons |newspaper=The Hindu |date=25 May 2013 |access-date=27 June 2013}}</ref> It is the first metro system in India to use a [[communication-based train control]] (CBTC) system for signalling and telecommunication.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/India%E2%80%99s-first-CBTC-metro-system-to-be-ready-in-March/article17335678.ece |title=India's first CBTC metro system to be ready in March |last=Paul |first=John L. |date=20 February 2017 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location=[[Kochi]] |access-date=20 January 2018}}</ref> In October 2017, Kochi Metro was named the "Best Urban Mobility Project" in India by the [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs|Urban Development Ministry]], as part of the Urban Mobility India (UMI) International Conference hosted by the ministry every year.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://english.manoramaonline.com/news/kerala/2017/11/01/koci-metro-is-countrys-best-urban-mobility-project.html |title=Kochi Metro zooms past Chennai, Nagpur to emerge best |newspaper=[[Malayala Manorama]] |date=31 October 2017 |access-date=3 November 2017}}</ref> |
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=== Airports === |
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Traditional industries manufacturing such items as [[coir]], handlooms, and [[handicraft]]s employ around one million people. Around 180,000 small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites; 511 medium and large scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. A small mining sector (0.3% of GDP)<ref name="GOK_2004c_24">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=24}}.</ref> involves extraction of [[ilmenite]], [[kaolin]], [[bauxite]], [[silica]], [[quartz]], [[rutile]], [[zircon]], and [[sillimanite]].<ref name="GOK_2005c">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005c}}.</ref> [[Home gardens]] and animal husbandry also provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other major sectors are [[Tourism in Kerala|tourism]], manufacturing, and [[business process outsourcing]]. Kerala's unemployment rate is variously estimated at 19.2%<ref name="Rajan_2005_4">{{harvnb|Rajan|Zachariah|2005|p=4}}.</ref> and 20.77%,<ref name="GOK_2004_4">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=4}}.</ref> although [[underemployment]] of those classified as "employed", low employability of many job-seeking youths, and a mere 13.5% female [[labor force|participation rate]] are significant problems.<ref name="Nair_2004_5">{{harvnb|Nair|2004|p=5}}.</ref><ref name="Nair_2004_13">{{harvnb|Nair|2004|p=13}}.</ref><ref name="GOK_2004_4">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004|p=4}}.</ref> Estimates of the statewide [[Poverty line|poverty rate]] range from 12.71%<ref>{{cite news |author=Dhar A |title=260 million Indians still below poverty line |publisher=The Hindu |date=[[2006-01-28]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/01/28/stories/2006012803971100.htm }}</ref> to as high as 36%.<ref name="GOK_2006">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2006|p=1}}.</ref> |
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{{Main|List of airports in Kerala state}} |
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[[File:Cochin International Airport Limited.jpg|right|thumb|[[Cochin International Airport]], the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy]] |
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== Transport == |
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Kerala has four international airports: {{Cast listing| |
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* [[Thiruvananthapuram International Airport]] |
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* [[Cochin International Airport]] |
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* [[Calicut International Airport]] |
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* [[Kannur International Airport]] |
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}} |
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[[Kollam Airport]], established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article252269.ece |title=Aviation school proposal evokes mixed response |journal=The Hindu |date=8 June 2009 |access-date=21 July 2015}}</ref> [[Kannur]] had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 when [[Tata Group|Tata]] airlines operated weekly flights between [[Mumbai]] and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping at [[Goa]] and Kannur.<ref>{{cite news |author=Sudhakaran, P |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Kannur-flew-way-before-its-first-airport/articleshow/48951701.cms |title=Kannur flew, way before its first airport |newspaper=The Times of India |date=14 September 2015 |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |access-date=13 November 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518022943/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Kannur-flew-way-before-its-first-airport/articleshow/48951701.cms |archive-date=18 May 2017}}</ref> Trivandrum International Airport, managed by the [[Airport Authority of India]], is among the oldest existing airports in South India. [[Calicut International Airport]], which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in the [[Malabar District|Malabar region]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Silver-jubilee-does-not-bring-cheer-to-Karipur-airport-users/articleshow/12498757.cms |work=The Times of India |title=Silver jubilee does not bring cheer to Karipur airport users |date=2 April 2012}}</ref> Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the [[List of the busiest airports in India|seventh busiest]] in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by [[CIAL Solar Power Project|solar energy]]<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |last=Menon |first=Supriya |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34421419 |title=How is the world's first solar-powered airport faring? – BBC News |publisher=Bbc.com |date=9 October 2015 |access-date=21 December 2018 |work=BBC News}}</ref> and has won the coveted [[Champions of the Earth|Champion of the Earth]] award, the highest environmental honour instituted by the [[United Nations]].<ref name="UN">{{cite news |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2018/jul/26/cial-chosen-for-un-environmental-honour-1848990.html |title=CIAL chosen for UN environmental honour |newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=26 July 2018}}</ref> Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a [[public limited company]]; it was funded by nearly 10,000 [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|non-resident Indians]] from 30 countries.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The three airports in Kerala can be in business without affecting each other |publisher=[[Rediff.com|Rediff]] |date=6 December 1999 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.rediff.com/business/1999/dec/06inter.htm}}</ref> |
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Other than civilian airports, [[Kochi]] has a naval airport named [[INS Garuda]]. Thiruvananthapuram airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the [[Indian Air Force]]. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala. |
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=== Water transport === |
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{{seealso|Roads in Kerala}} |
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{{Main|Ports in Kerala}} |
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[[File:Cochin Ship Yard Cranes.JPG|alt=|thumb|230px|Cranes at the [[Cochin Shipyard]]]] |
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[[File:Port of Kollam, Mar 2016.jpg|alt=|thumb|230px|View of [[Kollam Port]] from [[Tangasseri]]]] |
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Kerala has [[Ports in Kerala|two major ports, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports]], 4 of which have immigration check point facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kollam-port-gets-icp-clearance/article68293607.ece |date=15 Jun 2024 |title=Kollam port gets ICP clearance |work=The Hindu |access-date=16 Jun 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-03/ICPList_05032024..pdf |date= |title=LIST OF IMMIGRATION CHECK POSTs |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs - Govt. of India |access-date=16 Jun 2024}}</ref> The major port in the state is at [[Cochin Port|Kochi]], which has an area of 8.27 km<sup>2</sup>.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The [[Vizhinjam International Seaport]], which is currently classified as an major port, they only completed Phase I others are under construction.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} Other intermediate ports include [[Beypore]], [[Kollam]], and [[Azhikode and Azhikkal|Azheekal]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The remaining ports are classified as minor which include [[Manjeshwaram]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Nileshwaram]], [[Kannur]], [[Thalassery]], [[Vadakara]], [[Ponnani]], [[Munambam]], Manakodam, [[Alappuzha]], [[Kayamkulam]], [[Neendakara]], and [[Valiyathura]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The [[Kerala Maritime Institute]] is headquartered at [[Neendakara]], which has an additional subcentre at [[Kodungallur]] too.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The state has numerous [[Kerala backwaters|backwaters]], which are used for commercial [[inland navigation]]. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is {{convert|1687|km}}.<ref name="google14">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA207 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=207}}</ref> The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the [[water hyacinth]], lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system. |
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The {{convert|616|km}} long West-Coast Canal is the longest waterway in state connecting [[Kasaragod]] to [[Poovar]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=423}} It is divided into five sections: {{convert|41|km}} long [[Kasaragod]]-[[Nileshwaram]] reach, {{convert|188|km}} long [[Nileshwaram]]-[[Kozhikode]] reach, {{convert|160|km}} [[Kozhikode]]-[[Kottappuram, Thrissur|Kottapuram]] reach, {{convert|168|km}} long [[National Waterway 3]] ([[Kottappuram, Thrissur|Kottapuram]]-[[Kollam]] reach), and {{convert|74|km}} long [[Kollam]]-[[Vizhinjam]] reach.<ref name="eco" /> The [[Conolly Canal]], which is a part of West-Coast Canal, connects the city of [[Kozhikode]] with [[Kochi]] through [[Ponnani]], passing through the districts of [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]] and [[Thrissur district|Thrissur]]. It begins at [[Vadakara]].<ref name="hindu_jan08" /> It was constructed in the year 1848 under the orders of then [[District collector]] of [[Malabar District|Malabar]], H. V. Conolly, initially to facilitate movement of goods to [[Kallayi]] Port from hinter lands of Malabar through [[Kuttiady]] and [[Korapuzha]] river systems.<ref name="hindu_jan08">{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/pp/2008/01/05/stories/2008010550730300.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923092718/https://www.hindu.com/pp/2008/01/05/stories/2008010550730300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 September 2010 |title=Reviving the historic Canoly Canal |date=5 January 2005 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=16 August 2009}}</ref> It was the main waterway for the cargo movement between Kozhikode and Kochi through [[Ponnani]], for more than a century.<ref name="hindu_jan08" /> Other important waterways in Kerala include the [[Alappuzha]]-[[Changanassery]] Canal, [[Alappuzha]]-[[Kottayam]]-[[Athirampuzha]] Canal, and [[Kottayam]]-[[Vaikom]] Canal.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} |
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[[Image:marinedrive.jpg|thumb|right|A bridge on the [[Marine Drive, Kochi|Marine Drive]] walkway in Kochi.]] |
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=== Kochi water metro === |
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Kerala has {{km to mi|145704}} of roads (4.2% of India's total). This translates to about {{km to mi|4.62|precision=2}} of road per thousand population, compared to an all India average of {{km to mi|2.59|precision=2}}. Virtually all of Kerala's villages are connected by road. Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. [[Roads in Kerala|Kerala's road]] density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population density. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest.<ref>{{cite news |author=Kumar KG |title=Accidentally notorious |publisher=[[The Hindu]] [[Business Line]] |date=[[2003-09-22]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2003/09/22/stories/2003092201111300.htm }}</ref> |
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[[File:KWM Boat.jpg|alt=|thumb|230px|[[Kochi Water Metro]]]] |
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{{Main|Kochi Water Metro}} |
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Kochi Water Metro (KWM) is an integrated [[ferry]] transport system serving the [[Greater Cochin|Greater Kochi]] region in Kerala, India. It is the first water metro system in India and the first integrated water transport system of this size in Asia, which connects [[Kochi]]'s 10 island communities with the [[Ernakulam|mainland]] through a fleet of 78 battery-operated [[Electric boat|electric hybrid boats]] plying along 38 terminals and 16 routes spanning 76 kilometres.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 April 2023 |title=Kochi Water Metro is Asia's first integrated water transport system: Chief Minister |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/district-news/thiruvananthapuram/2023/04/25/pinarayi-vijayan-about-kochi-water-metro-project.html |access-date=25 April 2023 |website=www.manoramaonline.com |archive-date=25 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425101856/https://www.manoramaonline.com/district-news/thiruvananthapuram/2023/04/25/pinarayi-vijayan-about-kochi-water-metro-project.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It is integrated with the [[Kochi Metro]] and serves as a feeder service to the suburbs along the rivers where transport accessibility is limited.<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 June 2016 |title=Water metro tops priority list |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/Water-metro-tops-priority-list/article14396969.ece |access-date=25 April 2023 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020175431/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/Water-metro-tops-priority-list/article14396969.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[Image:Tvmcentral.jpg|thumb|left|[[Trivandrum Central]] Railway Station.]] |
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India's national highway network includes a Kerala-wide total of {{km to mi|1524|precision=0}}, which is 2.6% of the national total. There are eight designated national highways in the state. The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the [[GIS]]-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the {{km to mi|1600}} of roadways that compose the [[List of State Highways in Kerala|state highways system]]; it also oversees major district roads.<ref>{{cite news |author=Kumar VS |title=Kerala State transport project second phase to be launched next month |publisher=[[The Hindu]] [[Business Line]] |date=[[2006-01-20]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012002272100.htm }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Kumar VS |title=Institutional Strengthening Action Plan (ISAP) |work=Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala |date=2003 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp }}</ref> Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two [[List of National Highways in India|national highways]], [[National Highway 47 (India)|NH 47]], and [[National Highway 17 (India)|NH 17]]. |
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The state has major international airports at [[Trivandrum International Airport|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Cochin International Airport|Kochi]], and [[Calicut International Airport|Kozhikode]], that link the state with the rest of the nation and the world. The new airports are coming up in [[Aranmula]], near to [[Kozhencherry]] in Pathanamthitta district, Kannur, and Idukky. The Cochin International Airport at Kochi is the first international airport in India that was built without [[Government of India|Central Government]] funds, and is also the country's first publicly owned airport.<ref>{{cite news |title=The three airports in Kerala can be in business without affecting each other |publisher=[[Rediff.com|Rediff]] |date=[[1999-12-06]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.rediff.com/business/1999/dec/06inter.htm }}</ref> The backwaters traversing the state are an important mode of [[inland navigation]]. The [[Indian Railways]]' [[Southern Railway (India)|Southern Railway]] line runs throughout the state, connecting all major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad. Kerala's major railway stations are [[Trivandrum Central]], Kollam Junction, [[Ernakulam Junction]], Thrissur, Kozhikode, [[Shoranur|Shoranur Junction]], and Palakkad. |
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== Demographics == |
== Demographics == |
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{{ |
{{Main|Demographics of Kerala}} |
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{{See also|Ethnic groups in Kerala|List of people from Kerala}} |
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{{Historical population |
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| source = [[Census of India]]<ref>[https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html Decadal Variation In Population Since 1901]</ref> |
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| 1901 | 6396262 |
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| 1911 | 7147673 |
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| 1921 | 7802127 |
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| 1931 | 9507050 |
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| 1941 | 11031541 |
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| 1951 | 13549118 |
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| 1961 | 16903715 |
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| 1971 | 21347375 |
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| 1981 | 25453680 |
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| 1991 | 29098518 |
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| 2001 | 31841374 |
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| 2011 | 33406061 |
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}} |
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[[File:Kerala Population Pyramid in 5-year age groups (2011 census).png|left|thumbnail|The [[Population pyramid]] of Kerala]] |
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Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km<sup>2</sup>, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |title=Size, Growth Rate and Distribution of Population |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter3.pdf |website=Census 2011 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> {{As of|2011}}, Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.<ref name="Census2011cities" /> In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.6%.<ref name="Census 2011" /> Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.<ref name="Census 2011" /> Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km<sup>2</sup>, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km<sup>2</sup>, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf |title=Shoreline change assessment for Kerala coast |publisher=National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment and Forests |author1=R Ramesh |author2=R Purvaja |author3=A Senthil Vel |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530204904/http://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Kerala is the [[Urbanisation in India|second-most urbanised major state]] in the country with [[List of cities in Kerala by urban area growth|47.7% urban population]] according to the [[2011 Census of India]].<ref name="ubn">{{Cite web |url=https://mohua.gov.in/cms/level-of-urbanisation.php |title=Level of Urbanisation in Indian States |date= |website=mohua.gov.in |publisher=Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India}}</ref> Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.<ref name="Census 2011" /> The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal ''[[Adivasi]]s'', 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.<ref name="Kalathil_2004">{{Cite book |author=Kalathil MJ |year=2004 |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |title=Withering Valli: Alienation, Degradation, and Enslavement of Tribal Women in Attappady |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621690 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/66.pdf |access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|10–12}} |
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{{Major cities in Kerala}} |
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=== Gender === |
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[[Image:Fischer backwaters.JPG|thumb|right|Most Keralites, such as this fisherman, live in rural areas.]] |
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There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 March 2017 |title=International Women's Day 2017: Kerala and the myth of matriarchy |url=https://www.firstpost.com/living/kerala-and-the-myth-of-matriarchy-misogyny-is-as-much-part-of-the-state-as-matrilineal-communities-3315458.html |access-date=16 July 2021 |website=Firstpost}}</ref> As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lankina |author2=Tomila V. |author3=Getachew, Lullit |year=2013 |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/44929/1/Competitive%20religious%20entrepreneurs%20(lsero).pdf |title=Competitive religious entrepreneurs: Christian missionaries and female education in colonial and post-colonial India |journal=British Journal of Political Science |volume=43 |pages=103–31 |doi=10.1017/s0007123412000178 |s2cid=145185494}}</ref> Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate,<ref>{{Cite web |last=ലേഖകൻ |first=മാധ്യമം |date=10 July 2021 |title=ജനസംഖ്യാദിനം; അറിയാം 21 കാര്യങ്ങൾ {{!}} Madhyamam |url=https://www.madhyamam.com/velicham/special-stories/july-11-world-population-day-821671 |access-date=16 July 2021|website=www.madhyamam.com |language=en}}</ref> which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's [[Gender Development Index]] was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]], contributed to it.<ref name="Joseph">{{cite book |author=Ammu Joseph |editor=Oommen M.A. |year=1999 |title=Rethinking Development: Kerala's Development Experience |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8170227656 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lzV3bQh-L94C |pages=479–86 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> |
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Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India; it is the only state where women outnumber men.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005" />{{rp|2}} While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts etc., these tools have still not translated into full, [[Women's rights|equal rights]] for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences [[social mobility]].<ref>Brenda Maddox mentions in: Maddox, Brenda. "A Marxist Paradise For Women?" New Statesman. (London, England: 1996) 128 no4440 30 January 14, 1999.</ref><ref>Antherjanam, Lalithambika. Cast Me Out If You Will. New York: The Feminist Press, 1997.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |year=1987 |title=Governments and Culture: How Women Made Kerala Literate |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=447–72 |doi=10.2307/2758883 |jstor=2758883}}</ref> |
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The 31.8 million<ref name="ORG_2001b">{{harvnb|Office of the Registrar General|2001b}}.</ref> of Kerala’s compound population is predominantly of [[Malayali]] ethnicity, while the rest is mostly made up of [[Jew]]ish and [[Arab]] elements in both culture and ancestry. Kerala is also home to 321,000 indigenous tribal ''[[Adivasi]]s'' (1.10% of the populace), who are mostly concentrated in the eastern districts.<ref name="Kalathil_2004_10">{{harvnb|Kalathil|2004|p=10}}.</ref><ref name="Kalathil_2004_12">{{harvnb|Kalathil|2004|p=12}}.</ref> [[Malayalam]] is Kerala's [[official language]]; [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and various ''Adivasi'' languages are also spoken by [[ethnic minority|ethnic minorities]]. |
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==== LGBT rights ==== |
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[[Image:Kerala-girl-left.jpg|thumb|left|125px|A [[Malayali]] woman wearing a ''[[sari]]'']] |
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{{Main|LGBT rights in Kerala}} |
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[[Image:Kerala-mundu.JPG|thumb|left|125px|A Malayali man wearing a ''[[Mundu]]'' with a shirt]] |
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[[File:Kerala Pride March 2018 IMG 20181007 162532.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Participants at a [[pride parade]] in [[Thrissur]] in October 2018]] |
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Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues in [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.in/2015/11/12/kerala-government-transge_n_8543410.html |title=Kerala Government Has Unveiled A Policy To Enforce Constitutional Rights Of Transgenders |website=The Huffington Post |date=12 November 2015 |access-date=28 June 2016}}</ref> Kerala is one of the first [[States and union territories of India|states in India]] to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced free [[sex reassignment surgery]] through government hospitals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://scroll.in/article/804496/why-keralas-free-sex-change-surgeries-will-offer-a-new-lifeline-for-the-transgender-community |title=Why Kerala's free sex-change surgeries will offer a new lifeline for the transgender community |last=Devasia |first=T. K. |website=Scroll.in |date=19 March 2016 |language=en-US |access-date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/After-She-Taxi-Kerala-to-launch-G-Taxi-for-transgenders/articleshow/50792517.cms |title=After She-Taxi, Kerala to launch G-Taxi for transgenders |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=31 January 2016 |agency=PTI |access-date=25 March 2016 |location=Thiruvananthapuram}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-how-kerala-left-the-country-behind-on-transgender-rights-2145017 |title=How Kerala left the country behind on transgender rights |website=dna |language=en-US |access-date=19 March 2016 |date=14 November 2015}}</ref> [[Queerala]] is one of the major LGBT organisations in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Affirming their right, they march with pride |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/affirming-their-right-they-march-with-pride/article19484625.ece |date=13 August 2017 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-to-host-its-first-gay-parade/articleshow/6112610.cms |title=Kerala to host its first gay parade |website=The Times of India |date=30 June 2010}}</ref> |
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In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "[[third gender]]" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kerala-govt-passes-order-use-transgender-instead-thirdother-gender-104584 |website=www.thenewsminute.com |access-date=8 July 2019 |title=Kerala govt passes order to use 'transgender' instead of 'third/other gender' |date=30 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/only-transgender-in-official-communication/article28235748.ece |title=Only 'transgender' in official communication |last=Roshni |first=R. k |date=30 June 2019 |work=The Hindu |access-date=8 July 2019 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> |
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Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's people; at 819 persons per km², its land is three times as densely settled as the rest of India.<ref name="ORG_2001">{{harvnb|Office of the Registrar General|2001}}.</ref> Kerala's rate of population growth is India's lowest,<ref name="GOK_2004c_26">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=26}}.</ref> and Kerala's decadal growth (9.42% in 2001) is less than half the all-India average of 21.34%.<ref name="GOK_2004c_27">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004c|p=27}}.</ref> Whereas Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991, the population stood at less than 32 million by 2001. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.<ref name="GOK_2005b">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2005b}}.</ref> |
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In the 2021 Mathrubhumi Youth Manifesto Survey conducted on people aged between 15 and 35, majority (74.3%) of the respondents supported legislation for same-sex marriage while 25.7% opposed it.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/mobile/social/social-issues/youth-response-on-homosexual-marriage-mathrubhumi-youth-manifesto-1.5546662 |title=സ്വവര്ഗ്ഗ വിവാഹം നിയമപരമാക്കണമെന്ന് കേരളത്തിലെ യുവജനങ്ങള് |newspaper=Mathrubhumi |language=Malayalam |date=26 March 2021 |access-date=29 March 2021}}</ref> |
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Women compose 51.42% of the population.<ref name="Venkitakrishnan_Kurien_2003_26">{{harvnb|Venkitakrishnan|Kurien|2003|p=26}}.</ref> Kerala's principal religions are Hinduism (56.1%), Islam (24.7%), and Christianity (19%).<ref name="ORG_India_2004">{{harvnb|Office of the Registrar General|2004}}.</ref> Remnants of a once substantial [[Cochin Jews|Cochin Jewish]] population also practice Judaism. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Heller P |title=Social capital as a product of class mobilization and state intervention: Industrial workers in Kerala, India |publisher=[[University of California]] |pages=49–50 |date=[[4 May]] [[2003]] |accessdate=2007-02-25 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2999683.stm }}</ref> |
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[[Image:Kerala 15.jpg|thumb|right|Rural women processing coir threads.]] |
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=== Human Development Index === |
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Kerala's society is less patriarchical than the rest of the [[Third World]].<ref name="McKibben_2006"/><ref name="Lindberg_2004_18-19">{{harvnb|Lindberg|2004|pp=18–19}}.</ref> Gender relations are among the most equitable in India and the Third World<ref name="GOK_2004r_366">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2004r|p=366}}</ref>, despite discrepancies among low caste men and women.<ref name="Lindberg_2004_1">{{harvnb|Lindberg|2004|p=1}}.</ref> Certain Hindu communities such as the [[Nair]]s, some [[Ezhava]]s and the Muslims around [[Kannur]] used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as ''[[marumakkathayam]]'', although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence. Other Muslims, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas follow ''makkathayam'', a patrilineal system.<ref name="GOK_2002b">{{harvnb|Government of Kerala|2002b}}.</ref> Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>. |
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{{See also|Kerala Model}} |
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[[File:2006 Human Development Index for India map by states, HDI data by GoI and UNDP India.svg|thumb|[[Human Development Index]] map for Indian states in 2006, as calculated by [[Government of India]] and [[United Nations Development Programme]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.in.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/gendering_human_development_indices_summary_report.pdf |title=Gendering Human Development Indices |date=March 2009 |publisher=Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India with UNDP India}}</ref>]] |
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Under a democratic communist local government, Kerala has achieved a record of social development much more advanced than the Indian average.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Chun |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/63178961 |title=The transformation of Chinese socialism |date=2006 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-3785-0 |location=Durham [N.C.] |pages=298 |oclc=63178961}}</ref> {{As of|2015}}, Kerala has a [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.<ref name="snhdi-gdl">{{cite web |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |website=Global Data Lab |publisher=Institute for Management Research, Radboud University |access-date=25 September 2018 |language=en}}</ref> It was 0.790 in 2007–08<ref name="IDHR 2011">{{cite web |title=India Human Development Report 2011: Towards Social Inclusion |url=https://www.im4change.org/docs/340IHDR_Summary.pdf |publisher=Institute of Applied Manpower Research, [[Planning Commission (India)|Planning Commission]], [[Government of India]] |access-date=24 October 2014}}</ref> and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries.<ref name="IDHR 2011" /> Comparatively higher spending by the government on [[primary education|primary level education]], [[health care]] and the elimination of [[poverty in India|poverty]] from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;<ref name="UNDP2005">{{cite web |title=Kerala HDR 2005 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/nationalreports/asiathepacific/india/name,3397,en.html |work=Human Development Report |publisher=United Nations |location=Asia and the Pacific |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="UNDP20054">{{cite web |title=Human Development Report 2005 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR05_complete.pdf |work=Human Development Report |publisher=United Nations |location=Asia and the Pacific |access-date=14 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310193948/https://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR05_complete.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> the report was prepared by the central government's [[Institute of Applied Manpower Research]].<ref name="hdi kerala chart">{{cite web |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/wire-news/human-development-index-rose-21-per-cent-kerala-tops-chart_603650.html |title=Human Development Index rose 21 per cent; Kerala tops chart |date=21 October 2011 |work=[[CNBC]] |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="hdi kerala">{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/growth-reforms-lift-living-standards-in-india-human-development-index/articleshow/10447495.cms |title=Growth, reforms lift living standards in India: Human development Index |date=22 October 2011 |access-date=14 November 2015 |work=Economic Times}}</ref> However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.<ref name="UNDP2005" /> Kerala is also widely regarded as the [[public hygiene|cleanest]] and healthiest state in India.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Sunil Mani |author2=Anjini Kochar |title=Kerala's Economy: Crouching Tiger, Sacred Cows |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKeRAtvXl8oC&pg=PA121 |access-date=24 September 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-8126413591 |page=121}}</ref> |
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According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest [[literacy rate]] (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96%. In the [[Kottayam district]], the literacy rate was 97%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pincodeindia.net/literacy-rate-of-kerala.php |title=Literacy Rate in Kerala – 2018 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207105113/https://www.pincodeindia.net/literacy-rate-of-kerala.php |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="pc-census2011" /><ref name="IBNLiteracy2013" /> The [[life expectancy]] in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India {{As of|2011|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-tops-in-literacy-rate-health-services/article2562589.ece |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |title=Kerala tops in literacy rate, health services |date=22 October 2011 |first=J. |last=Balaji |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.<ref>{{cite book |title=Human Development Report 2005 Kerala |publisher=State Planning Board |author=Centre for Development Studies Thiruvananthapuram |year=2006 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala}}</ref> By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.<ref name="princeton6" /> The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Press Note on Poverty Estimates, 2011–12 |url=https://planningcommission.nic.in/news/pre_pov2307.pdf |website=planningcommission.gov.in |publisher=Planning Commission, Government of India |access-date=27 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628120737/https://planningcommission.nic.in/news/pre_pov2307.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.<ref>{{Cite report |title=EFA [Education for All] Global Monitoring Report |url=https://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf |year=2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923014605/https://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2004 |page=156 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Kutty VR |year=2000 |title=Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India |journal=Health Policy and Planning |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=103–09 |doi=10.1093/heapol/15.1.103 |pmid=10731241 |s2cid=7634887 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003" /><ref name="Varma_2005">{{Cite news |author=Varma MS |title=Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap |work=The Financial Express |date=4 April 2005 |access-date=12 November 2007 |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617134031/https://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 |archive-date=17 June 2008}}</ref>{{rp|48}} |
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Kerala has undergone a "[[demographic transition]]" characteristic of such [[developed nation]]s as [[Canada]], [[Japan]], and [[Norway]].<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005" />{{rp|1}} In 2005, 11.2% of people were over the age of 60.<ref name="Varma_2005" /> In 2023, the BBC reported on the problems and benefits which have arisen from migration away from Kerala, focussing on the village of Kumbanad.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-64936519 |title=Kerala: A ghost town in the world's most populated country |last= |first= |date=26 March 2023 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |publisher=BBC News |access-date=26 March 2023}}</ref> |
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== Health == |
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In 2004, the birthrate was low at 18 per 1,000.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6">{{Cite book |author=Kutty VR |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621607 |access-date=12 November 2007 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/57.pdf |page=6}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All district except Malappuram district had fertility rate below 2. Fertility rate is highest in [[Malappuram district]] (2.2) and lowest in [[Pathanamthitta district]] (1.3).<ref>{{cite web |title=Fertility at District Level in India:Lessons from the 2011 Census |url=https://www.ceped.org/IMG/pdf/ceped_wp30.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwio7YjXv9nsAhVJzjgGHUy2BTE4FBAWMAR6BAgJEAE&usg=AOvVaw2PL5xTsjiaBMS96pAhMEX1 |author=Christophe Z Guilmoto and Irudaya Rajan |page=31 |format=PDF |access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref> In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/amp/nation/current-affairs/170316/fertility-rate-to-even-out-in-20-years-in-kerala.html |title=Fertility rate to even out in 20 years in Kerala |website=Deccan Chronicle |access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref> The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/nation/2017/04/28/kerala-least-corrupt-states-india-karnatak-highest-petty-corruptionkerala-least-corrupt-states-india-karnatak-highest-petty-corruption.html |title=Kerala among the least corrupt states in India, Karnataka tops the list: study |website=OnManorama}}</ref> Transparency International (2005)<ref>{{cite web |title=India Corruption Study – 2005 |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |date=June 2005 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://archive.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/news_archive2/india_corruption_study_2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413044112/https://archive.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/news_archive2/india_corruption_study_2005 |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 April 2013}}</ref> and ''India Today'' (1997).<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jean Dreze |author2=Amartya Sen |title=India: Development and Participation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpOl35r8UHQC&pg=PA368 |access-date=24 September 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925749-2 |page=368}}</ref> Kerala has the lowest [[homicide]] rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.<ref name="ncrb">{{cite web |url=https://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2011/cii-2011/Table%203.1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024506/https://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2011/cii-2011/Table%203.1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2013 |date=21 June 2012 |title=Table–3.1 Incidence And Rate Of Violent Crimes During 2011 |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher [[suicide rate]], lower share of [[earned income]], [[child marriage]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=Child marriages remain Kerala's secret shame |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/child-marriages-remain-keralas-secret-shame/article7613216.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |date=4 September 2015 |access-date=4 September 2015 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> complaints of [[sexual harassment]] and limited freedom are reported.<ref name="Joseph" /> The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriage and the number of such cases are increasing in Malappuram. The child marriages are particularly [[Child marriage among Muslims in Kerala|higher among the Muslim community]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Naha |first=Abdul Latheef |title=Child marriage cases go up in Malappuram |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/child-marriage-cases-go-up-in-malappuram/article22751598.ece |date=18 February 2018 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2018/10/26/child-marriages-shoot-up-in-the-most-unlikely-places-in-kerala.html |title=Child marriages shoot up in the most unlikely places in Kerala |website=OnManorama}}</ref> In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.<ref>{{cite news |last=Natu |first=Nitasha |title=Kerala No. 1 in child sex abuse complaints; Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra follow |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kerala-no-1-in-child-sex-abuse-complaints-tamil-nadu-maharashtra-follow/articleshow/72972619.cms |date=25 December 2019 |newspaper=The Time of India |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref> |
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Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim. [[UNICEF]] and the [[World Health Organization]] designating Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state". Representative of this condition, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6">{{cite book |author=Kutty VR |editor=Nair PRG, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=81-87621-60-5 |pages=p. 6 |accessdate=2007-11-12 |format=PDF |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/57.pdf }}</ref> Aside from ''[[ayurveda]]'' (both elite and popular forms),<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_13">{{harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|p=13}}.</ref> ''[[siddha]]'', and ''[[unani]]'', many endangered and endemic modes of [[traditional medicine]], including ''kalari'', ''marmachikitsa'',<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_17">{{harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|p=17}}.</ref> and ''vishavaidyam'', are practiced. These propagate via ''[[gurukula]]'' discipleship,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_5-6">{{harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|pp=5–6}}.</ref> and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004_15">{{harvnb|Unnikrishnan|2004|p=15}}.</ref> and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers of [[medical tourism|medical tourist]]s. |
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In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Conviction-rate-up-Kerala-tops-with-over-77/articleshow/48408220.cms |location=New Delhi, India |work=The Times of India |title=Conviction rate up, Kerala tops with over 77% link |date=9 August 2015 |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Population-of-homeless-in-rural-India-dips/articleshow/26981896.cms |location=India |work=The Times of India |title=Population of homeless in rural India dips |date=7 December 2013 |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cm-told-to-pursue-zero-homeless-kerala-project/article5309749.ece |location=Pathanamthitta, India |work=The Hindu |title=CM told to pursue Zero Homeless Kerala project link |date=3 November 2013}}</ref> The state was also among the lowest in the [[India State Hunger Index]] next only to [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-becomes-Indias-first-complete-digital-state/articleshow/48494982.cms |location=New Delhi, India |work=The Times of India |title=Kerala-becomes-Indias-first-complete-digital-state link |date=15 August 2015}}</ref> |
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A steadily aging population (11.2% of Keralites are over age 60<ref name="Varma_2005"/>) and low birthrate<ref name="McKibben_2006">{{cite journal |author=McKibben B |year=2006 |title=Kerala, India |journal=National Geographic Traveller |accessdate=2007-11-12 |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/articles/1028kerala.html }}</ref> (18 per 1,000)<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> make Kerala one of the few regions of the Third World to have undergone the "[[demographic transition]]" characteristic of such [[developed nation]]s as Canada, Japan, and Norway.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_1">{{harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=1}}.</ref> In 1991, Kerala's [[Total fertility rate|TFR]] (children born per women) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians 1.78, and Muslims 2.97.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Alagarajan M |month=December |year=2003 |url=http://www.springerlink.com/index/H18J4H5W37507H21.pdf |title=An analysis of fertility differentials by religion in Kerala: A test of the interaction hypothesis |journal=Population Research and Policy Review |doi=10.1023/B:POPU.0000020963.63244.8c}}</ref> |
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=== Healthcare === |
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Kerala's [[sex ratio|female-to-male ratio]] (1.058) is significantly higher than that of the rest of India.<ref name="UNDP_2001">{{harvnb|United Nations Development Programme|2001|p=1}}.</ref><ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_2">{{harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=2}}.</ref> The same is true of its [[sub-replacement fertility]] level and [[infant mortality rate]] (estimated at 12<ref name="Brenkert_2003_49">{{harvnb|Brenkert|Malone|2003|p=49}}.</ref><ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> to 14<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004_5">{{harvnb|Krishnaswami|2004|p=5}}.</ref> deaths per 1,000 live births). However, Kerala's [[morbidity rate]] is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding all India figures are 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively.<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004_5">{{harvnb|Krishnaswami|2004|p=5}}.</ref> Kerala's 13.3% [[prevalence]] of low [[birth weight]] is substantially higher than that of [[First World]] nations.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6"/> Outbreaks of water-borne diseases, including diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid,<ref name="Roy_2004_5-6">{{harvnb|Roy|2004|pp=5–6}}.</ref> among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely on some 3 million<ref name="Roy_2004_6">{{harvnb|Roy|2004|p=6}}.</ref> water wells<ref name="Roy_2004_7">{{harvnb|Roy|2004|p=7}}.</ref> is another problem, which is worsened by the widespread lack of sewers.<ref name="Roy_2004_7">{{harvnb|Roy|2004|p=7}}.</ref> |
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Kerala is a pioneer in implementing the [[universal health care]] program.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Maya |first1=C |title=The road to universal health care in State |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/the-road-to-universal-health-care-in-state/article5450319.ece |access-date=14 November 2015 |work=The Hindu |date=12 December 2013}}</ref> The [[sub-replacement fertility]] level and [[infant mortality rate]] are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003" /><ref name="Kutty_2004_6" />{{rp|49}} to 14<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004">{{Cite book |author=Krishnaswami P |veditors=Neelakantan S, Nair PR, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Morbidity Study: Incidence, Prevalence, Consequences, and Associates |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621669 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/63.pdf |access-date=31 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|5}} deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kerala-as-good-as-us-oecd-in-saving-newborn-children/articleshow/57438366.cms |title=Kerala as good as US, OECD in saving newborn children |work=The Times of India |access-date=9 March 2017}}</ref> According to a study commissioned by [[Lien Ying Chow|Lien]] Foundation, a [[Singapore]]-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Patel |first1=Atish |title=Why Kerala is the best place in India to die |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36137285 |date=4 May 2016}}</ref> However, Kerala's [[morbidity rate]] is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively {{As of|2005|lc=y}}.<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004" />{{rp|5}} Kerala's 13.3% [[prevalence]] of [[low birth weight]] is higher than that of many [[first world]] nations.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6" /> Outbreaks of [[water-borne disease]]s such as [[diarrhoea]], [[dysentery]], [[hepatitis]], and [[typhoid]] among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 million [[water well]]s is an issue worsened by the lack of [[sanitary sewer|sewers]].<ref name="Roy_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Roy MKP |year=2004 |title=Water quality and health status in Kollam Municipality |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://services.iriskf.org/data/articles/Document1168200520.8355524.pdf |access-date=28 December 2008 |archive-date=21 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221084934/http://services.iriskf.org/data/articles/Document1168200520.8355524.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{rp|5–7}} As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/diabetic-patients-kerala-tops-list-of-indian-states/articleshow/61974164.cms |title=Diabetic patients: Kerala tops list of Indian states |date=8 December 2017 |website=The Times of India |language=en |access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> |
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The [[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF) and the [[World Health Organization]] designated Kerala the world's first "[[Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative|baby-friendly]] state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.<ref>{{cite web |date=August 2002 |title=Kerala Named World's First WHO-UNICEF "Baby-Friendly State" |work=United Nations Foundation |url=https://www.unwire.org/unwire/20020801/28062_story.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306205352/https://www.unwire.org/unwire/20020801/28062_story.asp |archive-date=6 March 2010 |access-date=14 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2166677.stm |location=Kochi, India |work=BBC News |title=Indian state wins 'baby-friendly' award |date=1 August 2002}}</ref> Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% births in medical facilities.<ref name="NFHS3">{{cite book |url=https://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf |title=National Family Health 2005–06 Survey (NFHS-3) Kerala |publisher=International Institute for Population Sciences |year=2008 |location=Deonar, Mumbai |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530204904/http://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Ayurveda]],<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004">{{Cite journal |last=Unnikrishnan |first=E |year=2004 |title=''Materia Medica'' of the Local Health Traditions of Payyannur |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/80.pdf |access-date=22 January 2006}}</ref>{{rp|13}} ''[[siddha]]'', and endangered and endemic modes of [[traditional medicine]], including ''kalari'', ''marmachikitsa'' and ''vishavaidyam'', are practised. Some occupational communities such as [[Kaniyar]] were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.<ref>Angus Stewart, woodburn The Religious attitude: A psychological study of its differentiation, 1927</ref> These propagate via ''[[gurukula]]'' discipleship,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004" />{{rp|5–6}} and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments.<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004" />{{rp|15}} The ''[[Arya Vaidya Sala]]'' established by [[Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier]] at [[Kottakkal]] (about 10 km from [[Malappuram]]) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state.<ref name="Warrier">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/pk-warrier-turns-90/article2080601.ece |title=PK Warrier turns 90 |work=The Hindu |date=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal – Part 1">{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nj6YqhsUo0c |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/nj6YqhsUo0c |archive-date=22 December 2021 |url-status=live |title=Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal – Part 1 |publisher=BBC World – India Business Report |date=30 May 2013 |medium=Documentary}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="mal">{{Cite news |title=അമ്പതിന്റെ നിറവില് മലപ്പുറം; മലപ്പുറത്തിന്റെ മാനവിക മഹാപൈതൃകം |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/malappuram/specials/50-years-of-malappuram/alamkode-leelakrishnan-writes-about-malappuram-1.3880292 |last=Leelakrishnan |first=Alamkode |date=17 June 2019 |work=Mathrubhumi |access-date=24 April 2021 |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507091729/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/malappuram/specials/50-years-of-malappuram/alamkode-leelakrishnan-writes-about-malappuram-1.3880292 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.<ref name="Warrier" /><ref name="Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal – Part 1" /><ref name="mal" /> |
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== Education == |
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In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/kerala-becomes-first-state-to-provide-free-cancer-treatment/457976 |title=Kerala becomes first state to provide free cancer treatment – Free Press Journal |website=www.freepressjournal.in |access-date=18 May 2016 |date=11 October 2014}}</ref> People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of [[cancer]]s, [[Liver disease|liver]] and [[Kidney disease|kidney]] diseases.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indushealthplus.com/kerala-health-statistics.html |title=Health Statistics and Public Health issues in Kerala |website=[[Indus Health Plus]] |language=en |access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> In April 2016, the ''Economic Times'' reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations has stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/healthcare/biotech/healthcare/health-crisis-in-kerala-the-increase-in-cancer-kidney-and-liver-diseases/articleshow/51950836.cms?intenttarget=no |title=Health crisis in Kerala: The increase in cancer, kidney and liver diseases – The Economic Times |journal=The Economic Times |access-date=18 May 2016 |date=23 April 2016 |last1=Krishnakumar |first1=P. K. |last2=Sanandakumar |first2=S.}}</ref> As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the department of health services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.<ref name="dhs">{{Cite book |title=List of modern medicine institutions (2017–18) |last=Statistics Wing |first=Health Information Cell |publisher=Directorate of Health Services, Government of Kerala |year=2019 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |pages=1, 7 |url=https://dhs.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/list_10052019.pdf}}</ref> |
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{{seealso|Colleges in Kerala|Education in India}} |
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=== Language === |
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[[Image:School children line Cochin Kerala India.jpg|thumb|right|Children lining up for school in Kochi.]] |
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{{Pie chart |
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|float=right |
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|caption=Languages of Kerala (2011)<ref name="census2011-langreport">{{cite web |title=Language – India, States and Union Territories |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |work=Census of India 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General |pages=13–14}}</ref> |
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|label1 = [[Malayalam]] |value1 = 97.02 |color1 = red |
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|label2 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] |value2 = 1.49 |color2 = blue |
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|label3 = Others |value3 = 1.49 |color3 = grey |
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}} |
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[[Malayalam]] is the official language of Kerala and one of the six [[Languages of India|Classical languages of India]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece |title='Classical' status for Malayalam |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, India}}</ref> There is a significant [[Tamil language|Tamil]] population throughout Kerala mainly in [[Idukki district]] and [[Palakkad district]] in which it accounts for 17.48% and 4.8% respectively of the two districts' populations.<ref name="lg">{{cite web |title=Census of India – Language |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> [[Tulu language|Tulu]] and [[Kannada]] are spoken mainly in the northern parts of [[Kasaragod district]], each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively.<ref name="lg" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala government to appoint officer to study issues of linguistic minorities |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/government-to-appoint-officer-to-study-issues-of-linguistic-minorities/articleshow/59892625.cms |date=2 August 2017 |newspaper=The Times of India |department=City: Thiruvananthapuram |agency=TNN |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref> |
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Schools and colleges in Kerala are either run by the government or by private trusts and individuals. The schools are each affiliated with either the [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] (ICSE), the [[CBSE|Central Board for Secondary Education]] (CBSE), or the [[Kerala State Education Board]]. English is the medium of instruction in most private schools; though government run schools offer both English and Malayalam. After completing their secondary education, which involves ten years of schooling, students typically enroll at [[junior college|Higher Secondary School]] in one of the three streams—[[liberal arts]], [[commerce]] or [[science]]. Upon completing the required coursework, the student can enroll in general or professional degree programmes. |
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=== Religion === |
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[[Image:KU 2.jpg|thumb|left|The University of Kerala's administrative building in Thiruvananthapuram.]] |
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{{Main|Religion in Kerala}} |
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{{multiple image|direction = vertical|total_width=170|caption_align=left|align=left |
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| image1 = Jain temple, Wayanad IMG 3494 by Joseph Lazer.jpg|caption1=[[Jain Temple, Kidanganad|Jain Temple]] at [[Sultan Bathery]]. |
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| image2 = Thirunavaya (5).jpg|caption2=[[Thirunavaya Navamukunda Temple]]. |
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| image3 = Cheraman juma masjid Old.jpg|caption3=Model of original [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]]. |
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| image4 = Palayoor St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church.jpg|caption4=[[St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Palayoor]]. |
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| image5 = Clock Tower Jewish Synagogue, Fort Kochi.jpg|caption5=[[Paradesi Synagogue]]. |
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}} |
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{{Pie chart |
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|thumb = right |
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|caption = '''Religion in Kerala''' (2011)<ref name="census_2016_religion">{{cite web |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |title=Population by religious community – 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner |work=[[2011 Census of India]] |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref> |
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|label1 = [[Hinduism in Kerala|Hinduism]] |
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|value1 = 54.73 |
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|color1 = darkorange |
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|label2 = [[Islam in Kerala|Islam]] |
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|value2 = 26.56 |
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|color2 = Green |
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|label3 = [[Christianity in Kerala|Christianity]] |
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|value3 = 18.38 |
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|color3 = dodgerblue |
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|label4 = Other or none |
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|value4 = 0.32 |
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|color4 = grey |
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}} |
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[[File:Kerala religions 2011.png|thumb|Percentage of the most popular religion in each Taluk of Kerala]] |
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Kerala is very religiously diverse with [[Hindus]], [[Muslims]] and [[Christians]] having a significant population throughout the state, Kerala is often regarded as one of the most diverse states in all of India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thegroundtruthproject.org/paradox-indias-religiously-diverse-state/ |title=The paradox of India's most religiously diverse state |date=7 April 2019 |publisher=The Ground Truth Project |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/kerala-religion-gender_b_9577234 |title=There's a Place in India Where Religions Coexist Beautifully and Gender Equality Is Unmatched |date=6 April 2016 |publisher=Huffpost |access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> [[Hinduism]] is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant [[Muslim]] and [[Christians|Christian]] minorities. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little [[sectarianism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heller |first=Patrick |title=Social capital as a product of class mobilization and state intervention: Industrial workers in Kerala, India |journal=[[World Development (journal)|World Development]] |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1055–1071 |date=June 1996 |doi=10.1016/0305-750X(96)00015-0 <!-- |access-date=4 April 2022 --> |doi-access=free}}</ref> According to [[2011 Census of India]] figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation.<ref name="censusindia2011religion">{{cite web |title=Population by religious communities |work=Census of India |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html |publisher=Government of India |access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> [[Hindu]]s represent the biggest religious group in all districts except [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]], where they are outnumbered by Muslims.<ref name="thehindu1">{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2004/09/23/stories/2004092306010500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041128124211/https://www.hindu.com/2004/09/23/stories/2004092306010500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 November 2004 |location=Chennai, India |title=Increase in Muslim population in the State |date=23 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-not-Goa-has-maximum-no-of-Christians/articleshow/2649158.cms |title=Kerala, not Goa, has maximum no. of Christians |work=The Times of India |date=25 December 2007 |publisher=The Times Group}}</ref> As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total child births in the state, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2016.pdf |title=Vital Statistics 2016 |website=Ecostat, Kerala Government. |access-date=7 June 2019 |archive-date=11 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711011809/http://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2016.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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Thiruvananthapuram is one of the state's major academic hubs; it hosts the [[University of Kerala]]. The city also has several professional education colleges, including fifteen engineering colleges, three medical colleges, three [[Ayurveda]] colleges, two colleges of [[homeopathy]], six other medical colleges, and several law colleges.<ref name="Technical Education">{{cite web |publisher=Kerala Government |work=Professional Colleges in Thiruvananthapuram |url=http://www.kerala.gov.in |title=Technical Education in Kerala - Department of Technical education |accessdate=2006-08-25 }}</ref> [[Trivandrum Medical College]], Kerala's premier health institute, is also one of the finest in the country. It is being upgraded to the status of an [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences]] (AIIMS). The [[College of Engineering, Trivandrum]] is one of the prominent engineering institutions in the country. The Asian School of Business and IIITM-K are two of the other premier [[Management|management study]] institutions in the city, both situated inside [[Technopark Kerala|Technopark]]. The Indian Institute of Space Technology, the unique and first of its kind in India, is situated in the state capital. |
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Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger [[Indian Ocean]] rim, via spice and silk traders from the [[Middle East]]. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.<ref name="indiatimes3">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Trade-not-invasion-brought-Islam-to-India/articleshow/2144414.cms |title=Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India |last=Sethi |first=Atul |date=24 June 2007 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated20002">Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.</ref> Notable has been the occurrence of [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals|Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin]], the mythical Hindu king who moved to [[Arabia]] to meet [[Muhammad]] and converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Varghese |first1=Theresa |title=Stark World Kerala |year=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=978-8190250511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009 |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin&pg=PA346 |publisher=Routledge |language=en |isbn=978-1-136-70491-8}}</ref><ref>Minu Ittyipe; [[Solomon]] to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012</ref> Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the [[Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [https://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref><ref name="Divakaruni20112">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0wLgfQyvFAC |title=The Palace of Illusions |author=Chitra Divakaruni |year=2011 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-0-330-47865-6 |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in {{CE|624}} at [[Kodungallur]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] ({{Circa|570}}–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7656-0104-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson |author2=Kai Kresse |title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333 |access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-70024-5 |pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987" /><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book |author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi |title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179 |access-date=25 July 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Other Books |isbn=978-8190388788 |pages=179–}}</ref> |
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Kochi is another major educational hub. The [[Cochin University of Science and Technology]] (also known as "Cochin University") is situated in the city. Most of the city's colleges offering [[tertiary education]] are affiliated either with the [[Mahatma Gandhi University]] or Cochin University. Other national educational institutes in Kochi include the [[Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical and Engineering Training]], the [[National University of Advanced Legal Studies]], the [[National Institute of Oceanography]] and the [[Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute]]. |
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Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of [[Thomas the Apostle]], one of the [[Twelve Apostles]] of [[Jesus]] Christ.<ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch" /><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&pg=PA27 |title=The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities |editor-first=Orpa |editor-last=Slapak |publisher=The Israel Museum |location=Jerusalem |year=2003 |page=27 |isbn=9652781797 |chapter=The Cochin Jews Of Kerala |first=Barbara C. |last=Johnson}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/592851/Saint-Thomas |title=Saint Thomas |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=1 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="Menachery">Menachery G; 1973, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956</ref> [[Saint Thomas Christians]] include [[Syro-Malabar Church|Syro-Malabar Catholic]],<ref name="Ponnumuthan1996">{{cite book |author=Selvister Ponnumuthan |title=Authentic Interpretation in Canon Law: Reflections on a Distinctively Canonical Institution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcedqS4jOusC&pg=PA103 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1996 |publisher=Gregorian&Biblical BookShop |isbn=978-8876527210 |pages=103–}}</ref> [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church|Syro-Malankara Catholic]],<ref name="Williams1996">{{cite book |author=Raymond Brady Williams |title=Christian Pluralism in the United States: The Indian Immigrant Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1uk6zZQKzAC&pg=PA144 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57016-9 |pages=144–}}</ref> [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]],<ref name="AndersonTang2005">{{cite book |author1=Allan Anderson |author2=Edmond Tang |title=Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LDZgKELq7AoC&pg=PA248 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=OCMS |isbn=978-1-870345-43-9 |pages=248–}}</ref> [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=John Anthony McGuckin (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. pp. 377–. Retrieved 18 November 2012. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons. |isbn=978-1-4443-9254-8 |year=2010}}</ref> [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]],<ref name="Russell2010">{{cite book |author=Thomas Arthur Russell |title=Comparative Christianity: A Student's Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmMarHDbglgC&pg=PT40 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Universal-Publishers |isbn=978-1-59942-877-2 |pages=40–}}</ref> the [[Saint Thomas Anglicans|Syrian Anglicans]] of the [[Church of South India|CSI]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephen Neill |title=A History of Christianity in India: 1707–1858 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi-tvrYbYxMC&pg=PA240 |access-date=31 August 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89332-9 |pages=247–251}}</ref> and [[Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bergunder |first1=Michael |title=The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth Century |year=2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2734-0 |pages=15–16, 26–30, 37–57 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGiv3riaunQC&q=Pentecostal+evangelical+saint+thomas+syrian+christian |language=en}}</ref> The origin of the [[Latin Church|Latin Catholic]] Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese [[Padroado]] in the 16th century.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA192 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=192–}}</ref><ref name="RakRaj2008">{{cite book |author1=Knut A. Jacobsen, Selva J. Rak |author2=Selva J. Raj |title=South Asian Christian Diaspora: Invisible Diaspora in Europe and North America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6L5MxlMIcG0C&pg=PA172 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-6261-7 |pages=172–}}</ref><ref name="Subramanian2009">{{cite book |author=Ajantha Subramanian |title=Shorelines: Space and Rights in South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsd55y4KbeYC&pg=PA95 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8685-0 |pages=95–}}</ref> As a consequence of centuries of mixing with colonial immigrants, beginning with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and other Europeans, there is a community of [[Anglo-Indians]] in Kerala of mixed European and Indian parentage or ancestry. Kerala has the highest population of Christians among all the states of India.<ref>Singh, Anjana. "Fort Cochin in Kerala 1750–1830 The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu." Brill, Leiden Boston: 2010, 3: 92.</ref> |
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[[Thrissur]] can be called as the Educational Capital of Kerala as Coimbatore to Tamil Nadu. Kerala Agricultural University is situated in this city. Three Medical Colleges, The Government Engineering College, Govt. Law College, Ayurveda College, Govt.Fine Arts College, College of Co-operation & Banking and Management, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, College of Horticulture, College of Forestry etc make the name "Educational Capital" more meaningful. There are a lot of famous colleges like St.Thomas College, Sri Kerala Varma College, St.Mary's College, Vimala College etc. Thrissur is also a main center of coaching for the entrance examinations for engineering and medicine. |
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[[Judaism]] reached Kerala in the 10th century BCE during the time of [[Solomon|King Solomon]].<ref>Weil, Shalva. "Jews in India." in M.Avrum Erlich (ed.) ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora'', Santa Barbara, CA: ABC CLIO. 2008, 3: 1204–12.</ref> They are called [[Cochin Jews]] or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of [[History of the Jews in India|Jews in India]].<ref name="Orpa Slapak" /><ref>Weil, Shalva. India's Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2009. [first published in 2002; 3rd edn.]. Katz 200/*Religion */ 0; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998</ref> There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them [[Aliyah|migrated to Israel]].<ref name="Roland1998">{{cite book |author=Joan G. Roland |title=The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHJccZ92IecC&pg=PA283 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-7658-0439-6 |pages=283–}}</ref> The [[Cochin Synagogue|Paradesi Synagogue]] at [[Kochi]] is the oldest synagogue in the [[Commonwealth Nations|Commonwealth]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Paradesi Synagogue – tourist attractions at Mattancherry, Ernakulam Kerala Tourism |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/kochi/paradeso-synagogue-mattancherry.php |website=www.keralatourism.org}}</ref> [[Jainism in Kerala|Jainism]] has a considerable following in the [[Wayanad district]].<ref name="LockieCarpenter2012">{{cite book |author1=Stewart Lockie |author2=David Carpenter |title=Agriculture, Biodiversity and Markets: Livelihoods and Agroecology in Comparative Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZvlmpwviuMC&pg=PT258 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-54649-5 |page=258}}</ref><ref name="MathewBaviskar2009">{{cite book |author1=George Mathew |author2=B S Baviskar |title=Inclusion and Exclusion in Local Governance: Field Studies from Rural India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DsDOrvROzPEC&pg=PA204 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-8178298603 |page=204}}</ref> |
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[[Kottayam]] also acts as a main educational hub. According to the 1991 census, [[Kottayam District]] of Kerala is the first district to achieve full [[Literacy_in_India#Literacy_rate|literacy rate]] in the whole of India. [[Mahatma Gandhi University]], [[CMS College]](the first institution to start English education in Southern India), [[Medical College, Kottayam]], and the [[Labour India Educational Research Center]] are some of the important educational institutions in the district. |
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Buddhism was popular in the time of Ashoka<ref>{{cite book |title=Malayalam Literary Survey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M5BkAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Kerala Sahitya Akademi |page=121}}</ref> but vanished by the 12th century CE.<ref name="Ram1999">{{cite book |author=Manakkadan Manicoth Anand Ram |title=Influx: Crete to Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mj4wAQAAIAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Keerthi Publishing House |page=5}}</ref> |
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[[Kozhikode]] is home to two of the premier educational institutions in the country; the [[IIMK]], one of the seven [[Indian Institutes of Management]], and the only National Institute of Technology in Kerala, the [[NITC]]. |
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== Education == |
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{{Main|Education in Kerala}} |
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The [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including [[series expansion]] for trigonometric functions.<ref name="roy">{{cite journal |last=Roy |first=Ranjan |year=1990 |title=Discovery of the Series Formula for π by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha |journal=Mathematics Magazine |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=291–306 |doi=10.2307/2690896 |jstor=2690896}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Pingree |first=David |author-link=David Pingree |title=Hellenophilia versus the History of Science |year=1992 |journal=Isis |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=554–63 |jstor=234257 |doi=10.1086/356288 |quote=One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the ''Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society'', in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series ''without'' the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution. |bibcode=1992Isis...83..554P |s2cid=68570164}}</ref> In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of the [[Church Mission Society]] missionaries to promote mass education.<ref>{{cite news |title=Missionaries led State to renaissance: Pinarayi |newspaper=The Hindu |date=13 November 2016 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/Missionaries-led-State-to-renaissance-Pinarayi/article16444369.ece |quote=Inaugurating on Saturday the valedictory of the bicentenary celebration of the arrival of Church Mission Society (CMS) missionaries to the shores of Kerala, Mr. Vijayan said it was their pioneering work in the fields of education, literature, printing, publishing, women's education, education of the differently-abled and, in general, a new social approach through the inclusion of marginalised sections into the mainstream which brought the idea of 'equality' into the realm of public consciousness. This had raised the standard of public consciousness and paved the way for the emergence of the renaissance movements in the State.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala to celebrate CMS mission |url=https://churchmissionsociety.org/our-stories/kerala-celebrate-cms-mission |date=9 November 2016 |website=Church Mission Society |access-date=4 April 2022 |quote=Indian President Pranab Mukherjee, visited CMS College in Kerala, the oldest college in India, and laid the foundation stone of the bicentenary block. He said, 'CMS college is a pioneer of modern education in Kerala. It has been the source of strong currents of knowledge and critical inquiry that have moulded the scholastic and socio-cultural landscape of Kerala and propelled the State to the forefront of social development.'{{hsp}} }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.epw.in/journal/1999/39/special-articles/growth-literacy-kerala.html |title=Growth of Literacy in Kerala |date=5 June 2015 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |pages=7–8 |via=www.epw.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=District Handbooks of Kerala |url=https://www.kerala.gov.in/district_handbook/Kottayam.pdf |date=March 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319183020/https://www.kerala.gov.in/district_handbook/Kottayam.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2009 |url-status=dead |pages=19–20 |publisher=Department of Information & Public Relations Government of Kerala |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Menon |first=Sreedhara |title=A survey of Kerala History |year=1996 |publisher=S.Viswanathan Printers and Publishers |location=Madras |pages=339, 348–49 |isbn=978-8126415786 |url=https://onlinestore.dcbooks.com/books/a-survey-of-kerala-history |access-date=20 March 2019 |archive-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824143707/https://onlinestore.dcbooks.com/books/a-survey-of-kerala-history |url-status=dead}}</ref> Following the recommendations of the [[Wood's despatch]] of 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system of [[grant-in-aid]] to attract more private initiatives.<ref name="Devrep53-58" /> Catholic Institutions such as [[St. Thomas College, Thrissur|St Thomas College Thrissur]] and [[St. Berchmans College|SB College Changanasserry]] were established under the leadership of Catholic Church. The efforts by leaders such as [[Kuriakose Elias Chavara|Fr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara]], [[Charles Lavigne|Mar Charles Lavigne SJ]], [[Ayya Vaikundar|Vaikunda Swami]], [[Narayana Guru]] and [[Ayyankali]] in aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations like [[Nair Service Society]], [[Sree Narayana Trust|SNDP]], [[Muslim Educational Society]], Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala.<ref name="Devrep53-58">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=53–58 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> |
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{{main|Arts of Kerala|Culture of Kerala}} |
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In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%.<ref name="Soundarapandian2000">{{cite book |author=Mookkiah Soundarapandian |title=Literacy Campaign in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KVhHEC449yoC&pg=PA21 |year=2000 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8171415533 |page=21}}</ref> In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India.<ref>{{Cite news |author=D Suresh Kumar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-tops-primary-education-index/articleshow/3587924.cms |title=Kerala tops primary education index |work=The Times of India |date=13 October 2008 |access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref> {{As of|2007}}, enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions.<ref name="Devrep255-258">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=255–58 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%.<ref name="IBNLiteracy2013">{{cite news |title=Tripura tops literacy rate with 94.65 per cent, leaves behind Kerala |url=https://ibnlive.in.com/news/tripura-tops-literacy-rate-with-with-9465-per-cent-leaves-behind-kerala/420560-3-224.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130913005546/https://ibnlive.in.com/news/tripura-tops-literacy-rate-with-with-9465-per-cent-leaves-behind-kerala/420560-3-224.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 September 2013 |access-date=12 February 2015 |work=IBNLive |date=9 September 2013}}</ref> In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its ''Athulyam'' literacy programme.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/kerala-becomes-1st-indian-state-achieve-100-primary-education-662878 |title=Kerala becomes 1st Indian state to achieve 100% primary education |date=12 January 2016 |access-date=14 January 2016 |work=International Business Times}}</ref> |
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[[Image:ThrissurPooram-Kuda.jpg|thumb|right|A [[elephants in Kerala culture|formation]] of gold-caparisoned [[Asian elephant|elephant]]s at the Thrissur Pooram. [[Pooram]]s are Hindu temple-centered festivals popular among both Keralites and tourists.]] |
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[[Image:Kathakali Kerala India.jpg|left|thumb|A close-up of a ''[[kathakali]]'' artist.]] |
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The educational system prevailing in the state's schools specifies an initial 10-year course of study, which is divided into three stages: lower primary, upper primary, and secondary school—known as ''4+3+3'', which signifies the number of years for each stage.<ref name="Devrep255-258" /> After the first 10 years of schooling, students typically enroll in [[Junior college|Higher Secondary Schooling]] in one of the three major streams—[[liberal arts]], commerce, or science.<ref name="Edu_Ker" /> The majority of public schools are affiliated with the [[Kerala Board of Public Examination]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sametham.kite.kerala.gov.in/ |title=Kerala School Data Bank |access-date=5 December 2020 |website=sametham.kite.kerala.gov.in |publisher=Government of Kerala}}</ref> Other educational boards are the [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] (ICSE), the [[Central Board for Secondary Education]] (CBSE), and the [[National Institute of Open Schooling]] (NIOS).<ref name="Edu_Ker">{{cite web |title=Education in Kerala |url=https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=54 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218082340/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=54 |archive-date=18 December 2011 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> |
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[[Culture of Kerala|Kerala's culture]] is derived from both a greater [[:Category:Tamil culture|Tamil-heritage]] region known as [[Tamilakam]] and southern coastal [[Karnataka]]. Later, Kerala's culture was elaborated upon through centuries of contact with neighboring and overseas cultures.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004_7">{{harvnb|Bhagyalekshmy|2004|pp=6–7}}.</ref> Native [[performing arts]] include ''[[koodiyattom]]'' (a 2000 year old Sanskrit theatre tradition, officially recognised by [[UNESCO]] as a [[Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]]<ref>[http://www.unesco.org/culture/intangible-heritage/masterpiece.php?id=0010&lg=en UNESCO Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity : "Kutiyattam, Sanskrit Theatre"]</ref>), ''[[kathakali]]''—from ''katha'' ("story") and ''kali'' ("performance")—and its offshoot ''[[Kerala Natanam|Kerala natanam]]'', ''[[koothu]]'' (akin to stand-up comedy), ''[[mohiniaattam]]'' ("dance of the enchantress"), ''[[thullal]]'', ''[[padayani]]'', and ''[[theyyam]]''. |
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[[Image:Kerala boatrace.jpg|thumb|[[Aranmula]] is an annual [[Vallam Kali|snake boat race]] on the [[Pamba River]].]] |
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[[CMS College]], [[Kottayam]], established in 1817, is the first western-style college, and one of the oldest colleges, in India. [[University College Thiruvananthapuram]], founded in 1866, [[Maharaja's College, Kochi|Maharajas College Ernakulam]], founded in 1875, [[Government Brennen College, Thalassery|Government Brennen College Thalassery]], founded in 1862, and [[Government Victoria College, Palakkad|Government Victoria College Palakkad]], founded in 1866, are among the oldest government educational institutions in India. Catholic Institutions such as [[St. Thomas College, Thrissur|St Thomas College Thrissur]], [[St. Berchmans College|SB College Changanasserry]], [[Mar Ivanios College|Mar Ivanios College Thiruvananthapuram]] and [[St. Teresa's College|St Teresa's College Ernakulam]] are also oldest and prestigious institutions of Higher Education in Kerala. [[Union Christian College, Aluva|UC College Aluva]], [[St. Joseph's College, Devagiri|St Joseph's College Devagiri]], [[Christ College, Irinjalakuda|Christ College Irinjalakuda]], [[Sacred Heart College, Kochi|SH College Thevara]] are other premier institutions in Kerala. |
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Other forms of art are more religious or tribal in nature. These include ''[[chavittu nadakom]]'', ''[[oppana]]'' (originally from Malabar), which combines dance, rhythmic hand clapping, and ''ishal'' vocalisations. However, many of these art forms largely play to tourists or at youth festivals, and are not as popular among most ordinary Keralites. These people look to more contemporary art and performance styles, including those employing mimicry and parody.[[Image:Onam Flowers Pookkalam Kerala India.jpg|thumb|left|During [[Onam]], Keralites create floral ''pookkalam'' designs in front of their houses.]] |
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The [[KITE Kerala]] is a state owned [[special purpose company]] under education department of the [[Government of Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/education/keralas-itschool-project-now-a-government-company-kite-cm-pinarayi-vijayan-launches-logo-4785993/ |title=Kerala's 'IT@school' project now a government company 'KITE' |website=indianexpress.com |date=7 August 2017 |access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://kite.kerala.gov.in/KITE/index.php/welcome/about_us |title=Kerala Infrastructure and Technology for Education |website=Kerala Infrastructure and Technology for Education about us page |access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref> It was developed to support [[Information and communications technology|ICT]] enabled education for schools in the state. The erstwhile ''IT@School Project'' was transformed into KITE for extending its scope of operations in August 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/keralas-itschool-project-now-a-govt-company/article9805422.ece |title=Kerala's IT@school project now a govt company |website=www.thehindubusinessline.com |date=7 August 2017 |access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ndtv.com/education/kerala-governments-it-school-project-formed-into-government-company-as-kite-1734509 |title=Kerala Government's IT@school Project Formed Into Government Company |last=S |first=Shihaubudeen Kunju |date=7 August 2017 |publisher=NDTV |access-date=22 December 2018}}</ref> Kerala is the first Indian state to have ICT-enabled education with hi-tech classrooms in all public schools.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala becomes first state to have hitech classrooms in all public schools |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/education-2/kerala-has-become-first-state-to-have-hi-tech-classrooms-in-all-public-schools-cm-pinarayi-vijayan/2103844/ |work=Financial Express |date=12 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala becomes first state to have hitech classrooms in all public schools, says CM |url=https://www.ndtv.com/education/kerala-has-become-first-state-have-hi-tech-classrooms-in |work=NDTV |date=12 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Kerala topped in the ''School Education Quality Index'' published by [[NITI Aayog]] in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Niti Aayog's School Education Quality Index: Kerala tops, UP worst performer |url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/niti-aayogs-school-education-quality-index-kerala-tops-up-worst-performer-1569845124-1 |last=Bakshi |first=Gorki |date=30 September 2019 |access-date=4 December 2020 |work=Jagranjosh}}</ref> The [[Indian Naval Academy]], located at [[Ezhimala]], is Asia's largest, and the world's third-largest, naval academy.<ref>{{cite news |title=Navy-Training Academy-proposed Expansion |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/627521/navy-training-academy-proposed-expansion.html |work=Deccan Herald |date=11 August 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Asia's largest naval academy opened |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/319812 |work=Arab News |date=10 January 2009 |language=en}}</ref> |
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[[Music of Kerala|Kerala's music]] also has ancient roots. [[Carnatic music]] dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of [[Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma]]'s popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_29">{{harvnb|Bhagyalekshmy|2004d|p=29}}.</ref><ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_32">{{harvnb|Bhagyalekshmy|2004d|p=32}}.</ref> Raga-based renditions known as ''sopanam'' accompany ''[[kathakali]]'' performances. ''Melam'' (including the ''paandi'' and ''panchari'' variants) is a more percussive style of music; it is performed at [[mandir|Kshetram]] centered festivals using the ''[[chenda]]''. ''Melam'' ensembles comprise up to 150 musicians, and performances may last up to four hours. ''Panchavadyam'' is a different form of percussion ensemble, in which up to 100 artists use five types of percussion instrument. Kerala has various styles of folk and tribal music. The popular music of Kerala is dominated by the ''[[filmi]]'' music of [[Indian cinema]]. Kerala's visual arts range from [[Murals of Kerala|traditional murals]] to the works of [[Raja Ravi Varma]], the state's most renowned painter. |
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== Culture == |
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[[Image:Thrippunithura-Elephant-end-of-pooram-2 crop.jpg|thumb|right|Caparisoned elephants during ''[[Sree Poornathrayesa temple]]'' festival. [[Elephants in Kerala culture|The Elephants of Kerala are an integral part of the daily life in Kerala]].]] |
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{{Main|Culture of Kerala}} |
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| alt2 = Kathakali Performance |
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| caption2 = A [[Kathakali]] artist |
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| image3 = Muchilottu Bhagavathi Theyyam.jpg |
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| alt3 = Theyyam |
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| caption3 = [[Theyyam]], The ritual art of [[North Malabar]] |
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| image4 = 5 image collage of floral arrangement during the Hindu festival of Onam Kerala.jpg |
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| alt4 = Pookkalam |
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| caption4 = During [[Onam]], Kerala's biggest celebration, Keralites create ''pookkalam'' (floral carpet) designs in front of their houses. |
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| alt5 = Thrissur Pooram festival |
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| caption5 = [[Thrissur Pooram]] festival |
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| image6 = Mohiniyattam at Kerala School Kalolsavam 2019 02.jpg|thumb |
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| alt6 = Mohiniattam |
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| caption6 = A ''[[mohiniattam]]'' performance |
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| caption7 = The [[Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University]] at [[Tirur]] |
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| caption8 = Onam [[Sadya]] |
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The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of [[Indian culture]].<ref name="Menon3">{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-8126419036 |pages=13–15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> It is a synthesis of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]], [[South Indian culture|Dravidian]], [[Arab culture|Arab]], and [[Culture of Europe|European]] cultures,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=55 |language=en}}</ref> developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.<ref name="Menon1978a">{{cite book |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=px5BAAAAMAAJ |year=1978 |publisher=East-West Publications |page=10}}</ref> It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the [[Malayali people]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVftZwEACAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala |pages=7–37}}</ref> It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_29">{{cite book |author=S. Bhagyalekshmy |title=Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVftZwEACAAJ |access-date=6 January 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala}}</ref> However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.<ref name="Menon3" /> Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year.<ref name="1000hrs" /> The [[Malayalam calendar]], a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,<ref name="Devika2005">{{cite book |author=J. Devika |title=Her-self: Early Writings on Gender by Malayalee Women, 1898–1938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xyr6gXmva-gC&pg=PA5 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-8185604749 |page=5}}</ref> finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.<ref name="Singh2004">{{cite book |author=Kumar Suresh Singh |title=People of India: Maharashtra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bfmnmsBfQ4C&pg=PA1524 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2004 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-8179911020 |page=1524}}</ref> [[Malayalam]], one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's [[official language]].<ref name="Benedikter2009">{{cite book |author=Thomas Benedikter |title=Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpZv2GHM7VQC&pg=PA90 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-10231-7 |page=90}}</ref> Over a dozen other [[Languages with official status in India|scheduled and unscheduled languages]] are also spoken.<ref name="census2011-langreport" /> Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-51372583 |title=Shock after alcohol flows from kitchen taps in Kerala |work=BBC News |date=6 February 2020}}</ref> |
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{{Kerala symbols}} |
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=== Festivals === |
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Kerala has its own [[Malayalam calendar]], which is used to plan agricultural and religious activities. Kerala's cuisine is typically served as a ''[[sadhya]]'' on green banana leaves. Such dishes as ''[[idli]]'', ''[[payasam]]'', ''pulisherry'', ''puttucuddla'', ''puzhukku'', ''[[rasam]]'', and ''[[sambar]]'' are typical. Keralites—both men and women alike—traditionally don flowing and unstitched garments. These include the ''[[mundu]]'', a loose piece of cloth wrapped around men's waists. Women typically wear the ''[[sari]]'', a long and elaborately wrapped banner of cloth, wearable in various styles. |
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{{Main|Temple Festivals of Kerala|Onam}} |
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Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA76 |year=2008 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-8126419036 |page=76}}</ref> A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC&pg=PA34 |year=1982 |publisher=Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala |isbn=978-8126437986 |page=34}}</ref> Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the [[Thrissur Pooram]].<ref>{{cite book |title=World Encyclopaedia of Interfaith Studies: World religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFwi7qRRgosC |year=2009 |publisher=Jnanada Prakashan |isbn=978-8171392803 |pages=704–10}}</ref> "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The stars of Pooram show are jumbos |date=26 May 2006 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.hindu.com/2006/05/26/stories/2006052610410500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118212644/https://www.hindu.com/2006/05/26/stories/2006052610410500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 November 2007 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Other known festivals are [[Makaravilakku]],<ref name="Ltd.2013b">{{cite book |author=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. |title=Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA433 |year=2013 |publisher=Biju Mathew |isbn=978-8192128443 |page=433}}</ref> [[Chinakkathoor Pooram]], [[Attukal Pongala]] and [[Nenmara Vallangi Vela]]<ref name="Stott2014">{{cite book |author=David Stott |title=Kerala Footprint Focus Guide: Includes Kochi, Alappuzha, Thrissur, Periyar, River Nila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Jx8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 |year=2014 |publisher=Footprint Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-909268-79-1 |page=94}}</ref> Other than these, festivals locally known as [[utsavam]]s are conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it.<ref name="NarayananKurup1976">{{cite book |author1=M. G. S. Narayanan |author2=K. K. N. Kurup |title=Historical Studies in Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvELAAAAIAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Department of History, University of Calicut |pages=68–81}}</ref> Processions often include traditional music such as [[Panchari melam]] or [[Panchavadyam]].<ref name="Killius2006">{{cite book |author=Rolf Killius |title=Ritual Music and Hindu Rituals of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_fZAAAAMAAJ |year=2006 |publisher=B.R. Rhythms |isbn=978-8188827077 |page=61}}</ref> [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]] are celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals like [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]] are observed by the Christians.<ref name="Malabar" /> Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past.<ref name="Choondal1980">{{cite book |author=Chummar Choondal |title=Kerala Folk Literature |year=1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnQOAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Kerala Folklore Academy}}</ref><ref name="Menon2007b">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA80 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=80–}}</ref> It is a local festival of Kerala<ref name="Darpan2006b">{{cite book |author=Pratiyogita Darpan |title=Pratiyogita Darpan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lugDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT83 |year=2006 |publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan |page=624}}</ref> consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day.<ref>{{cite book |title=Purāṇam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfxjAAAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=All-India Kasiraja Trust. |page=17}}</ref> Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September)<ref>{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA66 |year=2008 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-8126419036 |page=66}}</ref> and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of King [[Mahabali]].<ref name="MythOnam">{{cite news |last1=Praveen |first1=M. P. |title=Myth, mystique, and traditions of Onam |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-editorialfeatures/myth-mystique-and-traditions-of-onam/article2433921.ece |access-date=12 November 2015 |work=The Hindu |date=8 September 2011}}</ref> The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such as [[Vallam Kali]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vallamkali – Resplendent Water Regattas of Kerala {{!}} Kerala Boat Races{{!}} Onam{{!}} Kerala Backwaters {{!}} Kerala |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/kerala-article/2020/vallamkali-resplendent-water-regattas-of-kerala/1017 |access-date=9 June 2021|website=Kerala Tourism |language=en}}</ref> [[Pulikali]],<ref name="Ltd.2013">{{cite book |author=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. |title=Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA535 |year=2013 |publisher=Biju Mathew |isbn=978-8192128443 |page=535}}</ref> Pookkalam,<ref>{{cite book |title=A Biblical Approach to Indian Traditions and Beliefs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f35VH7LrZ1IC&pg=PA90 |year=2008 |publisher=Armour Publishing Pte Ltd |isbn=978-9814222396 |page=90}}</ref> Thumbi Thullal<ref name="Mohapatra2013">{{cite book |author=J Mohapatra |title=Wellness In Indian Festivals & Rituals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdpzAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |year=2013 |publisher=Partridge Pub |isbn=978-1-4828-1690-7 |page=142}}</ref> and [[Onavillu]].<ref name="(Princess.)1998">{{cite book |author=Gouri Lakshmi Bayi (Princess.) |title=Thulasi garland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lcvAAAAYAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |isbn=978-8172761103}}</ref> |
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=== Music and dance === |
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{{Main|Arts of Kerala|Music of Kerala}} |
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Kerala is home to a number of [[performance art]]s. These include five classical dance forms: [[Kathakali]], [[Mohiniyattam]], [[Koodiyattom]], [[Ottan thullal|Thullal]] and [[Krishnanattam]], which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sruti.org/library/sruti%20ranjani/2004/sruti_ranjani_2004.pdf |title=Classical Dance Art Forms of Kerala |author=Kala Menon |journal=Sruti Ranjini |date=November 2004 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=11 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091717/http://www.sruti.org/library/sruti%20ranjani/2004/sruti_ranjani_2004.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Kerala natanam]], [[Thirayattam]],<ref>"Thirayattam" (Folklore Text-Malayalam), State Institute of language, Kerala {{ISBN|978-8120042940}}</ref> [[Kaliyattam]], [[Theyyam]], [[Koothu]] and [[Padayani]] are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region.<ref name="Menon2008">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=Cultural heritage of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA106 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=D C Books |isbn=978-8126419036 |page=106}}</ref> Some traditional dance forms such as [[Oppana]] and [[Duffmuttu]] were popular among the Muslims of the state,<ref name="google19">{{cite book |author=Motilal (UK) Books of India |title=Tourist Guide Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYfRBcLdTNYC&pg=PA8 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Sura Books |isbn=978-8174781642 |page=8}}</ref> while [[Margamkali]] and [[Parichamuttukali]] are popular among the Syrian Christians and [[Chavittu nadakom]] is popular among the Latin Christians.<ref name="Nārāyaṇappaṇikkar1991">{{cite book |author=Kāvālaṃ Nārāyaṇappaṇikkar |title=Folklore of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xH6BAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1991 |publisher=National Book Trust, India |page=146 |isbn=978-8123725932}}</ref><ref name="Kasbekar2006">{{cite book |author=Asha Kasbekar |title=Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, And Lifestyle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sv7Uk0UcdM8C&pg=PA43 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-636-7 |pages=43–44}}</ref> The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.<ref name="Menon2">{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-8126421572 |pages=48–51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> The development of the indigenous classical music form, [[Sopana Sangeetham]], illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.<ref name="Menon2" /> [[Carnatic music]] dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of [[Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma]]'s popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_29" /> Raga-based renditions known as ''sopanam'' accompany ''kathakali'' performances.<ref name="SchechnerAppel1990">{{cite book |author1=Richard Schechner |author2=Willa Appel |title=By Means of Performance: Intercultural Studies of Theatre and Ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K5ZuV_nn7KkC&pg=PA145 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33915-5 |page=145}}</ref> ''Melam''; including the ''paandi'' and ''panchari'' variants, is a more percussive style of music:<ref name="BroughtonEllingham2000">{{cite book |author1=Simon Broughton |author2=Mark Ellingham |author3=Richard Trillo |title=World Music Volume 2 Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific: The Rough Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC&pg=PA97 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-85828-636-5 |page=97}}</ref> it is performed at ''[[mandir|Kshetram]]''-centered festivals using the ''[[chenda]]''. ''Panchavadyam'' is a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instrument.<ref name="BroughtonEllingham2000" /> Kerala's visual arts range from [[Murals of Kerala|traditional murals]] to the works of [[Raja Ravi Varma]], the state's most renowned painter.<ref name="Menon2" /> Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' (Northern Ballads), ''Thekkan pattukal'' (Southern Ballads), ''Vanchi pattukal'' (Boat Songs), ''[[Mappila Pattukal]]'' (Muslim songs) and ''Pallipattukal'' (Church songs) are a few of them.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-8126421572 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> |
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=== Cinema === |
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{{main|Malayalam language|Malayalam literature}} |
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{{Main|Malayalam cinema}} |
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[[Malayalam Cinema|Malayalam films]] carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes.<ref name="Menon">{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |first=Sreedhara |last=Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC |isbn=978-8126419036 |pages=128–29 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature |first=Amaresh |last=Datta |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |year=1987 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC |isbn=978-8126018031 |pages=751–53}}</ref> Directors from Kerala, like [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]], [[Mankada Ravi Varma]], [[G. Aravindan]], [[Bharathan]], [[P. Padmarajan]], [[M.T.Vasudevan Nair|M.T. Vasudevan Nair]], [[K.G. George]], [[Priyadarshan]], [[John Abraham (director)|John Abraham]], [[Ramu Karyat]], [[K S Sethumadhavan]], [[A. Vincent]] and [[Shaji N Karun]] have made a considerable contribution to the Indian [[parallel cinema]]. Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors, such as [[Mohanlal]], [[Mammootty]], [[Satyan]], [[Prem Nazir]], [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]], [[Sheela]], [[Sharada (actress)|Sharada]], [[Miss Kumari]], [[Jayan]], [[Adoor Bhasi]], [[Seema (actress)|Seema]], [[Bharath Gopi]], [[Thilakan]], [[Vijaya Raghavan]], [[Kalabhavan Mani]], [[Indrans]], [[Shobana]], [[Nivin Pauly]], [[Sreenivasan]], [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]], [[Manju Warrier]], [[Suresh Gopi]], [[Jayaram]], [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]], [[Shankaradi]], [[Kavya Madhavan]], [[Bhavana Menon]], [[Prithviraj Sukumaran|Prithviraj]], [[Parvathy Thiruvothu|Parvathy (actress)]], [[Jayasurya]], [[Dulquer Salmaan]], [[Oduvil Unnikrishnan]], [[Jagathy Sreekumar]], [[Nedumudi Venu]], [[KPAC Lalitha]], [[Innocent (actor)|Innocent]] and [[Fahad Fazil]]. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gangadhar |first=V. |title=Magic of Sophia Loren |url=https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/11/02/stories/2003110200250500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031130011344/https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/11/02/stories/2003110200250500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 November 2003 |date=2 October 2003 |department=Sunday Magazine |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |access-date=18 January 2015}}</ref> Since the 1980s, actors [[Mohanlal]] and [[Mammootty]] have dominated the movie industry; Mohanlal has won five National Film Awards (four for acting), while Mammootty has three National Film Awards for acting.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sura's Year Book 2006 |author=Subburaj V.V.K |page=620 |isbn=978-8172541248 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz2WDD8sB0MC |publisher=Sura Books |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Malayalam Cinema has produced a few more notable personalities such as [[K.J. Yesudas]], [[K.S. Chitra]], [[M. G. Sreekumar|M.G. Sreekumar]], [[Vayalar Rama Varma]], [[V. Madhusoodanan Nair]], [[M.T. Vasudevan Nair]] and [[O.N.V. Kurup]],<ref name="indiatimes2">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jnanpith-Awards-for-ONV-Kurup-Akhlaq-Khan-Shahryar/articleshow/6621243.cms |date=24 September 2014 |title=Jnanpith Awards for ONV Kurup, Akhlaq Khan Shahryar |work=The Times of India |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> the last two mentioned being recipients of [[Jnanpith award]], the highest literary award in India.<ref name="upscguide">{{cite web |url=https://upscguide.com/content/jnanpith-award-winners |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219193030/https://upscguide.com/content/jnanpith-award-winners |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 December 2012 |title=Jnanpith Award Winners | UPSC Guide |publisher=upscguide.com |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> [[Resul Pookutty]], who is from Kerala, is only the second Indian to win an [[Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing|academy award for sound design]], for the breakthrough film ''[[Slumdog Millionaire]]''. As of 2018, [[Malayalam cinema]] has got 14 awards for the best actor, 6 for the best actress, 11 for the best film, and 13 for the best film director in the [[National Film Awards]], [[India]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=358-361}} |
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=== Literature === |
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The predominant spoken language in Kerala is Malayalam, most of whose speakers live in Kerala. |
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{{Main|Malayalam Literature}} |
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The [[Sangam literature]] can be considered as the ancient predecessor of [[Malayalam]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=450}} [[Malayalam literature]] starts from the [[Old Malayalam]] period (9th–13th century CE) and includes such notable writers as the 14th-century [[Niranam poets]] (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar),<ref name="Nair1967">{{cite book |author=P. K. Parameswaran Nair |title=History of Malayalam literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHNkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1967 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=296}}</ref><ref name="Laet1994">{{cite book |author=Sigfried J. de Laet |title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ixCyd2lByggC&pg=PA407 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1994 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-9231028137 |page=407}}</ref> and the 16th-century poet [[Ezhuthachan|Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]], whose works mark the dawn of both the modern Malayalam language and its poetry.<ref name="George1998">{{cite book |author=K. M. George |title=Eng when Poetry Comes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MZqqyxVkufQC&pg=PA58 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126004133 |page=58}}</ref> For the first 600 years of [[Kollam Era|Malayalam calendar]], the literature mainly consisted of the oral [[Ballad]]s such as ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' in [[North Malabar]] and ''Thekkan Pattukal'' in [[Southern Division (Travancore)|Southern Travancore]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=453}} Designated a "[[Classical Language in India]]" in 2013,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece |title='Classical' status for Malayalam |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927134256/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poets [[Cherusseri Namboothiri]],<ref name="Cherussery (Krishnagadha) malayalam author books">{{Cite web |url=https://keralaliterature.com/old/author.php?authid=1473 |title=Cherussery (Krishnagadha) malayalam author books |website=keralaliterature.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407052549/https://keralaliterature.com/old/author.php%3Fauthid%3D1473 |archive-date=7 April 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="mlm" /> [[Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]],<ref name="mlm" /> and [[Poonthanam Nambudiri]],<ref name="mlm" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/the-charms-of-poonthanam-illam/article25308319.ece/amp/ |title=The Charms of Poonthanam Illam |last=Arun Narayanan |date=25 October 2018 |work=The Hindu}}</ref> in the 15th and the 16th centuries of [[Common Era]].<ref name="mlm">{{cite book |title=A Short History of Malayalam Literature |author=Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker |url=https://archive.org/details/ASHORTHISTORYOFMALAYALAMLITERATURE |year=2006 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |publisher=Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala}}</ref><ref>Freeman, Rich (2003). "Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia</ref> [[Unnayi Variyar]],<ref name="Attakatha sahithyam">{{Cite book |last=Krishna Kaimal |first=Aymanam |title=Attakatha sahithyam |url=https://mgucat.mgu.ac.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=133514&shelfbrowse_itemnumber=132435 |date=1989 |publisher=Trivandrum State Institute of Language}}</ref> a probable poet of the 17th/18th century CE, and [[Kunchan Nambiar]], a poet of the 18th century CE, have also influenced a lot in the growth of modern Malayalam literature in its pre-mature form.<ref name="mlm" /> The [[Bharathappuzha]] river, also known as [[Ponnani|River Ponnani]], and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The river sutra |url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/rivers-have-nurtured-malayalam-literature-and-poetry-since-time-immemorial/article25058214.ece |last=Binoy |first=Rasmi |date=27 September 2018 |access-date=24 January 2021 |work=The Hindu}}</ref> |
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[[Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar]] and [[Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran]] are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose.<ref name="google24">{{cite book |author=P. K. Parameswaran Nair |title=History of Malayalam literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHNkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1967 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |pages=118–21}}</ref><ref name="Sinhā2009">{{cite book |author=Madhubālā Sinhā |title=Encyclopaedia of South Indian literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qQpAQAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Anmol Publ. |isbn=978-8126137404 |page=97}}</ref><ref name="Vilanilam1987">{{cite book |author=John V. Vilanilam |title=Religious communication in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0UeAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=Kairali Books International |page=66}}</ref> The "[[triumvirate poets of modern malayalam|triumvirate of poets]]" (''Kavithrayam''): [[Kumaran Asan]], [[Vallathol Narayana Menon]], and [[Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer]], are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more [[lyrics|lyrical]] mode.<ref name="Al̲ikkōṭȧ1979">{{cite book |author=Sukumār Al̲ikkōṭȧ |title=Mahakavi Ulloor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VkOAAAAYAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1979 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=52}}</ref><ref name="Indian and Foreign Review">{{cite book |title=Indian and Foreign Review |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XaRnAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1983 |publisher=Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |page=25}}</ref><ref name="Tarakan1990">{{cite book |author=Ke. Eṃ Tarakan |title=A brief survey of Malayalam literature: history of literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3nhkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1990 |publisher=K.M. Tharakan |pages=41–52}}</ref> The poets like [[Moyinkutty Vaidyar]] and [[Pulikkottil Hyder]] have made notable contributions to the [[Mappila songs]], which is a genre of the [[Arabi Malayalam]] literature.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2007/03/31/stories/2007033110250500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108104937/https://www.hindu.com/2007/03/31/stories/2007033110250500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 November 2012 |title=Mappila songs cultural fountains of a bygone age, says MT |date=31 March 2007 |access-date=15 August 2009 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref>Pg 167, Mappila Muslims: a study on society and anti colonial struggles By Husain Raṇdathaṇi, Other Books, Kozhikode 2007</ref> The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam ''[[Varthamanappusthakam]]'', written by [[Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar]] in 1785.<ref name="legacy">{{cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=The legacy of Kerala |year=2008 |publisher=D C Books |location=Kottayam, Kerala |isbn=978-81-264-2157-2 |edition=1st DCB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nasrani.net/2010/08/23/the-varthamanappusthakam-cathanar-paremmakkal/ |title=August 23, 2010 Archives |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427073541/https://nasrani.net/2010/08/23/the-varthamanappusthakam-cathanar-paremmakkal/ |archive-date=27 April 2013}}</ref> The prose literature, [[Malayalam journalism]], and criticism began after the latter-half of the 18th century.<ref name="legacy" /> Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern literature is often towards [[political radicalism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65212/Tamil#toc65213 |title=South Asian arts |access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref> [[Malayalam literature]] has been presented with 6 [[Jnanpith Award|Jnanapith awards]], the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Jnanpith given to Akkitham |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/jnanpith-given-to-akkitham/article32685581.ece |last=Naha |first=Abdul Latheef |date=24 September 2020 |access-date=12 June 2021 |work=The Hindu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Celebrated Malayalam poet Akkitham wins 2019 Jnanpith Award |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/celebrated-malayalam-poet-akkitham-wins-2019-jnanpith-award-119112900926_1.html |last=ANI |date=29 November 2019 |access-date=12 June 2021 |publisher=Business Standard}}</ref> In the second half of the 20th century, [[Jnanpith]] winning poets and writers like [[G. Sankara Kurup]], [[S. K. Pottekkatt]], [[Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai]], [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]], [[O. N. V. Kurup]], and [[Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri]], had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.<ref name="google25">{{cite book |author=Subodh Kapoor |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia: Biographical, Historical, Religious, Administrative, Ethnological, Commercial and Scientific. Mahi-Mewat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mc6C5dVHbGAC&pg=PA4542 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Cosmo |isbn=978-8177552720 |page=4542}}</ref><ref name="Accessions List, South Asia">{{cite book |title=Accessions List, South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPcoAQAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1994 |publisher=E.G. Smith for the U.S. Library of Congress Office, New Delhi |page=21}}</ref><ref name="Indian Writing Today">{{cite book |title=Indian Writing Today |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wUtAQAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1967 |publisher=Nirmala Sadanand Publishers |page=21}}</ref><ref name="DattaAkademi1987">{{cite book |author1=Amaresh Datta |author2=Sahitya Akademi |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: K to Navalram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QaIRAQAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=2394 |isbn=978-0-8364-2423-2}}</ref><ref name="Malayalam Literary Survey">{{cite book |title=Malayalam Literary Survey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5JkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1993 |publisher=Kerala Sahitya Akademi |page=19}}</ref> Later, writers like [[O. V. Vijayan]], [[Kamaladas]], [[M. Mukundan]], [[Arundhati Roy]], [[Vaikom Muhammed Basheer]], have gained international recognition.<ref name="MukundanPillai2004">{{cite book |author1=Eṃ Mukundan |author2=C. Gopinathan Pillai |title=Eng Adityan Radha And Others |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1N5QcHakKdoC&pg=PP3 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2004 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126018833 |page=3}}</ref><ref name="Maheshwari2002">{{cite book |author=Ed. Vinod Kumar Maheshwari |title=Perspectives On Indian English Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JcY2-ldWIKsC&pg=PA126 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-8126900930 |page=126}}</ref><ref name="Chaudhuri2008">{{cite book |author=Amit Chaudhuri |title=Clearing a Space: Reflections On India, Literature, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQeN2PoAx2IC&pg=PA44 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1-906165-01-7 |pages=44–45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=15 October 1997 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A01E6DD173FF936A25753C1A961958260 |first=Sarah |last=Lyall}}</ref> |
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[[Malayalam literature]] is ancient in origin, and includes such figures as the 14th century [[Niranam poets]] (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), and the 17th century poet [[Ezhuthachan|Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]] whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. The "[[Triumvirate poets of modern malayalam|triumvirate of poets]]" (''Kavithrayam''), [[Kumaran Asan]], [[Vallathol Narayana Menon]], and [[Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer]], are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more [[lyrics|lyrical]] mode. |
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=== Cuisine === |
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In the second half of the 20th century, [[Jnanpith]] awardees like [[G. Sankara Kurup]], [[S. K. Pottekkatt]], [[Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai]] and [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]] have made valuable contributions to the Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as [[O. V. Vijayan]], [[Kamaladas]], [[M. Mukundan]], and [[Booker Prize]] winner [[Arundhati Roy]], whose 1996 semi-[[autobiography|autobiographical]] bestseller ''[[The God of Small Things]]'' is set in the [[Kottayam]] town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.<ref>{{cite web |title= Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain |publisher=[[The New York Times]] |date=[[15 October]] [[1997]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A01E6DD173FF936A25753C1A961958260 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Winds, Rivers & Rain |publisher=[[Salon.com|Salon]] |date=September 1997 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.salon.com/sept97/00roy.html }}</ref> |
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{{Main|Cuisine of Kerala}} |
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Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.<ref name="google26">{{cite book |author1=Murdoch Books Pty Limited |author2=Murdoch Books Test Kitchen |title=India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_cHBuYD3CQC&pg=PA10 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Murdoch Books |isbn=978-1-74196-438-7 |page=10}}</ref> Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.<ref name="Majumdar2010">{{cite book |author=Majumdar |title=Consumer Behaviour: Insights From Indian Market |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KF57x1Nrn2UC&pg=RA1-PA79 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-8120339637 |page=181}}</ref> A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other (''[[idli]]'', ''[[Dosa (food)|dosa]]'', ''[[puttu]]'', ''[[pathiri]]'', ''[[appam]]'', or ''[[idiyappam]]''), [[tapioca]] preparations, or pulse-based [[Vada (food)|vada]].<ref name="Muthachen1970">{{cite book |author=Rachel Muthachen |title=Regional Indian Recipes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5xXz_UFV7QC&pg=PA1 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1970 |publisher=Jaico Publishing House |isbn=978-8172240356 |page=1}}</ref> These may be accompanied by [[chutney]], ''[[Chickpea|kadala]]'', ''[[payasam]]'', ''[[Mung bean|payar]] [[pappadam]]'', ''[[appam]]'', chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry.<ref name="Newton" /> [[Porotta]] and [[Biryani]] are also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes include [[rice and curry]] along with ''[[Rasam (dish)|rasam]]'', ''pulisherry'' and ''[[Sambar (dish)|sambar]]''.<ref name="google27">{{cite book |author=James Newton |title=Jay Rai's Kitchen – Keralan Cuisine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zDWhOU-I04C&pg=PT4 |access-date=17 November 2012 |publisher=Springwood emedia |isbn=978-1-4761-2308-0 |pages=4–}}</ref> ''[[Sadhya]]'' is a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.<ref name="Kannampilly2003">{{cite book |author=Vijayan Kannampilly |title=Essential Kerala Cook Book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYfOCaAPb3sC&pg=PA11 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302950-2 |pages=10–11}}</ref> Popular snacks include [[banana chip]]s, yam crisps, [[tapioca chip]]s, [[Achappam]], [[Unni appam]] and ''kuzhalappam''.<ref name="Kerala with Lakshadweep">{{cite book |title=Kerala with Lakshadweep |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJJuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Outlook Publishing |page=27 |isbn=978-8189449018}}</ref><ref name="Koilparampil1982">{{cite book |author=George Koilparampil |title=Caste in the Catholic community in Kerala: a study of caste elements in the inter rite relationships of Syrians and Latins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXnaAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1982 |publisher=Dept. of Sociology, St. Teresa's College |page=233}}</ref><ref name="(Swami.)2000">{{cite book |author=Paramatmananda (Swami.) |title=Talks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p77mUECpIjgC |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Mata Amritanandamayi Center |isbn=978-1-879410-79-4 |page=24}}</ref> Seafood specialties include [[karimeen]], prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala Cuisine |url=https://www.ecotours.in/kerala-cuisine.htm |publisher=Ecotours |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=13 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813003443/http://ecotours.in/kerala-cuisine.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Thalassery Cuisine]] is varied and is a blend of many influences. |
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=== Elephants === |
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Elephants have been an integral part of the culture of the state. Almost all of the local festivals in Kerala include at least one richly caparisoned elephant. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephants in India—about 700 [[Indian elephants]], owned by temples as well as individuals.<ref name="Varghese2006">{{cite book |author=Theresa Varghese |title=Stark World Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=978-8190250511 |page=224}}</ref> These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. More than 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants during them.<ref name="1000hrs">{{cite news |title=India's overworked elephants |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8533776.stm |work=BBC |date=4 March 2010 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the "sons of the ''[[sahyadri|sahya]]''".<ref name="Satchidanandan2001">{{cite book |author=K. Satchidanandan |title=Indian Poetry: Modernism and After |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXiNXRM_KzMC&pg=PR14 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2001 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126010929 |pages=14–}}</ref> The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the [[Government of Kerala]].<ref name="Profile">{{cite web |title=About Kerala |url=https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=37 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218081930/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=37 |archive-date=18 December 2011 |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref> |
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== Media == |
== Media == |
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{{Main|Media in Kerala}} |
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The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India]] (TRAI).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gfeQc1ZBqIC&pg=PA112 |publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag |page=112 |id=GGKEY:BJ6HEPE0NRE}}</ref> The National Family Health Survey – 4, conducted in 2015–16, ranked Kerala as the state with the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) |url=https://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Reports/Kerala.pdf |website=International Institute for Population SciencesDeonar |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223120050/http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Reports/Kerala.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,<ref name=rniindia>{{cite web |url=https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927070139/https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm |archive-date=27 September 2007 |url-status=dead |title=General Review |access-date=1 September 2006 |publisher=Registrar of Newspapers for India}}</ref> but principally Malayalam and English.<ref name="google28">{{cite book |author=K. M. George |title=Eng when Poetry Comes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MZqqyxVkufQC&pg=PA186 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126004133 |page=186}}</ref> Kerala has the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The DHS Program – India: Standard DHS, 2015–16 |url=https://dhsprogram.com/what-we-do/survey/survey-display-355.cfm |website=dhsprogram.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=National Family Health Survey |url=https://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Report.shtml |website=rchiips.org |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307101917/http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Report.shtml |url-status=dead}}</ref> The most widely circulated [[List of Malayalam language newspapers|Malayalam-language newspapers]] are ''[[Malayala Manorama]], [[Mathrubhumi]], [[Deshabhimani]], [[Madhyamam]], [[Kerala Kaumudi]], [[Mangalam Publications|Mangalam]], [[Chandrika (Malayalam newspaper)|Chandrika]], [[Deepika (newspaper)|Deepika]], [[Janayugam]], [[Janmabhumi]], [[Siraj Daily]]'' and ''[[Suprabhaatham Daily|Suprabhaatham]]''. [[List of Malayalam periodicals|Major Malayalam periodicals]] include ''[[Mathrubhumi Azhchappathippu]], [[Vanitha]], [[India Today]] Malayalam, [[Madhyamam Weekly]], [[Grihalakshmi (magazine)|Grihalakshmi]], [[Dhanam (business magazine)|Dhanam]], [[Chithrabhumi]]'' and ''[[Bhashaposhini]]''. ''[[The Hindu]]'' is the most read English language newspaper in the state, followed by ''[[The New Indian Express]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.afaqs.com/news/story/27032_IRS-2010-Q1:-Dailies-in-Kerala-lose-readers-after-gaining-in-the-last-round |title=IRS 2010 Q1: Dailies in Kerala lose readers after gaining in the last round |author=Sangeeta Tanwar |work=Indian Readership Survey |publisher=afaqs.com |location=[[New Delhi, India]] |date=10 May 2010 |access-date=29 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710130841/https://www.afaqs.com/news/story/27032_IRS-2010-Q1:-Dailies-in-Kerala-lose-readers-after-gaining-in-the-last-round |archive-date=10 July 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Other dailies include ''[[Deccan Chronicle]], [[The Times of India]], [[Daily News & Analysis|DNA]], [[The Economic Times]]'' and ''[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]]''. |
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{{main|Media in Kerala}} |
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[[File:Malayala Manorama New Press in Kollam-3, Apr 2016.jpg|right|thumb|[[Malayala Manorama]] office in [[Kottiyam]], [[Kollam]]]] |
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[[DD Malayalam]] is the state-owned television broadcaster. [[Multi system operator]]s provide a mix of Malayalam, English, other Indian language and international channels. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]], [[Asianet News]], [[Asianet Plus]], [[Asianet Movies]], [[Surya TV]], [[Surya Movies]], [[Mazhavil Manorama]], [[Manorama News]], [[Kairali TV]], [[Kairali TV|Kairali News]], [[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers]], [[Media One TV]], [[Mathrubhumi News]], [[Kappa TV]], [[Amrita TV]], [[Reporter TV]], [[Jaihind]], [[Janam TV]], [[Jeevan TV]], [[Kaumudy TV]] and [[Shalom (TV channel)|Shalom TV]]. With the second-highest internet penetration rate in India,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi ranks top in Internet penetration, Kerala comes second |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/info-tech/delhi-ranks-top-in-internet-penetration-kerala-comes-second/article31516751.ece/amp/ |date=6 May 2020 |access-date=27 June 2021 |website=The Hindu Business Line}}</ref> [[Digital media]]s including [[Social media]]s and [[Over-the-top media service in India|OTT services]] are a main source of information and entertainment in the state. Malayalam version of [[Google News]] was launched in September 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://news.google.com/ |title=Google വാർത്ത |website=Google വാർത്ത}}</ref> A sizeable [[People's science movement]] has taken root in the state, and such activities as writer's cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005" /><ref name="Ranjith_2004">{{Cite book |author=Ranjith KS |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Rural Libraries of Kerala |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621812 |pages=20–21 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/78.pdf |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref> [[BSNL]], [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]], [[Vodafone Idea Limited]], [[Jio]] are the major cell phone service providers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Highlights ofTelecom Subscription Data as on 28thFebruary, 2019 |url=https://main.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PR_No.27of2019_0.pdf |access-date=16 May 2019 |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418140404/https://main.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PR_No.27of2019_0.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major [[ISP]]s are [[BSNL]], [[Asianet Satellite Communications]], [[Reliance Communications]], [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]], [[Vodafone Idea Limited]], [[MTS India|MTS]], [[RailTel Corporation of India|RailWire]] and [[VSNL]]. According to a TRAI report, as of June 2018 the total number of wireless phone subscribers in Kerala is about 43.1 million and the wireline subscriber base is at 1.9 million, accounting for the [[Telephone Density]] of 124.15.<ref>{{cite web |title=Highlights of Telecom Subscription Data as on 30th June, 2018 |url=https://main.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PRNo91Eng20082018.pdf |website=TELECOM REGULATORYAUTHORITY OF INDIA }}{{dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Unlike in many other states, the urban-rural divide is not visible in Kerala with respect to mobile phone penetration.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tele-density in Kerala |url=https://www.hindu.com/2011/06/08/stories/2011060857900500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301232932/https://www.hindu.com/2011/06/08/stories/2011060857900500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 March 2012 |year=2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=15 November 2015}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Malayalam print and spectacles.jpg|thumb|right|Printed Malayalam text magnified by spectacles.]] |
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Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala; they are printed in nine major languages.<ref name=rniindia>{{cite web |
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|url = https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm| title = General Review| accessdate = 2006-09-01 |
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|publisher = Registrar of Newspapers for India }}</ref> The principal languages of publication are Malayalam and English. The most widely circulating [[List of Malayalam language newspapers|Malayalam-language newspapers]] include ''[[Malayala Manorama]]'', ''[[Mathrubhumi]]'', ''[[Deepika (newspaper)|Deepika]]'', ''[[Kerala Kaumudi]]'',''[[Madhyamam]]'' and ''[[Desabhimani]]''. Among [[List of Malayalam periodicals|major Malayalam periodicals]] are ''[[India Today|India Today Malayalam]]'', ''[[Vanitha]]'', ''[[Veedu]]'', ''[[Gruhalakshmi]]'', ''[[Chithrabhumi]]'', ''[[Kanyaka (magazine)| Kanyaka]]'', and ''[[Bhashaposhini]]''. |
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[[Doordarshan]] is the state-owned television broadcaster. [[Multi system operator]]s provide a mix of Malayalam, English, and international channels via [[cable television]].There are 17 malayalam channels which makes the countries maximum number in regional language.[[Asianet]],[[Surya TV]],[[Kairali TV]] and [[Amrita TV]] are among the Malayalam-language channels that compete with the major national channels. [[All India Radio]], the national radio service, reaches much of Kerala via its Thiruvananthapuram 'A' Malayalam-language broadcaster. [[BSNL]], [[Reliance Infocomm]], [[Tata Indicom]], [[Vodafone]] and [[Airtel]] compete to provide [[cell phone|cellular]] phone services. [[Broadband]] internet is available in most of the towns and cities and is provided by different agencies like the state-run Kerala Telecommunications (which is run by BSNL) and by other private companies like [[Asianet|Asianet Satellite communications]], [[VSNL]]. BSNL provides 2 Mbit/s and 8 Mbit/s broadband service in most of the cities. Kerala accounts for the highest number of PC users and software engineers in India. Around 30% of software engineers working in Bangalore are from Kerala.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} |
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A substantial [[Malayalam Cinema|Malayalam film]] industry effectively competes against both [[Bollywood]] and [[Hollywood]]. Television (especially "mega serials" and cartoons) and the Internet have affected Keralite culture. Yet Keralites maintain high rates of newspaper and magazine subscriptions; 50% spend an average of about seven hours a week reading novels and other books. A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ranjith KS |editor=Nair PRG, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Rural Libraries of Kerala |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=81-87621-81-8 |pages=pp. 20–21 |accessdate= 2007-11-12 |format=PDF |url=http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/78.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Tharamangalam_2005_2">{{harvnb|Tharamangalam|2005|p=2}}.</ref> |
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== Sports == |
== Sports == |
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{{Main|Sports in Kerala}} |
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[[File:Kerala boatrace.jpg|thumb|The annual [[Vallam Kali|snake boat race]] is performed during [[Onam]] on the [[Pamba River]]]] |
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[[File:The Sports Hub Trivandrum after T20 IND VS NZL.jpg|thumb|[[Greenfield International Stadium]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]].]] |
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By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including [[Poorakkali]], Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali.<ref name="PRD-sports">{{cite web |url=https://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/sportsmain.htm |title=Sports and Games in Kerala |publisher=Public Relations Dept, Kerala |year=2002 |access-date=9 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060428081830/https://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/sportsmain.htm |archive-date=28 April 2006}}</ref> However, ''[[Kalaripayattu]]'', regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport.<ref>{{cite book |title=Muay Thai |publisher=Meyer & Meyer Verlag |author=Arnaud Van Der Veere |year=2012 |page=8 |isbn=978-1-84126-328-1}}</ref> Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of [[Snake boat]]s.<ref name="PRD-sports" /> |
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{{main|Sports in Kerala}} |
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[[File:Jewaharlal Nehru Stadium Kochi ISL.jpg|thumb|[[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi)|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]] in [[Kochi]].]] |
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[[Image:KalariPuttara.jpg|thumb|right|Kalari ''[[puttara]]'' shrines are seven-tiered platform-altars where ''kalaripayattu'' practitioners pray to the guardian deity.]] |
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Several ancient ritualised arts are Keralite in origin. These include ''[[kalaripayattu]]''—''[[kalari]]'' ("place", "threshing floor", or "battlefield") and ''payattu'' ("exercise" or "practice"). Among the world's oldest martial arts, oral tradition attributes ''kalaripayattu'''s emergence to Parasurama. Other ritual arts include ''[[theyyam]]'' and ''[[poorakkali]]''. However, larger numbers of Keralites follow sports such as [[cricket]], ''[[kabaddi]]'', [[soccer]], and [[badminton]]. Dozens of large stadiums, including Kochi's [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Kochi|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]] and Thiruvananthapuram's Chandrashekaran Nair Stadium, attest to the mass appeal of such sports among Keralites. |
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[[Cricket]] and [[association football|football]] became popular in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Cricketers, like [[Tinu Yohannan]], [[Abey Kuruvilla]], [[Chundangapoyil Rizwan]], [[Sreesanth]], [[Sanju Samson]] and [[Basil Thampi]] found places in the national cricket team. A cricket franchise from Kerala, the [[Kochi Tuskers Kerala|Kochi Tuskers]], played in the [[Indian Premier League]]'s [[2011 Indian Premier League|fourth season]]. However, this team was disbanded after the season because of conflicts of interest among its franchises.<ref name="India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller">{{Cite news |title=India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller |date=25 September 2007 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.hindu.com/2007/09/25/stories/2007092559400100.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130110234429/http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/25/stories/2007092559400100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 January 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref name="hindu_jul09">{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2009/07/04/stories/2009070456811800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090707015857/https://www.hindu.com/2009/07/04/stories/2009070456811800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 July 2009 |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Minister convenes high-level meet |date=4 July 2009}}</ref> Kerala has only performed well recently in the [[Ranji Trophy]] cricket competition, in 2017–18 reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in history.<ref name="PRD-sports" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Ranji Trophy: In historic first, Kerala join defending champions Gujarat in quarter-finals |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/india-domestic/ranji-trophy/ranji-trophy-in-historic-first-kerala-join-defending-champions-gujarat-in-quarter-finals/articleshow/61836301.cms |date=28 November 2017 |newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> Football is one of the most widely played and watched sports with huge in this state support for club and district level matches. Kochi hosts [[Kerala Blasters FC]] in the [[Indian Super League]]. The Blasters are one of the most widely supported clubs in the country as well as the fifth most followed football club from [[Asia]] in the social media.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Salikha |first=Adelaida |title=Top FIVE Asian Clubs With Highest Social Media Followers, Up to October 2018 {{!}} Seasia.co |url=https://seasia.co/2018/10/31/top-five-asian-clubs-with-highest-social-media-followers-up-to-october-2018 |access-date=17 September 2020|website=Good News from Southeast Asia |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 June 2020 |title=Indian Football: Five most-followed clubs on social media |url=https://khelnow.com/football/indian-football-clubs-social-media-followers/ |access-date=10 September 2020 |website=Khel Now |language=en-US |archive-date=13 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113014231/https://khelnow.com/football/indian-football-clubs-social-media-followers |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Malayalam News – kerala blasters become fifth Asian club with the biggest social media following {{!}} News18 Kerala, Sports Latest Malayalam News {{!}} ലേറ്റസ്റ്റ് മലയാളം വാർത്ത |url=https://malayalam.news18.com/amp/news/sports/kerala-blasters-become-fifth-asian-club-with-the-biggest-social-media-following-50113.html |access-date=5 December 2020|website=malayalam.news18.com|date=25 October 2018 }}</ref> Also, Kozhikode hosts [[Gokulam Kerala FC]] in the [[I-League]] as well as the [[Sait Nagjee Football Tournament]]. Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players like [[I. M. Vijayan]], [[C. V. Pappachan]], [[V. P. Sathyan]], [[U. Sharaf Ali]], [[Jo Paul Ancheri]], [[Ashique Kuruniyan]], [[Mohammed Rafi (footballer)|Muhammad Rafi]], [[Jiju Jacob]], [[Mashoor Shereef]], [[Pappachen Pradeep]], [[C.K. Vineeth]], [[Anas Edathodika]], [[Sahal Abdul Samad]], and [[Rino Anto]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/awards.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217141248/https://the-aiff.com/awards.php |archive-date=17 February 2009 |title=AIFF Award Player of the Year |publisher=All India Football Federation |access-date=15 November 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=James Wray |author2=Ulf Stabe |url=https://twocircles.net/2007sep14/viva_marks_resurgence_kerala_football.html |title=Viva marks the resurgence of Kerala football |publisher=Monstersandcritics.com |date=15 September 2007 |access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="india">{{cite web |url=https://zeenews.india.com/news/sports/indian-football-team-suffer-humiliating-1-9-defeat-to-kuwait_668128.html |publisher=zeenews.india.com |title=Indian football team suffer humiliating 1–9 defeat to Kuwait |date=14 November 2010 |access-date=13 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sportstar |first=Team |title=Sahal recalls journey from university football to senior national team |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/intercontinental-cup-indian-football-sahal-abdul-samad-kerala-blasters-college-university-system/article28436294.ece |access-date=6 June 2020 |website=Sportstar |date=15 July 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://scroll.in/field/988334/india-football-stimac-names-10-new-players-in-35-man-probables-list-for-oman-uae-friendlies |title=Bipin Singh, Ishan Pandita in 35-man probables list for Oman,UAE friendlies |website=thescroll.in |date=2 March 2021}}</ref> The Kerala state football team has won the [[Santhosh Trophy]] seven times; in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2004, 2018, and 2022. They were also the runners-up eight times.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/pages/tournament/tournament-history.php?tournamentdetail=22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524035900/https://www.the-aiff.com/pages/tournament/tournament-history.php?tournamentdetail=22 |archive-date=24 May 2012 |title=Past Winners |publisher=All India Football Federation |access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref> |
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Kerala has been the athletics powerhouse of India for decades, and several Keralite athletes have attained world-class status, including [[P. T. Usha]], [[Suresh Babu]], [[Shiny Wilson]], [[K. M. Beenamol]], [[M. D. Valsamma]] and [[Anju Bobby George]]. |
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Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state are [[P. T. Usha]], [[Shiny Wilson]] and [[M.D. Valsamma]], all three of whom are recipients of the [[Padma Shri]] as well as [[Arjuna Award]], while [[K. M. Beenamol]] and [[Anju Bobby George]] are [[Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna]] and Arjuna Award winners. [[T. C. Yohannan]], [[Suresh Babu (long jumper)|Suresh Babu]], [[Sinimol Paulose]], Angel Mary Joseph, [[Mercy Kuttan]], K. Saramma, [[Rosa Kutty|K. C. Rosakutty]], Padmini Selvan and Tintu Luka are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala.<ref name="PRD-sports" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://keralaathletics.org/history.html |title=Kerala State Athletics Association: History |publisher=Kerala State Athletics Association |access-date=12 June 2012 |archive-date=24 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624082221/http://keralaathletics.org/history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rough Guide to South India |author1=David Abram |author2=Nick Edwards |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-84353-103-6 |page=64}}</ref> [[Jimmy George]] was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jimmy George |work=Sports Portal |publisher=Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514040141/https://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archive-date=14 May 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Other popular sports include [[badminton]], [[basketball]] and [[kabaddi]].<ref name="Reddy2005">{{cite book |author=P.A. Reddy |title=Sports Promotion In India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T37m8eRAEX0C&pg=PA119 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8171419272 |pages=31–42}}</ref> The Indian Hockey team captain [[P. R. Shreejesh]], ace goalkeeper hails from Kerala. International Walkers from the state include [[K. T. Irfan]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Irfan |first=KT |title=KT Irfan, World Athletics Championships, Moscow |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/212223-indians-disappoint-in-mens-20km-race-walk-in-athletics-worlds |newspaper=NDTV Sports |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814035243/https://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/212223-indians-disappoint-in-mens-20km-race-walk-in-athletics-worlds |archive-date=14 August 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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As in the rest of India, cricket is the most popular sport in the state but it has an illustrious history in other sports/games, including football. Some notable football stars from Kerala include [[I. M. Vijayan]], [[V. P. Sathyan]], and Joe Paul Ancheri. |
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[[Volleyball]], another popular sport, is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. [[Jimmy George]], born in [[Peravoor]], [[Kannur]], was a notable Indian volleyball player, regarded in his prime as among the world's ten best players.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jimmy George |work=Sports Portal |publisher=Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 }}</ref> |
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For the [[2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup]] in [[India]], the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi)]], was chosen as one of the six venues where the game would be hosted in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/FIFA-Event-at-Kochi-Time-is-Ticking-Away/2016/03/07/article3313714.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308104258/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/FIFA-Event-at-Kochi-Time-is-Ticking-Away/2016/03/07/article3313714.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 March 2016 |title=FIFA Event at Kochi: Time is Ticking Away |website=The New Indian Express |access-date=3 April 2016}}</ref> [[Greenfield International Stadium]] at located at Kariavattom in Thiruvananthapuram city, is India's first DBOT (design, build, operate and transfer) model outdoor stadium and it has hosted international cricket matches and international football matches including [[2015 SAFF Championship]].<ref name="SAFF Cup Dates">{{cite news |last1=Chaudhuri |first1=Arunava |title=Trivandrum will host upcoming SAFF Cup in December 2015/January 2016 |url=http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/trivandrum-will-host-upcoming-saff-cup-in-december-2015january-2016 |access-date=22 December 2015 |work=SportsKeeda |date=2 July 2015}}</ref> |
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It is from the 1990s that cricket started growing in popularity. The 21st century saw two Kerala Ranji Trophy players gain test selection. [[Shanthakumaran Sreesanth]], born in [[Kothamangalam]], has represented India since 2005, and is the most successful cricketer from Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |title=India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller |publisher=The Hindu |date=[[2007-09-25]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/25/stories/2007092559400100.htm }}</ref>. Among less successful Keralite cricketers is [[Tinu Yohannan]], son of [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] [[long jump]]er [[T. C. Yohannan]].<ref>{{cite web |title=It's advantage Tinu at the Mecca of cricket |publisher=The Hindu |date=[[2002-06-13]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/06/13/stories/2002061300030400.htm }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=India Squad Profiles: Tinu Yohannan |publisher=[[BBC Sport]] |date=2002 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/england/england_v_india_2002/india_player_profiles/2049702.stm }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Warriors from Kerala |publisher=The Hindu |date=[[2002-01-20]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/20/stories/2002012000160300.htm }}</ref> |
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== Tourism == |
== Tourism == |
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{{Main|Tourism in Kerala}} |
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Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varied [[demographics of Kerala|demographics]], have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012, [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]'s [[National Geographic Traveler|Traveller]] magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"<ref name="Kerala Tourism">{{cite web |title=Kerala Tourism: Paradises in the world |url=https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040904094648/https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=20 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pravasikairali.com/Homepage.aspx?p=articles&news=447 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108151228/https://www.pravasikairali.com/Homepage.aspx?p=articles&news=447 |archive-date=8 November 2014 |title=Pravasi KairaLi Home |publisher=Pravasikairali.com |access-date=11 January 2014}}</ref> and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".<ref name="Kerala India">{{cite web |title=Kerala – The Gateway of India |url=https://forbesindia.com/printcontent/26162 |work=[[Forbes]] |access-date=3 January 2012}}</ref> [[Travel and Leisure]] also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".<ref name="Kerala Tourism" /><ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala : National Geographic Traveler selects Kerala as 'one of the 50 must-see destinations of a lifetime' |publisher=Travel Portal of India |date=27 January 2009 |access-date=11 June 2011 |url=https://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904030433/https://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/ |archive-date=4 September 2011}}</ref> In 2012, it overtook the [[Taj Mahal]] to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala beats Taj in Google Search Trends for 2012 |work=Indian Express |date=28 December 2012 |access-date=11 January 2012 |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/tourism-kerala-beats-taj-in-google-search-trends-for-2012/1051412}}</ref> [[CNN Travel]] listed Kerala among its '19 best places to visit in 2019'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN Travel's 19 places to visit in 2019 |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/places-to-visit-2019/index.html |website=CNN Travel |date=22 May 2019 |language=en |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> Kerala was named by [[Time (magazine)|TIME magazine]] in 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/travel/story/ahmedabad-and-kerala-on-time-magazine-s-list-of-world-s-greatest-places-of-2022-1975386-2022-07-14 |title=Ahmedabad and Kerala on TIME magazine's list of World's Greatest Places of 2022 |website=India Today|date=14 July 2022 }}</ref> |
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{{main|Tourism in Kerala}} |
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Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions<ref name="Ltd.2012">{{cite book |author=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. |title=Kerala Tradition & Fascinating Destinations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTunBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA314 |year=2012 |publisher=Biju Mathew {{!}} Info Kerala Communications Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-8192128481 |page=314}}</ref> and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists.<ref name="Tripays">{{cite web |url=https://www.tripays.com/kerala-family-tour-packages/ |date=6 August 2011 |title=Kerala Family Tour Packages |author=Admin |access-date=2 July 2019 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121233843/https://www.tripays.com/kerala-family-tour-packages/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.<ref name="keralatourism">{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination-wise-foreign-2010.pdf |date=6 August 2011 |title=Destination Wise Number of Foreign Tourists Visited Kerala During 2010 |author=Saju |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Tourism Statistics">{{cite web |publisher=Government of Kerala, Tourism Department |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/tourismstatistics/Tourist-Statistics2008.pdf |title=Tourist statistics – 2008 |access-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country.<ref name="HinduTourism">{{Cite news |author=Santhanam K |title=An ideal getaway |date=27 January 2002 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/27/stories/2002012700400800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030623124553/https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/27/stories/2002012700400800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 June 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Tourism beckons |date=11 May 2004 |access-date=9 August 2006 |url=https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040904094648/https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Marketing campaigns launched by the [[Kerala Tourism Development Corporation]], the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.<ref name="Tourism">{{cite book |title=Tourism Marketing |author=Dasgupta Devashish |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2011 |isbn=978-8131731826 |page=203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXWAEjcG-FsC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Many advertisements branded Kerala with the tagline ''[[God's Own Country|Kerala, God's Own Country]]''.<ref name="Tourism" /> Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.<ref name="Tourism" /> In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics – 2006 |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2006 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195845/https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008}}</ref> In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.<ref name="bizstd">{{Cite news |title=Tourist inflow to Kerala crosses 10 million mark |work=Business-Standard |access-date=15 November 2015 |url=https://www.business-standard.com/india/news/tourist-inflow-to-kerala-crosses-10-million-mark/474524/ |date=16 May 2012 |last1=Joseph |first1=George}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Sunset at Varkala Beach Kerala India.jpg|thumb|right|Sunset at [[Varkala|Varkala Beach]], one of the state's most popular attractions.]] |
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{{Panorama |
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|image = File:Panoramic view of varkala beach cliff.jpg |
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|height = 150 |
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|alt = A panoramic view of [[Varkala]] Beach [[Cliff]] |
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|caption = A panoramic view of [[Varkala]] Beach [[Cliff]] |
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}} |
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Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department.<ref name="HinduTourism" /> Kerala is known for its [[ecotourism]] initiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities.<ref name="Devrep47">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=47 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the [[economy of Kerala|state's economy]], growing at the rate of 13.3%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics – 2005 (Provisional) |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2005 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008}}</ref> The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the {{INR}} 190 billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/services/travel/kerala-records-6-rise-in-tourist-arrivals-despite-floods-and-nipah-virus-scare/articleshow/67995390.cms |title=Kerala records 6% rise in tourist arrivals despite floods and Nipah virus scare |date=14 February 2019 |work=The Economic Times |access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref> Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 365280.1 million from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 28743.3 million from the previous year. Over 16.7 million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76 million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2 million people.<ref name="bizstd" /> |
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Kerala, situated on the lush and tropical Malabar Coast, is one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. Named as one of the "ten paradises of the world" and "50 places of a lifetime" by the [[National Geographic Traveler]] magazine, Kerala is especially known for its [[ecotourism]] initiatives.<ref>{{cite web |title=Paradise Found: Kerala, India |work=Fifty places of a lifetime |publisher=National Geographic Traveler |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/kerala.html |accessdate=2007-11-11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Tourism beckons |publisher=The Hindu |date=[[2004-05-11]] |accessdate=2006-08-09 |url=http://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm }} |
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{{Panorama |
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</ref> Its unique [[culture of Kerala|culture and traditions]], coupled with its varied [[demographics of Kerala|demographics]], has made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. Growing at a rate of 13.31%, the state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the [[economy of Kerala|state's economy]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics — 2005 (Provisional) |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2005 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf}}</ref> |
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|image = File:View from Mangalam Dam Reservoir.jpg |
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|height = 200 |
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[[Image:Kerala 06 dance.jpg|thumb|left|125px|A ''[[mohiniaattam]]'' performance.]] |
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|alt = A panoramic view of [[Western Ghats]] mountain ranges from [[Mangalam Dam]] Reservoir |
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<!--[[Image:Kum1.jpg|thumb|left|125px|A procession held before the [[Sree Narayana Jayanthi Boat Race|Kumarakom Boat Race]].]]--> |
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|caption = A panoramic view of [[Western Ghats]] mountain ranges from [[Mangalam Dam]] Reservoir |
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}} |
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Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination;<ref>{{cite web |author=Santhanam K |title=An ideal getaway |work=The Hindu Magazine |publisher=The Hindu |date=[[27 January]] [[2002]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/27/stories/2002012700400800.htm}}</ref> most tourist circuits focused on [[North India]]. Aggressive marketing campaigns launched by the [[Kerala Tourism Development Corporation]], the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state, laid the foundation for the growth of the tourism industry. In the decades that followed, Kerala's tourism industry was able to transform the state into one of the niche holiday destinations in India. The tagline ''[[God's Own Country|Kerala- God's Own Country]]'', originally coined by [[Vipin Gopal]], has been widely used in Kerala's tourism promotions and soon became synonymous with the state. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourist arrivals, an increase of 23.68% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing destinations in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics — 2006 |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf}}</ref> |
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The state's only drive-in beach, [[Muzhappilangad Beach|Muzhappilangad]] in Kannur, which stretches across five kilometres of sand, was chosen by the BBC as one of the top six drive-in beaches<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/autos/story/20160617-the-worlds-best-beaches-for-driving |title=The best beaches for driving |first=David K. |last=Gibson |work=BBC Autos |date=11 June 2021}}</ref> in the world in 2016. [[Idukki Dam]], the world's second arch dam, and Asia's first is at [[Idukki]]. The major beaches are at [[Kovalam]], [[Varkala]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Fort Kochi]], [[Cherai]], [[Alappuzha]], [[Ponnani]], [[Kadalundi]], [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Chaliyam]], [[Payyambalam]], Kappad, [[Muzhappilangad Beach|Muzhappilangad]] and [[Bekal]]. Popular [[hill station]]s are at [[Ponmudi]], [[Wayanad]], [[Vagamon]], [[Munnar]], [[Peermade]], [[Ramakkalmedu]], [[Arimbra Hills, Malappuram|Arimbra]], [[Paithalmala]] of [[Idukki|Kannur]] district, [[Kodikuthimala]], and [[Nelliampathi]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Tapan K Panda |title=Tourism Marketing |publisher=ICFAI Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8131404690 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4A0j6ZlJQfkC |pages=173–77 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Munnar is 4,500 feet above sea level and is known for tea plantations, and a variety of flora and fauna.<ref name="FPJ">{{cite news |title=Kerala: Spellbound by this natural beauty |newspaper=The Free Press Journal |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/travel/kerala-spellbound-by-this-natural-beauty/636904 |date=2 August 2015 |access-date=27 November 2015}}</ref> Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: [[Periyar Tiger Reserve]], [[Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Thattekad Bird Sanctuary]], [[Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary]], [[Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Muthanga]] Wildlife Sanctuary, [[Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Eravikulam National Park]], and [[Silent Valley National Park]] are the most popular among them.<ref>{{cite book |author=M.R. Biju |title=Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-8183241298 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkAdvTbg0dEC |pages=151–65 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> The Kerala backwaters are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that centre around Alleppey, [[Kumarakom]], [[Ponnani]], [[Nileshwaram]], and [[Punnamada]] (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), [[Pathiramanal]] a small island in [[Muhamma]]. [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]] and the [[Mattancherry Palace]] are two nearby heritage sites.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/padmanabhapuram-palace/244 |title=Padmanabhapuram Palace |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/mattancherry-palace-kochi/178 |title=Mattancherry Palace |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref> |
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{{clear}} |
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[[Image:KovalamBeach.JPG|thumb|right|[[Kovalam Beach]], Trivandrum]] |
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Popular attractions in the state include the beaches at [[Kovalam]], [[Cherai]] and [[Varkala]]; the [[hill station]]s of [[Munnar]], [[Nelliampathi]], [[Ponmudi]] and [[Wayanad]]; and national parks and wildlife sanctuaries at [[Thekkady|Periyar]] and [[Eravikulam National Park]]. The "[[backwaters]]" region, which comprises an extensive network of interlocking rivers, lakes, and canals that centre on [[Alleppey]], [[Kumarakom]], and [[Punnamada]] (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), also see heavy tourist traffic. Heritage sites, such as the [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]] and the [[Mattancherry Palace]], are also visited. Cities such as Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram are popular centres for their shopping and traditional theatrical performances. During early summer, the [[Thrissur Pooram]] is conducted, attracting foreign tourists who are largely drawn by the festival's elephants and celebrants.<ref>{{cite web |title=The stars of Pooram show are jumbos |publisher=The Hindu |date=[[26 May]] [[2006]] |accessdate=2007-11-11 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/26/stories/2006052610410500.htm }}</ref> |
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== See also == |
== See also == |
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{{Portal|India}} |
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{{Kerala topics|state=expanded}} |
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* [[Outline of Kerala]] |
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* [[South India]] |
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* [[Dravidian people]] |
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== |
== References == |
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{{Reflist}} |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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* {{cnote|α|Around the 9th century, the Cheras fell from power. Several small kingdoms (''swaroopams'') formed under the leadership of Nair chieftains, filling the resulting political vacuum.<ref name="Mundadan_1984"/>}} |
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</div> |
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== |
==Notes== |
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{{ |
{{notelist}} |
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== |
=== Sources === |
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{{col-2}} |
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== Further reading == |
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* {{harvard reference |
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{{Further|History of Kerala#Further reading}} |
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|Last1 = Jayarajan |
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* Bose, Satheese Chandra and Varughese, Shiju Sam (eds.) 2015. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20150102071757/https://www.orientblackswan.com/display.asp?categoryID=0&isbn=978-8125057222 Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition]''. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan. |
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* {{cite journal |pmc=7510531 |year=2021 |last1=Chathukulam |first1=Jos |last2=Tharamangalam |first2=Joseph |title=The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy |journal=World Development |volume=137 |page=105207 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105207 |pmid=32989341}} |
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|Title = Sacred Groves of North Malabar |
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* {{cite journal |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/19062/2/01_Jeffrey_Legacies_of_Matriliny%3A__the_2005.pdf |jstor=40023536 |title=Legacies of Matriliny: The Place of Women and the "Kerala Model" |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |journal=Pacific Affairs |year=2004 |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=647–664}} |
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|Journal = Centre for Development Studies |
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* {{cite journal |url=http://keralamediaacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Robin-Jeffery.pdf |doi=10.1017/S0021911809000679 |s2cid=146795894 |title=Testing Concepts about Print, Newspapers, and Politics: Kerala, India, 1800–2009 |year=2009 |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=68 |issue=2 |page=465}} |
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|URL = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |
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* {{cite book |title=Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala became 'a Model' |isbn=978-1-349-12252-3 |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |date=27 July 2016 |publisher=Springer}} |
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|Access-date = [[February 23]], [[2006]] |
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* {{cite book |last1=Ramanathaiyer |first1=Sundar |first2=Stewart |last2=MacPherson |title=Social Development in Kerala: Illusion or Reality? |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |year=2018}} |
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|Journal = Centre for Development Studies |
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|Year = 2004 |
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|Title = Lonely Planet South India |
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|Publisher = Lonely Planet |
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|ID = ISBN |
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|Given2 = KC |
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|Year = 2005 |
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|Title = Unemployment in Kerala at the turn of the century: Insights form CDS Gulf migration studies |
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|Title = Cultural Formation of Kerala |
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|Journal = Essays on the Cultural Formation of Kerala |
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|Given1 = V |
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|Year = 2001 |
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|Title = Communal tension high in Kerala |
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|Journal = BBC News |
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}}. |
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* {{harvard reference |
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|Given1 = N |
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|Year = 2005 |
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|Title = How almost everyone in Kerala learned to read |
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|Journal = Christian Science Monitor |
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|URL = http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0517/p12s01-legn.html |
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|Access-date = [[January 12]], [[2006]] |
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|Year = 2004 |
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|Title = Water quality and health status in Kollam Municipality |
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|URL = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/56.pdf |
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|Year = 2004 |
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|Title = Biological Diversity of Kerala: A survey of Kalliasseri panchayat, Kannur district |
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|Journal = Centre for Development Studies |
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|Title = Population Projection and Policy Implications for Education: A Discussion with Reference to Kerala |
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|URL = http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN010702.pdf |
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}}. |
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|Surname2 = Navaneetham |
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|Given2 = K |
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|Year = 1999 |
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|Title = Population Projection and Policy Implications for Education: A Discussion with Reference to Kerala |
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|Journal = Centre for Development Studies |
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|URL = http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN010702.pdf |
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}}. |
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}}. |
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|Surname2 = Kurien |
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|Given2 = SG |
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|Year = 2003 |
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|Title = Rape Victims in Kerala |
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|Journal = Centre for Development Studies |
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|URL = http://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/52.pdf |
|||
|Access-date = [[March 4]], [[2006]] |
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}}. |
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</div> |
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{{col-end}} |
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== External links == |
== External links == |
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{{ |
{{Sister project links|voy=Kerala|Kerala}} |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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; Government |
; Government |
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* [ |
* [https://www.kerala.gov.in/ The Official website] of the Government of Kerala |
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* [ |
* [https://www.keralatourism.org/ The Official website] of Kerala Tourism |
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* [http://www.keralatourism.org/ Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala] |
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* [http://www.censuskerala.org/ Directorate of Census Operations] of Kerala |
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; General references |
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{{wikimapia|10455402|75970459|7|Kerala}} |
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; Other |
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* {{wikitravel|Kerala}} |
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* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/India/Kerala|Kerala}}* |
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* [http://www.indiavideo.org/ Online video encyclopedia on Kerala sponsored by UNESCO] |
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</div> |
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; General information |
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Latest revision as of 21:44, 4 December 2024
Kerala | |
---|---|
State of Kerala | |
Etymology: Land of 'Cheras' or Land of coconut trees | |
Nickname: "God's own country" | |
Motto: Satyameva Jayate (Truth alone triumphs) | |
Coordinates: 10°00′N 76°18′E / 10.0°N 76.3°E | |
Country | India |
Region | South India |
Before was | Travancore–Cochin Malabar District South Canara |
Formation | 1 November 1956 |
Capital | Thiruvananthapuram |
Districts | 14 |
Government | |
• Body | Government of Kerala |
• Governor | Arif Mohammad Khan |
• Chief minister | Pinarayi Vijayan (CPI(M)) |
• Chief secretary | Sharada Muraleedharan, IAS |
State Legislature | Unicameral |
• Assembly | Kerala Legislative Assembly (140 seats) |
National Parliament | Parliament of India |
• Rajya Sabha | 9 seats |
• Lok Sabha | 20 seats |
High Court | Kerala High Court |
Area | |
• Total | 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi) |
• Rank | 21st |
Dimensions | |
• Length | 560 km (350 mi) |
• Width | 70 km (40 mi) |
Elevation | 900 m (3,000 ft) |
Highest elevation | 2,695 m (8,842 ft) |
Lowest elevation | −2.7 m (−8.9 ft) |
Population (2018)[4] | |
• Total | 34,630,192 |
• Rank | 13th |
• Density | 890/km2 (2,300/sq mi) |
• Urban | 47.7% |
• Rural | 52.3% |
Demonym(s) | Keralite, Malayali |
Language | |
• Official | Malayalam[5] |
• Additional official | English[6][7] |
• Official script | Malayalam script |
GDP | |
• Total (2023–24) | ₹11.46 trillion (US$140 billion) |
• Rank | 2nd |
• Per capita | ₹281,001 (US$3,400) (11th) |
Time zone | UTC+05:30 (IST) |
ISO 3166 code | IN-KL |
Vehicle registration | KL |
HDI (2024) | 0.814 High[10] (1st) |
Literacy (2018) | 96.2%[11] (1st) |
Sex ratio (2011) | 1084♀/1000 ♂[12] (17th) |
Website | kerala |
Symbols of Kerala | |
Foundation day | 1 November |
Bird | Great hornbill[13] |
Butterfly | Papilio buddha[14] |
Fish | Green chromide |
Flower | Golden shower tree[13] |
Fruit | Jackfruit[15] |
Mammal | Indian elephant[13] |
Tree | Coconut Tree[13] |
State highway mark | |
State highway of Kerala SH KL1 – SH KL79 | |
List of Indian state symbols |
Person | Malayāḷi, Kēraḷīyaṉ |
---|---|
People | Malayāḷikaḷ, Kēraḷīyaṟ |
Language | Malayāḷam |
Kerala (English: /ˈkɛrələ/ / KERR-ə-lə; Malayalam: [keːɾɐɭɐm] ), is a state on the Malabar Coast of India.[16] It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South Canara, and Travancore.[17][18] Spread over 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi), Kerala is the 21st largest Indian state by area. It is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea[19] to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the 2011 census, Kerala is the 13th-largest Indian state by population. It is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.[20]
The Chera dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The Ay kingdom in the deep south and the Ezhimala kingdom in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the Common Era (CE). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE.[21] The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of Pliny as well as the Periplus around 100 CE. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and paved the way for European colonisation of India. At the time of Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, there were two major princely states in Kerala: Travancore and Cochin. They united to form the state of Thiru-Kochi in 1949. The Malabar region, in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the Madras province of British India, which later became a part of the Madras State post-independence. After the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the Malabar district of Madras State (excluding Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris district, Lakshadweep Islands, Topslip, the Attappadi Forest east of Anakatti), the taluk of Kasaragod (now Kasaragod District) in South Canara, and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of Kanyakumari district, and Shenkottai taluks).[18]
Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highest Human Development Index (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India;[11] the highest life expectancy, 77.3 years; and the highest sex ratio, 1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is the least impoverished state in India according to NITI Aayog's Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and Reserve Bank of India's Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy.[22][23] Kerala is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India.[24] The state topped in the country to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals according to the annual report of NITI Aayog published in 2019.[25] The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly Malayalam and sometimes English. Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity.
In 2019–20, the economy of Kerala was the 8th-largest in India with ₹8.55 trillion (US$100 billion) in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of ₹222,000 (US$2,700).[26] In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 65% to state's GSVA, while the primary sector contributed only 8%.[27] The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew and spices are important. The state is situated between Arabian Sea to the west and Western Ghats mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370 mi), and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by National Geographic Traveler,[28] Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with coconut-lined sandy beaches, backwaters, hill stations, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions.
Etymology
The word Kerala is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of Chera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274–237 BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare.[29] At that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil: Chera and Kera are variants of the same word.[30] The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Old Tamil word for 'lake'.[31] Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope'[32] or chera alam 'land of the Cheras'.
One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word kera 'coconut tree' and alam 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts',[33] which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.[34]
The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala as Cherapadha is the late Vedic text Aitareya Aranyaka. Kerala is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics.[35] The Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple.[36][37] The Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Kerala as Celobotra.[38]
Malabar
Kerala was alternatively called Malabar in the foreign trade circles. Earlier, the term Malabar had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala.[39][40] The people of Malabar were known as Malabars. Until the arrival of the East India Company, the term Malabar was used as a general name for Kerala, along with the term Kerala.[17] From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala as Male. The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by Cosmas Indicopleustes. This mentions a pepper emporium called Male, which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from the Dravidian word Mala ('hill').[41][42] Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) is the first known writer to call this country Malabar.[17] Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.[43] The Arab writers had called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills.[44] According to William Logan, the word Malabar comes from a combination of the Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the Persian/Arabic word Barr (country/continent).[45]
History
Traditional sources
According to the Sangam classic Purananuru, the Chera king Senkuttuvan conquered the lands between Kanyakumari and the Himalayas.[46] Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it.[46][47] According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work Keralolpathi, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parashurama, the sixth avatar of Vishnu (hence, Kerala is also called Parashurama Kshetram 'The Land of Parashurama' in Hindu mythology).[48] Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari.[49] The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parashurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar theorised, that Senguttuvan may have been inspired by the Parashurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers.[50]
Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala is Mahabali, an Asura and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the Devas, driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu, who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to netherworld to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.[51] The Matsya Purana, among the oldest of the 18 Puranas,[52][53] uses the Malaya Mountains as the setting for the story of Matsya, the first incarnation of Vishnu, and Manu, the first man and the king of the region.[54][55]
Poovar is often identified with biblical Ophir region, known for its wealth.[56]
Cheraman Perumals
The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumals (literally the Chera kings) of Kerala.[57] The validity of the legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians.[58] The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal).[59][60] According to the legend, Rayar, the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the Ghats, invaded Kerala during the rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri, Manichchan, and Vikkiran of Eranad). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the Rayar.[61] The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it was seized by the Perumal's troops).[61] Then the last Cheraman Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him.[57][59][60] The Eradis of Nediyiruppu, who later came to be known as the Zamorins of Kozhikode, who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal's sword (with the permission to "die, and kill, and seize").[60][61]
Pre-history
A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanassery, thus supporting the hypothesis.[62] Pre-historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of the Idukki district, which lie on the eastern highland made by Western Ghats. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni (hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen).[63] Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves, in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE.[64][65] Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala.[66] The studies point to the development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age, through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages.[67] Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation;[68] historians suggest a possible relationship with Indus Valley civilisation during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[69]
Ancient period
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".[70][71]: 79 Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs, Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period.[72] Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices.[72] The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries.[72] They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East.[72] The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[72]
It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king Uthiyan Cheralathan ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in Kuttanad,[73][74] and controlled the port of Muziris, but its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas,[75] which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi) in Quilon.[76] Tyndis was a major centre of trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and the Roman Empire.[77] The lesser known Ays and Mushikas kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively.[78][79] Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos.[80] The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis, was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period.[17] The port at Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris, as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around Kozhikode.[17] Its exact location is a matter of dispute.[17] The suggested locations are Ponnani, Tanur, Beypore-Chaliyam-Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu, and Koyilandy.[17]
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.[81] The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE.[82][83][84] Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden.[85] In the 4th century, the Knanaya or Southist Christians also migrated from Persia and lived alongside the early Syriac Christian community known as the Saint Thomas Christians who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century.[86][87]
Early medieval period
A second Chera Kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram (present-day Kodungallur), was established by Kulasekhara Varman,[89] which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire.[90][91] Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a developing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism.[92] A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils, became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century.[93] The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE.[94][95][96] For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis, with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis.[92] Mamankam festival, which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram, on the bank of river Bharathappuzha.[44][17] Athavanad, the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.[44][17]
Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam.[97] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 CE), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE), Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.[98] Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia.[99][100] The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates.[88]
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism, to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism.[101] The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines.[102] Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas.[90] However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.
The rise of Kozhikode
After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into 30 small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Zamorin of Kozhikode in the north, Kollam in the far-south, Kochi in the south, and Kannur in the far north. The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi, and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.[103] The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of Eranad, which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day Malappuram district.[17][104] The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the Malayalam speaking region during the Middle Ages.[105][104]
At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy) in the north.[105][104] Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city of Kozhikode six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city.[106] Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho (Zheng He)[107] states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in the Indian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.[108][109]
Vijayanagara Conquests
The king Deva Raya II (1424–1446) of the Vijayanagara Empire conquered the entirety of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century.[104] He defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of Kollam around 1443.[104] Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire.[104] Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.[104] As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala.[104] He built a fort at Ponnani in 1498.[104]
Early modern period
The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Arabian Sea stayed with the Arabs during the High and Late Middle Ages. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery. After Vasco Da Gama's arrival in Kappad, Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.[a][111][112][113] Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon.[114][115] They established a trading centre at Tangasseri in Quilon during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there.[116]
The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode.[17] As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504).[44] However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut.[117] The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at Fort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast.[118] However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in South Malabar; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as Kunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organising the first naval defence of the Indian coast.[119] Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature, was born at Tirur (Vettathunadu) during Portuguese period.[44][17]
In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort.[120] An insurrection at the Port of Quilon between the Arabs and the Portuguese led to the end of the Portuguese era in Quilon. The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom, near Kannur, who were the vassals of the Kolathiri, ruled over the Lakshadweep islands.[121] The Bekal Fort near Kasaragod, which is also largest fort in the state, was built in 1650 by Shivappa Nayaka of Keladi.[122] The Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company, who during the conflicts between the Kozhikode and the Kochi, gained control of the trade.[123] The arrival of British on Malabar Coast can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain William Keeling arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships.[17] It was in these ships that Sir Thomas Roe went to visit Jahangir, the fourth Mughal emperor, as British envoy.[17] In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.[124]
The Kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin, and British influences
The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family, and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741.[125] An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region.[126][127][128] In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all the kingdoms up to Cochin through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala.[129] The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala (Malabar District), along with Fort Kochi, Tangasseri, and Anchuthengu in southern Kerala, came under direct British rule until India became independent.[130][131] Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755.[132]
In 1761, the British captured Mahé, and the settlement was handed over to the ruler of Kadathanadu.[133] The British restored Mahé to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[133] In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of Mahé.[133] In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and Mahé was handed over to the French in 1785.[133] In 1757, to resist the invasion of the Zamorin of Kozhikode, the Palakkad Raja sought the help of the Hyder Ali of Mysore.[104] In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – an East India Company ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state.[104] The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala (Malabar region) including Kolathunadu, Kottayam, Kadathanadu, Kozhikode, Tanur, Valluvanad, and Palakkad were unified under the rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger Kingdom of Mysore.[134] His son and successor, Tipu Sultan, launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company, resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars.[135][136] Tipu ultimately ceded the Malabar District and South Kanara to the company in the 1790s as a result of the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the subsequent Treaty of Seringapatam; both were annexed to the Bombay Presidency (which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) of British India in the years 1792 and 1799, respectively.[137][138][139]
By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under suzerainty.[140] Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, who had popular support in Thalassery-Wayanad region.[17][141][142][143][144]
As a state of the Republic of India
After India was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan, Travancore and Kochi, part of the Union of India were merged on 1 July 1949 to form Travancore-Cochin.[145] On 1 November 1956, the taluk of Kasargod in the South Kanara district of Madras, the Malabar district of Madras (excluding the islands of Lakshadweep), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks and Sengottai taluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form the state of Kerala under the States Reorganisation Act.[18][146][147] A Communist-led government under E. M. S. Namboodiripad resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957.[147] It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere.[148][149][150] His government implemented land and educational reforms which in turn, reduced income inequality in the state.[151]
Geography
The state is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',[152] Kerala experiences humid tropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi)[153] and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres (7 and 75 mi).[154] Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.[71]: 110 Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.[155][156] A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.[157] The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow.[71]: 110 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,[158] and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.[159][160] The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad; hence also known Palghat, where the Palakkad Gap breaks.[161] The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 metres (4,900 feet) above sea level,[162] while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 metres (8,200 feet).[163] Anamudi in the Idukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 m (8,842 ft).[164] The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[165] The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains.[165] The Athirappilly Falls, which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The Niagara of India.[166] It is located in the Chalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state.[166] Wayanad is the sole Plateau in Kerala.[167] The eastern regions in the districts of Wayanad, Malappuram (Chaliyar valley at Nilambur), and Palakkad (Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and a continuation of the Mysore Plateau, are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts of Karnataka.[168] Minerals including Ilmenite, Monazite, Thorium, and Titanium, are found in the coastal belt of Kerala.[169] Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium-containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.[170]
Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region,[71]: 33 and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries,[171] and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters.[172] Kuttanad, also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala, has the lowest altitude in India, and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.[173][174] The country's longest lake Vembanad, dominates the backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about 200 km2 (77 sq mi) in area.[175] Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.[176] Kerala's 44 rivers include the Periyar; 244 kilometres (152 mi), Bharathapuzha; 209 kilometres (130 mi), Pamba; 176 kilometres (109 mi), Chaliyar; 169 kilometres (105 mi), Kadalundipuzha; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Chalakudipuzha; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Valapattanam; 129 kilometres (80 mi) and the Achankovil River; 128 kilometres (80 mi). The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres (40 mi). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.[177] As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in delta, they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.[178] The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami,[179] and in 2018 received the worst flooding in nearly a century.[180] In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst landslides in history.[181]
Climate
With around 120–140 rainy days per year,[182]: 80 Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon.[183] Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon.[183] The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".[184] The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats,[185] making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.[186][187] The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India.[188][189] In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.[190] Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually.[191] Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.[192]: 26, 46, 52 The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.[193] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.[192]: 65
Climate data for Kerala | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 30 (86) |
31 (88) |
32 (90) |
34 (93) |
34 (93) |
30 (86) |
29 (84) |
29 (84) |
29 (84) |
30 (86) |
30 (86) |
31 (88) |
34 (93) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 22 (72) |
23 (73) |
24 (75) |
25 (77) |
25 (77) |
24 (75) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
23 (73) |
22 (72) |
22 (72) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 8.7 (0.34) |
14.7 (0.58) |
30.4 (1.20) |
109.5 (4.31) |
239.8 (9.44) |
649.8 (25.58) |
726.1 (28.59) |
419.5 (16.52) |
244.2 (9.61) |
292.3 (11.51) |
150.9 (5.94) |
37.5 (1.48) |
2,923.4 (115.1) |
Source: [191][193] |
Flora and fauna
Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats. Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century.[194] As of 2004[update], over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 flowering plant species; 1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala, 900 are medicinal, and 159 are threatened.[195]: 11 Its 9,400 km2 of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km2), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km2 and 100 km2, respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km2). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[195]: 12 Four of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta, Ashtamudi Lake, Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands, and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala,[196] as well as 1455.4 km2 of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828 km2 of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.[197] Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[198]: 6–7 much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling.[199] Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats.[200][201] The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in Nilambur.[202]
Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of mammals (1 endemic), 500 species of birds, 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of amphibians (36 endemic).[203] These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinisation, and resource extraction. In the forests, sonokeling, Dalbergia latifolia, anjili, mullumurikku, Erythrina, and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides.[195]: 12 Indian elephant, Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, Nilgiri tahr, common palm civet, and grizzled giant squirrels are also found in the forests.[195]: 12, 174–75 Reptiles include the king cobra, viper, python, and mugger crocodile. Kerala's birds include the Malabar trogon, the great hornbill, Kerala laughingthrush, darter and southern hill myna. In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as Kadu, Red Line Torpedo Barb and choottachi; orange chromide—Etroplus maculatus are found.[204][195]: 163–65 Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; Stygarctus keralensis.[205]
Divisions, districts and cities
State administrative divisions | |
---|---|
Administrative structure | Numbers |
Districts | 14 |
Revenue Divisions | 27 |
Taluks | 75 |
Revenue Villages | 1453 |
Local-Self Governments[206] | Numbers |
District Panchayats | 14 |
Block Panchayats | 152 |
Grama Panchayats | 941 |
Municipal Corporations | 6 |
Municipalities | 87 |
The state's 14 districts are distributed among six regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (north-central Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore (south-central Kerala), Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into 27 revenue subdivisions and 77 taluks, which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages.[207][208] Since the 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India, the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 District Panchayats, 152 Block panchayats, 941 Grama Panchayats, 87 Municipalities, six Municipal Corporations and one Township.[209] Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry,[210] though 647 kilometres (402 mi) away from it,[211] is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth.[212]
In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.[124] The municipalities of Kozhikode, Palakkad, Fort Kochi, Kannur, and Thalassery, were founded on 1 November 1866[141][142][143][144] of the British Indian Empire, making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of Thiruvananthapuram came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal, Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala.[213] The first Municipal Corporation founded after the independence of India as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at Kozhikode in the year 1962.[214] There are six Municipal corporations in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Kollam, Thrissur, and Kannur.[215] The Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named Kochi UA is the largest urban agglomeration.[216] According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Kollam, Thrissur are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.[217]
Government and administration
The state is governed by a parliamentary system of representative democracy. Kerala has a unicameral legislature. The Kerala Legislative Assembly also known as Niyamasabha, consists of 140 members who are elected for five-year terms.[218] The state elects 20 members to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament, and 9 members to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house.[219]
The Government of Kerala is a democratically elected body in India with the governor as its constitutional head and is appointed by the president of India for a five-year term.[220] The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister by the governor, and the council of ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister.[220] The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by the Chief Secretary assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by an Additional Chief Secretary or a Principal Secretary, who is usually an officer of Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary serve as the administrative head of the department they are assigned to. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary etc. assisting the Minister and the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary
Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called District collector for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.[221] The judiciary consists of the Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts.[222] The High Court, located in Kochi,[223] has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional pro tempore justices as of 2021[update].[224] The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.[225][226]
In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by the central government.[227] The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a 3-tier system for local governance.[228] This system includes Gram Panchayat, Block Panchayat, and District Panchayat.[229] The Acts define clear powers for these institutions.[227] For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act follows a single-tier system, equivalent to Gram Panchayat.These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization.[230] Currently, the state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments.[231] Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International, is considered the least corrupt state in India.[232][233] The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India.[234]
Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF), led by the Indian National Congress; and the Left Democratic Front (LDF), led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). As of[update] 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election, the LDF is the ruling coalition; Pinarayi Vijayan of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while V. D. Satheesan of the Indian National Congress is the Leader of the Opposition. According to the Constitution of India, Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy; universal suffrage is granted to residents.[235]
Economy
After independence, the state was managed as a social democratic welfare economy.[238] The "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.[192]: 48 [239]: 1 In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state's GSVA, compared to 28% by secondary sector, and 8% by primary sector.[27] In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.[27]
The state's service sector which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon hospitality industry, tourism, Ayurveda and medical services, pilgrimage, information technology, transportation, financial sector, and education.[240] Major initiatives under the industrial sector include Cochin Shipyard, shipbuilding, oil refinery, software industry, coastal mineral industries,[169] food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon cash crops.[241] Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as coconut, tea, coffee, pepper, natural rubber, cardamom, and cashew in India.[241] The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since the 1950s.[241]
Kerala's economy depends significantly on emigrants working in foreign countries, mainly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and the remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[242] The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country.[243] In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over ₹1 lakh crore (US$12 billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about ₹7 lakh crore (US$84 billion).[244] Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state.[27] A study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board, suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.[245]
As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.[246] On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.[247] Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;[248] chronic issues are underemployment, low employability of youth, and a low female labour participation rate of only 13.5%,[249]: 5, 13 as was the practice of Nokku kooli, "wages for looking on".[250] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[251]
The state's budget of 2020–2021 was ₹1.15 lakh crore (US$14 billion).[252] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹674 billion (US$8.1 billion) in 2020–21; up from ₹557 billion (US$6.7 billion) in 2019–20. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached ₹146 billion (US$1.7 billion) in 2020–2021.[252] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.[253] A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over ₹20 billion (US$240 million).[254] Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.[255]
The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board is a government owned financial institution in the state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state.[256][257] In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT).[258] A package of ₹2.5 million (US$30,000) was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad.[259] The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes.[260] Lulu International Mall at Thiruvananthapuram is the largest shopping mall in India.[261]
Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.[262]
Industries
Traditional industries manufacturing items; coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people.[263] Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in Alleppey in 1859–60.[264] The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census by SIDBI, there are 1,468,104 micro, small and medium enterprises in Kerala employing 3,031,272 people.[265][266] The KSIDC has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people.[267] A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite.[268] Other major sectors are tourism, medical sector, educational sector, banking, ship building, oil refinery, infrastructure, manufacturing, home gardens, animal husbandry and business process outsourcing.
Agriculture
The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.[269] Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.[270][271] Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.[272] Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least curresponding rate in India.[273]
Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper[274] and accounts for 85% of the natural rubber in the country.[275][276] Coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices—including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg are the main agricultural products.[71]: 74 [277][278][279][280][281] Around 80% of India's export quality cashew kernels are prepared in Kollam.[282] The key cash crop is coconut and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India.[283] Around 90% of the total Cardamom produced in India is from Kerala.[27] India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world.[27] About 20% of the total Coffee produced in India are from Kerala.[241] The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.[284] Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.[285]
Fisheries
With 590 kilometres (370 miles) of coastal belt,[286] 400,000 hectares of inland water resources[287] and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,[288] Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.[289] According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1 million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000 tons in 2003–04.[290] This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala.[291] During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally called chakara.[292][293] The waters provide a large variety of fish: pelagic species; 59%, demersal species; 23%, crustaceans, molluscs and others for 18%.[291] Around 1050,000(1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590-kilometre (370-mile) coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.
Transportation
Roads
Kerala has 331,904 kilometres (206,236 mi) of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total.[27][294] This translates to about 9.94 kilometres (6.18 mi) of road per thousand people, compared to an average of 4.87 kilometres (3.03 mi) in the country.[27][294] Roads in Kerala include 1,812 kilometres (1,126 mi) of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, 4,342 kilometres (2,698 mi) of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, 27,470 kilometres (17,070 mi) of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, 33,201 kilometres (20,630 mi) of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and 158,775 kilometres (98,658 mi) of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total.[295] Kottayam has the maximum length of roads among the districts of Kerala, while Wayanad accounts for minimum.[296] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the NH 66 (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.[297] New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced under KIIFB.[298] National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road (1,622 kilometres (1,008 mi)) connects Kanyakumari to Mumbai; it enters Kerala via Talapady in Kasargod and passes through Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Guruvayur, Kochi, Alappuzha, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram before entering Tamil Nadu.[297] Palakkad district is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern (Malabar) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint, Walayar, is on NH 544, in the border town between Kerala and Tamil Nadu, through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.[299]
The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system and major district roads.[300] The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads.[301][302] Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.[303] National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres (148 feet) wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways.[304][305] The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking.[306] As of 2013[update], Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.[307]
Kerala State Road Transport Corporation
Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) is a state-owned road transport corporation. It is one of the country's oldest state-run public bus transport services. Its origins can be traced back to Travancore State Road Transport Department, when the Travancore government headed by Sri. Chithra Thirunnal decided to set up a public road transportation system in 1937.
The corporation is divided into three zones (North, Central and South), with the headquarters in Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala's capital city). Daily scheduled service has increased from 1,200,000 kilometres (750,000 mi) to 1,422,546 kilometres (883,929 mi),[308] using 6,241 buses on 6,389 routes. At present the corporation has 5373 buses running on 4795 schedules.[309][310]
The Kerala Urban Road Transport Corporation (KURTC) was formed under KSRTC in 2015 to manage affairs related to urban transportation.[296] It was inaugurated on 12 April 2015 at Thevara.[311]
Railways
Southern Railway zone of Indian Railways operates all railway lines in the state connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad.[312] The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the Southern Railway; Thiruvananthapuram Railway division headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram and Palakkad Railway Division headquartered at Palakkad.[313] Thiruvananthapuram Central (TVC) is the busiest railway station in the state.[314] Kerala's major railway stations are:
- Thiruvananthapuram Central (TVC)
- Ernakulam Junction (South) (ERS)
- Kozhikode (CLT)
- Kollam Junction (QLN)
- Thrissur (TCR)
- Palakkad Junction (PGT)
- Kannur (CAN)
- Shoranur Junction (SRR)
- Ernakulam Town (North) (ERN)
- Kottayam (KTYM)
- Chengannur (CNGR)
- Alappuzha (ALLP)
- Kochuveli (KCVL)
- Kayamkulam Junction (KYJ)
- Tirur (TIR)
- Kasaragod (KGQ)
- Aluva (AWY)
- Thalassery (TLY)
The first railway line in the state was laid from Tirur to Chaliyam (Kozhikode), with the oldest Railway Station at Tirur, passing through Tanur, Parappanangadi, Vallikkunnu, and Kadalundi.[315][316] The railway was extended from Tirur to Kuttippuram through Tirunavaya in the same year.[316] It was again extended from Kuttippuram to Shoranur through Pattambi in 1862, resulting in the establishment of Shoranur Junction railway station, which is also the largest railway junction in the state.[316] Major railway transport between Chaliyam–Tirur began on 12 March 1861,[316] from Tirur-Shoranur in 1862,[316] from Shoranur–Cochin Harbour section in 1902, from Kollam–Sengottai on 1 July 1904, Kollam–Thiruvananthapuram on 4 January 1918, from Nilambur-Shoranur in 1927, from Ernakulam–Kottayam in 1956, from Kottayam–Kollam in 1958, from Thiruvananthapuram–Kanyakumari in 1979 and from the Thrissur-Guruvayur Section in 1994.[317] The Nilambur–Shoranur line is one of the shortest broad gauge railway lines in India.[318] It was established in the British era for the transportation of Nilambur teaks and Angadipuram Laterite to United Kingdom through the port at Kozhikode.[318] The presence of Palakkad Gap on Western Ghats makes the Shoranur Junction railway station important as it connects the southwestern coast of India (Mangalore) with the southeastern coast (Chennai).[319]
Kochi Metro
Kochi Metro is the metro rail system in the city of Kochi. It is the only metro rail system in Kerala. Construction began in 2012, with the first phase being set up at an estimated cost of ₹51.81 billion (US$620 million).[320][321] The Kochi Metro uses 65-metre long Metropolis train sets built and designed by Alstom.[322][323][324] It is the first metro system in India to use a communication-based train control (CBTC) system for signalling and telecommunication.[325] In October 2017, Kochi Metro was named the "Best Urban Mobility Project" in India by the Urban Development Ministry, as part of the Urban Mobility India (UMI) International Conference hosted by the ministry every year.[326]
Airports
Kerala has four international airports:
Kollam Airport, established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala.[327] Kannur had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 when Tata airlines operated weekly flights between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping at Goa and Kannur.[328] Trivandrum International Airport, managed by the Airport Authority of India, is among the oldest existing airports in South India. Calicut International Airport, which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in the Malabar region.[329] Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the seventh busiest in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy[330] and has won the coveted Champion of the Earth award, the highest environmental honour instituted by the United Nations.[331] Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a public limited company; it was funded by nearly 10,000 non-resident Indians from 30 countries.[332] Other than civilian airports, Kochi has a naval airport named INS Garuda. Thiruvananthapuram airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the Indian Air Force. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.
Water transport
Kerala has two major ports, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports, 4 of which have immigration check point facilities.[333][334] The major port in the state is at Kochi, which has an area of 8.27 km2.[335] The Vizhinjam International Seaport, which is currently classified as an major port, they only completed Phase I others are under construction.[335] Other intermediate ports include Beypore, Kollam, and Azheekal.[335] The remaining ports are classified as minor which include Manjeshwaram, Kasaragod, Nileshwaram, Kannur, Thalassery, Vadakara, Ponnani, Munambam, Manakodam, Alappuzha, Kayamkulam, Neendakara, and Valiyathura.[335] The Kerala Maritime Institute is headquartered at Neendakara, which has an additional subcentre at Kodungallur too.[335] The state has numerous backwaters, which are used for commercial inland navigation. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is 1,687 kilometres (1,048 mi).[336] The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the water hyacinth, lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.
The 616 kilometres (383 mi) long West-Coast Canal is the longest waterway in state connecting Kasaragod to Poovar.[311] It is divided into five sections: 41 kilometres (25 mi) long Kasaragod-Nileshwaram reach, 188 kilometres (117 mi) long Nileshwaram-Kozhikode reach, 160 kilometres (99 mi) Kozhikode-Kottapuram reach, 168 kilometres (104 mi) long National Waterway 3 (Kottapuram-Kollam reach), and 74 kilometres (46 mi) long Kollam-Vizhinjam reach.[27] The Conolly Canal, which is a part of West-Coast Canal, connects the city of Kozhikode with Kochi through Ponnani, passing through the districts of Malappuram and Thrissur. It begins at Vadakara.[337] It was constructed in the year 1848 under the orders of then District collector of Malabar, H. V. Conolly, initially to facilitate movement of goods to Kallayi Port from hinter lands of Malabar through Kuttiady and Korapuzha river systems.[337] It was the main waterway for the cargo movement between Kozhikode and Kochi through Ponnani, for more than a century.[337] Other important waterways in Kerala include the Alappuzha-Changanassery Canal, Alappuzha-Kottayam-Athirampuzha Canal, and Kottayam-Vaikom Canal.[335]
Kochi water metro
Kochi Water Metro (KWM) is an integrated ferry transport system serving the Greater Kochi region in Kerala, India. It is the first water metro system in India and the first integrated water transport system of this size in Asia, which connects Kochi's 10 island communities with the mainland through a fleet of 78 battery-operated electric hybrid boats plying along 38 terminals and 16 routes spanning 76 kilometres.[338] It is integrated with the Kochi Metro and serves as a feeder service to the suburbs along the rivers where transport accessibility is limited.[339]
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1901 | 6,396,262 | — |
1911 | 7,147,673 | +11.7% |
1921 | 7,802,127 | +9.2% |
1931 | 9,507,050 | +21.9% |
1941 | 11,031,541 | +16.0% |
1951 | 13,549,118 | +22.8% |
1961 | 16,903,715 | +24.8% |
1971 | 21,347,375 | +26.3% |
1981 | 25,453,680 | +19.2% |
1991 | 29,098,518 | +14.3% |
2001 | 31,841,374 | +9.4% |
2011 | 33,406,061 | +4.9% |
Source: Census of India[340] |
Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km2.[341] As of 2011[update], Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.[342] In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.6%.[341] Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.[341] Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[343] Kerala is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India.[24] Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.[341] The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[344]: 10–12
Largest cities or towns in Kerala
2011 Census of India[342] As per the population within their respective Municipal Corporation/Municipality limits | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank | District | Pop. | |||||||
Thiruvananthapuram Kozhikode |
1 | Thiruvananthapuram | Thiruvananthapuram district | 968,990 | Kochi Kollam | ||||
2 | Kozhikode | Kozhikode district | 609,224 | ||||||
3 | Kochi | Ernakulam district | 602,046 | ||||||
4 | Kollam | Kollam district | 388,288 | ||||||
5 | Thrissur | Thrissur district | 315,957 | ||||||
6 | Kannur | Kannur district | 232,486 | ||||||
7 | Alappuzha | Alappuzha district | 180,856 | ||||||
8 | Kottayam | Kottayam district | 138,283 | ||||||
9 | Palakkad | Palakkad district | 131,019 | ||||||
10 | Manjeri | Malappuram district | 97,102 |
Gender
There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household.[345] As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.[346] Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate,[347] which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's Gender Development Index was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable sex ratio, contributed to it.[348]
Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India; it is the only state where women outnumber men.[239]: 2 While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts etc., these tools have still not translated into full, equal rights for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences social mobility.[349][350][351]
LGBT rights
Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues in India.[352] Kerala is one of the first states in India to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced free sex reassignment surgery through government hospitals.[353][354][355] Queerala is one of the major LGBT organisations in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum.[356] Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala.[357]
In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "third gender" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.[358][359]
In the 2021 Mathrubhumi Youth Manifesto Survey conducted on people aged between 15 and 35, majority (74.3%) of the respondents supported legislation for same-sex marriage while 25.7% opposed it.[360]
Human Development Index
Under a democratic communist local government, Kerala has achieved a record of social development much more advanced than the Indian average.[362] As of 2015[update], Kerala has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.[10] It was 0.790 in 2007–08[363] and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries.[363] Comparatively higher spending by the government on primary level education, health care and the elimination of poverty from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;[364][365] the report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research.[366][367] However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.[364] Kerala is also widely regarded as the cleanest and healthiest state in India.[368]
According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest literacy rate (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96%. In the Kottayam district, the literacy rate was 97%.[369][12][370] The life expectancy in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India as of 2011[update].[371] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.[372] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[251] The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.[373] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[374][375] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[192][376]: 48
Kerala has undergone a "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway.[239]: 1 In 2005, 11.2% of people were over the age of 60.[376] In 2023, the BBC reported on the problems and benefits which have arisen from migration away from Kerala, focussing on the village of Kumbanad.[377]
In 2004, the birthrate was low at 18 per 1,000.[378] According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All district except Malappuram district had fertility rate below 2. Fertility rate is highest in Malappuram district (2.2) and lowest in Pathanamthitta district (1.3).[379] In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians.[380] The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS)[381] Transparency International (2005)[382] and India Today (1997).[383] Kerala has the lowest homicide rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.[384] In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share of earned income, child marriage,[385] complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported.[348] The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriage and the number of such cases are increasing in Malappuram. The child marriages are particularly higher among the Muslim community.[386][387] In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.[388]
In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.[389] Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%,[390] and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.[391] The state was also among the lowest in the India State Hunger Index next only to Punjab. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.[392]
Healthcare
Kerala is a pioneer in implementing the universal health care program.[393] The sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12[192][378]: 49 to 14[394]: 5 deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6.[395] According to a study commissioned by Lien Foundation, a Singapore-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.[396] However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively as of 2005[update].[394]: 5 Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is higher than that of many first world nations.[378] Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 million water wells is an issue worsened by the lack of sewers.[397]: 5–7 As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.[398]
The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.[399][400] Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% births in medical facilities.[401] Ayurveda,[402]: 13 siddha, and endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practised. Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.[403] These propagate via gurukula discipleship,[402]: 5–6 and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments.[402]: 15 The Arya Vaidya Sala established by Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier at Kottakkal (about 10 km from Malappuram) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state.[404][405][406] It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.[404][405][406]
In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.[407] People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of cancers, liver and kidney diseases.[408] In April 2016, the Economic Times reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations has stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.[409] As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the department of health services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.[410]
Language
Malayalam is the official language of Kerala and one of the six Classical languages of India.[412] There is a significant Tamil population throughout Kerala mainly in Idukki district and Palakkad district in which it accounts for 17.48% and 4.8% respectively of the two districts' populations.[413] Tulu and Kannada are spoken mainly in the northern parts of Kasaragod district, each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively.[413][414]
Religion
Kerala is very religiously diverse with Hindus, Muslims and Christians having a significant population throughout the state, Kerala is often regarded as one of the most diverse states in all of India.[416][417] Hinduism is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant Muslim and Christian minorities. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.[418] According to 2011 Census of India figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation.[419] Hindus represent the biggest religious group in all districts except Malappuram, where they are outnumbered by Muslims.[420] Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.[421] As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total child births in the state, respectively.[422]
Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.[423][424] Notable has been the occurrence of Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the mythical Hindu king who moved to Arabia to meet Muhammad and converted to Islam.[425][426][427] Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.[428][429] According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 570–632).[430][431][99][432]
Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of Thomas the Apostle, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ.[86][433][434][435] Saint Thomas Christians include Syro-Malabar Catholic,[436] Syro-Malankara Catholic,[437] Jacobite Syrian Christian Church,[438] Mar Thoma Syrian Church,[439] Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church,[440] the Syrian Anglicans of the CSI[441] and Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians.[442] The origin of the Latin Catholic Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese Padroado in the 16th century.[443][444][445] As a consequence of centuries of mixing with colonial immigrants, beginning with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and other Europeans, there is a community of Anglo-Indians in Kerala of mixed European and Indian parentage or ancestry. Kerala has the highest population of Christians among all the states of India.[446]
Judaism reached Kerala in the 10th century BCE during the time of King Solomon.[447] They are called Cochin Jews or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of Jews in India.[82][448] There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them migrated to Israel.[449] The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth.[450] Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district.[451][452]
Buddhism was popular in the time of Ashoka[453] but vanished by the 12th century CE.[454]
Education
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions.[455][456] In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of the Church Mission Society missionaries to promote mass education.[457][458][459][460][461] Following the recommendations of the Wood's despatch of 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system of grant-in-aid to attract more private initiatives.[462] Catholic Institutions such as St Thomas College Thrissur and SB College Changanasserry were established under the leadership of Catholic Church. The efforts by leaders such as Fr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara, Mar Charles Lavigne SJ, Vaikunda Swami, Narayana Guru and Ayyankali in aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations like Nair Service Society, SNDP, Muslim Educational Society, Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala.[462]
In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%.[463] In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India.[464] As of 2007[update], enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions.[465] According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%.[370] In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its Athulyam literacy programme.[466]
The educational system prevailing in the state's schools specifies an initial 10-year course of study, which is divided into three stages: lower primary, upper primary, and secondary school—known as 4+3+3, which signifies the number of years for each stage.[465] After the first 10 years of schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams—liberal arts, commerce, or science.[467] The majority of public schools are affiliated with the Kerala Board of Public Examination.[468] Other educational boards are the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), and the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS).[467]
CMS College, Kottayam, established in 1817, is the first western-style college, and one of the oldest colleges, in India. University College Thiruvananthapuram, founded in 1866, Maharajas College Ernakulam, founded in 1875, Government Brennen College Thalassery, founded in 1862, and Government Victoria College Palakkad, founded in 1866, are among the oldest government educational institutions in India. Catholic Institutions such as St Thomas College Thrissur, SB College Changanasserry, Mar Ivanios College Thiruvananthapuram and St Teresa's College Ernakulam are also oldest and prestigious institutions of Higher Education in Kerala. UC College Aluva, St Joseph's College Devagiri, Christ College Irinjalakuda, SH College Thevara are other premier institutions in Kerala.
The KITE Kerala is a state owned special purpose company under education department of the Government of Kerala.[469][470] It was developed to support ICT enabled education for schools in the state. The erstwhile IT@School Project was transformed into KITE for extending its scope of operations in August 2017.[471][472] Kerala is the first Indian state to have ICT-enabled education with hi-tech classrooms in all public schools.[473][474] Kerala topped in the School Education Quality Index published by NITI Aayog in 2019.[475] The Indian Naval Academy, located at Ezhimala, is Asia's largest, and the world's third-largest, naval academy.[476][477]
Culture
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of Indian culture.[35] It is a synthesis of Aryan, Dravidian, Arab, and European cultures,[478] developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.[479] It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the Malayali people.[480] It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures.[481] However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.[35] Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year.[482] The Malayalam calendar, a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,[483] finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.[484] Malayalam, one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's official language.[485] Over a dozen other scheduled and unscheduled languages are also spoken.[411] Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India.[486]
Festivals
Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year.[487] A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity.[488] Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the Thrissur Pooram.[489] "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.[490] Other known festivals are Makaravilakku,[491] Chinakkathoor Pooram, Attukal Pongala and Nenmara Vallangi Vela[492] Other than these, festivals locally known as utsavams are conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it.[493] Processions often include traditional music such as Panchari melam or Panchavadyam.[494] Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals like Christmas and Easter are observed by the Christians.[17] Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past.[495][496] It is a local festival of Kerala[497] consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day.[498] Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September)[499] and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of King Mahabali.[500] The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such as Vallam Kali,[501] Pulikali,[502] Pookkalam,[503] Thumbi Thullal[504] and Onavillu.[505]
Music and dance
Kerala is home to a number of performance arts. These include five classical dance forms: Kathakali, Mohiniyattam, Koodiyattom, Thullal and Krishnanattam, which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses.[506] Kerala natanam, Thirayattam,[507] Kaliyattam, Theyyam, Koothu and Padayani are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region.[508] Some traditional dance forms such as Oppana and Duffmuttu were popular among the Muslims of the state,[509] while Margamkali and Parichamuttukali are popular among the Syrian Christians and Chavittu nadakom is popular among the Latin Christians.[510][511] The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.[512] The development of the indigenous classical music form, Sopana Sangeetham, illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.[512] Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.[481] Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances.[513] Melam; including the paandi and panchari variants, is a more percussive style of music:[514] it is performed at Kshetram-centered festivals using the chenda. Panchavadyam is a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instrument.[514] Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter.[512] Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads), Thekkan pattukal (Southern Ballads), Vanchi pattukal (Boat Songs), Mappila Pattukal (Muslim songs) and Pallipattukal (Church songs) are a few of them.[515]
Cinema
Malayalam films carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes.[516][517] Directors from Kerala, like Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Mankada Ravi Varma, G. Aravindan, Bharathan, P. Padmarajan, M.T. Vasudevan Nair, K.G. George, Priyadarshan, John Abraham, Ramu Karyat, K S Sethumadhavan, A. Vincent and Shaji N Karun have made a considerable contribution to the Indian parallel cinema. Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors, such as Mohanlal, Mammootty, Satyan, Prem Nazir, Madhu, Sheela, Sharada, Miss Kumari, Jayan, Adoor Bhasi, Seema, Bharath Gopi, Thilakan, Vijaya Raghavan, Kalabhavan Mani, Indrans, Shobana, Nivin Pauly, Sreenivasan, Urvashi, Manju Warrier, Suresh Gopi, Jayaram, Murali, Shankaradi, Kavya Madhavan, Bhavana Menon, Prithviraj, Parvathy (actress), Jayasurya, Dulquer Salmaan, Oduvil Unnikrishnan, Jagathy Sreekumar, Nedumudi Venu, KPAC Lalitha, Innocent and Fahad Fazil. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.[518] Since the 1980s, actors Mohanlal and Mammootty have dominated the movie industry; Mohanlal has won five National Film Awards (four for acting), while Mammootty has three National Film Awards for acting.[519] Malayalam Cinema has produced a few more notable personalities such as K.J. Yesudas, K.S. Chitra, M.G. Sreekumar, Vayalar Rama Varma, V. Madhusoodanan Nair, M.T. Vasudevan Nair and O.N.V. Kurup,[520] the last two mentioned being recipients of Jnanpith award, the highest literary award in India.[521] Resul Pookutty, who is from Kerala, is only the second Indian to win an academy award for sound design, for the breakthrough film Slumdog Millionaire. As of 2018, Malayalam cinema has got 14 awards for the best actor, 6 for the best actress, 11 for the best film, and 13 for the best film director in the National Film Awards, India.[522]
Literature
The Sangam literature can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam.[523] Malayalam literature starts from the Old Malayalam period (9th–13th century CE) and includes such notable writers as the 14th-century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar),[524][525] and the 16th-century poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, whose works mark the dawn of both the modern Malayalam language and its poetry.[526] For the first 600 years of Malayalam calendar, the literature mainly consisted of the oral Ballads such as Vadakkan Pattukal in North Malabar and Thekkan Pattukal in Southern Travancore.[527] Designated a "Classical Language in India" in 2013,[528] it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poets Cherusseri Namboothiri,[529][530] Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan,[530] and Poonthanam Nambudiri,[530][531] in the 15th and the 16th centuries of Common Era.[530][532] Unnayi Variyar,[533] a probable poet of the 17th/18th century CE, and Kunchan Nambiar, a poet of the 18th century CE, have also influenced a lot in the growth of modern Malayalam literature in its pre-mature form.[530] The Bharathappuzha river, also known as River Ponnani, and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.[534]
Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar and Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose.[535][536][537] The "triumvirate of poets" (Kavithrayam): Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode.[538][539][540] The poets like Moyinkutty Vaidyar and Pulikkottil Hyder have made notable contributions to the Mappila songs, which is a genre of the Arabi Malayalam literature.[541][542] The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam Varthamanappusthakam, written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar in 1785.[543][544] The prose literature, Malayalam journalism, and criticism began after the latter-half of the 18th century.[543] Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern literature is often towards political radicalism.[545] Malayalam literature has been presented with 6 Jnanapith awards, the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.[546][547] In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith winning poets and writers like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, O. N. V. Kurup, and Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.[548][549][550][551][552] Later, writers like O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, Arundhati Roy, Vaikom Muhammed Basheer, have gained international recognition.[553][554][555][556]
Cuisine
Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.[557] Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.[558] A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other (idli, dosa, puttu, pathiri, appam, or idiyappam), tapioca preparations, or pulse-based vada.[559] These may be accompanied by chutney, kadala, payasam, payar pappadam, appam, chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry.[277] Porotta and Biryani are also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes include rice and curry along with rasam, pulisherry and sambar.[560] Sadhya is a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.[561] Popular snacks include banana chips, yam crisps, tapioca chips, Achappam, Unni appam and kuzhalappam.[562][563][564] Seafood specialties include karimeen, prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.[565] Thalassery Cuisine is varied and is a blend of many influences.
Elephants
Elephants have been an integral part of the culture of the state. Almost all of the local festivals in Kerala include at least one richly caparisoned elephant. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephants in India—about 700 Indian elephants, owned by temples as well as individuals.[566] These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. More than 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants during them.[482] In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the "sons of the sahya".[567] The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala.[568]
Media
The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI).[569] The National Family Health Survey – 4, conducted in 2015–16, ranked Kerala as the state with the highest media exposure in India.[570] Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,[571] but principally Malayalam and English.[572] Kerala has the highest media exposure in India.[573][574] The most widely circulated Malayalam-language newspapers are Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Deshabhimani, Madhyamam, Kerala Kaumudi, Mangalam, Chandrika, Deepika, Janayugam, Janmabhumi, Siraj Daily and Suprabhaatham. Major Malayalam periodicals include Mathrubhumi Azhchappathippu, Vanitha, India Today Malayalam, Madhyamam Weekly, Grihalakshmi, Dhanam, Chithrabhumi and Bhashaposhini. The Hindu is the most read English language newspaper in the state, followed by The New Indian Express.[575] Other dailies include Deccan Chronicle, The Times of India, DNA, The Economic Times and The Financial Express.
DD Malayalam is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Malayalam, English, other Indian language and international channels. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are Asianet, Asianet News, Asianet Plus, Asianet Movies, Surya TV, Surya Movies, Mazhavil Manorama, Manorama News, Kairali TV, Kairali News, Flowers, Media One TV, Mathrubhumi News, Kappa TV, Amrita TV, Reporter TV, Jaihind, Janam TV, Jeevan TV, Kaumudy TV and Shalom TV. With the second-highest internet penetration rate in India,[576] Digital medias including Social medias and OTT services are a main source of information and entertainment in the state. Malayalam version of Google News was launched in September 2008.[577] A sizeable People's science movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writer's cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.[239][578] BSNL, Airtel, Vodafone Idea Limited, Jio are the major cell phone service providers.[579] Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major ISPs are BSNL, Asianet Satellite Communications, Reliance Communications, Airtel, Vodafone Idea Limited, MTS, RailWire and VSNL. According to a TRAI report, as of June 2018 the total number of wireless phone subscribers in Kerala is about 43.1 million and the wireline subscriber base is at 1.9 million, accounting for the Telephone Density of 124.15.[580] Unlike in many other states, the urban-rural divide is not visible in Kerala with respect to mobile phone penetration.[581]
Sports
By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including Poorakkali, Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali.[582] However, Kalaripayattu, regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport.[583] Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of Snake boats.[582]
Cricket and football became popular in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Cricketers, like Tinu Yohannan, Abey Kuruvilla, Chundangapoyil Rizwan, Sreesanth, Sanju Samson and Basil Thampi found places in the national cricket team. A cricket franchise from Kerala, the Kochi Tuskers, played in the Indian Premier League's fourth season. However, this team was disbanded after the season because of conflicts of interest among its franchises.[584][585] Kerala has only performed well recently in the Ranji Trophy cricket competition, in 2017–18 reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in history.[582][586] Football is one of the most widely played and watched sports with huge in this state support for club and district level matches. Kochi hosts Kerala Blasters FC in the Indian Super League. The Blasters are one of the most widely supported clubs in the country as well as the fifth most followed football club from Asia in the social media.[587][588][589] Also, Kozhikode hosts Gokulam Kerala FC in the I-League as well as the Sait Nagjee Football Tournament. Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players like I. M. Vijayan, C. V. Pappachan, V. P. Sathyan, U. Sharaf Ali, Jo Paul Ancheri, Ashique Kuruniyan, Muhammad Rafi, Jiju Jacob, Mashoor Shereef, Pappachen Pradeep, C.K. Vineeth, Anas Edathodika, Sahal Abdul Samad, and Rino Anto.[590][591][592][593][594] The Kerala state football team has won the Santhosh Trophy seven times; in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2004, 2018, and 2022. They were also the runners-up eight times.[595]
Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state are P. T. Usha, Shiny Wilson and M.D. Valsamma, all three of whom are recipients of the Padma Shri as well as Arjuna Award, while K. M. Beenamol and Anju Bobby George are Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and Arjuna Award winners. T. C. Yohannan, Suresh Babu, Sinimol Paulose, Angel Mary Joseph, Mercy Kuttan, K. Saramma, K. C. Rosakutty, Padmini Selvan and Tintu Luka are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala.[582][596] Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast.[597] Jimmy George was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.[598] Other popular sports include badminton, basketball and kabaddi.[599] The Indian Hockey team captain P. R. Shreejesh, ace goalkeeper hails from Kerala. International Walkers from the state include K. T. Irfan.[600]
For the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in India, the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi), was chosen as one of the six venues where the game would be hosted in India.[601] Greenfield International Stadium at located at Kariavattom in Thiruvananthapuram city, is India's first DBOT (design, build, operate and transfer) model outdoor stadium and it has hosted international cricket matches and international football matches including 2015 SAFF Championship.[602]
Tourism
Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012, National Geographic's Traveller magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"[603][604] and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".[605] Travel and Leisure also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".[603][606] In 2012, it overtook the Taj Mahal to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.[607] CNN Travel listed Kerala among its '19 best places to visit in 2019'.[608] Kerala was named by TIME magazine in 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places.[609]
Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions[610] and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists.[611] The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.[612][613] Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country.[614] In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so.[615] Marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.[616] Many advertisements branded Kerala with the tagline Kerala, God's Own Country.[616] Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.[616] In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world.[617] In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.[618]
Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department.[614] Kerala is known for its ecotourism initiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities.[619] The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy, growing at the rate of 13.3%.[620] The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the ₹ 190 billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times[621] Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 365280.1 million from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 28743.3 million from the previous year. Over 16.7 million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76 million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2 million people.[618]
The state's only drive-in beach, Muzhappilangad in Kannur, which stretches across five kilometres of sand, was chosen by the BBC as one of the top six drive-in beaches[622] in the world in 2016. Idukki Dam, the world's second arch dam, and Asia's first is at Idukki. The major beaches are at Kovalam, Varkala, Kozhikode, Fort Kochi, Cherai, Alappuzha, Ponnani, Kadalundi, Tanur, Chaliyam, Payyambalam, Kappad, Muzhappilangad and Bekal. Popular hill stations are at Ponmudi, Wayanad, Vagamon, Munnar, Peermade, Ramakkalmedu, Arimbra, Paithalmala of Kannur district, Kodikuthimala, and Nelliampathi.[623] Munnar is 4,500 feet above sea level and is known for tea plantations, and a variety of flora and fauna.[624] Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: Periyar Tiger Reserve, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary, Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary, Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary, Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, and Silent Valley National Park are the most popular among them.[625] The Kerala backwaters are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that centre around Alleppey, Kumarakom, Ponnani, Nileshwaram, and Punnamada (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), Pathiramanal a small island in Muhamma. Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace are two nearby heritage sites.[626][627]
See also
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One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series without the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.
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Inaugurating on Saturday the valedictory of the bicentenary celebration of the arrival of Church Mission Society (CMS) missionaries to the shores of Kerala, Mr. Vijayan said it was their pioneering work in the fields of education, literature, printing, publishing, women's education, education of the differently-abled and, in general, a new social approach through the inclusion of marginalised sections into the mainstream which brought the idea of 'equality' into the realm of public consciousness. This had raised the standard of public consciousness and paved the way for the emergence of the renaissance movements in the State.
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Notes
- ^ According to historian M. G. S. Narayanan Vasco da Gama arrived in Koyilandy.[110]
Sources
- Chandran, V. P., ed. (2018). Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus – 2019 (in Malayalam). Kozhikode: Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited. ASIN 8182676444 .
Further reading
- Bose, Satheese Chandra and Varughese, Shiju Sam (eds.) 2015. Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan.
- Chathukulam, Jos; Tharamangalam, Joseph (2021). "The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy". World Development. 137: 105207. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105207. PMC 7510531. PMID 32989341.
- Devika, J. (2016). "The 'Kudumbashree Woman' and the Kerala Model Woman: Women and Politics in Contemporary Kerala". Indian Journal of Gender Studies. 23 (3): 393–414. doi:10.1177/0971521516656077. S2CID 151752480.
- Jeffrey, Robin (2004). "Legacies of Matriliny: The Place of Women and the "Kerala Model"" (PDF). Pacific Affairs. 77 (4): 647–664. JSTOR 40023536.
- Jeffrey, Robin (2009). "Testing Concepts about Print, Newspapers, and Politics: Kerala, India, 1800–2009" (PDF). The Journal of Asian Studies. 68 (2): 465. doi:10.1017/S0021911809000679. S2CID 146795894.
- Jeffrey, Robin (27 July 2016). Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala became 'a Model'. Springer. ISBN 978-1-349-12252-3.
- Ramanathaiyer, Sundar; MacPherson, Stewart (2018). Social Development in Kerala: Illusion or Reality? (2nd ed.). Routledge.
External links
- Government
- The Official website of the Government of Kerala
- The Official website of Kerala Tourism
- General information
- Geographic data related to Kerala at OpenStreetMap