Hillbilly: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|Stereotype of some rural Americans}} |
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{{Refimprove|date=May 2007}} |
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{{About|"hillbilly" as a slang term|the historical subculture|Mountain White|different connotations|Country (identity)}} |
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'''Hillbilly''' is a term referring to people who dwell in remote, [[rural]], [[mountain]]ous areas of the [[United States]], primarily southern [[Appalachia]] and the [[Ozarks]]. Due to its strongly [[Stereotype|stereotypical]] connotations, the term is frequently considered [[derogatory]], and so is usually offensive to those [[United States|Americans]] of Ozarkan and Appalachian heritage. However, the term is also used in celebration of their culture by mountain people themselves. Such co-opting and neutralizing use is almost exclusively reserved for Appalachian people themselves. |
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[[File:HatfieldClan.jpg|thumb|375px|The [[Hatfield–McCoy feud|Hatfield]] clan (1897)]] |
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'''Hillbilly''' is a term for people who dwell in [[rural area|rural]], mountainous areas in the [[United States]], primarily in the [[Appalachian region]] and [[Ozarks]]. As people migrated out of the region during the [[Great Depression]], the term spread northward and westward with them. |
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The usage of the term hillbilly as a descriptor receives mixed perceptions, often in part due to the nature in which it is used. It may be used in [[in-group]]s as a point of pride, while others consider its usage [[derogatory]], especially when used as an insult.<ref name="Rhee2018" /> |
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The first known instances of "hillbilly" in print were in ''The Railroad Trainmen's Journal'' (vol. ix, July 1892),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hillbilly|website=Online Etymology Dictionary|title=Hillbilly|language=en|access-date=2017-01-24}}</ref> an 1899 photograph of men and women in [[West Virginia]] labeled "Camp Hillbilly",<ref name="Harkins">{{cite book|title=Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon|last=Harkins|first=Anthony|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=1st|date=November 20, 2003|isbn=978-0195146318|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dtehLu1cissC}}</ref> and a 1900 ''[[New York Journal]]'' article containing the definition: "a Hill-Billie is a free and untrammeled white citizen of [[Alabama]], who lives in the hills, has no means to speak of, dresses as he can, talks as he pleases, drinks whiskey when he gets it, and fires off his revolver as the fancy takes him".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hawthorne|first=Julian|date=April 23, 1900|title=Mountain Votes Spoil Huntington's Revenge|journal=New York Journal|page=2}}</ref> The [[stereotype]] is twofold in that it incorporates both positive and negative traits: "Hillbillies" are often considered independent and self-reliant individuals who resist the modernization of society, but at the same time they are also defined as backward and violent. Scholars argue this duality is reflective of the split ethnic identities in white America.<ref name="Harkins"/> The term's later usage extended beyond solely white communities, exemplified with the "Hispanic hillbillies of northern [[New Mexico]]", in reference to the [[Hispanos of New Mexico]].<ref name="Verbatim 1995 p. ">{{cite book | title=Verbatim | issue=v. 22-23 | year=1995 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iA0kAQAAMAAJ | access-date=April 16, 2020 }}</ref> |
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==Etymology== |
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The term "hillbilly" is Scottish in origin but is not derived from its [[Scottish English|dialect]]. In Scotland, the term "hill-folk" referred to people who preferred isolation from the greater society, and "billy" meant "comrade" or "companion". The words "hill-folk" and "Billie" were combined and applied to the [[Cameronian]]s who followed the teachings of a militant [[Presbyterian]] named [[Richard Cameron (Covenanter)|Richard Cameron]]. These [[Covenanters|Scottish Covenanters]] fled to the hills of southern Scotland in the late 17th century to avoid persecution for their religious beliefs.<ref name="Hillbilly Music: Source and Symbol">{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Archie |title=Hillbilly Music: Source and Symbol|journal=Journal of American Folklore |date=1965 |volume=78 |issue=309 |pages=204–228 |doi=10.2307/538356<!--|access-date=1 August 2014-->|jstor=538356}}</ref> |
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Many of the early settlers of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] were from Scotland and [[Northern Ireland]] and were followers of [[William III of England|William of Orange]], the [[Protestant]] king of England, Ireland and Scotland. In 17th century Ireland, during the [[Williamite War in Ireland|Williamite War]], Protestant supporters of William III ("King Billy") were referred to as "Billy's Boys" because 'Billy' is a diminutive of 'William' (common across both Britain and Ireland). In time the term hillbilly became synonymous with the [[Williamite]]s who settled in the hills of North America.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/immig_emig/northern_ireland/ni_2/article_2.shtml |title=Hillbillies in the White House |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> |
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Some scholars disagree with this theory. Michael Montgomery's ''From Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American English'' states, "In [[Ulster]] in recent years it has sometimes been supposed that [hillbilly] was coined to refer to followers of King William III and brought to America by early Ulster emigrants, but this derivation is almost certainly incorrect. ... In America ''hillbilly'' was first attested only in 1898, which suggests a later, independent development."<ref name="Montgomery 2006 82"/> |
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==History== |
==History== |
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The [[Appalachian Mountains]] were settled in the 18th century by settlers primarily from England, lowland Scotland, and the province of [[Ulster]] in [[Ireland]]. The settlers from Ulster were mainly [[Protestantism|Protestants]] who migrated to Ireland from Lowland [[Scotland]] and [[Northern England]] during the [[Plantation of Ulster]] in the 17th century. Many further migrated to the American colonies beginning in the 1730s, and in America became known as the [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] although this term is inaccurate as they were also of Northern English descent.<ref name="Montgomery 2006 82">{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Montgomery |title=From Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American English|publisher = Ulster Historical Foundation|year= 2006|isbn = 9781903688618|page=82}}</ref> |
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The term "hillbilly" spread in the years following the [[American Civil War]]. At this time, the country was developing both technologically and socially, but the Appalachian region was falling behind. Before the war, Appalachia was not distinctively different from other rural areas of the country. Post-war, although the [[frontier]] pushed farther west, the region retained frontier characteristics. The Appalachian people were perceived as backward, quick to violence, and inbred in their isolation. Fueled by news stories of mountain feuds such as that in the 1880s between the [[Hatfield–McCoy feud|Hatfields and McCoys]], the hillbilly stereotype developed in the late 19th to early 20th century.<ref name="Harkins"/> |
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[[Image:HillbillyHotDogs.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''Hillbilly Hot Dogs'', a roadside [[hot dog stand]] located near [[Huntington, West Virginia]].]] |
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The origins of the term "hillbilly" are obscure. According to Anthony Harkins in ''Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon'', the term first appeared in print in a 1900 ''New York Journal'' article, with the definition: "a Hill-Billie is a free and untrammeled white citizen of Alabama, who lives in the hills, has no means to speak of, dresses as he can, talks as he pleases, drinks whiskey when he gets it, and fires off his revolver as the fancy takes him." |
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The term "hillbilly" was used by members of the [[The Night Riders|Planter's Protection Association]], a tobacco farmers union that formed in the Black Patch region of Kentucky, to refer to non-union [[Strikebreaker|scab]] farmers who did not join the organization.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brutal Saviours of the Black Patch {{!}} History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/miscellanies/brutal-saviours-black-patch |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=www.historytoday.com}}</ref> |
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The Appalachian region was largely settled in the 1700s by the [[Scotch-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]], the majority of whom originated in the lowlands of Scotland. Harkins believes the most credible theory of the term's origin is that it derives from the linkage of two older Scottish expressions, "hill-folk" and "billie" which was a synonym for "fellow", similar to "guy" or "bloke". |
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The "classic" hillbilly stereotype reached its current characterization during the years of the [[Great Depression]]. The period of Appalachian out-migration, roughly from the 1930s through the 1950s, saw many mountain residents moving north to the Midwestern industrial cities of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[Akron, Ohio|Akron]], and [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]. |
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Although the term is not documented until 1900, there have been many conjectural etymologies for the term, including: |
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This movement to Northern society, which became known as the "[[Hillbilly Highway]]", brought these previously isolated communities into mainstream United States culture. In response, poor white mountaineers became central characters in newspapers, pamphlets, and eventually, motion pictures. Authors at the time were inspired by historical figures such as [[Davy Crockett]] and [[Daniel Boone]]. The mountaineer image transferred over to the 20th century where the "hillbilly" stereotype emerged.<ref name="Harkins"/> |
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* NATHAN SWANGER IS A HILLBILLY.The term originated in 17th century Ireland for Protestant supporters of King William of Orange. {{Fact|date=July 2008}} [[Roman Catholic]] King [[James II of England|James II]] landed at Kinsale in Ireland in 1689 and began to raise a Catholic army in an attempt to regain the British throne. Protestant King [[William III of England|William III]], [[Prince of Orange]], led an English counterforce into Ireland and defeated James II at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] in 1690. A significant portion of William III's army was composed of [[Protestants]] of Scottish descent (Planters) who had been settled on land confiscated from Catholics in Ulster, the northernmost of the four provinces of Ireland. The southern Irish Catholic supporters of James II referred to these northern Protestant supporters of King William as ''Billy Boys'' {{Fact|date=July 2008}} — Billy being an abbreviation of William. |
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==In popular culture== |
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* The term in the United States was conferred during the early 18th century by the occupying [[United Kingdom|British]] soldiers as a carry over from the Irish term, in referring to Scots-Irish immigrants of mainly [[Presbyterian]] origin, dwelling in the frontier areas of the [[Appalachian Mountains]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} These Protestant Irish colonists brought their cultural traditions with them when they immigrated. Many of their stories, songs, and ballads dealt with the history of their [[Ulster]] and [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowland Scot]] homelands, especially relating the tale of the [[Protestant]] King [[William III of England|William III]], [[Prince of Orange]]. |
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[[File:Hillbilly shot glasses - November 2023 - Sarah Stierch.jpg|thumb|"Hillbilly shot glass" inscribed on a wooden shot glass at a gift shop in [[Nashville, Indiana]]]] |
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Pop culture has perpetuated the "hillbilly" stereotype. Scholarly works suggest that the media has exploited both the Appalachian region and people by classifying them as "hillbillies". These generalizations do not match the cultural experiences of Appalachians. Appalachians, like many other groups, do not subscribe to a single [[Cultural identity|identity]].<ref name=Billings>{{cite book|last1=Billings|first1=Dwight B.|last2=Norman|first2=Gurney|last3=Ledford|first3=Katherine|title=Back Talk from Appalachia: Confronting Stereotypes |date=2000 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx8FNbtA7CQC|access-date=31 July 2014|isbn=978-0813143347}}</ref> One of the issues associated with stereotyping is that it is profitable. When "hillbilly" became a widely used term, entrepreneurs saw a window for potential revenue. They "recycled" the image and brought it to life through various forms of media.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Newcomb|first1=Horace|title=Appalachia on Television: Region as Symbol in American Popular Culture|journal=Appalachian Journal|date=1979|volume=7|issue=1/2|pages=155–164|jstor=40932731}}</ref> |
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The comics portrayed hillbilly stereotypes, notably in two strips, ''[[Li'l Abner]]'' and ''[[Snuffy Smith]]''. Both characters were introduced in 1934. |
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* Many of the settlers in the Appalachian mountains were of German origin and were named [[Wilhelm]] with the short form [[Willy]], a common German name during that time. Those Wilhelms, who went by Bill or Billy, living in the Appalachian Mountains became known as ''hillbillies'', that is ''Bills'' who lived in the hills. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} |
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''[[Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis]]'' (2016) is a memoir by [[JD Vance]] about the Appalachian values of his upbringing and their relationship to the social problems of his hometown, [[Middletown, Ohio]]. The book topped [[The New York Times Best Seller list|''The New York Times'' Best Seller list]] in August 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.urbanophile.com/2016/08/23/hillbilly-elegy-jd-vance-culture-circumstance-agency/|title=Hillbilly Elegy: Culture, Circumstance, Agency|author=Aaron M. Renn|date=August 23, 2016|website=Urbanophile|access-date=October 28, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028155442/http://www.urbanophile.com/2016/08/23/hillbilly-elegy-jd-vance-culture-circumstance-agency/|archive-date=October 28, 2016}}</ref> |
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* The term emerged as a derogatory nickname given by the coastal plain-dwelling Southerners to the hill-dwelling settlers of Eastern [[Tennessee]], Western [[Virginia]] (including modern [[West Virginia]]), and Eastern [[Kentucky]], many of whom were ambivalent to the Confederacy during the [[American Civil War]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} |
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A family of "Hill People", who are employed as migrant workers on a farm in 1952 Arkansas, have a major role in [[John Grisham]]'s book ''[[A Painted House]]'', with Grisham trying to avoid stereotypes.{{cn|date=May 2024}} |
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Harkins theorizes that use of the term outside the Appalachians arose in the years after the American Civil War, when the Appalachian region became increasingly bypassed by technological and social changes taking place in the rest of the country. Until the Civil War, the Appalachians were not significantly different from other rural areas of the country, but after the war, as the frontier pushed further west, the Appalachian country retained its frontier character, and the people themselves came to be seen as backward, quick to violence, and inbred in their isolation. Fueled by news stories of mountain feuds, such as that in the 1880s between the [[Hatfields and McCoys]], the hillbilly stereotype developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. |
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=== Film and television === |
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The "classic" hillbilly stereotype - the poor, ignorant, feuding family with a huge brood of children tending the family [[moonshine]] still - reached its current characterization during the years of the [[Great Depression]], when many mountaineers left their homes to find work in other areas of the country. It was during these years that comic strips such as ''[[Lil' Abner]]'', and films such as ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'', made the "hillbilly" a common American stereotype. |
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[[File:Buddy Ebsen and Irene Ryan from The Beverly Hillbillies - 1970.jpg|thumb|Buddy Ebsen and Irene Ryan from ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' in 1970]] |
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The advent of the [[interstate highway]] system and [[television]] brought many previously isolated communities into mainstream [[United States]] culture in the 1950s and 1960s. The [[Internet]] continues this integration, but many communities with relatively traditional lifestyles remain throughout the Appalachian region.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} |
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Television and film have portrayed "hillbillies" in both derogatory and sympathetic terms. Films such as ''[[Sergeant York (film)|Sergeant York]]'' or the [[Ma and Pa Kettle]] series portrayed the "hillbilly" as wild but good-natured. Television programs of the 1960s such as ''[[The Real McCoys]]'', ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]'', and especially ''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]'', portrayed the "hillbilly" as backwards but with enough wisdom to outwit more sophisticated city folk. ''[[Gunsmoke]]''{{'s}} Festus Haggen was portrayed as intelligent and quick-witted (but lacking "education"). |
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The popular 1970s television variety show ''[[Hee Haw]]'' regularly lampooned the stereotypical "hillbilly" lifestyle. A darker negative image of the hillbilly was introduced to another generation in the film ''[[Deliverance]]'' (1972), based on a [[Deliverance (novel)|novel of the same name]] by [[James Dickey]], which depicted some "hillbillies" as genetically deficient, [[inbreeding|inbred]], and murderous. |
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==Urban Slang Use== |
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The term hillbilly is commonly used in non-Appalachian areas as a reference in describing socially backward people that fit certain "hillbilly" characteristics. In this context, it is often (though not always) derogatory. Although the described person may not reside in a region that has hills of any kind, it is substituted in place of more disparaging terms like [[white trash]]. In urban usage, it is sometimes used interchangeably for terms like [[Redneck]]. |
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''[[The Texas Chain Saw Massacre|The Texas Chainsaw Massacre]]'' and its sequels has [[Leatherface]] and his family, the Sawyers, portray a particularly violent "Hillbilly" stereotype that is common in horror films. The Texas Chainsaw Massacre movie series is thought to have paved the way for the countless horror films featuring deranged and often cannibalistic "Hillbillies" that have since become a staple of the horror genre.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knöppler |first=Christian |date=2017 |title="7. Cannibal Hillbillies and Backwoods Horror" |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783839437353-010/pdf |journal=The Monster Always Returns: American Horror Films and Their Remakes |pages=183–210 |doi=10.1515/9783839437353-010 |isbn=9783839437353 |via=Degruyter}}</ref> |
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==Music== |
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''Hillbilly music'' was at one time considered an acceptable label for what is now known as [[country music]]. However, some artists and fans, notably [[Hank Williams Sr.]], found the term offensive even in its heyday. The label, coined in 1925 by country pianist [[Al Hopkins]],<ref name=Sanjek>David Sanjek, "All the Memories Money Can Buy: Marketing Authenticity and Manufacturing Authorship", p. 155–172 in Eric Weisbard, ed., ''This is Pop'', Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-674-01321-2 (cloth), ISBN 0-674-01344-1 (paper). p. 156–157.</ref> persisted until the 1950s. |
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Similar "evil hillbilly people"-type have also been seen in a more comical light in the 1988 horror film ''[[The Moonlight Sonata (film)|The Moonlight Sonata]]'', but the 2010 horror comedy film ''[[Tucker & Dale vs. Evil]]'' even parodies hillbilly stereotyping. More recently, the TV series ''[[Justified (TV series)|Justified]]'' (2010–2015) was centered around deputy U. S. Marshal Raylan Givens who was reassigned to his hometown in [[Harlan, Kentucky]] where he was in conflict with Boyd Crowder, a drug dealer who had grown up with Raylan. The show's plots often included "hillbilly" tropes such as dimwitted and easily manipulated men, use of homemade drugs, and snake-handling revivalists. |
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Now, the older name is widely deemed offensive (and inappropriate). However, the term ''hillbilly music'' is now sometimes used to describe [[old-time music]]. An early tune that contained the word ''hillbilly'' was "Hillbilly Boogie" by the [[Delmore Brothers]] in 1946. Earlier, in the 1920s, there were records by a band called the Beverly Hillbillies. In 1927, the [[Gennett Records|Gennett]] studios in [[Richmond, Indiana]], made a recording of black fiddler Jim Booker with other instrumentalists; their recordings were labeled "made for Hillbilly" in the Gennett files, and were marketed to a white audience. Also during the 1920s, an old-time music band known as the Hill Billies featuring Al Hopkins and Fiddlin' Charlie Bowman, achieved acclaim as recording artists for Columbia Records. By the late forties, radio stations broadcast music described as "hillbilly," originally to describe fiddlers and string bands, but was then used to describe the traditional music of the people of the Appalachian Mountains. The people who actually sang these songs and lived in the Appalachian Mountains never used these terms to describe their own music. |
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"Hillbillies" became a frequent gimmick in [[professional wrestling]], usually portrayed as simple but amiable [[Face (professional wrestling)|fan favourites]]. An early example of this character was Whiskers Savage (born Edward Civil, 1899–1967) who was promoted as a "bumpkin" persona as early as 1928.<ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Leo Savage |url=https://www.wrestlingdata.com/index.php?befehl=bios&wrestler=3980 |accessdate=2022-08-07 |publisher=Wrestlingdata.com}}</ref> During the 1960s and 1970s, two [[superheavyweight]] wrestlers (and frequent [[tag team]] partners) [[Haystacks Calhoun]] and [[Man Mountain Mike]] both portrayed "country boys" in overalls and carrying lucky horseshoes. In the [[WWE|WWF]] in the 1980s, [[Hillbilly Jim]], depicted as a protegé of [[Hulk Hogan]], led a faction of "hillbillies" including [[Uncle Elmer]], [[Cousin Luke]] and [[Cousin Junior]].<ref name="WWEInterview">{{cite web |author=Murphy, Ryan |date=December 8, 2010 |title=Where Are They Now? Hillbilly Jim |url=http://www.wwe.com/classics/wherearetheynow/where-are-they-now-hillbilly-jim |access-date=April 26, 2014 |work=[[WWE]].com |publisher=[[WWE]]}}</ref><ref name="WWEBio">{{cite web |title=Hillbilly Jim |url=http://www.wwe.com/superstars/hillbilly-jim |access-date=April 26, 2014 |work=[[WWE]].com |publisher=[[WWE]]}}</ref> |
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Popular songs whose style bore characteristics of both hillbilly and [[African American]] music were referred to, in the late 1940s and early 1950s as [[Old-time music|hillbilly boogie]], and in the mid-1950s as ''[[rockabilly]]''. [[Elvis Presley]] was a prominent player of the latter genre. When the Country Music Association was founded in 1958, the term ''hillbilly music'' gradually fell out of use. However, the term ''rockabilly'' is still in common use.[http://www.rockabillyhall.com/] |
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"Hillbillies" were at the center of reality television in the 21st century. Network television shows such as ''The Real Beverly Hillbillies'', ''High Life'', and ''[[The Simple Life]]'' displayed the "hillbilly" lifestyle for viewers in the United States. This sparked protests across the country with rural-minded individuals gathering to fight the stereotype. The Center for Rural Strategies started a nationwide campaign stating the stereotype was "politically incorrect". The Kentucky-based organization engaged political figures in the movement such as [[Robert Byrd]] and [[Mike Huckabee]]. Both protestors argued that the discrimination of any other group in United States would not be tolerated, so neither should the discrimination against rural U.S. citizens. A 2003 piece published by ''[[The Cincinnati Enquirer]]'' read, "In this day of hypersensitivity to diversity and political correctness, Appalachians have been a group that it is still socially acceptable to demean and joke about... But rural folks have spoken up and said 'enough' to the Hollywood mockers."<ref name="Pate">{{cite book |last1=Pate |first1=Susan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vE1chnGUbrMC&pg=PA205 |title=Grappling With Diversity Readings On Civil Rights Pedagogy and Critical Multiculturalism |date=2008 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9780791478998 |location=Albany}}</ref> |
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Later, the music industry merged hillbilly music, [[Western Swing]], and [[Western music (North America)|Cowboy music]], to form the current category C&W, [[Country and Western]]. |
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The famous [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]] fiddler [[Vassar Clements]] described his style of music as "hillbilly jazz." |
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===Music=== |
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[[Billy Hill and the Hillbillies]] are a musical/variety group at [[Disneyland Park (Anaheim)]] in [[Anaheim, California]]. |
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{{Main|Appalachian music|Cajun music|Country music|Old-time music|Western music (North America)}} |
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[[File:HillbillyFamilyBandDLange.jpg|thumb|Migrant family from [[Arkansas]] playing hill-billy songs (1939)]] |
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''Hillbilly music'' was at one time considered an acceptable label for what is now known as [[country music]]. The label, coined in 1925 by country pianist [[Al Hopkins]],<ref name=Sanjek>{{cite book |first=David |last=Sanjek |chapter=All the Memories Money Can Buy: Marketing Authenticity and Manufacturing Authorship |editor=Eric Weisbard |title=This is Pop |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-674-01321-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thisispopinsearc00weis/page/156 156–157] |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/thisispopinsearc00weis/page/156}}</ref> persisted until the 1950s. |
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The "hillbilly music" categorization covers a wide variety of musical genres including bluegrass, country, western, and gospel. Appalachian folk song existed long before the "hillbilly" label. When the commercial industry was combined with "traditional Appalachian folksong", "hillbilly music" was formed. Some argue this is a "High Culture" issue where sophisticated individuals may see something considered "unsophisticated" as "trash".<ref name="Hillbilly Music: Source and Symbol"/> |
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==In fiction & popular culture== |
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{{fictioncruft}} |
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In the early-20th century, artists began to utilize the "hillbilly" label. The term gained momentum due to [[Ralph Peer]], the recording director of [[Okeh Records|OKeh Records]], who heard it being used among Southerners when he went down to Virginia to record the music and labeled all Southern country music as so from then on.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Pop, Rock and Soul Reader: Histories and Debates|last=Brackett|first=David}}</ref> [[The York Brothers]] entitled one of their songs "Hillbilly Rose" and [[the Delmore Brothers]] followed with their song "Hillbilly Boogie". In 1927, the [[Gennett Records|Gennett]] studios in [[Richmond, Indiana]], made a recording of black fiddler [[Jim Booker]]. The recordings were labeled "made for Hillbilly" in the Gennett files and were marketed to a white audience. Columbia Records had much success with the "Hill Billies" featuring [[Al Hopkins]] and [[Charlie Bowman|Fiddlin' Charlie Bowman]]. |
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Hillbillies have often been characterized as naïve or ignorant [[hick]]s. |
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*The hillbilly lifestyle of [[the Ozarks]] was gently parodied in the comic strip [[Li'l Abner]], which inspired a [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical and movie by the same name. |
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By the late-1940s, radio stations started to use the "hillbilly music" label. Originally, "hillbilly" was used to describe fiddlers and [[string band]]s, but now it was used to describe traditional Appalachian music. Appalachians had never used this term to describe their own music. Popular songs whose style bore characteristics of both hillbilly and [[African American]] music were referred to as ''[[old-time music|hillbilly boogie]]'' and ''[[rockabilly]]''. [[Elvis Presley]] was a prominent player of rockabilly and was known early in his career as the "Hillbilly Cat". |
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*Another comic strip, [[Snuffy Smith]] offers a less gentle hillbilly family parody, featuring a lazy father, a hard-working church-attending mother, and a simple son "Jughaid" who wears a pan for a hat. |
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*[[Ma and Pa Kettle]] were very popular characters in comedic movies of the 1940s and 1950s. |
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When the Country Music Association was founded in 1958, the term ''hillbilly music'' gradually fell out of use. The music industry merged hillbilly music, [[Western swing]], and [[Western music (North America)|Cowboy music]], to form the current category C&W, [[Country and Western]]. |
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*[[Hard Haid Moe]] in Disney's comics. |
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*In the 1960s American [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]'', the Clampett family were supposed to have come from the hills near a fictional hamlet in Arkansas known as Bugtussle. While Granny was from "across the river" in Tennessee, Jed and his family were from Arkansas as noted to the references of Tulsa and Joplin being close by. |
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Some artists (notably [[Hank Williams]]) and fans were offended by the "hillbilly music" label. While the term is not used as frequently today, it is still used on occasion to refer to [[old-time music]] or [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]]. For example, [[WHRB]] broadcasts a popular weekly radio show entitled "Hillbilly at Harvard". The show is devoted to playing a mix of [[old-time music]], [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]], and traditional [[country music|country and western]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Potier |first=Beth |title='Hillbilly at Harvard' hosts heady hoedown weekly |url=http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/01.10/14-hillbilly.html |work=Harvard University Gazette |publisher=Harvard University |access-date=19 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716181047/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/01.10/14-hillbilly.html |archive-date=16 July 2012}}</ref> |
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*Festus, a prominent character on the TV series ''[[Gunsmoke]]'', belonged to a hillbilly clan. |
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*[[Fuzzy Lumpkins]], a villain from the ''[[Powerpuff Girls]]'' TV show, is a hillbilly. |
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=== Video games === |
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*An episode of ''[[The Dukes of Hazzard]]'' saw Bo and Luke rescuing Daisy from being forced to marry into a family of [[Psychopathy|sociopath]]ic hillbillies. |
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Many video games feature plots, subplots or characters that utilize the Hillbilly stereotype for narrative purposes and cultural signifiers. Some notable examples of this include the ''[[Silent Hill]]'' video game series, ''[[Fallout 3]]'', ''[[Fallout 76]]'', ''[[Dead by Daylight]]'', ''[[Grand Theft Auto V]]'', ''[[Red Dead Redemption 2]]'', ''[[Resident Evil 4]]'' and ''[[Resident Evil 7: Biohazard|Resident Evil 7]]''. |
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*A recurring character on ''[[The Simpsons]]'', [[Cletus Spuckler]] (aka the "Slack-Jawed [[Yokel]]") and his family are stereotypical hillbillies. |
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*In the [[World Wrestling Entertainment|WWF]], a character known as [[Hillbilly Jim]] was made to portray a large man with a huge beard and wearing overalls back in the [[1980]]s as a frequent tag team partner of [[Hulk Hogan]]. |
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==Cultural implications== |
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*The earliest television series dealing with hillbillies was [[The Real McCoys]], starring [[Walter Brennan]], [[Richard Crenna]], and [[Kathleen Nolan]], about a West Virginia family that moves to California. The show ran from 1957-1963. |
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The hillbilly stereotype is considered to have had a traumatizing effect on some in the Appalachian region. Feelings of shame, self-hatred, and detachment are cited as a result of "culturally transmitted traumatic stress syndrome". Appalachian scholars say that the large-scale stereotyping has rewritten Appalachian history, making Appalachians feel particularly vulnerable. "Hillbilly" has now become part of Appalachian identity and some Appalachians feel they are constantly defending themselves against this image.<ref name=Billings/> |
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*The 1960s American [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]'' has two contrasting stereotypes of recurring hillbilly characters: The ignorant but kindly, impoverished but generous Darling family, portrayed by bluegrass band [[The Dillards]] and [[Denver Pyle]]; and the belligerent, paranoid, frankly violent buffoon, [[Ernest T. Bass]], portrayed by [[Howard Morris]]. |
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*In 1970, the author James Dickey published the [[novel]] ''[[Deliverance (novel)|Deliverance]]'', a story about four men going for a canoe-trip on a river in the mountains of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. They encounter several sociopathic hillbillies and are subsequently attacked, captured, tortured, and raped by them. (Based on a real canoe trip in which he was actually helped by friendly mountaineers.) |
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The stereotyping also has political implications for the region. There is a sense of "perceived history" that prevents many political issues from receiving adequate attention. Appalachians are often blamed for economic struggles. "Moonshiners, welfare cheats, and coal miners" are stereotypes stemming from the greater hillbilly stereotype in the region. This [[prejudice]] has been said to serve as a barrier for addressing some serious issues such as the economy and the environment.<ref name=Billings/> |
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*On [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]]'s ''[[The Amanda Show]]'', starring [[Amanda Bynes]], a recurring skit titled "Hillbilly Moment" would be featured. Amanda Bynes and [[Drake Bell]] would appear as stereotypical hillbillies and behave accordingly. |
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* A popular television comedy-variety show "[[Hee Haw]]" starred several well-known country singers and regularly lampooned the stereotypical hillbilly lifestyle. |
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Despite the political and social difficulties associated with stereotyping, Appalachians have organized to enact change. The [[War on Poverty]] is sometimes considered to be an example of one effort that allowed for Appalachian community organization. [[Grassroots]] movements, protests, and strikes are common in the area, though not always successful.<ref name=Billings/> |
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* [[Rob Zombie]]'s [[1998 in music|1998]] album, [[Hellbilly Deluxe]], ''Hellbilly'' is a direct derivative of Hillbilly. |
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* In the popular late-night comedy show ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', hillbillies are portrayed in the skit ''Appalachian Emergency Room'', with injuries only associable with the common media representation of hillbillies. |
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==Intragroup versus intergroup usage== |
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* The Arkansas Chuggabug, driven by Luke & Blubber Bear — hillbillies in a wooden buggy driven by a coal-fired range in [[Wacky Races]] is an American animated television series from [[Hanna-Barbera]] Productions. |
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The [[Springfield, Missouri]] Chamber of Commerce once presented dignitaries visiting the city with an "Ozark Hillbilly Medallion" and a certificate proclaiming the honoree a "hillbilly of the Ozarks". On June 7, 1952, President [[Harry S. Truman]] received the medallion after a breakfast speech at the Shrine Mosque for the [[35th Infantry Division (United States)|35th Division]] Association.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers/157/remarks-breakfast-35th-division-association-springfield-missouri |title=Remarks at a Breakfast of the 35th Division Association, Springfield, Missouri |date=June 7, 1952 |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref> Other recipients included [[US Army]] generals [[Omar Bradley]] and [[Matthew Ridgway]], [[James Cash Penney|J. C. Penney]], [[Johnny Olson]], and [[Ralph Story]].<ref>Dessauer, Phil "Springfield, Mo.-Radio City of Country Music" (April, 1957), ''[[Coronet (magazine)|Coronet]]'', p. 151</ref> |
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*[[The Hillbilly Bears]] another animated television series produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions, played on a social stereotype of the "hillbilly," with a gun-toting, mumbling father who was always "feudin'" with the neighbors. |
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* The [[Adult Swim]] show, [[Squidbillies]], focuses on a family of hillbilly/redneck squids and their stereotypical misadventures. |
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[[File:"Hillbilly Heaven" (17069778942).jpg|thumb|A customized pickup truck called "Hillbilly Heaven", on display in [[Wheelersburg, Ohio]]]] |
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* In the 2006 Disney/Pixar hit film, [[Cars (film)|Cars]] and [[Cars (video game)|the video game of the same name]], there is hillbilly tow-truck named [[Mater]]. |
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* In the [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] animated show [[Avatar: The Last Airbender]], the episode "[[The Swamp (Avatar: The Last Airbender episode)|The Swamp]]" features a tribe of swamp-dwelling waterbenders that speak and behave like stereotypical hillbillies. |
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[[Hillbilly Days]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hillbillydays.com/ |title=Hillbilly days}}</ref> is an annual festival held in mid-April in [[Pikeville, Kentucky]] celebrating the best of Appalachian culture. The event began by local Shriners as a fundraiser to support the Shriners Children's Hospital. It has grown since its beginning in 1976 and now is the second largest festival held in the state of Kentucky. Artists and craftspeople showcase their talents and sell their works on display. Nationally renowned musicians as well as the best of the regional mountain musicians share six different stages located throughout the downtown area of Pikeville. Aspiring hillbillies from across the nation compete to come up with the wildest Hillbilly outfit. The event has earned its name as the Mardi Gras of the Mountains. Fans of "mountain music" come from around the United States to hear this annual concentrated gathering of talent. |
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*[[Lum and Abner]] was a popular radio show about two stereotypical hillbillies that ran from 1931 to 1954. |
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*In [[Thomas and Friends]], there is a hillbilly tank engine named Silly Billy. |
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The term "Hillbilly" has been used with pride by a number of people within the region as well as famous persons, such as singer [[Dolly Parton]], chef [[Sean Brock]], and comedian [[Minnie Pearl]]. Positive self-identification with the term generally includes identification with a set of "hillbilly values" including love and respect for nature, strong work ethic, generosity toward neighbors and those in need, family ties, self-reliance, resiliency, and a simple lifestyle. |
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* In the animated series [[King of the Hill]], [[Hank Hill]]'s neighbor [[Kahn Souphanousinphone]] often refers to Hank and the other Arlen, Texas locals as hillbillies. |
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* In the film [[October Sky]], about a group of young West Virginia amateur rocketry enthusiasts, the characters refer to themselves as 'hillbillies'. |
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However, the term has also been used repeatedly by outsiders to systematically denigrate Appalachian natives and other rural people. To many native Appalachians, an outsider calling them "hillbilly" is highly offensive and the term is one of the oldest epithets in use in the United States.<ref name = "Rhee2018">{{cite journal |last1=Rhee |first1=William |last2=Scott |first2=Stephen |title=Geographic Discrimination: Of Place, Space, Hillbillies, and Home |journal=West Virginia Law Review |date=1 December 2018 |volume=121 |issue=2 |url=https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/wvlr/vol121/iss2/7/ |access-date=8 December 2023 |issn=0043-3268}}</ref> |
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* In [[Pokemon Diamond and Pearl]], Solaceon Town is also known as Hillbilly Town. |
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* In [[Hannah Montana]], many people, including his own children, frequently refer to Robby Ray Stewart as a hillbilly. |
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* In the WWE, there is currently a hillbilly-themed tag team known as "Jesse and Festus," with the diminutive Jesse providing the "brains of the operation" while the massive but unintelligent Festus providing the muscle. |
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* On [[Jerry Springer]], hillbillys often appear on the show with many episodes named "Hillbilly Love". |
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* One example of this are the various hillbilly innuendos on the syndicated television show ''[[Married… with Children]]'', which was set in Chicago and dealt regularly with Peggy Bundy's hillbilly upbringing in rural Wisconsin<ref>Wikipedia[[Married... without Children#Season_1:_1987|"List of Married With Children Episodes"]]21 Feb 2008</ref>. |
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* Nickelodeon's syndicated cartoon program ''[[Hey Arnold!]]'' places a hillbilly residence inside of a sprawling metropolitan city<ref>Hey-Arnold.com[http://www.hey-arnold.com/Arnold/cast_sti.html "Stinky Peterson (and family)"] </ref>. |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[Appalachian stereotypes]] |
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* [[Country (identity)]] |
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* [[Cracker (term)]] |
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* [[Hillbilly armor]] |
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* [[List of ethnic slurs]] |
* [[List of ethnic slurs]] |
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* [[Mountain white]] |
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* [[Oxycodone#Recreational use|Hillbilly heroin]] |
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* [[Okie]] |
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* [[Redneck (stereotype)|Redneck]] |
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* [[ |
* [[Peckerwood]] |
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* [[ |
* [[Redneck]] |
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* [[Trailer trash]] |
* [[Trailer trash]] |
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* [[White trash]] |
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* [[Yokel]] |
* [[Yokel]] |
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* [[Cletus Spuckler]] |
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* [[Mountain men]] |
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* [[Hillbilly armor]] |
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* [[Hill Billy Golf]] |
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* [[Sarah Pallin]] <ref>McCain Aide Calls Palin Family "Wasilla Hillbillies", [http://www.abcnews.go.com/GMA/Politics/Story?id=6196407&page=2 abcNEWS 2008-11-07]</ref> |
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== |
==References== |
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{{ |
{{Reflist}} |
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African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia: A Study of Folk Tradition (1995), by Cecelia Conway |
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== |
==External links== |
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{{Wiktionary|hillbilly}} |
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* ''Hillbilly, A Cultural History of an American Icon'', by Anthony Harkins |
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* ''Hillbillyland: What the Movies Did to the Mountains & What the Mountains Did to the Movies'', by J.W. Williamson |
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{{Appalachian people}} |
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[[Category:Pejorative terms for people]] |
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{{Ethnic slurs}} |
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[[Category:Social groups]] |
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[[Category:Appalachia]] |
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[[Category:Appalachian culture]] |
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[[Category:Appalachian studies]] |
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[[Category:Stereotypes]] |
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[[Category:Regional nicknames]] |
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[[Category:American people of Scotch-Irish descent]] |
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[[da:Hillbilly]] |
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[[Category:American regional nicknames]] |
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[[es:Hillbilly]] |
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[[Category:Pejorative terms for white people]] |
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[[fr:Hillbilly]] |
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[[Category:European-American culture in Appalachia]] |
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[[nl:Hillbilly]] |
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[[ |
[[Category:Ozarks]] |
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[[Category:Scotch-Irish American history]] |
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[[sv:Hillbilly]] |
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[[Category:Stereotypes of rural people]] |
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[[Category:Stereotypes of white Americans]] |
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Latest revision as of 00:16, 20 November 2024
Hillbilly is a term for people who dwell in rural, mountainous areas in the United States, primarily in the Appalachian region and Ozarks. As people migrated out of the region during the Great Depression, the term spread northward and westward with them.
The usage of the term hillbilly as a descriptor receives mixed perceptions, often in part due to the nature in which it is used. It may be used in in-groups as a point of pride, while others consider its usage derogatory, especially when used as an insult.[1]
The first known instances of "hillbilly" in print were in The Railroad Trainmen's Journal (vol. ix, July 1892),[2] an 1899 photograph of men and women in West Virginia labeled "Camp Hillbilly",[3] and a 1900 New York Journal article containing the definition: "a Hill-Billie is a free and untrammeled white citizen of Alabama, who lives in the hills, has no means to speak of, dresses as he can, talks as he pleases, drinks whiskey when he gets it, and fires off his revolver as the fancy takes him".[4] The stereotype is twofold in that it incorporates both positive and negative traits: "Hillbillies" are often considered independent and self-reliant individuals who resist the modernization of society, but at the same time they are also defined as backward and violent. Scholars argue this duality is reflective of the split ethnic identities in white America.[3] The term's later usage extended beyond solely white communities, exemplified with the "Hispanic hillbillies of northern New Mexico", in reference to the Hispanos of New Mexico.[5]
Etymology
[edit]The term "hillbilly" is Scottish in origin but is not derived from its dialect. In Scotland, the term "hill-folk" referred to people who preferred isolation from the greater society, and "billy" meant "comrade" or "companion". The words "hill-folk" and "Billie" were combined and applied to the Cameronians who followed the teachings of a militant Presbyterian named Richard Cameron. These Scottish Covenanters fled to the hills of southern Scotland in the late 17th century to avoid persecution for their religious beliefs.[6]
Many of the early settlers of the Thirteen Colonies were from Scotland and Northern Ireland and were followers of William of Orange, the Protestant king of England, Ireland and Scotland. In 17th century Ireland, during the Williamite War, Protestant supporters of William III ("King Billy") were referred to as "Billy's Boys" because 'Billy' is a diminutive of 'William' (common across both Britain and Ireland). In time the term hillbilly became synonymous with the Williamites who settled in the hills of North America.[7]
Some scholars disagree with this theory. Michael Montgomery's From Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American English states, "In Ulster in recent years it has sometimes been supposed that [hillbilly] was coined to refer to followers of King William III and brought to America by early Ulster emigrants, but this derivation is almost certainly incorrect. ... In America hillbilly was first attested only in 1898, which suggests a later, independent development."[8]
History
[edit]The Appalachian Mountains were settled in the 18th century by settlers primarily from England, lowland Scotland, and the province of Ulster in Ireland. The settlers from Ulster were mainly Protestants who migrated to Ireland from Lowland Scotland and Northern England during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century. Many further migrated to the American colonies beginning in the 1730s, and in America became known as the Scots-Irish although this term is inaccurate as they were also of Northern English descent.[8]
The term "hillbilly" spread in the years following the American Civil War. At this time, the country was developing both technologically and socially, but the Appalachian region was falling behind. Before the war, Appalachia was not distinctively different from other rural areas of the country. Post-war, although the frontier pushed farther west, the region retained frontier characteristics. The Appalachian people were perceived as backward, quick to violence, and inbred in their isolation. Fueled by news stories of mountain feuds such as that in the 1880s between the Hatfields and McCoys, the hillbilly stereotype developed in the late 19th to early 20th century.[3]
The term "hillbilly" was used by members of the Planter's Protection Association, a tobacco farmers union that formed in the Black Patch region of Kentucky, to refer to non-union scab farmers who did not join the organization.[9]
The "classic" hillbilly stereotype reached its current characterization during the years of the Great Depression. The period of Appalachian out-migration, roughly from the 1930s through the 1950s, saw many mountain residents moving north to the Midwestern industrial cities of Chicago, Cleveland, Akron, and Detroit.
This movement to Northern society, which became known as the "Hillbilly Highway", brought these previously isolated communities into mainstream United States culture. In response, poor white mountaineers became central characters in newspapers, pamphlets, and eventually, motion pictures. Authors at the time were inspired by historical figures such as Davy Crockett and Daniel Boone. The mountaineer image transferred over to the 20th century where the "hillbilly" stereotype emerged.[3]
In popular culture
[edit]
Pop culture has perpetuated the "hillbilly" stereotype. Scholarly works suggest that the media has exploited both the Appalachian region and people by classifying them as "hillbillies". These generalizations do not match the cultural experiences of Appalachians. Appalachians, like many other groups, do not subscribe to a single identity.[10] One of the issues associated with stereotyping is that it is profitable. When "hillbilly" became a widely used term, entrepreneurs saw a window for potential revenue. They "recycled" the image and brought it to life through various forms of media.[11]
The comics portrayed hillbilly stereotypes, notably in two strips, Li'l Abner and Snuffy Smith. Both characters were introduced in 1934.
Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis (2016) is a memoir by JD Vance about the Appalachian values of his upbringing and their relationship to the social problems of his hometown, Middletown, Ohio. The book topped The New York Times Best Seller list in August 2016.[12]
A family of "Hill People", who are employed as migrant workers on a farm in 1952 Arkansas, have a major role in John Grisham's book A Painted House, with Grisham trying to avoid stereotypes.[citation needed]
Film and television
[edit]
Television and film have portrayed "hillbillies" in both derogatory and sympathetic terms. Films such as Sergeant York or the Ma and Pa Kettle series portrayed the "hillbilly" as wild but good-natured. Television programs of the 1960s such as The Real McCoys, The Andy Griffith Show, and especially The Beverly Hillbillies, portrayed the "hillbilly" as backwards but with enough wisdom to outwit more sophisticated city folk. Gunsmoke's Festus Haggen was portrayed as intelligent and quick-witted (but lacking "education").
The popular 1970s television variety show Hee Haw regularly lampooned the stereotypical "hillbilly" lifestyle. A darker negative image of the hillbilly was introduced to another generation in the film Deliverance (1972), based on a novel of the same name by James Dickey, which depicted some "hillbillies" as genetically deficient, inbred, and murderous.
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre and its sequels has Leatherface and his family, the Sawyers, portray a particularly violent "Hillbilly" stereotype that is common in horror films. The Texas Chainsaw Massacre movie series is thought to have paved the way for the countless horror films featuring deranged and often cannibalistic "Hillbillies" that have since become a staple of the horror genre.[13]
Similar "evil hillbilly people"-type have also been seen in a more comical light in the 1988 horror film The Moonlight Sonata, but the 2010 horror comedy film Tucker & Dale vs. Evil even parodies hillbilly stereotyping. More recently, the TV series Justified (2010–2015) was centered around deputy U. S. Marshal Raylan Givens who was reassigned to his hometown in Harlan, Kentucky where he was in conflict with Boyd Crowder, a drug dealer who had grown up with Raylan. The show's plots often included "hillbilly" tropes such as dimwitted and easily manipulated men, use of homemade drugs, and snake-handling revivalists.
"Hillbillies" became a frequent gimmick in professional wrestling, usually portrayed as simple but amiable fan favourites. An early example of this character was Whiskers Savage (born Edward Civil, 1899–1967) who was promoted as a "bumpkin" persona as early as 1928.[14] During the 1960s and 1970s, two superheavyweight wrestlers (and frequent tag team partners) Haystacks Calhoun and Man Mountain Mike both portrayed "country boys" in overalls and carrying lucky horseshoes. In the WWF in the 1980s, Hillbilly Jim, depicted as a protegé of Hulk Hogan, led a faction of "hillbillies" including Uncle Elmer, Cousin Luke and Cousin Junior.[15][16]
"Hillbillies" were at the center of reality television in the 21st century. Network television shows such as The Real Beverly Hillbillies, High Life, and The Simple Life displayed the "hillbilly" lifestyle for viewers in the United States. This sparked protests across the country with rural-minded individuals gathering to fight the stereotype. The Center for Rural Strategies started a nationwide campaign stating the stereotype was "politically incorrect". The Kentucky-based organization engaged political figures in the movement such as Robert Byrd and Mike Huckabee. Both protestors argued that the discrimination of any other group in United States would not be tolerated, so neither should the discrimination against rural U.S. citizens. A 2003 piece published by The Cincinnati Enquirer read, "In this day of hypersensitivity to diversity and political correctness, Appalachians have been a group that it is still socially acceptable to demean and joke about... But rural folks have spoken up and said 'enough' to the Hollywood mockers."[17]
Music
[edit]
Hillbilly music was at one time considered an acceptable label for what is now known as country music. The label, coined in 1925 by country pianist Al Hopkins,[18] persisted until the 1950s.
The "hillbilly music" categorization covers a wide variety of musical genres including bluegrass, country, western, and gospel. Appalachian folk song existed long before the "hillbilly" label. When the commercial industry was combined with "traditional Appalachian folksong", "hillbilly music" was formed. Some argue this is a "High Culture" issue where sophisticated individuals may see something considered "unsophisticated" as "trash".[6]
In the early-20th century, artists began to utilize the "hillbilly" label. The term gained momentum due to Ralph Peer, the recording director of OKeh Records, who heard it being used among Southerners when he went down to Virginia to record the music and labeled all Southern country music as so from then on.[19] The York Brothers entitled one of their songs "Hillbilly Rose" and the Delmore Brothers followed with their song "Hillbilly Boogie". In 1927, the Gennett studios in Richmond, Indiana, made a recording of black fiddler Jim Booker. The recordings were labeled "made for Hillbilly" in the Gennett files and were marketed to a white audience. Columbia Records had much success with the "Hill Billies" featuring Al Hopkins and Fiddlin' Charlie Bowman.
By the late-1940s, radio stations started to use the "hillbilly music" label. Originally, "hillbilly" was used to describe fiddlers and string bands, but now it was used to describe traditional Appalachian music. Appalachians had never used this term to describe their own music. Popular songs whose style bore characteristics of both hillbilly and African American music were referred to as hillbilly boogie and rockabilly. Elvis Presley was a prominent player of rockabilly and was known early in his career as the "Hillbilly Cat".
When the Country Music Association was founded in 1958, the term hillbilly music gradually fell out of use. The music industry merged hillbilly music, Western swing, and Cowboy music, to form the current category C&W, Country and Western.
Some artists (notably Hank Williams) and fans were offended by the "hillbilly music" label. While the term is not used as frequently today, it is still used on occasion to refer to old-time music or bluegrass. For example, WHRB broadcasts a popular weekly radio show entitled "Hillbilly at Harvard". The show is devoted to playing a mix of old-time music, bluegrass, and traditional country and western.[20]
Video games
[edit]Many video games feature plots, subplots or characters that utilize the Hillbilly stereotype for narrative purposes and cultural signifiers. Some notable examples of this include the Silent Hill video game series, Fallout 3, Fallout 76, Dead by Daylight, Grand Theft Auto V, Red Dead Redemption 2, Resident Evil 4 and Resident Evil 7.
Cultural implications
[edit]The hillbilly stereotype is considered to have had a traumatizing effect on some in the Appalachian region. Feelings of shame, self-hatred, and detachment are cited as a result of "culturally transmitted traumatic stress syndrome". Appalachian scholars say that the large-scale stereotyping has rewritten Appalachian history, making Appalachians feel particularly vulnerable. "Hillbilly" has now become part of Appalachian identity and some Appalachians feel they are constantly defending themselves against this image.[10]
The stereotyping also has political implications for the region. There is a sense of "perceived history" that prevents many political issues from receiving adequate attention. Appalachians are often blamed for economic struggles. "Moonshiners, welfare cheats, and coal miners" are stereotypes stemming from the greater hillbilly stereotype in the region. This prejudice has been said to serve as a barrier for addressing some serious issues such as the economy and the environment.[10]
Despite the political and social difficulties associated with stereotyping, Appalachians have organized to enact change. The War on Poverty is sometimes considered to be an example of one effort that allowed for Appalachian community organization. Grassroots movements, protests, and strikes are common in the area, though not always successful.[10]
Intragroup versus intergroup usage
[edit]The Springfield, Missouri Chamber of Commerce once presented dignitaries visiting the city with an "Ozark Hillbilly Medallion" and a certificate proclaiming the honoree a "hillbilly of the Ozarks". On June 7, 1952, President Harry S. Truman received the medallion after a breakfast speech at the Shrine Mosque for the 35th Division Association.[21] Other recipients included US Army generals Omar Bradley and Matthew Ridgway, J. C. Penney, Johnny Olson, and Ralph Story.[22]
.jpg)
Hillbilly Days[23] is an annual festival held in mid-April in Pikeville, Kentucky celebrating the best of Appalachian culture. The event began by local Shriners as a fundraiser to support the Shriners Children's Hospital. It has grown since its beginning in 1976 and now is the second largest festival held in the state of Kentucky. Artists and craftspeople showcase their talents and sell their works on display. Nationally renowned musicians as well as the best of the regional mountain musicians share six different stages located throughout the downtown area of Pikeville. Aspiring hillbillies from across the nation compete to come up with the wildest Hillbilly outfit. The event has earned its name as the Mardi Gras of the Mountains. Fans of "mountain music" come from around the United States to hear this annual concentrated gathering of talent.
The term "Hillbilly" has been used with pride by a number of people within the region as well as famous persons, such as singer Dolly Parton, chef Sean Brock, and comedian Minnie Pearl. Positive self-identification with the term generally includes identification with a set of "hillbilly values" including love and respect for nature, strong work ethic, generosity toward neighbors and those in need, family ties, self-reliance, resiliency, and a simple lifestyle.
However, the term has also been used repeatedly by outsiders to systematically denigrate Appalachian natives and other rural people. To many native Appalachians, an outsider calling them "hillbilly" is highly offensive and the term is one of the oldest epithets in use in the United States.[1]
See also
[edit]- Appalachian stereotypes
- Country (identity)
- Cracker (term)
- Hillbilly armor
- List of ethnic slurs
- Mountain white
- Okie
- Peckerwood
- Redneck
- Trailer trash
- White trash
- Yokel
References
[edit]- ^ a b Rhee, William; Scott, Stephen (1 December 2018). "Geographic Discrimination: Of Place, Space, Hillbillies, and Home". West Virginia Law Review. 121 (2). ISSN 0043-3268. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
- ^ "Hillbilly". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2017-01-24.
- ^ a b c d Harkins, Anthony (November 20, 2003). Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195146318.
- ^ Hawthorne, Julian (April 23, 1900). "Mountain Votes Spoil Huntington's Revenge". New York Journal: 2.
- ^ Verbatim. 1995. Retrieved April 16, 2020.
- ^ a b Green, Archie (1965). "Hillbilly Music: Source and Symbol". Journal of American Folklore. 78 (309): 204–228. doi:10.2307/538356. JSTOR 538356.
- ^ "Hillbillies in the White House". BBC News.
- ^ a b Montgomery, Michael (2006). From Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American English. Ulster Historical Foundation. p. 82. ISBN 9781903688618.
- ^ "Brutal Saviours of the Black Patch | History Today". www.historytoday.com. Retrieved 2022-03-23.
- ^ a b c d Billings, Dwight B.; Norman, Gurney; Ledford, Katherine (2000). Back Talk from Appalachia: Confronting Stereotypes. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0813143347. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
- ^ Newcomb, Horace (1979). "Appalachia on Television: Region as Symbol in American Popular Culture". Appalachian Journal. 7 (1/2): 155–164. JSTOR 40932731.
- ^ Aaron M. Renn (August 23, 2016). "Hillbilly Elegy: Culture, Circumstance, Agency". Urbanophile. Archived from the original on October 28, 2016. Retrieved October 28, 2016.
- ^ Knöppler, Christian (2017). ""7. Cannibal Hillbillies and Backwoods Horror"". The Monster Always Returns: American Horror Films and Their Remakes: 183–210. doi:10.1515/9783839437353-010. ISBN 9783839437353 – via Degruyter.
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African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia: A Study of Folk Tradition (1995), by Cecelia Conway
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