Poverty: Difference between revisions
Rescuing orphaned refs ("ANF" from rev 269428981) |
Added a link. |
||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|Lack of financial assets or possessions}} |
|||
{{Verylong}} |
|||
{{redirect|Poor|other uses|Poor (disambiguation)|and|Poverty (disambiguation)}} |
|||
{{for|the 1901 sociology book|Poverty, A Study of Town Life}} |
|||
{{redirect|Low income|the term regarding income assistance|welfare}} |
|||
'''Poverty''' is the shortage of common things such as food, clothing, shelter and safe drinking water, all of which determine our quality of life. It may also include the lack of access to opportunities such as education and employment which aid the escape from poverty and/or allow one to enjoy the respect of fellow citizens. According to [[Mollie Orshansky]] who developed the poverty measurements used by the U.S. government, "to be poor is to be deprived of those goods and services and pleasures which others around us take for granted."<ref name="Schwartz">Schwartz, J. E. (2005). ''Freedom reclaimed: Rediscovering the American vision''. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.</ref> Ongoing debates over causes, effects and best ways to measure poverty, directly influence the design and implementation of [[poverty reduction|poverty-reduction]] programs and are therefore relevant to the fields of [[public administration]] and [[international development]]. |
|||
<!-- This SD is < 40 characters & mirrors the SD for Wealth --> |
|||
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}} |
|||
{{multiple image |
|||
| perrow = 2 |
|||
| total_width = 350 |
|||
| image1 = Homeless man in Toronto across from old City Hall.jpg |
|||
| width2 = 1750 |
|||
| height2 = 1000 |
|||
| image2 = Bettler peking1.jpg |
|||
| width3 = 1532 |
|||
| height3 = 1024 |
|||
| image3 = Oxfam East Africa - Luli looks after her severely malnourished child Aden.jpg |
|||
| width1 = 2048 |
|||
| height1 = 1365 |
|||
| image4 = LucknowTrashPickers.jpg |
|||
| width4 = 300 |
|||
| height4 = 400 |
|||
| footer = Clockwise from top left: a homeless man in [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]; a [[disabled]] man begging in the streets of [[Beijing]], China; [[waste picker]]s in [[Lucknow]], India; A mother with her [[malnourished]] child in a clinic near [[Dadaab]], Kenya; |
|||
}} |
|||
'''Poverty''' is a state or condition in which an individual lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic standard of living. Poverty can have diverse [[Biophysical environment|environmental]], [[legal]], [[social]], [[economic]], and [[political]] causes and effects.<ref>{{cite web |website = United Nations |title = Ending Poverty |url = https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/poverty/ |access-date = 22 September 2020 |archive-date = 9 September 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200909130506/https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/poverty/ }}</ref> When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: ''[[absolute poverty]]'' which compares income against the amount needed to meet [[basic needs|basic personal needs]], such as [[food]], [[clothing]], and [[Shelter (building)|shelter]];<ref name="unesco.org">{{cite web |title = Poverty {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |url = http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/poverty/ |website = www.unesco.org |access-date = 4 November 2015 |archive-date = 9 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191209025852/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/poverty/ |url-status = live }}</ref> secondly, ''[[relative poverty]]'' measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of [[living standards]], compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of ''relative poverty'' varies from one country to another, or from one [[society]] to another.<ref name="unesco.org" /> |
|||
Although poverty is mainly considered to be undesirable due to the pain and suffering it may cause, in certain spiritual contexts "[[voluntary poverty]]," involving the ''renunciation'' of material goods, is seen by some as virtuous. |
|||
Statistically, {{as of|2019|lc=y}}, most of the world's population live in poverty: in [[Purchasing Power Parity|PPP]] dollars, 85% of people live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per day, and 10% live on less than $1.90 per day.<ref name=OWiD_EP >{{cite journal | url=https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty | title=Global Extreme Poverty | last1=Roser | first1=Max | last2=Ortiz-Ospina | first2=Esteban | journal=[[Our World in Data]] | date=1 January 2019 | access-date=30 March 2021 | archive-date=30 March 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330142651/https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty | url-status=live }}</ref> According to the World Bank Group in 2020, more than 40% of the poor live in conflict-affected countries.<ref>{{Citation|title=Fragile and Conflict-Affected Countries and Situations|date=2015-10-07|work=The World Bank Group A to Z 2016|pages=60a–62|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-0484-7_fragile_and_conflict_affected |isbn=978-1-4648-0484-7}}</ref> Even when countries experience [[economic development]], the poorest citizens of middle-income countries frequently do not gain an adequate share of their countries' increased wealth to leave poverty.<ref>B. Milanovic, Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globalization (Harvard Univ. Press, 2016).</ref> Governments and non-governmental organizations have experimented with a number of different policies and programs for [[poverty alleviation]], such as [[Rural electrification|electrification in rural areas]] or [[Housing First|housing first policies]] in urban areas. The international policy frameworks for poverty alleviation, established by the [[United Nations]] in 2015, are summarized in [[Sustainable Development Goal 1|Sustainable Development Goal 1: "No Poverty"]]. |
|||
Poverty may affect individuals or groups, and is not confined to the [[developing nation]]s. Poverty in [[Developed country|developed countries]] is manifest in a set of social problems including [[homelessness]] and the persistence of "[[ghetto]]" housing clusters.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2005/11/06/youths_poverty_despair_fuel_violent_unrest_in_france/ Youths' poverty, despair fuel violent unrest in France]</ref> |
|||
Social forces, such as [[Feminization of poverty|gender]], [[Disability and poverty|disability]], [[Racial inequality|race and ethnicity]], can exacerbate issues of poverty—with women, [[Child poverty|children]] and minorities frequently bearing unequal burdens of poverty. Moreover, impoverished individuals are more vulnerable to the effects of other social issues, such as the [[Environmental justice|environmental effects of industry]] or the [[Climate change and poverty|impacts of climate change]] or other [[natural disaster]]s or [[Extreme weather|extreme weather events]]. Poverty can also make other [[social problems]] worse; economic pressures on impoverished communities frequently play a part in [[deforestation]], [[Causes of biodiversity loss|biodiversity loss]] and [[ethnic conflict]]. For this reason, the UN's [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and other international policy programs, such as the international recovery from COVID-19, emphasize the connection of poverty alleviation with other societal goals.<ref>{{Cite web|last=dpicampaigns|title=Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/poverty/|access-date=2021-10-09|website=United Nations Sustainable Development|language=en-US}}</ref> |
|||
== Etymology == |
|||
{{TOC limit}} |
|||
The word "poverty" came from [[Latin]] ''pauper'' = "poor". |
|||
== |
== Definitions and etymology == |
||
The word ''poverty'' comes from the old (Norman) French word ''poverté'' (Modern French: ''pauvreté),'' from Latin ''paupertās'' from ''pauper'' (poor).<ref>{{cite book|title=An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language|first=Walter|last=Skeat|year=2005|isbn=978-0-486-44052-1|publisher=Dover Publications}}</ref> |
|||
There are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in. It usually references a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic [[standard of living]]. |
|||
{{ImageStackRight|220| |
|||
[[United Nations]]: Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one's food or a job to earn one's living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/ydiDavidGordon_poverty.pdf|title=Indicators of Poverty & Hunger|publisher=United Nations|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=28 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628230622/http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/ydiDavidGordon_poverty.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
[[Image:Percentage population undernourished world map.PNG|thumb|right|Percentage of population suffering from hunger, [[World Food Programme]], 2006]] |
|||
[[World Bank]]: Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many [[dimension]]s. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for [[survival skills|survival]] with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one's life.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:22569747~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |title = Poverty and Inequality Analysis |website = worldbank.org |access-date = 27 May 2011 |archive-date = 3 June 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110603165721/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:22569747~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |url-status = live }}</ref> |
|||
[[Image:Percentage population living on less than 1 dollar day 2007-2008.png|thumb|right|Percentage of population living on less than 1 dollar per day. [[UN]] estimates 1990-2005.]] |
|||
[[European Union]] (EU): The European Union's definition of poverty is significantly different from definitions in other parts of the world, and consequently policy measures introduced to combat poverty in EU countries also differ from measures in other nations. Poverty is measured in relation to the distribution of income in each member country using relative income poverty lines.<ref name="researchgate.net">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328718886|chapter= European Union Definition of Poverty|via=ResearchGate|date=November 2015|doi=10.4135/9781483345727.n270|isbn= 978-1-4833-4570-3|title= The SAGE Encyclopedia of World Poverty|last1= Dvorak|first1= Jaroslav}}</ref> Relative-income poverty rates in the EU are compiled by the [[Eurostat]], in charge of coordinating, gathering, and disseminating member country [[statistics]] using [[European Union]] Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) surveys.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> |
|||
[[Image:Percent poverty world map.png|thumb|right|Percentage of population living below their national poverty line.]] |
|||
== Measuring poverty == |
|||
[[Image:Life Expectancy 2007 Est. CIA World Factbook.PNG|right|thumb|[[Life expectancy]].]] |
|||
[[File:The number of people below different poverty lines.svg|thumb|The number of people below different poverty lines]] |
|||
{{Main|Measuring poverty}} |
|||
{{See also|Poverty threshold|Individual Deprivation Measure}} |
|||
=== Absolute poverty === |
|||
[[Image:UN Human Development Report 2007 (2).svg|thumb|right|The [[Human Development Index]].]] |
|||
[[File:Poverty headcount ratio at 1.90 a day.png|alt=|thumb|300px|[[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty|Poverty headcount ratio]] at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population). Based on [[World Bank]] data ranging from 1998 to 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?view=map|access-date=23 July 2020|website=data.worldbank.org|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119063653/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?view=map|url-status=live}}</ref>]] |
|||
{{Main|Extreme poverty}} |
|||
{{See also|Purchasing power|Asset poverty}} |
|||
Absolute poverty, often synonymous with '[[extreme poverty]]' or 'abject poverty', refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. This set standard usually refers to "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services."<ref name=UN1995>UN declaration at World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/mission/up2.htm |title=Poverty |publisher=World Bank |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=30 August 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040830075349/http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/mission/up2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=SachsEndofPoverty2005>{{cite book |last=Sachs |first=Jeffrey D. |title = The End of Poverty |publisher=Penguin Press |year= 2005 |page =[https://archive.org/details/endofpovertyecon00sach/page/416 416] |isbn=978-1-59420-045-8 |title-link=The End of Poverty }}</ref> Having an income below the [[poverty line]], which is defined as an income needed to purchase basic needs, is also referred to as ''primary poverty''. |
|||
[[Image:Gini Coefficient World Human Development Report 2007-2008.png|thumb|right|The [[Gini coefficient]], a measure of [[income inequality]].]] |
|||
The "dollar a day" poverty line was first introduced in 1990 as a measure to meet such standards of living. For nations that do not use the US dollar as currency, "dollar a day" does not translate to living a day on the equivalent amount of local currency as determined by the [[exchange rate]].<ref name=dollar>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7122356.stm|title=When a dollar a day means 25 cents|publisher=bbcnews.com|access-date=28 May 2011|first=Mukul|last=Devichand|date=2 December 2007|archive-date=13 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813032040/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7122356.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Rather, it is determined by the [[purchasing power parity]] rate, which would look at how much local currency is needed to buy the same things that a dollar could buy in the United States.<ref name=dollar/> Usually, this would translate to having less local currency than if the exchange rate were used.<ref name=dollar/> |
|||
[[Image:Percentage living on less than $1 per day 1981-2001.png|The percentage of the world's population living on less than $1 per day (black line). Graph shows the years 1981-2001.|thumb|right|The percentage of the world's population living on less than $1 per day has halved in twenty years. Most of this improvement has occurred in East and South Asia. The graph shows the 1981-2001 period.]] |
|||
From 1993 through 2005, the [[World Bank]] defined absolute poverty as $1.08 a day on such a [[purchasing power parity]] basis, after adjusting for inflation to the 1993 US dollar<ref>{{cite web |title=Dollar a Day Revisited |publisher=The World Bank |year=2008 |first1=Martin |last1=Ravallion |first2=Shaohua |last2=Chen |first3=Prem |last3=Sangraula |name-list-style=amp |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2008/09/02/000158349_20080902095754/Rendered/PDF/wps4620.pdf |access-date=8 August 2012 |archive-date=5 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805165034/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2008/09/02/000158349_20080902095754/Rendered/PDF/wps4620.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2009, it was updated as $1.25 a day (equivalent to $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices)<ref name=dollarrevisited2008>{{cite report|first1=Martin|last1=Ravallion|first2=Shaohua|last2=Chen|first3=Prem|last3=Sangraula|date=May 2008|title=Dollar a Day Revisited|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/02/000158349_20080902095754/Rendered/PDF/wps4620.pdf|location=Washington, DC|access-date=10 June 2013|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222220/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/02/000158349_20080902095754/Rendered/PDF/wps4620.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=RavaillionWB26Jun2009>{{cite journal|first1=Martin|last1=Ravallion|first2=Shaohua|last2=Chen|first3=Prem|last3=Sangraula|journal=The World Bank Economic Review|volume=23|pages=163–184|doi=10.1093/wber/lhp007|title=Dollar a day|access-date=11 June 2013|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4499/wber_23_2_163.pdf?sequence=1|format=PDF|issue=2|year=2009|s2cid=26832525|archive-date=29 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029183657/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4499/wber_23_2_163.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live| issn = 0258-6770 }}</ref> and in 2015, it was updated as living on less than US$1.90 per day,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/04/world-bank-forecasts-global-poverty-to-fall-below-10-for-first-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030 |title="The Bank uses an updated international poverty line of US $1.90 a day, which incorporates new information on differences in the cost of living across countries (the PPP exchange rates)." |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=3 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103202525/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/04/world-bank-forecasts-global-poverty-to-fall-below-10-for-first-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ''moderate poverty'' as less than $2 or $5 a day.<ref>{{cite web|author=WDI|title=Societal poverty a global measure of relative poverty|url=http://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/stories/societal-poverty-a-global-measure-of-relative-poverty.html|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=3 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303151843/https://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/stories/societal-poverty-a-global-measure-of-relative-poverty.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, 'ultra-poverty' is defined by a 2007 report issued by International Food Policy Research Institute as living on less than 54 cents per day.<ref>International Food Policy Research Institute, [http://www.ifpri.org/publication/worlds-most-deprived The World's Most Deprived. Characteristics and Causes of Extreme Poverty and Hunger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323220931/http://www.ifpri.org/publication/worlds-most-deprived |date=23 March 2010 }}, Washington: IFPRI Oct 2007</ref> The poverty line threshold of $1.90 per day, as set by the World Bank, is controversial. Each nation has its own threshold for absolute poverty line; in the United States, for example, the absolute poverty line was US$15.15 per day in 2010 (US$22,000 per year for a family of four),<ref>{{cite web|title=Poverty Definitions|publisher=US Census Bureau|year=2011|url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/methods/definitions.html|access-date=20 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206003015/http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/methods/definitions.html|archive-date=6 February 2016}}</ref> while in India it was US$1.0 per day<ref name="wb2010a" /> and in China the absolute poverty line was US$0.55 per day, each on PPP basis in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Progress in Development-oriented Poverty Reduction Program for Rural China (1,274 yuan per year <nowiki>=</nowiki> US$ 0.55 per day)|publisher=The Government of China|year=2011|url=http://www.gov.cn/english/official/2011-11/16/content_1994729_3.htm|access-date=8 August 2012|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714022605/http://www.gov.cn/english/official/2011-11/16/content_1994729_3.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> These different poverty lines make data comparison between each nation's official reports qualitatively difficult. Some scholars argue that the World Bank method sets the bar too high,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subramanian |first=S. |date=March 2009 |title=Poverty Measurement in the Presence of a 'Group-Affiliation' Externality |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14649880802675168 |journal=Journal of Human Development and Capabilities |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=63–76 |doi=10.1080/14649880802675168 |s2cid=154177441 |issn=1945-2829}}</ref> others argue it is too low. |
|||
[[Image:Life expectancy 1950-2005.png|thumb|right|Life expectancy has been increasing and converging for most of the world. Sub-Saharan Africa has recently seen a decline, partly related to the [[AIDS epidemic]]. Graph shows the years 1950-2005.]] |
|||
[[File:Children of migrant cotton field workers from Sweetwater, Oklahoma, 8b15324.jpg|thumb|left|Children of the [[Great Depression|Depression]]-era migrant workers, Arizona, United States, 1937]] |
|||
}} |
|||
There is disagreement among experts as to what would be considered a realistic poverty rate with one considering it "an inaccurately measured and arbitrary cut off".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politifact.com/global-news/statements/2016/mar/23/gayle-smith/did-we-really-reduce-extreme-poverty-half-30-years/|title=Did we really reduce extreme poverty by half in 30 years?|website=@politifact|language=en|access-date=25 April 2019|archive-date=26 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526130914/https://www.politifact.com/global-news/statements/2016/mar/23/gayle-smith/did-we-really-reduce-extreme-poverty-half-30-years/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some contend that a higher poverty line is needed, such as a minimum of $7.40 or even $10 to $15 a day. They argue that these levels are a minimum for basic needs and to achieve normal [[life expectancy]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Hickel |first=Jason |date=29 January 2019 |title=Bill Gates says poverty is decreasing. He couldn't be more wrong |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jan/29/bill-gates-davos-global-poverty-infographic-neoliberal |work=The Guardian |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=29 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129191021/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jan/29/bill-gates-davos-global-poverty-infographic-neoliberal |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
About 1/2 of the human population suffers from poverty. Poverty can be measured in terms of [[absolute poverty|absolute]] or [[relative poverty]]. Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. An example of an absolute measurement would be the percentage of the population eating less food than is required to sustain the human body (approximately 2000-2500 [[calorie]]s per day for an adult male). |
|||
One estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people (59% of the world's population) living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.commondreams.org/views/2015/03/16/four-reasons-question-official-poverty-eradication-story-2015 | title=Four Reasons to Question the Official 'Poverty Eradication' Story of 2015 | access-date=11 August 2016 | archive-date=13 September 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913215402/http://www.commondreams.org/views/2015/03/16/four-reasons-question-official-poverty-eradication-story-2015 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Philip Alston]], a [[United Nations special rapporteur|UN special rapporteur]] on extreme poverty and human rights, stated the World Bank's international poverty line of $1.90 a day is fundamentally flawed, and has allowed for "self congratulatory" triumphalism in the fight against extreme global poverty, which he asserts is "completely off track" and that nearly half of the global population, or 3.4 billion, lives on less than $5.50 a day, and this number has barely moved since 1990.<ref>{{cite news |last=Beaumont |first=Peter |date=7 July 2020 |title='We squandered a decade': world losing fight against poverty, says UN academic |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/jul/07/we-squandered-a-decade-world-losing-fight-against-poverty-says-un-academic |work=The Guardian |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=10 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710213428/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/jul/07/we-squandered-a-decade-world-losing-fight-against-poverty-says-un-academic |url-status=live }}</ref> Still others suggest that poverty line misleads because many live on far less than that line.<ref name="wb2010a">{{cite web|title=World Bank's $1.25/day poverty measure – countering the latest criticisms|publisher=The World Bank|year=2010|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:22510787~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|access-date=4 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210022841/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:22510787~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|archive-date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Poverty Measures|publisher=The World Bank|year=2009|url=http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/93518/Hung_0603/Hu_0603/Module4MeasuringPovertyMeasures.pdf|access-date=8 August 2012|archive-date=10 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710075625/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/93518/Hung_0603/Hu_0603/Module4MeasuringPovertyMeasures.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Poverty: An Ordinal Approach to Measurement|first=Amartya|last=Sen|journal=Econometrica|volume= 44|date= March 1976|pages= 219–231|jstor=1912718|issue= 2|doi=10.2307/1912718}}</ref> |
|||
The [[World Bank Group|World Bank]] defines ''[[extreme poverty]]'' as living on less than US $1 ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) per day, and ''moderate poverty'' as less than $2 a day, estimating that "in 2001, 1.1 billion people had consumption levels below $1 a day and 2.7 billion lived on less than $2 a day."<ref name="worldbank-Poverty">The World Bank, 2007, Understanding Poverty [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html]</ref> The proportion of the [[developing world]]'s population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28 percent in 1990 to 21 percent in 2001.<ref name="worldbank-Poverty" /> Looking at the period 1981-2001, the percentage of the world's population living on less than $1 per day has halved. However, the actual value of US $1 per day has also decreased considerably over those same years. |
|||
Other measures of absolute poverty without using a certain dollar amount include the standard defined as receiving less than 80% of minimum caloric intake whilst spending more than 80% of income on food, sometimes called ultra-poverty.<ref>Lipton, Michael (1986), 'Seasonality and ultra-poverty', Sussex, IDS Bulletin 17.3</ref> |
|||
Most of this improvement has occurred in [[East Asia|East]] and [[South Asia]].<ref>Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion, 2007, "How Have the World's Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s?" Table 3, p. 28. [http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?ImgPagePK=64202990&entityID=000112742_20040722172047&menuPK=64168175&pagePK=64210502&theSitePK=477894&piPK=64210520] </ref> In East Asia the World Bank reported that "The poverty headcount rate at the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990."<ref>World Bank, 14 November 2007, 'East Asia Remains Robust Despite US Slow Down' [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/0,,contentMDK:21550665~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:226301,00.html]</ref> |
|||
=== Relative poverty === |
|||
In [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] extreme poverty rose from 41 percent in 1981 to 46 percent in 2001, which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in poverty from 231 million to 318 million.<ref>The Independent, 'Birth rates must be curbed to win war on global poverty', 31 January 2007 [http://news.independent.co.uk/world/politics/article2201090.ece]</ref> |
|||
{{See also|Relative deprivation|Economic inequality|Wealth concentration}} |
|||
[[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|Graphical representation of the [[Gini coefficient]], a common measure of inequality. The Gini coefficient is equal to the area marked ''A'' divided by the sum of the areas marked ''A'' and ''B'', that is, {{nowrap|Gini {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}.]] |
|||
Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on [[social context]]. It is argued that the needs considered fundamental is not an objective measure<ref name="Innocenti2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.ca/sites/default/files/imce_uploads/DISCOVER/OUR%20WORK/ADVOCACY/DOMESTIC/POLICY%20ADVOCACY/DOCS/unicefreportcard10-eng.pdf|title=Measuring child poverty: New league tables of child poverty in the world's rich countries – UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre Report Card – number 10|first=Peter|last=Adamson|publisher=UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre|year=2012|location=Florence|access-date=19 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612021633/http://www.unicef.ca/sites/default/files/imce_uploads/DISCOVER/OUR%20WORK/ADVOCACY/DOMESTIC/POLICY%20ADVOCACY/DOCS/unicefreportcard10-eng.pdf|archive-date=12 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="rep1964">{{cite report|title=Minority [Republican] views, p. 46 in U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Economic Committee on the January 1964 Economic Report of the President with Minority and Additional Views|publisher=US Government Printing Office|location=Washington, DC|date=January 1964}}</ref> and could change with the custom of society.<ref name="AdamSmith1776">{{cite book|first=Adam|last=Smith|title=An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations|volume=5|year=1776|issue=22|author-link=Adam Smith }}</ref><ref name="Innocenti2012" /> For example, a person who cannot afford housing better than a small tent in an open field would be said to live in relative poverty if almost everyone else in that area lives in modern brick homes, but not if everyone else also lives in small tents in open fields (for example, in a [[nomadic tribe]]). Since richer nations would have lower levels of absolute poverty,<ref name="relativeBradshawInnocenti2012">{{cite report|first1=Jonathan|last1=Bradshaw|author-link=Jonathan Bradshaw|first2=Yekaterina|last2=Chzhen|first3=Gill|last3=Main|first4=Bruno|last4=Martorano|first5=Leonardo|last5=Menchini|author6=Chris de Neubourg|date=January 2012|title=Relative Income Poverty among Children in Rich Countries|series=Innocenti Working Paper|number=2012–01|publisher=UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre|location=Florence|url=http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/iwp_2012_01.pdf|issn=1014-7837|access-date=26 July 2013|archive-date=18 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218081719/http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/iwp_2012_01.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="UNICEF2000">{{cite report |title = A League Table of Child Poverty in Rich Nations – Innocenti Report Card No.1 |publisher = UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre |location = Florence }}</ref> relative poverty is considered the "most useful measure for ascertaining poverty rates in wealthy developed nations"<ref name="Raphael2009">{{cite journal|journal=Canadian Journal of Nursing Research|title=Poverty, Human Development, and Health in Canada: Research, Practice, and Advocacy Dilemmas|url=http://ingentaconnect.com/content/mcgill/cjnr/2009/00000041/00000002/art00002;jsessionid=3qnp6afbwou10.alexandra|volume=41|date=June 2009|pages=7–18|first=Dennis|last=Raphael|issue=2|pmid=19650510|access-date=7 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314094520/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mcgill/cjnr/2009/00000041/00000002/art00002|archive-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Innocenti2005">{{cite report|publisher=[[UNICEF#Innocenti Research Centre|Innocenti Research Centre]]|year=2005|title=Child poverty in rich nations: Report card no. 6}}</ref><ref name="OECD2008">{{cite web|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)|year=2008|title=Growing unequal? Income distribution and poverty in OECD countries|url=http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/41527936.pdf|location=Paris|access-date=19 February 2016|archive-date=12 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312195836/http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/41527936.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="UNDP2008">{{cite report|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2008|title=Human development report: Capacity development: Empowering people and institutions|location=Geneva}}</ref><ref name="ConferenceBoard2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/details/society/child-poverty.aspx|title=Child Poverty|publisher=Conference Board of Canada|location=Ottawa|year=2013|access-date=19 June 2013|archive-date=4 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604202933/http://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/details/society/child-poverty.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> and is the "most prominent and most-quoted of the EU social inclusion indicators".<ref name="povinequalityCSP">{{cite web|title=How Poverty Differs From Inequality, On Poverty Management in an Enlarged EU Context: Conventional and Alternative Approaches|first1=Ive|last1=Marx|first2=Karel|last2=van den Bosch|website=ec.europa.eu|publisher=Centre for Social Policy|location=Antwerp|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/1001617/4577263/1-1-I-MARX.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=3 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003141347/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/1001617/4577263/1-1-I-MARX.pdf}}</ref> |
|||
Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of the population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. This is a calculation of the percentage of people whose family household income falls below the [[Poverty threshold|Poverty Line]]. The main poverty line used in the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU) is based on "economic distance", a level of income set at 60% of the median household income.<ref>{{cite news|url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8177864.stm|title = Just what is poor?|access-date = 25 September 2008|author=Blastland, Michael|work=BBC News |date = 31 July 2009}}</ref> The United States federal government typically regulates this line to three times the cost of an adequate meal.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Principles of Economics|last=Mankiw|first=Gregory|publisher=Cengage|year=2016|isbn=978-1-305-58512-6|location=Boston|page=406}}</ref> |
|||
Other regions have seen little change. In the early 1990s the transition economies of [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Central Asia]] experienced a sharp drop in income.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html Worldbank.org reference]</ref> The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in catastrophic declines in GDP of about 45% during the 1990–1996 period<ref>[http://www.citymayors.com/society/easteurope_cities.html Poverty, crime and migration are acute issues as Eastern European cities continue to grow], A report by UN-Habitat, January 11, 2005</ref> and poverty in the region had increased more than tenfold.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E0D8163FF931A25753C1A9669C8B63 Study Finds Poverty Deepening in Former Communist Countries], New York Times, October 12, 2000</ref> |
|||
There are several other different [[income inequality metrics]], for example, the [[Gini coefficient]] or the [[Theil Index]]. |
|||
World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the world since 1990:<ref>World Bank, 2007, Povcalnet Poverty Data [http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/jsp/index.jsp]</ref><ref>The data can be replicated using World Bank 2007 Human Development Indicator regional tables, and using the default poverty line of $32.74 per month at 1993 PPP.</ref> |
|||
[[File:Global Wealth Distribution 2020 (Property).svg|thumb|Global share of wealth by wealth group —Credit Suisse, 2021]] |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
[[File:GINI index World Bank up to 2018.png|alt=|thumb|300px|The [[Gini coefficient]], a measure of [[economic inequality|income inequality]]. Based on [[World Bank]] data ranging from 1992 to 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?view=map|access-date=23 July 2020|website=data.worldbank.org|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729153431/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?view=map|url-status=live}}</ref>]] |
|||
|- Povcalnet data for 1999,2002 and 2004 |
|||
! Region |
|||
=== Other aspects === |
|||
! 1990 |
|||
[[File:Countries by Human Development Index (2020).png|alt=|thumb|300px|World map of countries by [[Human Development Index]] categories in increments of 0.050 (based on 2019 data, published in 2020) |
|||
! 2002 |
|||
{| cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" border="0" style="width:100%;" |
|||
! 2004 |
|||
| valign="top" |{{Legend|#003C00|≥ 0.900}}{{Legend|#007F00|0.850–0.899}}{{Legend|#00C400|0.800–0.849}}{{Legend|#00F900|0.750–0.799}}{{Legend|#D3FF00|0.700–0.749}} |
|||
|- |
|||
| valign="top" |{{Legend|#FFFF00|0.650–0.699}}{{Legend|#FFD215|0.600–0.649}}{{Legend|#FFA83C|0.550–0.599}}{{Legend|#FF852F|0.500–0.549}}{{Legend|#FF5B00|0.450–0.499}} |
|||
| East Asia and Pacific |
|||
| valign="top" |{{Legend|#FF0000|0.400–0.449}}{{Legend|#A70000|≤ 0.399}}{{Legend|#D9D9D9|Data unavailable}} |
|||
| 15.40% |
|||
| 12.33% |
|||
| 9.07% |
|||
|- |
|||
| Europe and Central Asia |
|||
| 3.60% |
|||
| 1.28% |
|||
| 0.95% |
|||
|- |
|||
| Latin America and the Caribbean |
|||
| 9.62% |
|||
| 9.08% |
|||
| 8.64% |
|||
|- |
|||
| Middle East and North Africa |
|||
| 2.08% |
|||
| 1.69% |
|||
| 1.47% |
|||
|- |
|||
| South Asia |
|||
| 35.04% |
|||
| 33.44% |
|||
| 30.84% |
|||
|- |
|||
| Sub-Saharan Africa |
|||
| 46.07% |
|||
| 42.63% |
|||
| 41.09% |
|||
|} |
|} |
||
]] |
|||
Rather than income, poverty is also measured through individual basic needs at a time. [[Life expectancy]] has greatly increased in the developing world since World War II and is starting to close the gap to the developed world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hardy|first1=Melissa A.|last2=Reyes|first2=Adriana M.|date=1 February 2016|title=The Longevity Legacy of World War II: The Intersection of GI Status and Mortality|url=https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article/56/1/104/2605202|journal=The Gerontologist|language=en|volume=56|issue=1|pages=104–114|doi=10.1093/geront/gnv041|pmid=26220413|issn=0016-9013|doi-access=free|access-date=5 October 2020|archive-date=13 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013182949/https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article/56/1/104/2605202|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Child mortality]] has decreased in every developing region of the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Levels and Trends in Child Mortality|publisher=UNICEF, World Health Organization, The World Bank and UN Population Division|year=2011|url=http://www.childinfo.org/files/Child_Mortality_Report_2011.pdf|access-date=9 August 2012|archive-date=22 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822173244/http://www.childinfo.org/files/Child_Mortality_Report_2011.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The proportion of the world's population living in countries where the daily per-capita supply of [[food energy]] is less than {{convert|9200|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean water and electricity and basic consumer items.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Why Are We Worried About Income? Nearly Everything that Matters is Converging |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.06.016 |volume=33 |journal=World Development |pages=1–19 |year=2005 |last1=Kenny |first1=Charles }}</ref> |
|||
[[File:Tiggare vid Operakällaren.jpg|thumb|An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with beggars waiting for scraps from the previous day. [[Sweden]], 1868.]] |
|||
There are various criticisms of these measurements.<ref>[http://socialanalysis.org/ Institute of Social Analysis]</ref> Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion note that although "a clear trend decline in the percentage of people who are absolutely poor is evident, |
|||
Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal [[social status]] and inequitable social relationships, experienced as [[social exclusion]], dependency, and diminished capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society.<ref>H Silver, 1994, social exclusion and [[Solidarity (sociology)|social solidarity]], in International Labour Review, 133 5–6</ref><ref>G Simmel, The poor, Social Problems 1965 13</ref><ref name="Townsend1979">{{cite book|author=Townsend, P.|year=1979|title=Poverty in the United Kingdom|location=London|publisher=Penguin}}</ref> Such social exclusion can be minimized through strengthened connections with the mainstream, such as through the provision of [[relational care]] to those who are experiencing poverty. The World Bank's "Voices of the Poor", based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, identifies a range of factors which poor people identify as part of poverty. These include abuse by those in power, dis-empowering institutions, excluded locations, gender relationships, lack of security, limited capabilities, physical limitations, precarious livelihoods, problems in social relationships, weak community organizations and discrimination. Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished "capability" of people to live the kinds of lives they value. The social aspects of poverty may include lack of [[information access|access to information]], [[education]], [[health care]], [[social capital]] or [[political power]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paho.org/english/sha/be_v23n1-glossary.htm |title=A Glossary for Social Epidemiology |publisher=World Health Organization |date=March 2002 |access-date=21 June 2011 |archive-date=29 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629174304/http://www.paho.org/english/sha/be_v23n1-glossary.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.journalofpoverty.org/JOPPURP/JOPPURP.HTM |title=Journal of Poverty |publisher=Journal of Poverty |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512074344/http://www.journalofpoverty.org/JOPPURP/JOPPURP.HTM |archive-date=12 May 2012 }}</ref> |
|||
although with uneven progress across regions...the developing world outside China and India has seen little or no sustained |
|||
progress in reducing the number of poor". |
|||
Since the world's population is increasing, a constant number living in poverty would be associated with a diminshing proportion. Looking at the percentage living on less than $1/day, and if excluding China and India, then this percentage has decreased from 31.35% to 20.70% between 1981 and 2004.<ref>Shaohua Chen and Martin Ravallion, 2007, "How Have the World's Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s?"[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/04/16/000016406_20070416104010/Rendered/PDF/wps4211.pdf]</ref> |
|||
Other human development indicators are also improving. [[Life expectancy]] has greatly increased in the developing world since [[World War II|WWII]] and is starting to close the gap to the developed world where the improvement has been smaller. Even in Sub-Saharan Africa, where most [[Least Developed Countries]] are to be found, life expectancy increased from 30 years before World War II to a peak of about 50 years, before the HIV pandemic and other diseases started to force it down to the current level of 47 years. [[Child mortality]] has decreased in every developing region of the world<ref>[http://www.theglobalist.com/DBWeb/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=2429 The Eight Losers of Globalization] By Guy Pfeffermann. </ref>. The proportion of the world's population living in countries where per-capita food supplies are less than 2,200 calories (9,200 [[kilojoule]]s) per day decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Between 1950 and 1999, global literacy increased from 52% to 81% of the world. Women made up much of the gap: Female literacy as a percentage of male literacy has increased from 59% in 1970 to 80% in 2000. The percentage of children not in the labor force has also risen to over 90% in 2000 from 76% in 1960. There are similar trends for electric power, cars, radios, and telephones per capita, as well as the proportion of the population with access to clean water.<ref>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VC6-4F02KWN-8&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F01%2F2005&_rdoc=1&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3c12cc79f8121ee4e000396b0273a1eb World Development Volume 33, Issue 1 , January 2005, Pages 1-19, Why Are We Worried About Income? Nearly Everything that Matters is Converging]</ref> The book ''[[The Improving State of the World]]'' finds that many other indicators have also improved. |
|||
Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on [[social context]]. Income inequality is a relative measure of poverty. A relative measurement would be to compare the total wealth of the poorest one-third of the population with the total wealth of richest 1% of the population. There are several different [[income inequality metrics]]. One example is the [[Gini coefficient]]. |
|||
[[Income inequality]] for the world as a whole is diminishing. A 2002 study by [[Xavier Sala-i-Martin]] finds that this is driven mainly, but not fully, by the extraordinary growth rate of the incomes of the 1.2 billion Chinese citizens. China, India, the [[OECD]] and the rest of middle-income and rich countries are likely to increase their advantage relative to Africa unless it too achieves economic growth; global inequality may rise. <ref>[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/chapters/htm/index2007_chap1.cfm Global Inequality Fades as the Global Economy Grows] 2007 Index of Economic Freedom. Xavier Sala-i-Martin]</ref><ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/~xs23/papers/GlobalIncomeInequality.htm The Disturbing "Rise" of Global Income Inequality] by Xavier Sala-i-Martin. 2001</ref> |
|||
The 2007 World Bank report "Global Economic Prospects" predicts that in 2030 the number living on less than the equivalent of $1 a day will fall by half, to about 550 million. An average resident of what we used to call the Third World will live about as well as do residents of the Czech or Slovak republics today. Much of Africa will have difficulty keeping pace with the rest of the developing world and even if conditions there improve in absolute terms, the report warns, Africa in 2030 will be home to a larger proportion of the world's poorest people than it is today.<ref>[http://www.montereyherald.com/mld/montereyherald/business/16350847.htm WORLD BANK HAS GOOD NEWS ABOUT FUTURE] By ANDREW CASSEL The Philadelphia Inquirer. Dec. 30, 2006</ref> |
|||
In many developed countries the official definition of poverty used for statistical purposes is based on relative income. As such many critics argue that poverty statistics measure inequality rather than material deprivation or hardship. For instance, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, 46% of those in "poverty" in the U.S. own their own home (with the average poor person's home having three bedrooms, with one and a half baths, and a garage).<ref>Rector, Robert E. and Johnson, Kirk A., [http://www.fullemployment.org/Understanding%20Poverty%20in%20America.pdf ''Understanding Poverty in America''] Executive Summary, Heritage Foundation, January 15, 2004 No. 1713</ref> Furthermore, the measurements are usually based on a person's yearly income and frequently take no account of total wealth. The main [[poverty line]] used in the [[OECD]] and the [[European Union]] is based on "economic distance", a level of income set at 50% of the median household income. The US poverty line is more arbitrary. It was created in 1963-64 and was based on the dollar costs of the [[United States Department of Agriculture]]'s "economy food plan" multiplied by a factor of three. The multiplier was based on research showing that food costs then accounted for about one third of the total money income. This one-time calculation has since been annually updated for inflation.<ref>[http://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/faq.shtml US Department of Human Services]-FAQ Poverty Guidelines and Poverty</ref> Others, such as economist Ellen Frank, argue that the poverty measure is too low as families spend much less of their total budget on food than they did when the measure was established. Further, federal poverty statistics do not account for the widely varying regional differences in non-food costs such as housing, transport, and utilities. <ref>Frank, Ellen, [http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2006/0106dollar.html ''Dr. Dollar: How Is Poverty Defined in Government Statistics?''] [[Dollars & Sense]] magazine, January/February 2006. Accessed April 13, 2008</ref> |
|||
=== Other aspects === |
|||
[[Relational poverty]] is the idea that societal poverty exists if there is a lack of human relationships. Relational poverty can be the result of a lost contact number, lack of phone ownership, isolation, or deliberate severing of ties with an individual or community. Relational poverty is also understood "by the social institutions that organize those relationships...poverty is importantly the result of the different terms and conditions on which people are included in social life".<ref>{{Cite book |date=2018 |title=Relational Poverty Politics: Forms, Struggles, and Possibilities |editor-last1=Lawson |editor-first1=Victoria |editor-last2=Elwood |editor-first2=Sarah |url=https://search.library.berkeley.edu/permalink/01UCS_BER/1thfj9n/alma991085855291906532 |publisher=The University of Georgia Press |isbn=978-0-8203-5312-8 }}</ref> |
|||
The point is, economic aspects of poverty may focus on material needs, typically including the necessities of daily living, such as [[food]], clothing, shelter, or safe [[drinking water]]. Poverty in this sense may be understood as a condition in which a person or community is lacking in the [[basic needs]] for a minimum standard of well-being and life, particularly as a result of a persistent lack of income. |
|||
In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[second Cameron ministry]] came under attack for its redefinition of poverty; poverty is no longer classified by a family's income, but as to whether a family is in work or not.<ref name=Guardian1 /> Considering that two-thirds of people who found work were accepting wages that are below the [[living wage]] (according to the [[Joseph Rowntree Foundation]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Record numbers of working families in poverty due to low-paid jobs|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/nov/24/record-numbers-working-families-poverty-joseph-rowntree-foundation|access-date=29 July 2015|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=24 November 2014|archive-date=14 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814184047/http://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/nov/24/record-numbers-working-families-poverty-joseph-rowntree-foundation|url-status=live}}</ref>) this has been criticised by anti-poverty campaigners as an unrealistic view of poverty in the United Kingdom.<ref name=Guardian1>{{cite news|title=The welfare reform and work bill will make poor children poorer|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/jul/19/the-welfare-reform-and-work-bill-will-make-poor-children-poorer|access-date=29 July 2015|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=19 July 2015|first=Javed|last=Khan|archive-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150728160722/http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/jul/19/the-welfare-reform-and-work-bill-will-make-poor-children-poorer|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished "capability" of people to live the kinds of lives they value.<ref>Amartya Sen, 1985, Commodities and Capabilities, Amsterdam, New Holland, cited in Siddiqur Rahman Osmani, 2003, Evolving Views on Poverty: Concept, Assessment, and Strategy, [http://www.adb.org/Documents/Papers/Evolving_views_poverty/default.asp]</ref> The social aspects of poverty may include lack of [[information access|access to information]], [[education]], [[health care]], or [[political power]].<ref>[http://www.paho.org/english/sha/be_v23n1-glossary.htm A Glossary for Social Epidemiology] Nancy Krieger, PhD, [[Harvard School of Public Health]]</ref><ref>[http://www.journalofpoverty.org/JOPPURP/JOPPURP.HTM Journal of Poverty]</ref> Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal [[social status]] and inequitable social relationships, experienced as social exclusion, dependency, and diminished capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society.<ref>H Silver, 1994, social exclusion and [[Solidarity (sociology)|social solidarity]], in International Labour Review, 133 5-6</ref><ref>G Simmel, The poor, Social Problems 1965 13 </ref><ref>P Townsend, 1979, Poverty in the UK, Penguin</ref> |
|||
==== Secondary poverty ==== |
|||
The World Bank's "Voices of the Poor," based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, identifies a range of factors which poor people identify as part of poverty.<ref>{http://www1.worldbank.org/prem/poverty/voices/ Voices of the Poor} </ref> These include: |
|||
{{Main|Secondary poverty}} |
|||
Secondary poverty refers to those that earn enough income to not be impoverished, but who spend their income on unnecessary pleasures, such as [[alcoholic beverage]]s, thus placing them below it in practice.<ref>{{cite book|title=Poverty in the United Kingdom: A Survey of Household Resources and Standards of Living|last=Townsend|first=Peter|publisher=University of California Press|year=1979|isbn=978-0-520-03976-6|page=565|language=en}}</ref> In 18th- and 19th-century [[Great Britain]], the practice of [[temperance movement|temperance]] among [[Methodist]]s, as well as their rejection of [[Gambling#Religious|gambling]], allowed them to eliminate secondary poverty and accumulate capital.<ref name="Swatos1998">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Society|last=Swatos|first=William H.|publisher=Rowman Altamira|year=1998|isbn=978-0-7619-8956-1|page=385|language=en}}</ref> Factors that contribute to secondary poverty includes but are not limited to: alcohol, gambling, tobacco and drugs. [[Substance abuse]] means that the poor typically spend about 2% of their income educating their children but larger percentages of alcohol and tobacco (for example, 6% in Indonesia and 8% in Mexico as of 2006).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://economics.mit.edu/files/530|title=The economic lives of the poor|publisher=MIT|date=October 2006|access-date=1 March 2013|archive-date=23 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523002625/http://economics.mit.edu/files/530|url-status=live}}</ref>{{needs update|date=November 2024}} |
|||
===Variability=== |
|||
* Precarious livelihoods |
|||
Poverty levels are snapshot pictures in time that omits the transitional dynamics between levels. Mobility statistics supply additional information about the fraction who leave the poverty level. For example, one study finds that in a sixteen-year period (1975 to 1991 in the US) only 5% of those in the lower fifth of the income level were still at that level, while 95% transitioned to a higher income category.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.dallasfed.org/assets/documents/fed/annual/1999/ar95.pdf|page=6|title=By Our Own Bootstraps|author=W. Michael Cox|first2=Richard|last2=Alm|year=1995|publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas|access-date=28 May 2012|archive-date=11 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511155143/http://dallasfed.org/assets/documents/fed/annual/1999/ar95.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Poverty levels can remain the same while those who rise out of poverty are replaced by others. The transient poor and chronic poor differ in each society. In a nine-year period ending in 2005 for the US, 50% of the poorest quintile transitioned to a higher quintile.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/tax-policy/Documents/incomemobilitystudy03-08revise.pdf |title=Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005 |publisher=Department of the Treasury |date=13 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505172648/http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/tax-policy/Documents/incomemobilitystudy03-08revise.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2012 }}</ref> |
|||
* Excluded locations |
|||
* Physical limitations |
|||
* Gender relationships |
|||
* Problems in social relationships |
|||
* Lack of security |
|||
* Abuse by those in power |
|||
* Dis-empowering institutions |
|||
* Limited capabilities |
|||
* Weak community organizations |
|||
=== Global prevalence === |
|||
David Moore, in his book ''The World Bank'', argues that some analyses of poverty reflect pejorative, sometimes racial, stereotypes of impoverished people as powerless victims and passive recipients of aid programs.<ref>Chapter on Voices of the Poor in David Moore's edited book The World Bank: Development, Poverty, Hegemony (University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2007)-=-</ref> |
|||
{{See also|List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty}}[[File:Worlds regions by total wealth(in trillions USD), 2018.jpg|thumb|250px|Worlds regions by total wealth (in trillions USD), 2018]] |
|||
According to Chen and Ravallion, about 1.76 billion people in the developing world lived ''above'' $1.25 per day and 1.9 billion people lived ''below'' $1.25 per day in 1981. In 2005, about 4.09 billion people in the developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.4 billion people lived below $1.25 per day (both 1981 and 2005 data are on inflation adjusted basis).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Developing World Is Poorer Than We Thought, But No Less Successful in the Fight against Poverty|first1=Shaohua|last1=Chen|first2=Martin|last2=Ravallioniz|name-list-style=amp|date=August 2008|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2010/01/21/000158349_20100121133109/Rendered/PDF/WPS4703.pdf|access-date=9 August 2012|archive-date=17 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417182722/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2010/01/21/000158349_20100121133109/Rendered/PDF/WPS4703.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Fighting poverty in emerging markets – the gloves go on; Lessons from Brazil, China and India|newspaper=The Economist|date=26 November 2009|url=http://www.economist.com/node/14979330|access-date=9 August 2012|archive-date=8 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908144911/http://www.economist.com/node/14979330|url-status=live}}</ref> The share of the world's population living in absolute poverty fell from 43% in 1981 to 14% in 2011.<ref name="worldbank-Poverty">{{cite web |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |title=The World Bank, 2007, Understanding Poverty |website=Web.worldbank.org |date=19 April 2005 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107161906/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The absolute number of people in poverty fell from 1.95 billion in 1981 to 1.01 billion in 2011.<ref name="PovertyRoser">{{cite journal|first=Max|last=Roser|title=World Poverty|url=http://ourworldindata.org/data/growth-and-distribution-of-prosperity/world-poverty/|journal=Our World in Data|date=2015|access-date=26 September 2015|archive-date=27 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927201601/http://ourworldindata.org/data/growth-and-distribution-of-prosperity/world-poverty/|url-status=live}}</ref> The economist [[Max Roser]] estimates that the number of people in poverty is therefore roughly the same as 200 years ago.<ref name="PovertyRoser" /> This is the case since the world population was just little more than 1 billion in 1820 and the majority (84% to 94%)<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=François |last1=Bourguignon |first2=Christian |last2=Morrisson |year=2002 |title=Inequality Among World Citizens: 1820–1992 |url=http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/BourguignonMorrisson2002.pdf |journal=American Economic Review |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=727–744 |doi=10.1257/00028280260344443 |citeseerx=10.1.1.5.7307 |access-date=19 February 2016 |archive-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218184001/http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/BourguignonMorrisson2002.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> of the world population was living in poverty. |
|||
== Causes of poverty == |
|||
According to one study, the percentage of the world population in hunger and poverty fell in absolute percentage terms from 50% in 1950 to 30% in 1970.<ref>Origins of the Organic Agriculture Debate By Thomas R. DeGregori, 2008, P.128</ref> According to another study the number of people worldwide living in absolute poverty fell from 1.18 billion in 1950 to 1.04 billion in 1977.<ref>Economic Inequality and Poverty International Perspectives Edited by Lars Osberg, 2017, P.71</ref> According to another study, the number of people worldwide estimated to be starving fell from almost 920 million in 1971 to below 797 million in 1997.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Group – International Development, Poverty, & Sustainability |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/home |access-date=2023-10-19 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> The proportion of the [[developing world]]'s population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28% in 1990 to 21% in 2001.<ref name="worldbank-Poverty" /> Most of this improvement has occurred in [[East Asia|East]] and [[South Asia]].<ref name="1980s">{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?ImgPagePK=64202990&entityID=000112742_20040722172047&menuPK=64168175&pagePK=64210502&theSitePK=477894&piPK=64210520|title=How Have the World's Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s?" Table 3, p. 28|publisher=worldbank.org|access-date=28 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310150255/http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?ImgPagePK=64202990&entityID=000112742_20040722172047&menuPK=64168175&pagePK=64210502&theSitePK=477894&piPK=64210520|archive-date=10 March 2007}}</ref> |
|||
[[Image:Riischildren.jpg|thumb|160px|Street children sleeping in [[Mulberry Street (Manhattan)|Mulberry Street]] - Jacob Riis photo [[New York City|New York]], [[United States of America]] (1890)]] |
|||
[[Image:Urban Poverty.jpg|thumb|right|Urban poverty is common in developing countries. Shown here is [[Mumbai]], [[India]]. 60% of the population of Mumbai live in [[slum]]s and at least one third of the city's 18 million residents have no access to clean drinking water.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,469031,00.html Slums, Stocks, Stars and the New India], By Erich Follath, SPIEGEL Magazine, 02/28/2007</ref>]] |
|||
In 2012 it was estimated that, using a poverty line of $1.25 a day, 1.2 billion people lived in poverty.<ref>Ravallion, Martin. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170123164200/https://academic.oup.com/wbro/article-abstract/28/2/139/1675043/How-Long-Will-It-Take-to-Lift-One-Billion-People#cited-by "How long will it take to lift one billion people out of poverty?."] ''The World Bank Research Observer'' 28.2 (2013): 139.</ref> Given the current economic model, built on [[gross domestic product|GDP]], it would take 100 years to bring the world's poorest up to the poverty line of $1.25 a day.<ref>[[Jason Hickel]] (30 March 2015). [https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/mar/30/it-will-take-100-years-for-the-worlds-poorest-people-to-earn-125-a-day It will take 100 years for the world's poorest people to earn $1.25 a day] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424014546/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/mar/30/it-will-take-100-years-for-the-worlds-poorest-people-to-earn-125-a-day |date=24 April 2021 }}. ''[[The Guardian]].'' Retrieved 31 March 2015.</ref> [[UNICEF]] estimates half the world's children (or 1.1 billion) live in poverty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/rightsite/364_617.htm|first=Ernest C.|last=Madu|title=Investment and Development Will Secure the Rights of the Child|access-date=12 April 2014|archive-date=13 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413144118/http://www.unicef.org/rightsite/364_617.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The World Bank forecasted in 2015 that [[Global Monitoring Report (World Bank)|702.1 million people]] were living in extreme poverty, down from 1.75 billion in 1990.<ref>{{Cite report|url=http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/pubdocs/publicdoc/2015/10/503001444058224597/Global-Monitoring-Report-2015.pdf|title=Global Monitoring Report 2015/2016: Development Goals in an Era of Demographic Change|pages=1–9|publisher=World Bank|location=Washington, DC|author=The World Bank|date=2016|access-date=4 November 2015|archive-date=7 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607170318/http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/pubdocs/publicdoc/2015/10/503001444058224597/Global-Monitoring-Report-2015.pdf|url-status=live|doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-0669-8|isbn=978-1-4648-0669-8}}</ref> Extreme poverty is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Bank Sees Progress Against Extreme Poverty, But Flags Vulnerabilities|publisher=The World bank|date=29 February 2012|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/2012/02/29/world-bank-sees-progress-against-extreme-poverty-but-flags-vulnerabilities|access-date=8 August 2012|archive-date=23 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123050607/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/2012/02/29/world-bank-sees-progress-against-extreme-poverty-but-flags-vulnerabilities|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/country/IND |title=Poverty and Equity – India, 2010 World Bank Country Profile |publisher=Povertydata.worldbank.org |date=30 March 2012 |access-date=26 July 2013 |archive-date=25 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171125073110/http://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/country/IND |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the 2015 population, about 347.1 million people (35.2%) lived in [[Global Monitoring Report (World Bank)|Sub-Saharan Africa]] and 231.3 million (13.5%) lived in [[Global Monitoring Report (World Bank)|South Asia]]. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the world's population living in extreme poverty fell from 37.1% to 9.6%, falling below 10% for the first time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/04/world-bank-forecasts-global-poverty-to-fall-below-10-for-first-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030 |title=World Bank Forecasts Global Poverty to Fall Below 10% for First Time; Major Hurdles Remain in Goal to End Poverty by 2030 |publisher=Worldbank.org |date=4 October 2015 |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-date=3 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103202525/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/04/world-bank-forecasts-global-poverty-to-fall-below-10-for-first-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
Many different factors have been cited to explain why poverty occurs; no single explanation has gained universal acceptance. |
|||
During the 2013 to 2015 period, the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]] reported that extreme poverty fell from 11% to 10%, however they also noted that the rate of decline had slowed by nearly half from the 25 year average with parts of sub-saharan Africa returning to early 2000 levels.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ending Extreme Poverty: Progress, but Uneven and Slowing |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/30418/9781464813306_Ch01.pdf |work=The world Bank |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013412/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/30418/9781464813306_Ch01.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Elliott|first=Larry|date=20 January 2019|title=World's 26 richest people own as much as poorest 50%, says Oxfam|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/jan/21/world-26-richest-people-own-as-much-as-poorest-50-per-cent-oxfam-report|work=The Guardian|access-date=31 January 2019|archive-date=15 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215040535/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/jan/21/world-26-richest-people-own-as-much-as-poorest-50-per-cent-oxfam-report|url-status=live}}</ref> The World Bank attributed this to increasing violence following the [[Arab Spring]], [[Population growth|population increases]] in Sub-Saharan Africa, and general African inflationary pressures and economic malaise were the primary drivers for this slow down.<ref>{{cite news |last=Inman |first=Phillip |date=19 September 2018 |title=World Bank reports slower progress on extreme poverty |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/sep/19/world-bank-reports-slower-progress-on-extreme-poverty |work=The Guardian |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013708/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/sep/19/world-bank-reports-slower-progress-on-extreme-poverty |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Müller-Jung|first=Friederike|date=17 October 2018|title=World Bank report: Poverty rates remain high in Africa|url=https://www.dw.com/en/world-bank-report-poverty-rates-remain-high-in-africa/a-45926382|work=[[Deutsche Welle]]|access-date=31 January 2019|archive-date=1 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013201/https://www.dw.com/en/world-bank-report-poverty-rates-remain-high-in-africa/a-45926382|url-status=live}}</ref> Many wealthy nations have seen an increase in relative poverty rates ever since the [[Great Recession]], in particular among children from impoverished families who often reside in substandard housing and find educational opportunities out of reach.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/11/why-rich-countries-are-seeing-more-poverty|title=Why rich countries are seeing more poverty|last=Charlton|first=Emma|date=20 November 2018|website=[[World Economic Forum]]|access-date=17 February 2019|archive-date=18 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218021433/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/11/why-rich-countries-are-seeing-more-poverty|url-status=live}}</ref> It has been argued by some academics that the [[neoliberal]] policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and the World Bank are actually exacerbating both inequality and poverty.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last= Haymes|editor1-first= Stephen|editor2-last= Vidal de Haymes|editor2-first= Maria|editor3-last= Miller|editor3-first= Reuben|title= The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHfBQAAQBAJ&q=microcredit&pg=PA1|location= London|publisher= [[Routledge]]|date= 2015|isbn= 978-0-415-67344-0|pages= 1–2|access-date= 18 December 2020|archive-date= 24 July 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225952/https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHfBQAAQBAJ&q=microcredit&pg=PA1|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones|first1=Campbell|last2=Parker|first2=Martin |last3= Ten Bos |first3=Rene|date=2005 |title=For Business Ethics |publisher=Routledge|page=101|isbn=978-0-415-31135-9|quote=Critics of neoliberalism have therefore looked at the evidence that documents the results of this great experiment of the past 30 years, in which many markets have been set free. Looking at the evidence, we can see that the total amount of global trade has increased significantly, but that global poverty has increased, with more today living in abject poverty than before neoliberalism.}}</ref> |
|||
Possible factors include: |
|||
In East Asia the World Bank reported that "The poverty headcount rate at the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/0,,contentMDK:21550665~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:226301,00.html|title=East Asia Remains Robust Despite US Slow Down|publisher=worldbank.org|access-date=27 May 2011|archive-date=22 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322182301/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/0,,contentMDK:21550665~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:226301,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[People's Republic of China]] accounts for over three quarters of global poverty reduction from 1990 to 2005, which according to the World Bank is "historically unprecedented".<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2022 |title=Four Decades of Poverty Reduction in China: Drivers, Insights for the World, and the Way Ahead|url= |location= |publisher=World Bank Publications|page=ix |isbn=978-1-4648-1878-3|quote=By any measure, the speed and scale of China's poverty reduction is historically unprecedented.}}</ref> China accounted for nearly half of all [[extreme poverty]] in 1990.<ref>{{cite news|last=Stuart|first=Elizabeth|date=19 August 2015|title=China has almost wiped out urban poverty. Now it must tackle inequality|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/economics-blog/2015/aug/19/china-poverty-inequality-development-goals|work=The Guardian|access-date=22 January 2019|archive-date=10 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910040855/https://www.theguardian.com/business/economics-blog/2015/aug/19/china-poverty-inequality-development-goals|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
=== Economics === |
|||
In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme poverty went up from 41% in 1981 to 46% in 2001,<ref>{{cite book|author=Perry|title=Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science, 12/e|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8sa8RCA8VYQC&pg=PA548|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-81-317-3066-9|page=548|year=1972|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-date=5 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505092949/https://books.google.com/books?id=8sa8RCA8VYQC&pg=PA548|url-status=live}}</ref> which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in extreme poverty from 231 million to 318 million.<ref name="birthrates">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/birth-rates-must-be-curbed-to-win-war-on-global-poverty-434387.html|title=Birth rates must be curbed to win war on global poverty|work=The Independent|location=London|access-date=11 June 2012|date=31 January 2007|archive-date=15 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215163037/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/birth-rates-must-be-curbed-to-win-war-on-global-poverty-434387.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Statistics of 2018 shows population living in extreme conditions has declined by more than 1 billion in the last 25 years. As per the report published by the world bank on 19 September 2018 world poverty falls below 750 million.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/world-poverty-falls-below-750-million-report-says-1537366273|title=World Poverty Falls Below 750 Million, Report Says|last=Zumbrun|first=Josh|date=19 September 2018|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|access-date=20 September 2018|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660|archive-date=19 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919230436/https://www.wsj.com/articles/world-poverty-falls-below-750-million-report-says-1537366273|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
* [[Recession]]. The decade of the 1930s saw the [[Great Depression]] in the United States and many other countries. Over 60% of Americans were categorized as poor by the federal government in 1933. New York social workers reported that 25% of all schoolchildren were malnourished.<ref>[http://amhist.ist.unomaha.edu/lessons/Ruben%20Cano_Why%20did%20the%20Great%20Depression%20happen%3F_lesson_template_mps.doc Overproduction of Goods, Unequal Distribution of Wealth, High Unemployment, and Massive Poverty], From: President’s Economic Council</ref> |
|||
* As of late 2007, increased farming for use in [[biofuel]]s,<ref>[http://www.sundayherald.com/news/heraldnews/display.var.2104849.0.2008_the_year_of_global_food_crisis.php 2008: The year of global food crisis]</ref> along with world [[oil prices]] at nearly $130 a barrel,<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0118/p08s01-comv.html The global grain bubble]</ref> has pushed up the price of grain.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm The cost of food: Facts and figures]</ref> [[2007–2008 world food price crisis|Food riot]]s have recently taken place in many countries across the world.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/dec/04/china.business Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring]</ref><ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come?]</ref><ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits]</ref> |
|||
* [[Capital flight]] by which the wealthy in a society shift their assets to off-shore [[tax havens]] deprives nations of revenue needed to break the vicious cycle of poverty. <ref name="Guardian-boohoo">[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/business/story/0,,1994976,00.html Western bankers and lawyers 'rob Africa of $150bn every year]</ref> |
|||
* Weakly entrenched formal systems of title to private property are seen by writers such as Hernando de Soto as a limit to economic growth and therefore a cause of poverty. <ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/03/desoto.htm The Mystery of Capital] by Hernando de Soto (IMF)</ref> |
|||
* Communists see the institution of property rights itself as a cause of poverty.<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto]</ref> |
|||
* Unfair terms of trade, in particular, the very high [[subsidies]] to and protective [[tariff]]s for [[agriculture]] in the developed world. This drains the taxed money and increases the prices for the consumers in developed world; decreases competition and efficiency; prevents exports by more competitive agricultural and other sectors in the developed world due to retaliatory [[trade barrier]]s; and undermines the very type of industry in which the developing countries do have [[comparative advantage]]s.<ref name="reason-trade">[http://www.reason.com/news/show/36207.html Six Reasons to Kill Farm Subsidies and Trade Barriers]</ref> |
|||
* [[Tax havens]] which tax their own citizens and companies but not those from other nations and refuse to disclose information necessary for foreign taxation. This enables large scale political corruption, [[tax evasion]], and [[organized crime]] in the foreign nations.<ref name="Guardian-boohoo" /> |
|||
* Unequal distribution of land. <ref>Dagdeviren, Weeks and van der Hoeven(2002) "Poverty Reduction with growth and Redistribution" Development and Change, 33 (3), pp. 383-413 [https://uhra.herts.ac.uk/dspace/handle/2299/1857]</ref> [[Land reform]] is one solution. |
|||
In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia experienced a sharp drop in income.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |title=Worldbank.org reference |publisher=Web.worldbank.org |date=19 April 2005 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107161906/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] resulted in large declines in GDP per capita, of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the through year of 1998 (when it was at its minimum). As a result, poverty rates tripled,<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheidel |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Scheidel |title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-691-16502-8 |page=222 }}</ref> excess mortality increased,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Rosefielde|first1=Steven|date=2001 |title=Premature Deaths: Russia's Radical Economic Transition in Soviet Perspective|journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]]|volume=53 |issue=8 |pages=1159–1176|doi= 10.1080/09668130120093174|s2cid=145733112|author-link=Steven Rosefielde}}</ref> and life expectancy declined.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ghodsee|first=Kristen|date=2017|title=Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism|url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/red-hangover|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|pages=63–64|isbn=978-0-8223-6949-3|author-link=Kristen Ghodsee|access-date=14 February 2019|archive-date=7 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207032254/https://www.dukeupress.edu/red-hangover|url-status=live}}</ref> Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]]'s [[IMF]]-backed rapid [[privatization]] and [[austerity]] policies resulted in unemployment rising to double digits and half the Russian population falling into destitution by the early to mid 1990s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mattei|first=Clara E.|date=2022 |title=The Capital Order: How Economists Invented Austerity and Paved the Way to Fascism|pages=301–303|url=https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo181707138.html|location= |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=978-0-226-81839-9|quote="If, in 1987–1988, 2 percent of the Russian people lived in poverty (i.e., survived on less than $4 a day), by 1993–1995 the number reached 50 percent: in just seven years half the Russian population became destitute.}}</ref> By 1999, during the peak of the poverty crisis, 191 million people were living on less than $5.50 a day.<ref name=GhodseeOrenstein>{{cite book |last1=Ghodsee|first1=Kristen|last2=Orenstein|first2=Mitchell A.|date=2021|title=Taking Stock of Shock: Social Consequences of the 1989 Revolutions|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=43|doi=10.1093/oso/9780197549230.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-754924-7}}</ref> In subsequent years as per capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from 31.4% of the population to 19.6%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20398986~menuPK:64133163~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html |title=World Bank, Data and Statistics, WDI, GDF, & ADI Online Databases |publisher=World Bank |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416035127/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A20398986~menuPK%3A64133163~pagePK%3A64133150~piPK%3A64133175~theSitePK%3A239419%2C00.html |archive-date=16 April 2010 }}</ref><ref name="Soviet">{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E0D8163FF931A25753C1A9669C8B63|title=Study Finds Poverty Deepening in Former Communist Countries|work=The New York Times|access-date=28 May 2011|date=12 October 2000|archive-date=28 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228105849/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E0D8163FF931A25753C1A9669C8B63|url-status=live}}</ref> The average post-communist country had returned to 1989 levels of per-capita GDP by 2005,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Appel|first1=Hilary|last2=Orenstein|first2=Mitchell A.|date=2018|title=From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reform in Postcommunist Countries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PHhTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=36|isbn=978-1-108-43505-5|access-date=18 December 2020|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225952/https://books.google.com/books?id=PHhTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36|url-status=live}}</ref> although as of 2015 some are still far behind that.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402| title =After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism| journal =[[Challenge (economics magazine)|Challenge]]| volume = 58| issue = 2| pages =135–138| year = 2015| last1 = Milanović | first1 = Branko| s2cid =153398717|author-link=Branko Milanović|quote= So, what is the balance sheet of transition? Only three or at most five or six countries could be said to be on the road to becoming a part of the rich and (relatively) stable capitalist world. Many of the other countries are falling behind, and some are so far behind that they cannot aspire to go back to the point where they were when the Wall fell for several decades.}}</ref> According to the World Bank in 2014, around 80 million people were still living on less than $5.00 a day.<ref name=GhodseeOrenstein/> |
|||
=== Governance === |
|||
[[Image:Starved girl.jpg|upright|right|thumb|A starving female child during the [[Nigerian-Biafran war]]. Her abdomen is swollen due to [[Kwashiorkor]] or severe protein malnutrition.]] |
|||
* Lacking [[democracy]] in poor countries: "The records when we look at social dimensions of development—access to drinking water, girls' literacy, health care—are even more starkly divergent. For example, in terms of life expectancy, rich democracies typically enjoy life expectancies that are nine years longer than poor autocracies. Opportunities of finishing secondary school are 40 percent higher. Infant mortality rates are 25 percent lower. Agricultural yields are about 25 percent higher, on average, in poor democracies than in poor autocracies—an important fact, given that 70 percent of the population in poor countries is often rural-based.""poor democracies don't spend any more on their health and education sectors as a percentage of GDP than do poor autocracies, nor do they get higher levels of foreign assistance. They don't run up higher levels of budget deficits. They simply manage the resources that they have more effectively." [http://www.cceia.org/resources/transcripts/5129.html] |
|||
* [[Economic inequality]]: In 2006 the poverty rate for minors in the [[United States]] was the highest in the industrialized world, with 21.9% of all minors and 30% of African American minors living below the poverty threshold.<ref>[http://www.epinet.org/content.cfm/webfeatures_snapshots_20060719 U.S. Government Does Relatively Little to Lessen Child Poverty Rates]</ref> |
|||
* The governance effectiveness of governments has a major impact on the delivery of socioeconomic outcomes for poor populations<ref>Governance Matters IV. [http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:20696276~pagePK:64214825~piPK:64214943~theSitePK:469382,00.html]</ref> |
|||
* Weak [[rule of law]] can discourage investment and thus perpetuate poverty.<ref>[http://www.cato.org/research/articles/vas-0109.html Ending Mass Poverty] by Ian Vásquez</ref> |
|||
* Poor management of resource revenues can mean that rather than lifting countries out of poverty, revenues from such activities as oil production or gold mining actually leads to a [[resource curse]]. |
|||
* Failure by governments to provide essential [[infrastructure]] worsens poverty.<ref name="GCR">[[Global Competitiveness Report]] 2006, World Economic Forum, [http://www.weforum.org/en/initiatives/gcp/Global%20Competitiveness%20Report/index.htm Website]</ref><ref>[http://www.adbi.org/conf-seminar-papers/2004/11/26/830.infrastructure.poverty.reduction/ Infrastructure and Poverty Reduction: Cross-country Evidence] Hossein Jalilian and John Weiss. 2004.</ref>. |
|||
* Poor access to affordable [[education]] traps individuals and countries in cycles of poverty.<ref name="GCR" /> |
|||
* High levels of [[Political corruption|corruption]] undermine efforts to make a sustainable impact on poverty. In [[Nigeria]], for example, more than $400 billion was stolen from the treasury by Nigeria's leaders between 1960 and 1999.<ref>[http://www.transparency.org/news_room/faq/corruption_faq Transparency International FAQ]</ref><ref>[http://www.malaysia-today.net/Blog-e/2005/06/nigerias-corruption-totals-400-billion.htm Nigeria's corruption totals $400 billion]</ref> |
|||
World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the world except Middle East and North Africa since 1990:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/jsp/index.jsp |title=World Bank, 2007, Povcalnet Poverty Data |publisher=World Bank |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204081829/http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/jsp/index.jsp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>The data can be replicated using World Bank 2007 Human Development Indicator regional tables, and using the default poverty line of $32.74 per month at 1993 PPP.</ref> |
|||
[[Image:DVC07473.JPG|thumb|Poverty in a developed nation, as seen in [[Harlem, New York|Harlem]], [[New York]], [[USA]].]] |
|||
In July 2023, a group of over 200 economists from 67 countries, including [[Jayati Ghosh]], [[Joseph Stiglitz]] and [[Thomas Piketty]], sent a letter to the United Nations secretary general [[António Guterres]] and World Bank president [[Ajay Banga]] warning that "extreme poverty and extreme wealth have risen sharply and simultaneously for the first time in 25 years."<ref>{{cite news |last= Elliott|first=Larry|date= |title=Top economists call for action on runaway global inequality|url=https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2023/jul/17/top-economists-call-for-action-global-inequality-rich-poor-poverty-climate-breakdown-un-world-bank|work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=August 22, 2023}}</ref> In 2024, Oxfam reported that roughly five billion people have become poorer since 2020 and warned that current trends could postpone global poverty eradication for 229 years.<ref>{{cite news |last=Neate|first=Rupert |date=January 14, 2024 |title=World's five richest men double their money as poorest get poorer|url=https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2024/jan/15/worlds-five-richest-men-double-their-money-as-poorest-get-poorer|work=[[The Guardian]] |location= |access-date=January 16, 2024}}</ref> |
|||
[[Image:South Parkway2.jpg|thumb|right|Again in a developed nation [[council houses]] in [[Seacroft]], [[Leeds]], [[UK]] have been deserted due to poverty and high crime.]] |
|||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |
|||
* Welfare states have an effect on poverty reduction. Currently modern, expansive welfare states that ensure economic opportunity, independence and security in a near universal manner are still the exclusive domain of the [[Developed countries|developed nations]],<ref name="Esping-Andersen">Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). ''The three worlds of welfare capitalism''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref> commonly constituting at least 20% of GDP, with the largest [[Scandinavia]]n welfare states constituting over 40% of GDP.<ref name="Barr">Barr, N. (2004). ''The economics of the welfare state''. New York: Oxford University Press (USA).</ref> These modern welfare states, which largely arose in the late 19<sup>th</sup> and early 20<sup>th</sup> centuries, seeing their greatest expansion in the mid 20<sup>th</sup> century, and have proven themselves highly effective in reducing relative as well as absolute poverty in all analyzed high-income OECD countries.<ref name="Kenworthy">Kenworthy, L. (1999). Do social-welfare policies reduce poverty? A cross-national assessment. ''Social Forces, 77''(3), 1119-1139.</ref><ref name="Bradley et. al">Bradley, D., Huber, E., Moller, S., Nielson, F. & Stephens, J. D. (2003). Determinants of relative poverty in advanced capitalist democracies. ''American Sociological Review, 68''(3), 22-51.</ref><ref name="Smeeding">Smeeding, T. (2005). Public policy, economic inequality, and poverty: The United States in comparative perspective. ''Social Science Quarterly, 86'', 955-983.</ref> |
|||
{| class="sortable wikitable" |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
! rowspan="2" |'''Region''' |
|||
!rowspan=2|Country || colspan=2|Absolute poverty rate (threshold set at 40% of U.S. median household income)<ref name="Kenworthy" /> || colspan=2|Relative poverty rate<ref name="Bradley et. al" /> |
|||
! colspan="6" |$2.15 per day<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $2.15 a day (2017 PPP) (% of population) – East Asia & Pacific, Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe & Central Asia, Middle East & North Africa, South Asia, Latin America & Caribbean, World |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2023-06-01 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
!1981 |
|||
| Pre-transfer || Post-transfer || Pre-transfer || Post-transfer |
|||
!1990 |
|||
!2000 |
|||
!2010 |
|||
!2018 |
|||
!2019 |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| East Asia and Pacific |
|||
| [[Sweden]] || 23.7 || 5.8 || 14.8 || 4.8 |
|||
|83.5% |
|||
|65.8% |
|||
|39.5% |
|||
|13.3% |
|||
|1.6% |
|||
|1.2% |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| Europe and Central Asia |
|||
| [[Norway]] || 9.2 || 1.7 || 12.4 || 4.0 |
|||
|— |
|||
|— |
|||
|9.1% |
|||
|4.1% |
|||
|2.3% |
|||
|2.3% |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| Latin America and the Caribbean |
|||
| [[Netherlands]] || 22.1 || 7.3 || 18.5 || 11.5 |
|||
|15.1% |
|||
|16.8% |
|||
|13.5% |
|||
|6.4% |
|||
|4.3% |
|||
|4.3% |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| Middle East and North Africa |
|||
| [[Finland]] || 11.9 || 3.7 || 12.4 || 3.1 |
|||
|— |
|||
|6.5% |
|||
|3.5% |
|||
|1.9% |
|||
|9.6% |
|||
|— |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| South Asia |
|||
| [[Denmark]] || 26.4 || 5.9 || 17.4 || 4.8 |
|||
|58% |
|||
|49.8% |
|||
|— |
|||
|26% |
|||
|10.1% |
|||
|8.6% |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| Sub-Saharan Africa |
|||
| [[Germany]] || 15.2 || 4.3 || 9.7 || 5.1 |
|||
| |
|— |
||
|53.8% |
|||
| [[Switzerland]] || 12.5 || 3.8 || 10.9 || 9.1 |
|||
|56.5% |
|||
|- |
|||
|42.2% |
|||
| [[Canada]] || 22.5 || 6.5 || 17.1 || 11.9 |
|||
|35.4% |
|||
|- |
|||
|34.9% |
|||
| [[France]] || 36.1 || 9.8 || 21.8 || 6.1 |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Belgium]] || 26.8 || 6.0 || 19.5 || 4.1 |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Australia]] || 23.3 || 11.9 || 16.2 || 9.2 |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[United Kingdom]] || 16.8 || 8.7 || 16.4 || 8.2 |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[United States]] || 21.0 || 11.7 || 17.2 || 15.1 |
|||
|- |
|||
| [[Italy]] || 30.7 || 14.3 || 19.7 || 9.1 |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
! World |
|||
!43.6% |
|||
!37.9% |
|||
!29.3% |
|||
!16.3% |
|||
!9% |
|||
!8.5% |
|||
|} |
|} |
||
== Characteristics == |
|||
=== Demographics and Social Factors === |
|||
[[File:Life expectancy 1950-2005.png|thumb|right|Life expectancy has been increasing and converging for most of the world. Sub-Saharan Africa has recently seen a decline, partly related to the [[AIDS epidemic]]. Graph shows the years 1950–2005.]] |
|||
The effects of poverty may also be causes as listed above, thus creating a "poverty cycle" operating across multiple levels, individual, local, national and global.[[File:VOA Heinlein - Somali refugees September 2011 - 09.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Diplomatic and humanitarian efforts in the Somali Civil War|Somali]] boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health facility]] |
|||
===Health=== |
|||
* [[Overpopulation]] and lack of access to [[birth control]] methods.<ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/world/politics/article2201090.ece Birth rates 'must be curbed to win war on global poverty] The Independent. 31 January 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.finfacts.com/irelandbusinessnews/publish/article_1011078.shtml Record rise in wheat price prompts UN official to warn that surge in food prices may trigger social unrest in developing countries]</ref> Note that [[population growth]] slows or even become negative as poverty is reduced due to the [[demographic transition]].<ref>[http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/Demotrans/demtran.htm Demographic Transition] by Keith Montgomery (Shows how population growth slows with industrialization.)</ref> |
|||
{{Main|Diseases of poverty|Disability and poverty}} |
|||
* [[Crime]], both [[white-collar crime]] and [[blue-collar crime]], including violent [[gang]]s and [[drug cartel]]s.<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/world/latinamerica/articles/2006/09/25/brazil_murder_rate_similar_to_war_zone_data_shows/ Brazil murder rate similar to war zone, data shows]</ref><ref>[http://www.worldpress.org/Americas/2549.cfm Mexico: Drug Cartels a Growing Threat]</ref><ref>[http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/FivePrecepts/AnnualViolence.html WHO: 1.6 million die in violence annually]</ref> |
|||
[[File:Expectancy of life CIA2016.svg|thumb|[[Life expectancy]], 2016|300px]] |
|||
* [[History|Historical]] factors, for example [[imperialism]], [[colonialism]]<ref>''The Paradox of Africa's Poverty'' By Tirfe Mammo. 1999. ISBN 1569020493. Gives credit to imperialism/colonialism as a cause as one of two major schools of thought.</ref><ref>''[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?doi=10.1086/378454&erFrom=2848278057652134172Guest Long-Run Development and the Legacy of Colonialism in Spanish America]''</ref><ref>''[http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(xobean55pkh3c455grqgv545)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,4,6;journal,23,27;linkingpublicationresults,1:104614,1 Reflections on Colonial Legacy and Dependency in Indian Vocational Education and Training (VET): a societal and cultural perspective]'' by Madhu Singh</ref> and [[Post-Communism]] (at least 50 million children in [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern Europe]] and the former [[Soviet Union]] lived in poverty).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/966616.stm Child poverty soars in eastern Europe]</ref><ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E0D8163FF931A25753C1A9669C8B63 Study Finds Poverty Deepening in Former Communist Countries]</ref> |
|||
[[File:202411245 Homicide rate vs median disposable household income, by country.svg |thumb |300px |National homicide rates are larger in countries with lower median income.<ref>● Homicide data from {{cite web |author1= United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) |title=Homicide rate, 2023 / Annual number of deaths from homicide per 100,000 people |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/homicide-rate-unodc?tab=table |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241113181658/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/homicide-rate-unodc?tab=table |archive-date=13 November 2024 |date=2024 |quote=Data source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2024) |url-status=live}}<br> |
|||
● Income data from {{cite web |author1=Luxembourg Income Study |title=Median income (after tax), 1963 to 2022 |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/median-income-after-tax-lis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240923112231/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/median-income-after-tax-lis |archive-date=23 September 2024 |date=2024 |quote= This data is adjusted for inflation and for differences in the cost of living between countries. Income here is measured after taxes and benefits. – Data source: Luxembourg Income Study (2024) – This data is measured in international-$ at 2017 prices. Income has been equivalized. |url-status=live}}</ref>]] |
|||
One-third of deaths around the world—some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day—are due to poverty-related causes. People living in developing nations, among them women and children, are over represented among the global poor and these effects of severe poverty.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Development Report|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/264/hdr_2003_en_complete.pdf|website=United Nations Development Programme|access-date=15 April 2015|archive-date=15 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415073824/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/264/hdr_2003_en_complete.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Pogge|first=Thomas|title=Politics as Usual: What Lies Behind the Pro-Poor Rhetoric|year=2010|publisher=Polity Press|isbn=978-0-7456-3892-8|page=12|edition=1st |url=http://thomaspogge.com/books/ |access-date=17 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131154332/http://thomaspogge.com/books/ |archive-date=31 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/whr/1999 |title=The World Health Report, World Health Organization (See annex table 2) |website=Who.int |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=26 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126211347/http://www.who.int/whr/1999/ }}</ref> Those living in poverty suffer disproportionately from hunger or even [[starvation]] and disease, as well as lower [[life expectancy]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0724/p01s01-wogi.html |title=Rising food prices curb aid to global poor |journal=Christian Science Monitor |date=24 July 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=23 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023091853/https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0724/p01s01-wogi.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cano P.E. |first=Librado|title=Transformation of an individual family community nation and the world|year=2010|publisher=Trafford|isbn=978-1-4269-4766-7|page=100}}</ref> According to the [[World Health Organization]], [[hunger]] and [[malnutrition]] are the single gravest threats to the world's public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to [[child mortality]], present in half of all cases.<ref name=economist>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10566634|title=The Starvelings|newspaper=The Economist|date=24 January 2008|access-date=28 May 2011|archive-date=31 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231194031/http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10566634|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
Almost 90% of [[maternal death]]s during childbirth occur in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/220376.stm|title=The causes of maternal death|work=BBC News|date=23 November 1998|access-date=27 August 2012|archive-date=3 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103210749/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/220376.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Those who live in poverty have also been shown to have a far greater likelihood of having or incurring a [[Disability and Poverty|disability]] within their lifetime.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://go.worldbank.org/JGF4Y3E5B0 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120516090917/http://go.worldbank.org/JGF4Y3E5B0 |archive-date=16 May 2012 |title=Disability – Disability: Overview |website=Go.worldbank.org |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref> [[Infectious diseases]] such as [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]] can perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some [[Developing country|developing nations]] and AIDS decreases African growth by 0.3–1.5% annually.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/211/44385.html |title=Economic costs of AIDS |website=Globalpolicy.org |date=23 July 2003 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=23 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323063859/http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/211/44385.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The economic and social burden of malaria |journal=Nature |volume=415 |issue=6872 |pages=680–685 |date=3 September 2010 |doi=10.1038/415680a |pmid=11832956 |last1=Sachs |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Malaney |first2=Pia |s2cid=618837 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/press_releases/pr_20020916.htm |title=Poverty Issues Dominate WHO Regional Meeting |publisher=Wpro.who.int |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110403044412/http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/press_releases/pr_20020916.htm |archive-date=3 April 2011 }}</ref> |
|||
[[Image:Dalit India.jpg|thumb|[[Dalit]]s (“untouchables”) in [[Jaipur]], [[India]].<ref>[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2007/02/13/india15303.htm India: ‘Hidden Apartheid’ of Discrimination Against Dalits (Human Rights Watch, 13-2-2007)]</ref> An estimated 700,000 Dalits work as [[Manual scavenging|human scavengers]], cleaning toilets and collecting human excrement.<ref>[http://www.thetimes.co.za/PrintEdition/News/Article.aspx?id=875193 India’s human scavengers given a new lease of life], Betwa Sharma: United Nations, The Times, November, 2, 2008</ref>]] |
|||
Studies have shown that poverty impedes cognitive function although some of these findings could not be replicated in follow-up studies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Donnell |first1=Michael |title=Empirical audit and review and an assessment of evidentiary value in research on the psychological consequences of scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=November 2, 2021 |volume=118 |issue=44 |pages=e2103313118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2103313118 |pmid=34711679 |pmc=8612349 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11803313O |doi-access=free }}</ref> One hypothesised mechanism is that financial worries put a severe burden on one's mental resources so that they are no longer fully available for solving complicated problems. The reduced capability for problem solving can lead to suboptimal decisions and further perpetuate poverty.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mani |first1=Anandi |last2=Mullainathan |first2=Sendhil |last3=Shafir |first3=Eldar |last4=Zhao |first4=Jiaying |title=Poverty Impedes Cognitive Function |doi=10.1126/science.1238041 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=341 |issue=6149 |pages=976–980 |year=2013 |pmid=23990553 |url = http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/academic/mani/mani_science_976.full.pdf |access-date=1 November 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131028200906/http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/academic/mani/mani_science_976.full.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2013 |citeseerx=10.1.1.398.6303 |bibcode=2013Sci...341..976M |s2cid=1684186 }}</ref> Many other pathways from poverty to compromised cognitive capacities have been noted, from poor nutrition and environmental toxins to the effects of stress on parenting behavior, all of which lead to suboptimal psychological development.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Black |first1=Maureen M |last2=Walker |first2=Susan P |last3=Fernald |first3=Lia C |last4=Andersen |first4=Christopher T |last5=DiGirolamo |first5=Ann M |last6=Lu |first6=Chunling |last7=Grantham-McGregor |first7=Sally |title=Early childhood development coming of age: science through the life course |journal=The Lancet |date=7 January 2017 |volume=389 |issue=10064 |pages=77–90 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31389-7 |pmid=27717614 |pmc=5884058 |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Britto |first1=Pia R |last2=Lye |first2=Stephen J |last3=Proulx |first3=Kerrie |last4=Yousafzai |first4=Aisha K |last5=Matthews |first5=Stephen G |last6=Vaivada |first6=Tyler |last7=Bhutta |first7=Zulfiqar A |title=Nurturing care: promoting early child development |journal=The Lancet |date=7 January 2017 |volume=389 |issue=10064 |pages=91–102 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31390-3 |pmid=27717615 |s2cid=39094476 |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)31390-3/abstract?code=lancet-site |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-date=24 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225957/https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)31390-3/fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref> Neuroscientists have documented the impact of poverty on brain structure and function throughout the lifespan.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Farah |first=Martha J. |title=The neuroscience of socioeconomic status: Correlates, causes and consequences |journal=Neuron |date=27 September 2017 |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=56–71 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2017.08.034 |pmid=28957676 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
|||
* [[Brain drain]] |
|||
* [[Matthew effect]]: the phenomenon, widely observed across advanced welfare states, that the middle classes tend to be the main beneficiaries of social benefits and services, even if these are primarily targeted at the poor. |
|||
* Cultural causes, which attribute poverty to common patterns of life, learned or shared within a [[community]]. For example, [[Max Weber]] argued that the [[Protestant work ethic]] contributed to economic growth during the [[industrial revolution]]. |
|||
* [[War]], including [[civil war]], [[genocide]], and [[democide]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/712992.stm Ethiopia rejects war criticism]</ref> |
|||
* Discrimination of various kinds, such as [[age discrimination]], [[stereotypes|stereotyping]],<ref>[http://www.usccb.org/cchd/epic/www/causesofpovertya.html Ending Poverty in Community (EPIC)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[gender discrimination]], [[racial discrimination]], [[caste|caste discrimination]].<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2007/03/02/india-dalits.html UN report slams India for caste discrimination]</ref> |
|||
* Individual beliefs, actions and choices.<ref>See, e.g., {{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12324a.htm |title=The Moral Doctrine of Poverty |accessdate=2007-01-17 }}</ref> For example, research by Isabell Sawhill, a respected researcher from the Brookings Institute indicates that, in the United States, if any individual follows three rules, their chance of being in poverty shrinks to a statistically insignificant level: (1) Stay in school, don't drop out. (2) Postpone bringing children into the world until marriage. (3) Work, don't quit, keep working, no matter how humble the job. Thus, her research indicates that most poverty is associated statistically with individuals who choose (a) to drop out of school, and /or (b) to have children outside of marriage, and/ or (c) who do not hold a job for long. In short, her research suggests that most poverty is statistically associated with poor or unwise life choices. |
|||
Infectious diseases continue to blight the lives of the poor across the world. 36.8 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, with 954,492 deaths in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/deaths-and-new-cases-of-hiv |title = Prevalence, new cases and deaths from HIV/AIDS |website = Our World in Data |access-date = 27 April 2020 |archive-date = 20 April 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200420210657/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/deaths-and-new-cases-of-hiv |url-status = live }}</ref> |
|||
=== Health Care === |
|||
Poor people often are more prone to severe diseases due to the lack of health care, and due to living in non-optimal conditions. Among the poor, girls tend to suffer even more due to gender discrimination. Economic stability is paramount in a poor household; otherwise they go in an endless loop of negative income trying to treat diseases. Often when a person in a poor household falls ill it is up to the family members to take care of them due to limited access to health care and lack of health insurance. The household members often have to give up their income or stop seeking further education to tend to the sick member. There is a greater [[opportunity cost]] imposed on the poor to tend to someone compared to someone with better financial stability.<ref>{{cite book |author=OECD/WHO |title=Poverty and Health (DAC Guidelines and Reference Series) |year=2003 |publisher=OECD |isbn=978-92-64-10020-6 |location=Paris |oclc=55519605 |issn=1990-0988 |doi=10.1787/9789264100206-en}}</ref> Increased access to healthcare and improved health outcomes help prevent individuals from falling into poverty due to medical expenses.<ref name=Blumenthal/><ref name=Dastidar/> |
|||
[[Image:Nigerian Surgery Table.jpg|thumb|Hardwood surgical tables are commonplace in rural Nigerian clinics.]] |
|||
==== Hunger ==== |
|||
* Poor access to affordable health care makes individuals less resilient to economic hardship and more vulnerable to poverty.<ref name="GCR" /> |
|||
[[File:Hunger Map 2020 World Food Programme.svg|thumb|Percentage of population suffering from hunger, [[World Food Programme]], 2020|alt=|300px]] |
|||
{{Main|Hunger}} |
|||
{{See also|Malnutrition}} |
|||
It is estimated that 1.02 billion people go to bed hungry every night.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/20568/icode/|title=1.02 billion people hungry|website=fao.org|date=19 June 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=17 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117211313/http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/20568/icode/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[Global Hunger Index]], Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest child malnutrition rate of the world's regions over the 2001–2006 period.<ref name="ghi2008">{{cite web |url = http://www.ifpri.org/publication/challenge-hunger-2008-global-hunger-index |title = 2008 Global Hunger Index Key Findings & Facts |year = 2008 |access-date = 20 September 2010 |archive-date = 19 October 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171019143346/http://www.ifpri.org/publication/challenge-hunger-2008-global-hunger-index |url-status = live }}</ref> |
|||
* Inadequate nutrition in childhood, itself an effect of poverty, undermines the ability of individuals to develop their full human capabilities and thus makes them more vulnerable to poverty. Lack of essential minerals such as [[iodine]] and [[iron]] can impair [[Neural development|brain development]]. It is estimated that 2 billion people (one-third of the total global population) are affected by [[iodine deficiency]], including 285 million 6- to 12-year-old children. In developing countries, it is estimated that 40% of children aged 4 and under suffer from anemia because of insufficient iron in their diets. See also [[Health and intelligence]].<ref>[http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/Files/Filer/CC/Papers/sammendrag/Accepted__Hunger_summary_070504.pdf Hunger and Malnutrition] paper by Jere R Behrman, Harold Alderman and John Hoddinott.</ref> |
|||
* [[Infectious disease#Mortality from infectious diseases|Disease]], specifically [[diseases of poverty]]: [[AIDS]],<ref>[http://www.eldis.org/enwiki/static/DOC12805.htm The long-run economic costs of AIDS: theory and an application to South Africa]</ref> [[malaria]]<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11832956 The economic and social burden of malaria.]</ref> and [[tuberculosis]] and others overwhelmingly afflict developing nations, which perpetuate poverty by diverting individual, community, and national health and economic resources from investment and productivity.<ref>[http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/press_releases/pr_20020916.htm Poverty Issues Dominate WHO Regional Meeting]</ref> Further, many [[tropical]] nations are affected by [[parasite]]s like malaria, [[schistosomiasis]], and [[trypanosomiasis]] that are not present in temperate climates. The [[Tsetse fly]] makes it very difficult to use many animals in agriculture in afflicted regions. |
|||
* [[Clinical depression]] undermines the resilience of individuals and when not properly treated makes them vulnerable to poverty. <ref>{{cite journal| url=http://www.searo.who.int/EN/Section1243/Section1310/Section1343/Section1344/Section1353_5271.htm| title=Is Depression a Disease of Poverty? | volume=5 | issue=1}}</ref> |
|||
* Similarly [[substance abuse]], including for example [[alcoholism]] and [[drug abuse]] when not properly treated undermines resilience and can consign people to vicious poverty cycles.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.uschamber.com/sb/screening/0512_quest6.htm |accessdate=2007-01-17 |title="U.S. Chamber of Commerce Fact Sheet "}}</ref> |
|||
Poor people spend a [[Engel's law|greater portion of their budgets]] on food than wealthy people and, as a result, they can be particularly vulnerable to increases in [[food prices]]. For example, in late 2007, increases in the price of grains<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm |title=The cost of food: Facts and figures |work=BBC News |date=16 October 2008 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=20 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120025945/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> led to [[2007–2008 world food price crisis|food riots]] in some countries.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jonathan |last=Watts |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/04/china.business |title=Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring |work=The Guardian |location=Beijing |date=4 December 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901074034/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/04/china.business |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece |title=Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come? |work=The Times |location=London |date=7 March 2008 |access-date=21 June 2011 |first=Carl |last=Mortished |archive-date=14 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814134028/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Julian |last=Borger |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations |title=Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=26 February 2008 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225150554/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations |url-status=live }}</ref> Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the [[Water security|water crisis]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/42387/story.htm |title=Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion |website=Planetark.com |date=5 June 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429073719/http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/42387/story.htm |url-status=usurped }}</ref> [[Intensive farming]] often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of [[erosion|soil fertility]] and decline of [[agricultural yields]].<ref>''Exploitation and Over-exploitation in Societies Past and Present'', Brigitta Benzing, Bernd Herrmann</ref> Approximately 40% of the world's [[agricultural land]] is seriously degraded.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update61.htm |title=The Earth Is Shrinking: Advancing Deserts and Rising Seas Squeezing Civilization |publisher=Earth-policy.org |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810034949/http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update61.htm |archive-date=10 August 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Ian |last=Sample |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food |title=Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=31 August 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429094959/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food |url-status=live }}</ref> Goal 2 of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] is the elimination of hunger and undernutrition by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger/ |title=Goal 2: Zero Hunger |last=Martin |website=United Nations Sustainable Development |language=en-US |access-date=25 April 2019 |archive-date=10 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210035826/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
=== Environmental Factors === |
|||
==== Mental health ==== |
|||
* [[Erosion]]. Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields and hence, increased poverty.<ref>''Exploitation and Over-exploitation in Societies Past and Present'', Brigitta Benzing, Bernd Herrmann</ref> |
|||
* [[Desertification]] and [[overgrazing]].<ref>[http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update61.htm The Earth Is Shrinking: Advancing Deserts and Rising Seas Squeezing Civilization]</ref> Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land]</ref> In [[Africa]], if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to [[United Nations University|UNU]]'s Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.<ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025]</ref> |
|||
* [[Deforestation]] as exemplified by the widespread rural poverty in China that began in the early 20th century and is attributed to non-sustainable tree harvesting.<ref>Forest and Land Management in Imperial China |
|||
[[File:Venezuelan eating from garbage.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|right|A Venezuelan eating from garbage during the [[crisis in Bolivarian Venezuela]]]] |
|||
By Nicholas K. Menzies</ref> |
|||
A psychological study has been conducted by four scientists during inaugural Convention of Psychological Science. The results find that people who thrive with financial stability or fall under low socioeconomic status (SES) tend to perform worse cognitively due to external pressure imposed upon them. The research found that stressors such as low income, inadequate health care, discrimination, and exposure to criminal activities all [[Causes of mental disorders#Poverty|contribute to mental disorders]]. This study also found that children exposed to poverty-stricken environments have slower cognitive thinking.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sleek|first=Scott|date=31 August 2015|title=How Poverty Affects the Brain and Behavior|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/how-poverty-affects-the-brain-and-behavior|journal=APS Observer|language=en-US|volume=28|issue=7|access-date=4 December 2019|archive-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204034250/https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/how-poverty-affects-the-brain-and-behavior|url-status=live}}</ref> It is seen that children perform better under the care of their parents and that children tend to adopt speaking language at a younger age. Since being in poverty from childhood is more harmful than it is for an adult, it is seen that children in poor households tend to fall behind in certain cognitive abilities compared to other average families.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Farah|first1=Martha J.|last2=Betancourt|first2=Laura|last3=Shera|first3=David M.|last4=Savage|first4=Jessica H.|last5=Giannetta|first5=Joan M.|last6=Brodsky|first6=Nancy L.|last7=Malmud|first7=Elsa K.|last8=Hurt|first8=Hallam|date=September 2008|title=Environmental stimulation, parental nurturance and cognitive development in humans|journal=Developmental Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=793–801|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00688.x|pmid=18810850}}</ref> |
|||
* Natural factors such as [[climate change]].<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/nov/03/food.climatechange Global food crisis looms as climate change and fuel shortages bite]</ref> or [[Environmental science|environment]]<ref>[http://surmang.org/pdf/pah2.pdf The Geography of Poverty and Wealth] by Jeffrey D. Sachs, Andrew D. Mellinger, and John L. Gallup. From [[Scientific American]] magazine</ref> Lower income families suffer the most from climate change; yet on a per capita basis, they contribute the least to climate change <ref>[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/opinion/328065_firstperson20.html The poor are hit hardest by climate change] By Randy Poplock </ref> |
|||
* [[Geography|Geographic]] factors, for example access to fertile land, fresh water, minerals, energy, and other natural resources, presence or absence of natural features helping or limiting communication, such as mountains, deserts, navigable rivers, or coastline. Historically, geography has prevented or slowed the spread of new technology to areas such as the Americas and Sub-Saharan Africa. The climate also limits what crops and farm animals may be used on similarly fertile lands.<ref>[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]] Jared M. Diamond W. W. Norton & Company 1999</ref> |
|||
* On the other hand, research on the [[resource curse]] has found that countries with an abundance of [[natural resource]]s creating quick wealth from exports tend to have less long-term prosperity than countries with less of these natural resources. |
|||
* [[Drought]] and [[water crisis]].<ref>[http://www.greatlakesdirectory.org/zarticles/080902_water_shortages.htm Global Water Shortages May Cause Food Shortages]</ref><ref>[http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/42387/story.htm Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion]</ref><ref>[http://www.peopleandplanet.net/pdoc.php?id=3024 Big melt threatens millions, says UN]</ref> |
|||
For a child to grow up emotionally healthy, the children under three need "A strong, reliable primary caregiver who provides consistent and unconditional love, guidance, and support. Safe, predictable, stable environments. Ten to 20 hours each week of harmonious, reciprocal interactions. This process, known as attunement, is most crucial during the first 6–24 months of infants' lives and helps them develop a wider range of healthy emotions, including gratitude, forgiveness, and empathy. Enrichment through personalized, increasingly complex activities".{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} |
|||
=== Cultural Explanations === |
|||
In a 1996 survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged [[inner city|inner cities]] said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33% reported witnessing a homicide.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Atkins | first1 = M.S. | last2 = McKay | first2 = M. | last3 = Talbott | first3 = E. | last4 = Arvantis | first4 = P. | year = 1996 | title = DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams | journal = School Psychology Review | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 274–283 | doi = 10.1080/02796015.1996.12085817 }} Citing: {{cite journal | last1 = Bell | first1 = C.C. | last2 = Jenkins | first2 = E.J. | year = 1991 | title = Traumatic stress and children | journal = Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved | volume = 2 | issue = 1| pages = 175–185 | doi=10.1353/hpu.2010.0089| pmid = 1685908 | s2cid = 28660040 }}</ref> 51% of fifth graders from [[New Orleans]] (median income for a household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in Washington, DC (mean income for a household: $40,127).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Atkins | first1 = M.S. | last2 = McKay | first2 = M. | last3 = Talbott | first3 = E. | last4 = Arvantis | first4 = P. | year = 1996 | title = DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams | journal = School Psychology Review | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 274–283 | doi = 10.1080/02796015.1996.12085817 }} Citing: {{cite journal|author1-link=Joy Osofsky | last1 = Osofsky | first1 = J.D. | last2 = Wewers | first2 = S. | last3 = Harm | first3 = D.M. | last4 = Fick | first4 = A.C. | year = 1993 | title = Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children? | journal = Psychiatry | volume = 56 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–45 | pmid = 8488211 | doi = 10.1080/00332747.1993.11024619 }}; and, Richters, J.E., & Martinez, P. (1993).</ref> Studies have shown that poverty changes the personalities of children who live in it. The [[Great Smoky Mountains Study]] was a ten-year study that was able to demonstrate this. During the study, about one-quarter of the families saw a dramatic and unexpected increase in income. The study showed that among these children, instances of behavioral and emotional disorders decreased, and conscientiousness and agreeableness increased.<ref name="MyUser_The_Washington_Post_October_8_2015c">{{cite web|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonkblog/wp/2015/10/08/the-remarkable-ways-a-little-money-can-change-a-childs-personality-for-life/|title = The remarkable thing that happens to poor kids when you give their parents a little money|newspaper = The Washington Post|access-date = 8 October 2015|archive-date = 9 October 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151009173154/http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonkblog/wp/2015/10/08/the-remarkable-ways-a-little-money-can-change-a-childs-personality-for-life/|url-status = live}}</ref> |
|||
Many people tend to study and think about the issue of poverty on an individual level. For example, some people from rich nations may wonder “what is wrong with these people, and why can’t they work as hard as we do?” This idea represents the popular view of most in the U.S., which is to blame the poor for their poverty. Sociologist [[Max Weber]] was the first to suggest that it was cultural [[value]]s that affect how economically successful a person would be. In his [[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]], he argues that the [[Protestant Reformation]] led to values that drove people toward worldly achievements, a hard work ethic, and saving to accumulate wealth. Others expanded on Weber’s ideas, producing [[modernization theory]] and putting forward a process that all nations should follow to become advanced industrial nations. <ref>Moore, Wilbert. 1974. ''Social Change.'' Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hill.</ref> <ref>Parsons, Talcott. 1966. ''Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives.'' Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. </ref> They believed that to reduce poverty, [[value]]s and [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]] must be changed. |
|||
=== Education === |
|||
In recent years, cultural explanations have seem to have made a comeback. The 1985 book ''Underdevelopment Is a State of Mind'' has recently been reissued, which claims that [[Latin America]]n poverty is caused by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] values inherited by Latin American countries. <ref>Harrison, Lawrence E. 2000. ''Underdevelopment Is a State of Mind: The Latin American Case.'' Lanham, MD: Madison Books.</ref> Political scientist [[Samuel Huntington]] collaborated with Harrison on an edited volume called ''Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress''. At the same time, the World Bank began to pick up the theme of cultural explanations, putting millions of dollars into new research and conferences on the subject, and funding projects in poor countries made to change cultural values. |
|||
{{See also|Social determinants of health in poverty#Education|Disability and poverty#Education}} |
|||
Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. This is often a process that begins in primary school. Instruction in the US educational system, as well as in most other countries, tends to be geared towards those students who come from more advantaged backgrounds. As a result, children in poverty are at a higher risk than advantaged children for retention in their grade, special deleterious placements during the school's hours and not completing their high school education.<ref name="SYF"/> Advantage breeds advantage.<ref>Raghuram G. Rajan (2012). [https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6 Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920172903/https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6 |date=20 September 2016 }} Published by: Collins Business</ref> There are many explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. One is the conditions in which they attend school. Schools in poverty-stricken areas have conditions that hinder children from learning in a safe environment. Researchers have developed a name for areas like this: an ''urban war zone'' is a poor, crime-laden district in which deteriorated, violent, even warlike conditions and underfunded, largely ineffective schools promote inferior academic performance, including irregular attendance and disruptive or non-compliant classroom behavior.<ref>Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). ''Children in Danger: Coping with the Consequences''. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Print.</ref> Because of poverty, "Students from low-income families are 2.4 times more likely to drop out than middle-income kids, and over 10 times more likely than high-income peers to drop out."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-lynch-edd/cause-and-effect-the-high_b_6245304.html|title=Cause and Effect: The High Cost of High School Dropouts|date=30 November 2014|website=The Huffington Post|access-date=21 April 2016|archive-date=30 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530230632/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-lynch-edd/cause-and-effect-the-high_b_6245304.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to others such as [[juvenile delinquency]] rates, higher levels of [[teenage pregnancy]], and economic dependency upon their low-income parent or parents.<ref name="SYF">Huston, A. C. (1991). Children in Poverty: Child Development and Public Policy. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> |
|||
==== Criticisms ==== |
|||
Families and society who submit low levels of investment in the education and development of less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early childbearing with all the connected risks to family, health and well-being are major issues to address since education from preschool to high school is identifiably meaningful in a life.<ref name="SYF" /> |
|||
[[File:Situation Analysis of Out-of-School Children in Nine Southeast Asian Countries.pdf|thumb|Out of school child]] |
|||
Poverty often drastically affects children's success in school. A child's "home activities, preferences, mannerisms" must align with the world and in the cases that they do not do these, students are at a disadvantage in the school and, most importantly, the classroom.<ref name="ANF">Solley, Bobbie A. (2005). When Poverty's Children Write: Celebrating Strengths, Transforming Lives. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, Inc.</ref> Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from school. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, flu, and colds.<ref name="ANF" /> These illnesses could potentially restrict a student's focus and concentration.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jensen|first=Eric|title=Teaching with Poverty in Mind|url=http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109074/chapters/How-Poverty-Affects-Behavior-and-Academic-Performance.aspx|publisher=ASCD|access-date=11 November 2013|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141531/http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109074/chapters/How-Poverty-Affects-Behavior-and-Academic-Performance.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
In general, the interaction of [[gender]] with poverty or location tends to work to the disadvantage of [[girl]]s in poorer countries with low completion rates and social expectations that they marry early, and to the disadvantage of [[boy]]s in richer countries with high completion rates but social expectations that they enter the [[labour force]] early.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=UNESCO|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000368753|title=Global education monitoring report 2019: gender report: Building bridges for gender equality|publisher=UNESCO|year=2019|isbn=978-92-3-100329-5|access-date=5 March 2020|archive-date=6 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206085339/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000368753|url-status=live}}</ref> At the [[primary education]] level, most countries with a completion rate below 60% exhibit [[gender disparity]] at girls' expense, particularly poor and rural girls. In Mauritania, the adjusted gender parity index is 0.86 on average, but only 0.63 for the poorest 20%, while there is parity among the richest 20%. In countries with completion rates between 60% and 80%, gender disparity is generally smaller, but disparity at the expense of poor girls is especially marked in [[Cameroon]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Yemen]]. Exceptions in the opposite direction are observed in countries with pastoralist economies that rely on boys' labour, such as the [[Eswatini|Kingdom of Eswatini]], [[Lesotho]] and [[Namibia]].<ref name=":0" /> |
|||
A large amount of research has rejected these explanations. Researchers have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as deeply ingrained as most proponents of cultural theories have assumed. Interviews with poor people in the United States indicate that most actually accept the dominant values, but simply find it difficult to live up to them in their current circumstance. Much research has shown that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values. <ref name=kerbo2006a>Kerbo, Harold. 2006. ''Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical, Comparative, and Global Perspective'', 6th edition New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> |
|||
== |
=== Shelter === |
||
{{See also|Slums|Street children|Orphanages|Gentrification}} |
|||
[[File:Kolkata (4131122903).jpg|thumb|Homeless family in Kolkata, India|alt=]] |
|||
[[File:Street Child, Srimangal Railway Station.jpg|thumb|left|Street child in [[Bangladesh]]. Aiding relatives financially unable to but willing to take in orphans is found to be more effective by cost and welfare than orphanages.<ref name=orphanages/>]] |
|||
The [[right to housing]] is argued to be a [[Human rights|human right]].<ref>Desmond, Matthew (2016). ''Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City''. Crown Books. {{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=October 2022}}</ref><ref>Bratt, Rachel G. (Editor), Stone, Michael E. (Editor), Hartman, Chester (Editor). 2006. ''A Right to Housing: Foundation for a New Social Agenda''. Temple University Press.{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=October 2022}}</ref> [[High density housing|Higher density]] and [[Affordable housing|lower cost housing]] affords low-income families and first-time homebuyers with more and less expensive shelter opportunities, reducing economic inequality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=Thomas J. |last2=Denton |first2=Curtis |title=The suburbanization of poverty? An alternative perspective |journal=Urban Geography |date=17 February 2015 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=300–313 |doi=10.1080/02723638.2014.973224 |s2cid=145716858 |url=https://thomas-cooke.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2963/2019/12/Cooke-and-Denton-2015.pdf |access-date=24 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Desmond |first1=Matthew |editor1-last=Mueller |editor1-first=Elizabeth J. |editor2-last=Tighe |editor2-first=J. Rosie |title=The affordable housing reader |date=2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Abingdon, Oxon |isbn=978-1-000-59482-9 |pages=389–395 |edition=Second |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emdxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA389 |access-date=24 February 2023 |chapter=Unaffordable America: Poverty, housing, and eviction}}</ref> |
|||
The geographic concentration of poverty is argued to be a factor in entrenching poverty. William J. Wilson's "concentration and isolation" hypothesis states that the economic difficulties of the very poorest African Americans are compounded by the fact that as the better-off African Americans move out, the poorest are more and more concentrated, having only other very poor people as neighbors. This concentration causes social isolation, Wilson suggests, because the very poor are now isolated from access to the job networks, role models, institutions, and other connections that might help them escape poverty.<ref>Wilson, William J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref> [[Gentrification]] means converting an aging neighborhood into a more affluent one, as by remodeling homes. Landlords then increase rent on newly renovated real estate; the poor people cannot afford to pay high rent, and may need to leave their neighborhood to find affordable housing.<ref>Moss, Jeremiah. 24 July 2018. Vanishing New York: How a Great City Lost Its Soul. HarperCollins Publishers.</ref> The poor also get more access to income and services, while studies suggest poor residents living in gentrifying neighbourhoods are actually less likely to move than poor residents of non-gentrifying areas.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/united-states/2018/06/21/in-praise-of-gentrification|title=In praise of gentrification|newspaper=The Economist|date=23 June 2018|access-date=24 April 2021|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424015937/https://www.economist.com/united-states/2018/06/21/in-praise-of-gentrification|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
{| style="width: 80%; margin: 0 0 0 10%; border-collapse: collapse; background: #FBFBFB; border: 1px solid #aaa; border-left: 10px solid #f28500;" |
|||
|- |
|||
| style="width: 52px; padding: 2px 0px 2px 0.5em; text-align: center;" | [[Image:Unbalanced scales.svg|40px]] |
|||
| style="padding: 0.25em 0.5em;" | '''This section is reasonably-referenced (and well-intended), but does not meet Wikipedia's standards for tone-- Please help rewrite this section with an [[Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Impartial_tone|Impartial Tone]].''' |
|||
|} |
|||
Poverty increases the risk of [[homelessness]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-01-10-homeless_x.htm |title=Study: 744,000 homeless in United States |work=USA Today |date=10 January 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=25 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525150236/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-01-10-homeless_x.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Slum-dwellers, who make up a third of the world's urban population, live in a poverty no better, if not worse, than rural people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in the [[developing world]], according to a report by the United Nations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5078654.stm |title=Report reveals global slum crisis |work=BBC News |date=16 June 2006 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=30 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101030050014/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5078654.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
The effects of poverty may also be causes, as listed above, thus creating a "poverty cycle" operating across multiple levels, individual, local, national and global. |
|||
There are over 100 million [[street children]] worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=32968&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521024344/http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D32968%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |archive-date=21 May 2008 |title=Street Children |publisher=Portal.unesco.org |access-date=24 October 2010 }}</ref> Most of the children living in institutions around the world have a surviving parent or close relative, and they most commonly entered orphanages because of poverty.<ref name=orphanages>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/world/africa/06orphans.html |title=Aid gives alternatives to African orphanages |newspaper=The New York Times |date=5 December 2009 |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=26 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526205418/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/world/africa/06orphans.html |url-status=live |last1=Dugger |first1=Celia W. }}</ref> It is speculated that, flush with money, for-profit orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families usually take in children whose parents have died.<ref name=orphanages/> Many child advocates maintain that this can harm children's [[child development|development]] by separating them from their families and that it would be more effective and cheaper to aid close relatives who want to take in the orphans.<ref name=orphanages/> |
|||
===Health=== |
|||
Those living in poverty and lacking access to essential health services, suffering [[hunger]] or even [[starvation]],<ref>[http://www.financialpost.com/story.html?id=213343 Forget oil, the new global crisis is food]</ref> experience mental and physical health problems which make it harder for them to improve their situation.<ref>{{cite journal |
|||
| url=http://www.searo.who.int/EN/Section1243/Section1310/Section1343/Section1344/Section1353_5271.htm |
|||
| title=Is Depression a Disease of Poverty? |
|||
| journal=Regional Health Forum WHO South-East Asia Region |
|||
| author=Vikram Patel |
|||
| volume=5 |
|||
| issue=1}}</ref> |
|||
One third of deaths - some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day - are due to poverty-related causes: in total 270 million people, most of them women and children, have died as a result of poverty since 1990.<ref>[http://www.who.int/whr/1999 The World Health Report, World Health Organization (See annex table 2)]</ref> Those living in poverty suffer lower [[life expectancy]]. Every year nearly 11 million children living in poverty die before their fifth birthday. Those living in poverty often suffer from hunger.<ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0724/p01s01-wogi.html Rising food prices curb aid to global poor]</ref> 800 million people go to bed hungry every night.<ref>[http://www.millenniumcampaign.org/site/pp.asp?c=grKVL2NLE&b=185518 millenniumcampaign.org]</ref> Poverty increases the risk of [[homelessness]].<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-01-10-homeless_x.htm Study: 744,000 homeless in United States]</ref> There are over 100 million [[street children]] worldwide.<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=32968&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Street Children]</ref> Increased risk of [[drug abuse]] may also be associated with poverty.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4600785.stm Health warning over Russian youth]</ref> |
|||
[[Image:Down and out on New York pier.gif|thumb|right|[[Great Depression]]: man lying down on pier, New York City docks, 1935.]] |
|||
[[Diseases of poverty]] reflect the dynamic relationship between poverty and poor health; while such [[Infectious disease#Mortality from infectious diseases|infectious diseases]] result directly from poverty, they also perpetuate and deepen impoverishment by sapping personal and national health and financial resources. For example, [[malaria]] decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations, and by killing tens of millions in sub-Saharan Africa, [[AIDS]] alone threatens “the economies, social structures, and political stability of entire societies”.<ref>[http://www.rbm.who.int/cmc_upload/0/000/015/363/RBMInfosheet_10.htm Economic costs of malaria]</ref><ref>[http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2002/english/ch6/page2.htm HIV/AIDS and Poverty]</ref> |
|||
=== |
=== Utilities === |
||
[[File:Toilet at a Village near Jaipur installed by Pronto Panels.JPG|upright=0.7|thumb|Affordable household toilets near [[Jaipur, Rajasthan]]]] |
|||
Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. This often is a process that begins in [[primary school]] for some less fortunate children. These children are at a higher risk than other children for retention in their grade, special placements during the school’s hours and even not completing their high school education. <ref name="SYF"> Huston, A. C. (1991). Children in Poverty: Child Development and Public Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. </ref> There are indeed many explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to excuses such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher levels of [[teenage pregnancy]], and the economic dependency upon their low income parent or parents. <ref name="SYF" /> |
|||
The poor tend to pay more for access to utilities and ensuring the availability of water, sanitation, energy, and telecommunication services such as broadband internet service<ref>{{Cite book |title=California LifeLine program assessment & evaluation |date=May 20, 2022 |publisher=[[California Public Utilities Commission]] |location=Sacramento, California}}</ref> help in reducing poverty in general.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Giné Garriga |first1=Ricard |last2=Pérez Foguet |first2=Agustí |date=2013-03-01 |title=Unravelling the Linkages Between Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Rural Poverty: The WASH Poverty Index |journal=Water Resources Management |language=en |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=1501–1515 |doi=10.1007/s11269-012-0251-6 |bibcode=2013WatRM..27.1501G |hdl=2117/18648 |s2cid=189950003 |issn=1573-1650|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Assessing the impact of transport and energy infrastructure on poverty reduction |date=2005 |publisher=Asian Development Bank |author=Cynthia C. Cook |display-authors=etal |isbn=978-971-561-580-8 |location=Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila, Philippines |oclc=61391598}}</ref> |
|||
[[Image:India.Mumbai.01.jpg|thumb|right|Women washing clothes in ditch alongside main road in [[Mumbai]], [[India]]. While [[poverty in India]] officially may be in |
|||
decline, millions of people still live a life of hardship.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7556489.stm Poverty still grips millions in India], BBC News, August 12, 2008</ref>]] |
|||
====Water and sanitation==== |
|||
Families and society who submit low levels of [[investment]] in the education and development of less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early [[pregnancy|childbearing]] with all the connected risks to family, health and well-being are majorly important issues to address since education from preschool to high school are both identifiably meaningful in a life. <ref name="SYF" /> |
|||
As of 2012, 2.5 billion people lack access to sanitation services and 15% practice [[open defecation]].<ref>WHO and UNICEF [https://web.archive.org/web/20120328173008/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-report-2012-en.pdf ''Progress on Drinking-water and Sanitation: 2012 Update''], WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York, p. 2</ref> Even while providing latrines is a challenge, people still do not use them even when available. Bangladesh had half the GDP per capita of India but has a lower mortality from diarrhea than India or the world average, with diarrhea deaths declining by 90% since the 1990s. By strategically providing pit latrines to the poorest, charities in Bangladesh sparked a cultural change as those better off perceived it as an issue of status to not use one. The vast majority of the latrines built were then not from charities but by villagers themselves.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2018/03/22/how-bangladesh-vanquished-diarrhoea|title=How Bangladesh vanquished diarrhoea|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=18 August 2018|date=22 March 2018|archive-date=19 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819083112/https://www.economist.com/asia/2018/03/22/how-bangladesh-vanquished-diarrhoea|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
Water utility subsidies tend to subsidize water consumption by those connected to the supply grid, which is typically skewed towards the richer and urban segment of the population and those outside informal housing. As a result of heavy consumption subsidies, the price of water decreases to the extent that only 30%, on average, of the supplying costs in developing countries is covered.<ref name=Kenny/><ref name=utilitysubsidy>{{cite book |
|||
Poverty often drastically affects children’s success in school. A child’s “home activities, preferences, mannerisms” must align with the world and in the cases that they do not these students are at a disadvantage in the school and most importantly the classroom. <ref name="ANF"> Solley, Bobbie A. (2005). When Poverty’s Children Write: Celebrating Strengths, Transforming Lives. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, Inc.</ref> Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from the academic year. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, and colds. <ref name="ANF" /> These illnesses could potentially restrict a child or student’s focus and concentration. |
|||
| year=2005 |
|||
| first1=Kristin |
|||
| last1=Komives |
|||
| first2=Vivien |
|||
| last2=Foster |
|||
| first3=Jonathan |
|||
| last3=Halpern |
|||
| first4=Quentin |
|||
| last4=Wodon |
|||
| title=Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who benefits from utility subsidies? |
|||
| url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/Figures.pdf |
|||
| publisher=The World Bank |
|||
| location=Washington, DC |
|||
| isbn=978-0-8213-6342-3 |
|||
| access-date=26 July 2012 |
|||
| archive-date=16 December 2011 |
|||
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216141018/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/Figures.pdf |
|||
| url-status=live |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
This results in a lack of incentive to maintain delivery systems, leading to losses from leaks annually that are enough for 200 million people.<ref name=Kenny/><ref>{{cite book |
|||
| year=2006 |
|||
| first1=Bill |
|||
| last1=Kingdom |
|||
| first2=Roland |
|||
| last2=Liemberger |
|||
| first3=Philippe |
|||
| last3=Marin |
|||
| title=The challenge of reducing non-revenue water (NRW) in developing countries. How the private sector can help: A look at performance-based service contracting |
|||
| series=Water supply and sanitation board discussion paper series |
|||
| url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/WSS8fin4.pdf |
|||
| publisher=The World Bank |
|||
| location=Washington, DC |
|||
| access-date=26 July 2012 |
|||
| archive-date=23 May 2012 |
|||
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523132225/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/WSS8fin4.pdf |
|||
| url-status=live |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
This also leads to a lack of incentive to invest in expanding the network, resulting in much of the poor population being unconnected to the network. Instead, the poor buy water from water vendors for, on average, about 5 to 16 times the metered price.<ref name=Kenny/><ref>{{cite book |
|||
|year = 2006 |
|||
|first1 = Marianne |
|||
|last1 = Kjellen |
|||
|first2 = Gordon |
|||
|last2 = McGranahan |
|||
|name-list-style = amp |
|||
|title = Informal Water Vendors and the Urban Poor |
|||
|series = Human settlements discussion paper series |
|||
|url = http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10529IIED.pdf |
|||
|publisher = [[International Institute for Environment and Development|IIED]] |
|||
|location = London |
|||
|isbn = 978-1-84369-586-8 |
|||
|access-date = 26 July 2012 |
|||
|archive-date = 4 September 2012 |
|||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120904224113/http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10529IIED.pdf |
|||
|url-status = live |
|||
}}</ref> However, subsidies for laying new connections to the network rather than for consumption have shown more promise for the poor.<ref name=utilitysubsidy/> |
|||
=== |
====Energy==== |
||
{{Excerpt|energy poverty}} |
|||
Areas strongly affected by poverty tend to be more violent. In one survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged [[inner city|inner cities]] said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33% reported witnessing a homicide.<ref>Atkins, M. S., McKay, M., Talbott, E., & Arvantis, P. (1996). "DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams," ''School Psychology Review'', 25, 274-283. Citing: Bell, C. C., & Jenkins, E. J. (1991). "Traumatic stress and children," ''Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved'', 2, 175-185.</ref> 51% of fifth graders from [[New Orleans]] (median income for a household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in [[Washington, DC]] (mean income for a household: $40,127).<ref>Atkins, M. S., McKay, M., Talbott, E., & Arvantis, P. (1996). "DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams," ''School Psychology Review'', 25, 274-283. Citing: Osofsky, J. D., Wewers, S., Harm, D. M., & Fick, A. C. (1993). "Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children?," ''Psychiatry'', 56, 36-45; and, Richters, J. E., & Martinez, P (1993). "The NIMH community violence project: Vol. 1. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence," ''Psychiatry'', 56, 7-21.</ref> |
|||
== |
=== Financial services === |
||
{{Seealso|Predatory lending|Loan shark}} |
|||
{{main|Poverty reduction}} |
|||
For low-income individuals and families, access to [[credit]] can be limited, [[Predatory lending|predatory]], or both, making it difficult to find the financial resources they need to invest in their futures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hartfree |first1=Yvette |last2=Collard |first2=Sharon |date=2015-10-01 |title=Locating credit and debt within an anti-poverty strategy for the UK |url=https://bristoluniversitypressdigital.com/view/journals/jpsj/23/3/article-p203.xml |journal=Journal of Poverty and Social Justice |language=en |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=203–214 |doi=10.1332/175982715X14443317211950 |s2cid=167507335 |issn=1759-8273|hdl=1983/9dc0d10f-b10d-4e4a-82e9-0957a4226608 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Chaniwa |first1=Marjorie |title=Ending Poverty Through Affordable Credit to Small-Scale Cotton Farmers: The Case of the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe |date=2020 |work=Scaling up SDGs Implementation: Emerging Cases from State, Development and Private Sectors |pages=115–127 |editor-last=Nhamo |editor-first=Godwell |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_8 |isbn=978-3-030-33216-7 |last2=Nyawenze |first2=Collen |last3=Mandumbu |first3=Ronald |last4=Mutsiveri |first4=Godfrey |last5=Gadzirayi |first5=Christopher T. |last6=Munyati |first6=Vincent T. |last7=Rugare |first7=Joyful Tatenda |series=Sustainable Development Goals Series |s2cid=214161949 |editor2-last=Odularu |editor2-first=Gbadebo O. A. |editor3-last=Mjimba |editor3-first=Vuyo}}</ref> |
|||
=== Prejudice and exploitation === |
|||
In [[politics]], the fight against poverty is usually regarded as a social goal and many governments have institutions or departments dedicated to tackling poverty. One of the main debates in the field of poverty reduction is around the question of how actively the state should manage the economy and provide public services to tackle the problem of poverty. In the nineties, international development policies focused on a package of measures known and criticized as the "[[Washington Consensus]]" which involved reducing the scope of state activities, and reducing state intervention in the economy, reducing trade barriers and opening economies to foreign investment. Vigorous debate over these issues continues, and most poverty reduction programs attempt to increase both the competitiveness of the economy and the viability of the state. |
|||
{{see also|criminalization of poverty}} |
|||
[[File:Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought022.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|The urban poor buy water from water vendors for, on average, about 5 to 16 times the metered price.<ref name=Kenny>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/12/05/trickle-down-economics/|title=Trickle-Down Economics|publisher=foreignpolicy.com|date=5 December 2011|access-date=18 December 2014|archive-date=2 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502084305/http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/12/05/trickle-down-economics/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]Cultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds, can negatively affect productivity such as [[ageism|age discrimination]], [[stereotype|stereotyping]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usccb.org/cchd/epic/www/causesofpovertya.html |title=Ending Poverty in Community (EPIC) |publisher=Usccb.org |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309014134/http://www.usccb.org/cchd/epic/www/causesofpovertya.html |url-status=live }}</ref> discrimination against people with physical disability,<ref name=disabpov>Filmer, D. (2008), "Disability, poverty, and schooling in developing countries: results from 14 household surveys", ''The World Bank Economic Review'', 22(1), pp. 141–163 |
|||
* Yeo, R. (2005), [http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/Disability/RedPov_agenda.pdf Disability, poverty and the new development agenda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213072542/http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/Disability/RedPov_agenda.pdf |date=13 February 2015 }}, Disability Knowledge and Research, UK Government, pp. 1–33</ref> [[sexism|gender discrimination]], [[racism|racial discrimination]], and [[caste|caste discrimination]]. [[Child poverty|Children]] are more than twice as likely to live in poverty as adults.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Child poverty|url=https://www.unicef.org/social-policy/child-poverty|access-date=2021-10-21|website=www.unicef.org|language=en}}</ref> Women are the group suffering from the highest rate of poverty after children, in what is referred to as the [[feminization of poverty]]. In addition, the fact that women are more likely to be caregivers, regardless of income level, to either the generations before or after them, exacerbates the burdens of their poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://origin.library.constantcontact.com/download/get/file/1100634217286-881/ReGenderPovertyPrimerFront.pdf|title=Gender Lens on Poverty|access-date=3 December 2019|archive-date=15 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615045556/http://origin.library.constantcontact.com/download/get/file/1100634217286-881/ReGenderPovertyPrimerFront.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Those in poverty have increased chances of incurring a disability which leads to a cycle where [[disability and poverty]] are mutually reinforcing. |
|||
[[Max Weber]] and some schools of [[modernization theory]] suggest that cultural [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]] could affect economic success.<ref>Moore, Wilbert. 1974. ''Social Change.'' Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</ref><ref>Parsons, Talcott. 1966. ''Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives.'' Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</ref> However, researchers{{Who|date=November 2009}} have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values.<ref name="kerbo2006a">Kerbo, Harold. 2006. ''Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical, Comparative, and Global Perspective'', 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> A 2018 report on [[poverty in the United States]] by UN special rapporteur [[Philip Alston]] asserts that caricatured narratives about the rich and the poor (that "the rich are industrious, entrepreneurial, patriotic and the drivers of economic success" while "the poor are wasters, losers and scammers") are largely inaccurate, as "the poor are overwhelmingly those born into poverty, or those thrust there by circumstances largely beyond their control, such as physical or mental disabilities, divorce, family breakdown, illness, old age, unlivable wages or discrimination in the job market."<ref>{{cite news |date=4 June 2018 |title="Contempt for the poor in US drives cruel policies," says UN expert |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/06/contempt-poor-us-drives-cruel-policies-says-un-expert |publisher=OHCHR |access-date=10 August 2019 |archive-date=17 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917141810/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23172&LangID=E |url-status=live }}</ref> Societal perception of people experiencing economic difficulty has historically appeared as a conceptual dichotomy: the "good" poor (people who are physically impaired, disabled, the "ill and incurable," the elderly, pregnant women, children) vs. the "bad" poor (able-bodied, "valid" adults, most often male).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Brodiez-Dolino|first=Axelle|date=2021-06-07|title=Perceptions of People in Poverty Throughout History|url=https://www.atd-fourthworld.org/perceptions-poorest-people-throughout-history/|access-date=2021-06-08|website=ATD Fourth World|language=en-US|type=Online written interview.|archive-date=8 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608192811/https://www.atd-fourthworld.org/perceptions-poorest-people-throughout-history/|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
===Poverty Reduction Strategies=== |
|||
According to experts, many women become victims of trafficking, the most common form of which is [[survival sex|prostitution]], as a means of survival and economic desperation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-05-15-voa30-68815957.html?rss=human+rights+and+law |title=Experts encourage action against sex trafficking |publisher=.voanews.com |date=15 May 2009 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501101647/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-05-15-voa30-68815957.html?rss=human+rights+and+law |archive-date=1 May 2011 }}</ref> Deterioration of living conditions can often compel children to abandon school to contribute to the family income, putting them at risk of being exploited.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/thailand/091027/economic-crisis-the-sex-trade-and-children |title=Child sex boom fueled by poverty |publisher=Globalpost.com |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=1 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101005703/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/thailand/091027/economic-crisis-the-sex-trade-and-children |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, in [[Zimbabwe]], a number of girls are turning to sex in return for food to survive because of the increasing poverty.<ref>{{cite news |last=Thomson |first=Mike |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8096874.stm |title=Zimbabwean girls trade sex for food |work=BBC News |date=12 June 2009 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=26 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726123910/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8096874.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to studies, as poverty decreases there will be fewer and fewer instances of violence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Steven|title=Poverty and Violence|issue=1|date=1996|page=67|issn=0037-802X|journal=Social Theory and Practice|volume=22|doi=10.5840/soctheorpract199622119}}</ref> Some data such as the [[UNICEF]] reports and also a research called "''[[Echo of Silence (book)|Echo of Silence]]''" show that there is a close correlation between economic poverty and [[Child marriage|early marriage]]. In some developing countries, child marriage is considered an economic measure that can improve the family’s poor condition, strengthen family bonds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Towards Ending Child Marriage |url=https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Towards-Ending-Child-Marriage-2021.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Child marriage {{!}} UNICEF |url=https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-marriage |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Ahmady, Kameel Et al 2017: An [[Echo of Silence (book)]] (A Comprehensive Research Study on Early Child Marriage (ECM) in Iran). Nova publishing, USA.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Ahmady, Kameel. Feminization of Poverty- The Cause and Consequence of Early Childhood Marriages in Iran, Swift Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, March 2018 Vol. 4(1), pp. 001-010. |url=http://swiftjournals.org/sjssh/pdf/2018/march/Kameel2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902203702if_/http://swiftjournals.org/sjssh/pdf/2018/march/Kameel2.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2018-09-02 |journal=Swift Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities}}</ref> |
|||
====Debt Relief==== |
|||
One of the proposed ways to help poor countries that emerged during the [[Brady Plan|1980's]] has been [[debt relief]]. Given that many less developed nations have gotten themselves into extensive debt to banks and governments from the rich nations, and given that the interest payments on these debts are often more than a country can generate per year in profits from [[exports]], canceling part or all of these debts to may allow poor nations "to get out of the hole".<ref>World Bank and International Monetary Fund. 2001. ''Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, Progress Report.'' Retrieved from http://worldbank.org.</ref> However the effectivness of debt relief is uncertain and whether or not it has lasting effect is disputed. It may not change the underlying conditions that have led to less long-term development in the first place. <ref>World Bank and International Monetary Fund. 2001. "Financial Impact of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries: First 22 Country Cases." Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org.</ref> |
|||
==Poverty reduction {{anchor|Reduction}}== |
|||
====Good Governance==== |
|||
{{main|Poverty reduction}} |
|||
{{see also|Aid|Development aid}} |
|||
{{duplication|section=yes|dupe=Poverty reduction|date=January 2023|discuss=Talk:Poverty reduction#Duplication}} |
|||
[[File:Sustainable Development Goal 01NoPoverty.svg|thumb|Logo of the [[Sustainable Development Goal 1]] of the United Nations, to "end poverty in all its forms, everywhere" by 2030<ref name=":172">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023121826/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 |date=23 October 2020 }})</ref>]] |
|||
According to some social scientists, [[good governance]] is one of the most important if not the most important key to [[economic development]] and poverty reduction. Good governance means efficient and fair government, government that is less [[political corruption| corrupt]] and works for the long-term interests of the nation as a whole. Researchers at [[UC Berkely]] recently developed what they called a "Weberianness scale" which measures aspects of [[bureaucracies]] and governments [[Max Weber]] described as most important for [[rational-legal authority| rational-legal]] and efficient government over 100 years ago. Comparative research has found that the scale is correlated with higher rates of economic development. <ref>Evans, Peter, and James E. Rauch. 1999. "Bureaucracy and Growth: A Cross-National Analysis of the Effects of 'Weberian' State Structures on Economic Growth." ''American Sociological Review'', 64:748-765. </ref> With their related concept of good governance [[World Bank]] researchers have found much the same: Data from 150 nations have shown several measures of good governance (such as accountability, effectiveness, rule of law, low corruption) to be related to higher rates of economic development. |
|||
<ref>{{cite conference |
|||
| last = Kaufmann |
|||
| first = D. |
|||
| coauthors = Kraay, A; Zoido-Lobaton, P. |
|||
| title = Governance Matters. |
|||
| booktitle = World Bank Policy Research Working Paper no. 2196 |
|||
| pages = |
|||
| publisher = |
|||
| date = |
|||
| location = Washington DC |
|||
| url = |
|||
| doi = |
|||
| id = |
|||
| accessdate = }}</ref> |
|||
Various poverty reduction strategies are broadly categorized based on whether they make more of the basic human needs available or whether they increase the [[disposable income]] needed to purchase those needs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dalglish C. and M. Tonelli |title=Entrepreneurship at the Bottom of the Pyramid |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-1-138-84655-5}}</ref> Some strategies such as building roads can both bring access to various basic needs, such as fertilizer or healthcare from urban areas, as well as increase incomes, by bringing better access to urban markets.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sanchez |first1=Thomas W. |title=Poverty, policy, and public transportation |journal=Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice |date=1 June 2008 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=833–841 |doi=10.1016/j.tra.2008.01.011 |bibcode=2008TRPA...42..833S |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=fac7e9f6807c4c29319647a2ed79cf0395b3e5c9 |access-date=24 February 2023 |language=en |issn=0965-8564}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Hernández |first1=Diego |url=https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/publication/files/42665/RVI122_Hernandez.pdf |title=Public transport, well-being and inequality: coverage and affordability in the city of Montevideo |date=2017-08-01 |publisher=CEPAL Review |issue=122}}</ref> |
|||
Examples of good governance leading to economic development and poverty reduction can be seen in countries such as [[Thailand]], [[Taiwan]], [[Malaysia]], [[South Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. These governments are able and willing to protect their people from the negative consequences of foreign corporate exploitation. They tend to have a strong government, also called a ''hard state'' or ''[[development state]]'', and have leaders who can confront [[multinational corporations|multinationals]] and demand that they operate to protect their people’s interests. These “hard states” have the will and authority to create and maintain policies that lead to long-term development that helps all their citizens, not just the wealthy. Multinational corporations are regulated so that they follow reasonable standards for [[wage| pay]] and labor conditions, pay reasonable taxes to help develop the country, and keep some of the profits in the country, reinvesting them to provide further development. In many other less developed nations around the world, local governments are either too weak to stop foreign corporate exploitation or don’t care, with the corrupt leaders choosing to enrich themselves at the expense of their own people. |
|||
Reducing relative poverty would also involve reducing [[Wealth inequality|inequality]]. [[Oxfam]], among others,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inequality and Poverty – OECD |url=https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm |access-date=2023-02-23 |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]}}</ref> has called for an international movement to end extreme wealth concentration arguing that the concentration of resources in the hands of the top 1% depresses economic activity and makes life harder for everyone else—particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder.<ref name="WP-20130120">{{cite news |last=Khazan |first=Olga |title=Can we fight poverty by ending extreme wealth? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/01/20/oxfam-poverty-income-inequality/ |date=20 January 2013 |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |access-date=18 September 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924041632/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/01/20/oxfam-poverty-income-inequality/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BBC-20130118">{{cite news |title=Oxfam seeks 'new deal' on inequality from world leaders |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21094962 |date=18 January 2013 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=18 September 2014 |archive-date=18 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818014118/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21094962 |url-status=live }}</ref> And they say that the gains of the world's [[billionaires]] in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, were enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hagan |first=Shelly |date=22 January 2018 |title=Billionaires Made So Much Money Last Year They Could End Extreme Poverty Seven Times |url=https://money.com/billionaires-made-so-much-money-last-year-they-could-end-extreme-poverty-seven-times/ |work=[[Money (magazine)|Money]] |access-date=2 December 2018 |archive-date=18 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218060745/https://money.com/billionaires-made-so-much-money-last-year-they-could-end-extreme-poverty-seven-times/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Methods to reduce inequality and relative poverty include [[progressive taxation]], which involves increasing tax rates on high-income earners,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gatzia |first1=Dimitria E. |last2=Woods |first2=Douglas |title=Progressive taxation as a means to equality of condition and poverty alleviation |journal=Economics, Management, and Financial Markets |date=September 2014 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=29–43 |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=googlescholar&id=GALE%7CA399572236&v=2.1&it=r&sid=AONE&asid=30038109 |access-date=24 February 2023 |language=English |issn=1842-3191}}</ref><ref name="amaglobeli">{{Citation |last1=Amaglobeli |first1=David |last2=Thevenot |first2=Celine |title=Tackling Inequality on All Fronts |date=March 2022 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2022/03/Tackling-inequality-on-all-fronts-Amaglobeli-Thevenot |access-date=2023-02-22 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |language=en}}</ref> [[wealth tax]]es, which involve taxing a portion of an individual's net worth above a certain threshold,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Terreblanche |first1=Sampie |title=A Wealth Tax for South Africa |website=University of Witwatersrand |date=January 2018 |issue=1 |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/faculties-and-schools/commerce-law-and-management/research-entities/scis/documents/SCIS%20Working%20paper%20no%201%20Wealth%20Tax.pdf |access-date=24 February 2023 |series=SCIS Working Paper |quote=wealth tax ... income could be used to set up a restitution fund to help alleviate the worst poverty.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Mattauch |first1=Linus |date=31 January 2019 |title=Reducing wealth inequality through wealth taxes without compromising economic growth |url=https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/blog/reducing-wealth-inequality-through-wealth-taxes-without-compromising-economic-growth/ |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=Oxford Martin School |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michalos |first1=Alex C. |title=A Case for a Progressive Annual Net Wealth Tax |journal=Public Affairs Quarterly |date=1988 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=105–140 |jstor=40435679 |issn=0887-0373}}</ref> reducing [[payroll tax]]es, which are taxes on employees and employers and reducing this provides workers greater take-home pay and allows employers to spend more on wages and salaries,<ref name="Scholz">{{cite journal |last1=Scholz |first1=John Karl |title=Taxation and poverty: 1960–2006 |journal=Focus |date=2007 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=52–57 |url=https://www.irp.wisc.edu/publications/focus/pdfs/foc251h.pdf |access-date=24 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Jean-Paul |first=Fitoussi |title=Payroll tax reductions for the low paid |url=https://hal-sciencespo.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/972903/filename/ocdefitou.pdf |date=2000 |work=OECD Economic Studies |volume=2000/II |issue=31 |pages=115–131 |oclc=882887538}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brittain |first1=John A. |title=The Incidence of Social Security Payroll Taxes |journal=The American Economic Review |date=1971 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=110–125 |jstor=1910545 |issn=0002-8282}}</ref> and increasing the [[labor share]], which is the proportion of business income paid as wages and salaries instead of allocated to shareholders as profit.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Giovannoni |first1=Olivier |title=Functional Distribution of Income, Inequality and the Incidence of Poverty: Stylized Facts and the Role of Macroeconomic Policy |date=January 30, 2010 |url=https://utip.lbj.utexas.edu/papers/utip_58.pdf |publisher=University of Texas Inequality Project |access-date=2023-02-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jayadev |first=A. |date=2007-01-20 |title=Capital account openness and the labour share of income |url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/cje/bel037 |journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics |language=en |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=423–443 |doi=10.1093/cje/bel037 |issn=0309-166X}}</ref> |
|||
Despite all the evidence of the importance of a development state, some international [[aid agencies]] have just recently publicly recognized the fact. The [[United Nations Development Program]], for example, published a report in April of 2000 which focused on good governance in poor countries as a key to economic development and overcoming the selfish interests of wealthy elites often behind state actions in developing nations. The report concludes that “Without [[good governance]], reliance on [[trickle-down economics| trickle-down]] economic development and a host of other strategies will not work.” <ref name="undp2000">United Nations Development Report. 2000. ''Overcoming Human Poverty: UNDP Poverty Report 2000.'' New York: United Nations Publications.</ref> |
|||
=== Increasing the supply of basic needs === |
|||
Despite the promise of such research several questions remain, such as where good governance comes from and how it can be achieved. The comparative analysis of one sociologist <ref name=kerbo>Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill. </ref> suggests that broad historical forces have shaped the likelihood of good governance. Ancient civilizations with more developed government organization before [[colonialism]], as well as elite responsibility, have helped create strong states with the means and efficiency to carry out development policies today. On the other hand strong states are not always the form of political organization most conducive to economic development. Other historical factors, especially the experiences of colonialism for each country, have intervened to make a strong state and/or good governance less likely for some countries, especially in [[Africa]]. Another important factor that has been found to affect the quality of institutions and governance was the pattern of colonization (how it took place) and even the identity of colonizing power. International agencies may be able to promote good governance through various policies of intervention in developing nations as indicated in a few African countries, but comparative analysis suggests it may be much more difficult to achieve in most poor nations around the world.<ref name=kerbo>Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill. </ref> |
|||
==== |
==== Improving technology ==== |
||
[[File:Spraying Oilseed Rape near Barton Grange - geograph.org.uk - 1842382.jpg|thumb|Spreading [[fertilizer]] on a field of [[rapeseed]] near [[Barton-upon-Humber]], England]] |
|||
The most widely used policies of the countries of [[East Asia| East]] and [[Southeast Asia]] that have been successful at reducing poverty involve [[import substitution]] and the development of export industries. <ref name=kerbo>Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill. </ref> Import substitution simply means attempts to discourage [[import| imported goods]] so that the domestic economy of the less developed country can start making the products itself. Import substitution is the main policy against the problem of structural distortion in the economy of a poor nation. Structural distortion is the lack of jobs and profits obtained in a country where raw materials are extracted and imported to rich nations insead of actually being produced into products.<ref name=chasedunn1975>Chase-Dunn, Christopher. 1975. “The Effects of International Economic Dependence on Development and Inequality: A Cross-National Study.” American Sociological Review, 40:720-738.</ref> |
|||
Agricultural technologies such as [[nitrogen fertilizer]]s, pesticides, new seed varieties and new irrigation methods have dramatically reduced food shortages in modern times by boosting yields past previous constraints.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/issues/97jan/borlaug/borlaug.htm |title=Forgotten benefactor of humanity |publisher=Theatlantic.com |access-date=24 October 2010 |date=January 1997 |archive-date=4 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104005841/http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/97jan/borlaug/borlaug.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Before the [[Industrial Revolution]], poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as economies produced little, making wealth scarce.<ref name=britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/473136/poverty|title=Poverty (sociology)|publisher=britannica.com|access-date=24 October 2010|archive-date=15 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315150947/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/473136/poverty|url-status=live}}</ref> Geoffrey Parker wrote that "In [[Antwerp]] and [[Lyon]], two of the largest cities in [[western Europe]], by 1600 three-quarters of the total population were too poor to pay taxes, and therefore likely to need relief in times of crisis."<ref>[[Geoffrey Parker (historian)|Geoffrey Parker]] (2001). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qy8y8rHgucoC&pg=PA11 Europe in crisis, 1598–1648] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519014755/https://books.google.com/books?id=qy8y8rHgucoC&pg=PA11&dq&hl=en |date=19 May 2016 }}''". Wiley–Blackwell. p. 11. {{ISBN|978-0-631-22028-2}}</ref> The initial industrial revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass absolute poverty in what is now considered the developed world.<ref name=Britannica>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243118/Great-Depression Great Depression] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509121741/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243118/Great-Depression |date=9 May 2015 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> [[Mass production]] of goods in places such as rapidly industrializing China has made what were once considered luxuries, such as vehicles and computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who were otherwise too poor to afford them.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/world/asia/27laos.html|title=In Laos, Chinese motorcycles change lives|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Thomas|last=Fuller|date=27 December 2007|archive-date=9 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409105223/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/world/asia/27laos.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0625/p12s01-woaf.html?page=2 |title=China boosts African economies, offering a second opportunity |journal=Christian Science Monitor |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=12 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512071516/http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0625/p12s01-woaf.html?page=2 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
=====Problems===== |
|||
There are a few problems with carrying out a long-term policy of import substitution: |
|||
# It takes a long time to get such industries operating in the poorer country. |
|||
# There is often little capital to start up the industries. |
|||
# Wealthy groups within the poor country resist delaying their gratification of consumer goods while waiting until the starup industries are operating in the poor country. Good governance and a strong [[development state]] may be needed to implement and follow through with a policy of import substitution.<ref name=kerbo>Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill. </ref> |
|||
Other than technology, advancements in sciences such as medicine help provide basic needs better. For example, [[Sri Lanka]] had a [[maternal mortality rate]] of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today, but reduced it to 0.5–0.6% in the 1950s and to 0.6% in 2006 while spending less each year on [[maternal health]] because it learned what worked and what did not.<ref name="Disease Control Priorities Project">{{cite web|url=http://www.dcp2.org/main/Home.html|title=Disease Control Priorities Project|publisher=dcp2.org|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623001000/http://www.dcp2.org/main/Home.html|archive-date=23 June 2011}}</ref><ref name=post>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/02/AR2006040200813.html|title=Saving millions for just a few dollars|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=3 April 2006|access-date=21 June 2011|first=David|last=Brown|archive-date=20 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110620195857/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/02/AR2006040200813.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive and educational measures have been made to disseminate what works, such as the [[Copenhagen Consensus]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Prabhat|first=Jha|title=Benefits and costs of the health targets for the post-2015 development agenda|url=http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/publication/post-2015-consensus-health-assessment-jha-et-al|website=copenhageconsensus.com|publisher=Copenhagen Consensus Center|access-date=10 November 2016|archive-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111000019/http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/publication/post-2015-consensus-health-assessment-jha-et-al|url-status=live}}</ref> Cheap [[water filter]]s and promoting hand washing are some of the most cost effective health interventions and can cut [[child mortality|deaths]] from [[diarrhea]] and [[pneumonia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8399692.stm|title=India's Tata launches water filter for rural poor|work=BBC News|date=7 December 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718134728/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8399692.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7670855.stm|title=Millions mark UN hand-washing day|work=BBC News|date=15 October 2008|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=9 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009215006/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7670855.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Food fortification|Fortification]] with [[micronutrient]]s was ranked the most cost effective aid strategy by the Copenhagen Consensus.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/04/opinion/04kristof.html?_r=0|title=Raising the World's I.Q.|newspaper=New York Times|date=4 December 2008|access-date=5 January 2016|archive-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160717055221/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/04/opinion/04kristof.html?_r=0|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, [[iodised salt]] costs 2 to 3 cents per person a year while even moderate [[iodine deficiency]] in pregnancy shaves off 10 to 15 [[Intelligence quotient|IQ]] points.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/16/health/16iodine.html?ref=todayspaper|title=In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt|work=The New York Times|date=16 December 2006|access-date=5 January 2016|archive-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160717055236/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/16/health/16iodine.html?ref=todayspaper|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
Once some industries for import substitution are in place the focus can shift to developing export industries. Rather than import goods made in richer countries, less developed countries would prefer rich countries to buy their exported goods. Once they have industries exporting products to richer countires this can reverse the flow of [[international trade]], meaning a favorable balance of trade bringing a net surplus of money into the less developed country. This favorable balance of trade will then accumulate financial resources for further investment in the domestic economy of the less developed nation. A flood of consumer goods such as [[televisions]], [[stereos]], [[bicycles]], and [[textiles]] into the United States, Europe, and Japan has helped fuel the economic expansion of [[Four Asian Tigers| Asian tiger economies]] in recent decades.<ref name=vogel991>Vogel, Ezra F. 1991. ''The Four Little Dragons: The Spread of Industrialization in East Asia.'' Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.</ref> |
|||
==== |
==== State funding ==== |
||
{{See also|Political corruption|Tax havens|Transfer mispricing|Developing countries' debt|Conditionality}} |
|||
[[File:Nigerian Surgery Table.jpg|thumb|right|Hardwood surgical tables are commonplace in rural [[Nigeria]]n clinics.]] |
|||
Certain basic needs are argued to be better provided by the state. [[Universal healthcare]] can reduce the overall cost of providing healthcare by having a single payer negotiating with healthcare providers and minimizing administrative costs.<ref name=Blumenthal>{{Citation |last1=Blumenthal |first1=David |date=2014-09-09 |title=Do Health Care Costs Fuel Economic Inequality in the United States? |url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/blog/2014/do-health-care-costs-fuel-economic-inequality-united-states |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=www.commonwealthfund.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=Dastidar>{{cite journal |last1=Dastidar |first1=Biswanath Ghosh |last2=Suri |first2=Shailesh |last3=Nagaraja |first3=Vikranth H. |last4=Jani |first4=Anant |title=A virtual bridge to Universal Healthcare in India |journal=Communications Medicine |date=16 November 2022 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=145 |doi=10.1038/s43856-022-00211-7 |pmid=36385160 |pmc=9667848 |s2cid=253525261 |language=en |issn=2730-664X |quote=any strategy by India to haul its massive population out of poverty must necessarily include measures to provide UHC nationwide.}}</ref> It is also argued that subsidizing essential goods such as fuel is less efficient in helping the poor than providing that same money as income grants to the poor.<ref name=Jha/> |
|||
Many studies have shown that [[Property redistribution| land reform]] policies that get more land to the cultivators themselves is one of the best ways to reduce world poverty. <ref>{{cite book |
|||
| last = International Fund for Agricultural Development |
|||
| authorlink = International Fund for Agricultural Development |
|||
| title = Rural Poverty Report 2001: The Challenge of Ending Rural Poverty. |
|||
| publisher = Oxford University Press |
|||
| date = 2001 |
|||
| location = New York }}</ref> When peasants and farmers own their own land, farming is often more productive, agriculture is more labor intensive (which creates more farm jobs), and small farmers and peasants are able to keep more of the profits themselves. |
|||
Government revenue can be diverted away from basic services by corruption.<ref name=unodc>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/about-unodc/speeches/2007-11-13.html|title=Anti-Corruption Climate Change: it started in Nigeria|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|date=13 November 2007|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=22 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422134508/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/about-unodc/speeches/2007-11-13.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2009/04/nigeria-the-hidden-cost-of-corruption.html|title=Nigeria: the Hidden Cost of Corruption|publisher=Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)|date=14 April 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=23 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023234604/http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2009/04/nigeria-the-hidden-cost-of-corruption.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Funds from aid and natural resources are often sent by government individuals for [[money laundering]] to overseas banks which insist on [[bank secrecy]], instead of spending on the poor.<ref name=graft>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13278728|title=Banks, graft and development|newspaper=The Economist|date=12 March 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=18 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318081420/http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13278728|url-status=live}}</ref> A [[Global Witness]] report asked for more action from Western banks as they have proved capable of stanching the flow of funds linked to terrorism.<ref name=graft/> |
|||
Land redistribution has been tried, but has very seldom succeeded. It worked in [[Japan]], but only because the devastation of [[World War II]] put the U.S. occupation forces in charge, and [[General MacArthur]] was willing to push land reform on a willing Japanese population. <ref name=kerbo>Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill. </ref> During the 1970s the United States under [[Jimmy Carter| President Carter]] attempted to impose land reform in [[Central America]]. The idea was to give incentives and payments to wealthy landowners, and loans to peasants so they could buy land taken from big haciendas. What seemed like a good idea resulted in [[political violence]] and revolution throughout most of Central America. Landowners resisted, peasants who had their hopes raised became angry, and political violence spiraled upward as both sides attacked the other. The results were even more right-wing military coups throughout the region. There was one brief revolutionary government emerging in [[Nicaragua]], but the [[Reagan administration]] quickly activitated the [[CIA]] to aid the "[[Contras]]" who brought down the [[Sandinista]] government. <ref name=kerbo>Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill. </ref> |
|||
[[Illicit financial flows|Illicit capital flight]], such as corporate [[tax avoidance]],<ref>José Antonio Ocampo and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona (30 September 2015). [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/30/tax-avoidance-corporations-impacts-the-poor-united-nations-step-in Tax avoidance by corporations is out of control. The United Nations must step in] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510153325/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/30/tax-avoidance-corporations-impacts-the-poor-united-nations-step-in |date=10 May 2017 }}. ''The Guardian.'' Retrieved 30 September 2015.</ref> from the developing world is estimated at ten times the size of aid it receives and twice the debt service it pays,<ref> |
|||
==== Microloans ==== |
|||
{{Cite book |
|||
|date = January 2011 |
|||
|first1 = Kristina |
|||
|last1 = Fröberg |
|||
|first2 = Attiya |
|||
|last2 = Waris |
|||
|page = 7 |
|||
|title = Bringing The Billions Back – How Africa And Europe Can End Illicit Capital Flight |
|||
|url = https://www.academia.edu/5072598 |
|||
|publisher = Forum Syd <!--Forlag means publisher--> |
|||
|location = Stockholm |
|||
|isbn = 978-91-89542-59-4 |
|||
|access-date = 13 April 2022 |
|||
|via = Academia.edu |
|||
}} |
|||
</ref> with one estimate that most of Africa would be developed if the taxes owed were paid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/video/africa/2012/01/201211684512130367.html|title=Africa losing billions in tax evasion|work=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al-Jazeera]]|date=16 January 2012|access-date=5 January 2016|archive-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106135130/http://www.aljazeera.com/video/africa/2012/01/201211684512130367.html|url-status=live}}</ref> About 60 per cent of illicit capital flight from Africa is from [[transfer mispricing]], where a [[subsidiary]] in a developing nation sells to another subsidiary or [[shell company]] in a [[tax haven]] at an artificially low price to pay less tax.<ref name=transparency>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/06/20116188244589715.html|title='Transparency' hides Zambia's lost billions|work=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al-Jazeera]]|date=18 June 2011|access-date=26 July 2011|first=Khadija|last=Sharife|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612162746/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/06/20116188244589715.html|url-status=live}}</ref> An [[African Union]] report estimates that about 30% of sub-Saharan Africa's GDP has been moved to tax havens.<ref name=guardian>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2007/jan/21/business.theobserver2|title=Western bankers and lawyers 'rob Africa of $150bn every year'|work=The Guardian|location=London|date=21 January 2007|access-date=5 July 2011|first=Nick|last=Mathiason|archive-date=9 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909233820/http://www.theguardian.com/money/2007/jan/21/business.theobserver2|url-status=live}}</ref> Solutions include corporate "country-by-country reporting" where corporations disclose activities in each country and thereby prohibit the use of tax havens where no effective economic activity occurs.<ref name=transparency/> |
|||
[[Developing countries' debt|Developing countries' debt service]] to banks and governments from richer countries can constrain government spending on the poor.<ref>The World Bank and International Monetary Fund. 2001. ''Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, Progress Report.'' Retrieved from [http://worldbank.org Worldbank.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313170039/http://www.worldbank.org/ |date=13 March 2018 }}.</ref> For example, [[Zambia]] spent 40% of its total budget to repay foreign debt, and only 7% for basic state services in 1997.<ref name="worldcentric.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldcentric.org/conscious-living/third-world-debt|title=Third World Debt|publisher=worldcentric.org|access-date=27 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527054809/http://www.worldcentric.org/conscious-living/third-world-debt|archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been [[debt relief]]. Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from a 2005 round of debt relief.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4883062.stm|title=Zambia overwhelmed by free health care|work=BBC News|access-date=27 May 2011|date=7 April 2006|archive-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720055045/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4883062.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Since that round of debt relief, private creditors accounted for an increasing share of poor countries' debt service obligations. This complicated efforts to renegotiate easier terms for borrowers during crises such as the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] because the multiple private creditors involved say they have a fiduciary obligation to their clients such as the pension funds.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/nov/15/world-poverty-rising-rich-nations-debt-covid-gordon-brown-child-mortality|title=World poverty rising as rich nations call in debt amid Covid, warns Gordon Brown|work=The Guardian|access-date=26 April 2021|date=15 November 2020|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501235245/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/nov/15/world-poverty-rising-rich-nations-debt-covid-gordon-brown-child-mortality|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/21/uk-urged-take-lead-easing-debt-crisis-developing-countries-g7|title=UK urged to take lead in easing debt crisis in developing countries|work=The Guardian|access-date=26 April 2021|date=21 February 2021|archive-date=26 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426033410/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/21/uk-urged-take-lead-easing-debt-crisis-developing-countries-g7|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
One of the most popular of the new technical tools for economic development and poverty reduction are microloans made famous in 1976 by the [[Grameen Bank]] in [[Bangladesh]]. The idea is to loan small amounts of money to farmers or villages so these people can obtain the things they need to increase their economic rewards. A small pump costing only $50 could make a very big difference in a village without the means of [[irrigation]], for example. A couple of hundred dollars for a small bridge linking a village to a city where it can market farm products is another example. <ref>http://microcreditsummit.org</ref><ref>http://www.grameen-info.org</ref> A specific example is the [[Thailand| Thai]] government's People's Bank which is making loans of $100 to $300 to help farmers buy equipment or seeds, help street vendors acquire an inventory to sell, or help others set up small shops. |
|||
The [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]], as primary holders of developing countries' debt, attach [[structural adjustment]] [[Conditionality|conditionalities]] in return for loans which are generally geared toward loan repayment with [[austerity]] measures such as the elimination of state subsidies and the privatization of state services. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot afford them at market prices.<ref name=Malawi>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/02/world/africa/02malawi.html|title=Ending famine simply by ignoring the experts|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Celia W.|last=Dugger|date=2 December 2007|archive-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615032049/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/02/world/africa/02malawi.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Malawi]], almost 5 million of its 13 million people used to need emergency food aid but after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007 as Malawi became a major food exporter.<ref name=Malawi/> |
|||
==== Empowering women ==== |
|||
Empowering [[women]] has helped some countries increase and sustain economic development. When given more [[rights]] and opportunities women begin to receive more education, thus increasing the overall [[human capital]] of the country; when given more influence women seem to act more responsibly in helping people in the family or village; and when better educated and more in control of their lives, women are more successful in bringing down rapid population growth becase they have more say in [[family planning]]. <ref>World Bank. 2001. ''Engendering Development--Through Gender Equality in Right, Resources and Voice.'' New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> |
|||
[[Distressed securities fund]]s, also known as ''vulture funds'', buy up the debt of poor nations cheaply and then sue countries for the full value of the debt plus interest which can be ten or 100 times what they paid.<ref name=vulture>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-jersey-21627406|title=Jersey law to stop 'vulture funds' comes into force|work=BBC News|access-date=1 October 2014|date=1 March 2013|archive-date=17 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017234751/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-jersey-21627406|url-status=live}}</ref> They may pursue any companies which do business with their target country to force them to pay to the fund instead.<ref name=vulture/> Considerable resources are diverted on costly court cases. For example, a court in [[Jersey]] ordered the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to pay an American speculator $100 million in 2010.<ref name=vulture/> Now, the UK, [[Isle of Man]] and Jersey have banned such payments.<ref name=vulture/> |
|||
==== Economic growth ==== |
|||
[[File:Familiy Planning Ethiopia (bad effects).jpg|thumb|A [[family planning]] placard in [[Ethiopia]]. It shows some negative effects of having too many children.]] |
|||
[[Image:World GDP per capita (1000-1998).png|thumb|right|World [[GDP]] [[per capita]] rapidly increased beginning with the [[Industrial Revolution]].]] |
|||
====Improving access to available basic needs==== |
|||
The anti-poverty strategy of the [[World Bank]] depends heavily on reducing poverty through the promotion of [[economic growth]].<ref>[http://www.worldbank.org/poverty PovertyNet worldbank.org]</ref> The World Bank argues that an overview of many studies shows that: |
|||
{{main|Reverse brain drain|Human capital flight}} |
|||
Even with new products, such as better seeds, or greater volumes of them, such as industrial production, the poor still require access to these products. Improving road and transportation infrastructure helps solve this major bottleneck. In Africa, it costs more to move fertilizer from an African seaport {{convert|60|mi|km|-1|order=flip}} inland than to ship it from the United States to Africa because of sparse, low-quality roads, leading to fertilizer costs two to six times the world average.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/world/africa/31soil.html?_r=0|title=Overfarming African land is worsening Hunger Crisis|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 February 2013|first=Celia|last=Dugger|date=31 March 2006|archive-date=15 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515181849/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/world/africa/31soil.html?_r=0|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Microfranchising]] models such as door-to-door distributors who earn commission-based income or [[Coca-Cola]]'s successful distribution system<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/reenitadas/2014/06/30/if-coca-cola-can-be-delivered-all-over-the-developing-world-why-cant-essential-medications/#17d0b7415559|title=If Coca-Cola can be Delivered All Over the Developing World, Why Can't Essential Medicine?|work=Forbes|access-date=22 June 2016|first=Reenita|last=Das|date=30 June 2014|archive-date=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822000311/http://www.forbes.com/sites/reenitadas/2014/06/30/if-coca-cola-can-be-delivered-all-over-the-developing-world-why-cant-essential-medications/#17d0b7415559|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/2013/03/colalife-piggybacks-on-coke/|title=Clever Packaging: Essential Medicine Rides Coke's Distribution Into Remote Villages|work=wired.com|access-date=22 June 2016|first=Tim|last=Maly|date=27 March 2013|archive-date=20 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620072712/http://www.wired.com/2013/03/colalife-piggybacks-on-coke|url-status=live}}</ref> are used to disseminate basic needs to remote areas for below market prices.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130531-saving-lives-the-avon-way|title=Africa's 'Avon Ladies' saving lives door-to-door|work=BBC News|access-date=31 May 2014|first=Jonathan|last=Kalan|date=3 June 2013|archive-date=21 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140121094526/http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130531-saving-lives-the-avon-way|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=microfranchising>{{cite news|url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/10/the-avon-ladies-of-africa/|title=The 'Avon Ladies' of Africa|newspaper=nytimes.com|access-date=9 February 2013|first=Tina|last=Rosenberg|date=10 October 2012|archive-date=25 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125114430/http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/10/the-avon-ladies-of-africa/|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
The loss of basic needs providers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging effect.<ref name=Philippines>{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2006-05-03-voa38.html|title=Philippine Medical Brain Drain Leaves Public Health System in Crisis|publisher=voanews.com|date=3 May 2006|access-date=27 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130222516/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2006-05-03-voa38.html|archive-date=30 January 2012}}</ref> As of 2004, there were more Ethiopia-trained doctors living in Chicago than in Ethiopia<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/1475620/Out-of-Africa---health-workers-leave-in-droves.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525013213/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/1475620/Out-of-Africa---health-workers-leave-in-droves.html|archive-date=25 May 2010|title=Out of Africa – health workers leave in droves|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=2 November 2004|access-date=27 May 2011|location=London|first=Adrian|last=Blomfield}}</ref> and this often leaves inadequately less skilled doctors to remain in their home countries.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/open-future/2018/08/27/what-educated-people-from-poor-countries-make-of-the-brain-drain-argument|title=What educated people from poor countries make of the "brain drain" argument|date=27 August 2018|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=5 December 2019|issn=0013-0613|archive-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204140616/https://www.economist.com/open-future/2018/08/27/what-educated-people-from-poor-countries-make-of-the-brain-drain-argument|url-status=live}}</ref> Proposals to mitigate the problem include compulsory government service for graduates of public medical and nursing schools<ref name=Philippines/> and promoting [[medical tourism]] so that health care personnel have more incentive to practice in their home countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/05/30/inpatients-abroad/|title=Inpatients abroad|publisher=foreignpolicy.com|access-date=9 January 2016|date=30 May 2011|archive-date=18 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160118005150/http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/05/30/inpatients-abroad/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Telehealth]] is the use of [[Telecommunications|telecommunication technologies]] to deliver health services. For remotes communities in [[Alaska]], telehealth has been found to reduce travel costs alone for the state by $13 million in 2021<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alaskajournal.com/2016-10-12/medicaid-reform-improves-access-healthcare-alaska-natives|title=Medicaid reform improves access to healthcare for Alaska Natives|website=www.alaskajournal.com|language=en|access-date=15 June 2023}}</ref> and, according to one study, reduced the life expectancy gap between whites and American Indian population in Alaska from eight to five years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sequist|first1=T|last2=Cullen|first2=T|last3= Acton|first3=K|date=2011 |title=Indian health service innovations have helped reduce health disparities affecting american Indian and alaska native people.|journal=Health Aff (Millwood)|volume=30 |issue=10|pages=1965–1973|doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0630|pmid= 21976341|s2cid=31770979|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
|||
* Growth is fundamental for poverty reduction, and in principle growth as such does not affect inequality. On average, in developing countries, a 1% increase in average (per capita) incomes reduces the proportion of the population living on less than 1$ a day by about 3%, although other factors are also relevant. |
|||
* Growth accompanied by progressive distributional change is better than growth alone. |
|||
* High initial income inequality is a brake on poverty reduction. In particular, countries with identical growth rates but lower levels of income inequality experience a more substantial reduction in poverty rates due to economic growth. |
|||
* Poverty itself is also likely to be a barrier for poverty reduction; and wealth inequality seems to predict lower future growth rates.<ref> |
|||
==== Preventing overpopulation ==== |
|||
[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPGI/0,,contentMDK:20263370~menuPK:342777~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:342771,00.html Poverty, Growth, and Inequality worldbank.org]</ref> |
|||
{{main|Demographic transition|family planning}} |
|||
[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|270px|Map of countries and territories by [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] as of 2020]] |
|||
Poverty and lack of access to birth control can lead to population increases that put pressure on local economies and access to resources, amplifying other economic inequality and creating increase poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty|title=Population and poverty|website=www.unfpa.org|language=en|access-date=11 February 2019|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521093951/https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=birthrates/><ref>"[https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gevGOq7Vctd1FmJkzO3gapTqX4ZA Population growth driving climate change, poverty: experts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523114015/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gevGOq7Vctd1FmJkzO3gapTqX4ZA |date=23 May 2012 }}". [[Agence France-Presse]]. 21 September 2009.</ref> Better [[Female education|education for both men and women]], and more control of their lives, reduces population growth due to [[family planning]].<ref name=empower>World Bank. 2001. ''Engendering Development – Through Gender Equality in Right, Resources and Voice.'' New York: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crist|first1=Eileen|last2=Ripple|first2=William J.|author-link2=William J. Ripple|last3= Ehrlich|first3=Paul R.|author-link3=Paul R. Ehrlich|last4=Rees|first4=William E. |last5=Wolf|first5=Christopher |date=2022 |title=Scientists' warning on population|url=https://scientistswarning.forestry.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/Crist2022.pdf|journal=[[Science of the Total Environment]]|volume=845 |issue=|page=157166 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166|pmid= 35803428|bibcode=2022ScTEn.84557166C |s2cid=250387801|quote=Alongside ambitious investment in schooling girls (and more broadly, of course, all children), priority should be given to making high-quality family-planning services available to every woman on the planet, while economic, geographic, and cultural barriers to access should be removed. The combination of institutional support to plan one's child-bearing choices and educational attainment, including enhanced opportunity for higher education for women, yields immediate fertility declines.}}</ref> According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), those who receive better education can earn money for their lives, thereby strengthening economic security.<ref>{{cite web |
|||
|title=Population and Poverty |
|||
|url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty |
|||
|year=2014 |
|||
|access-date=5 January 2015 |
|||
|archive-date=21 December 2014 |
|||
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221013524/http://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty |
|||
|url-status=live |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
=== Increasing personal income === |
|||
The following are strategies used or proposed to increase personal incomes among the poor. Raising farm incomes is described as the core of the antipoverty effort as three-quarters of the poor today are farmers.<ref name=agriculture>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/20/world/africa/20worldbank.html|title=World Bank report puts agriculture at core of antipoverty effort|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Celia W.|last=Dugger|date=20 October 2007|archive-date=26 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126135129/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/20/world/africa/20worldbank.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Estimates show that growth in the agricultural productivity of small farmers is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country's population as growth generated in nonagricultural sectors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:21893554~menuPK:2643747~pagePK:64020865~piPK:149114~theSitePK:336992,00.html|title=Climate Change: Bangladesh facing the challenge|publisher=The [[World Bank]]|date=8 September 2008|access-date=5 July 2011|archive-date=18 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118191406/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:21893554~menuPK:2643747~pagePK:64020865~piPK:149114~theSitePK:336992,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
{{see|Fair trade}} |
|||
==== Income grants ==== |
|||
Another approach to alleviating poverty is to implement [[Fair Trade]] which advocates the payment of a fair price as well as social and environmental standards in areas related to the production of goods. |
|||
{{Main|Guaranteed minimum income|Social security|Welfare}} |
|||
[[File:Afghan girl begging.jpg|thumb|Afghan girl begging in [[Kabul]]]] |
|||
==== Development aid ==== |
|||
A [[guaranteed minimum income]] ensures that every citizen will be able to purchase a desired level of basic needs. One method is through a [[basic income]] (or [[negative income tax]]), which is a system of [[social security]], that periodically provides each citizen, rich or poor, with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Wright |first1=Erik Olin |date=14 February 2017 |title=Can the universal basic income solve global inequalities? |url=https://en.unesco.org/inclusivepolicylab/news/can-universal-basic-income-solve-global-inequalities |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> Studies of large cash-transfer programs in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Malawi show that the programs can be effective in increasing consumption, schooling, and nutrition, whether they are tied to such conditions or not.<ref>{{cite journal |
|||
|title= Special Section on Social Cash Transfers in Sub-Saharan Africa |
|||
|journal= Journal of Development Effectiveness |
|||
|year= 2012 |
|||
|url= http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rjde20/4/1 |
|||
|access-date= 23 January 2013 |
|||
|volume= 4 |
|||
|issue= 1 |
|||
|pages= 1–187 |
|||
|doi= 10.1080/19439342.2012.659024 |
|||
|last1= Davis |
|||
|first1= Benjamin |
|||
|last2= Gaarder |
|||
|first2= Marie |
|||
|last3= Handa |
|||
|first3= Sudhanshu |
|||
|last4= Yablonski |
|||
|first4= Jenn |
|||
|s2cid= 129406705 |
|||
|archive-date= 8 August 2020 |
|||
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200808043539/https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rjde20/4/1 |
|||
|url-status= live |
|||
}}</ref><ref name=Spiegel>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,642310,00.html|title=A new approach to aid: How a basic income program saved a Namibian village|work=Der Spiegel|access-date=28 May 2011|date=10 August 2009|last1=Krahe|first1=Dialika|archive-date=16 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516110247/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,642310,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Namibians line up">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7415814.stm|title=Namibians line up for free cash|work=BBC News|access-date=28 May 2011|date=23 May 2008|archive-date=20 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620055405/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7415814.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
[[Wage subsidy|Employment subsidies]] go to those already employed and this has shown to have little effect on those at the lowest income levels.<ref name="Scholz" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoynes |first1=Hilary |last2=Patel |first2=Ankur |date=July 2015 |title=Effective Policy for Reducing Inequality? The Earned Income Tax Credit and the Distribution of Income |journal=Journal of Human Resources |volume=53 |issue=4 |url=https://www.gc.cuny.edu/sites/default/files/2021-07/Hoynes-Patel-0616.pdf |doi=10.3386/w21340 |location=Cambridge, MA|s2cid=153263015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Orszag |first1=J. Michael |last2=Snower |first2=Dennis J. |date=2003-10-01 |title=Designing employment subsidies |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927537103000356 |journal=Labour Economics |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=557–572 |doi=10.1016/S0927-5371(03)00035-6 |issn=0927-5371}}</ref> Proponents argue that a basic income is more efficient than a [[minimum wage]] and [[unemployment benefit]]s, as the minimum wage effectively imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing [[deadweight loss|losses in efficiency]]. In 1968, [[Paul Samuelson]], [[John Kenneth Galbraith]] and another 1,200 economists signed a document calling for the US Congress to introduce a system of income guarantees.<ref>''Economists' Statement on Guaranteed Annual Income'', 1/15/1968 – April 18, 1969 folder, General Correspondence Series, Papers of John Kenneth Galbraith, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Cited in: Jyotsna Sreenivasan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=yk5NI69ZO9sC "Poverty and the Government in America: A Historical Encyclopedia."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629172441/https://books.google.com/books?id=yk5NI69ZO9sC |date=29 June 2016 }} (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009), p. 269</ref> Winners of the [[Nobel Prize in Economics]], with often diverse political convictions, who support a basic income include [[Herbert A. Simon]],<ref name=Standing/> [[Friedrich Hayek]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayek |first=Friedrich |author-link=Friedrich Hayek |title= Law, Legislation and Liberty: A New Statement of the Liberal Principles of Justice and Political Economy |volume=2 |year=1973 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7100-8403-3 |page=87 }}</ref> [[Robert Solow]],<ref name=Standing/> [[Milton Friedman]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friedman |first1=Milton |author-link=Milton Friedman |first2=Rose |last2=Friedman |title=Free to Choose: A Personal Statement |year=1990 |publisher=Harcourt |isbn=978-0-15-633460-0 |pages=120–123 }}</ref> [[Jan Tinbergen]],<ref name=Standing/> [[James Tobin]]<ref name="Steensland">{{cite book|last=Steensland |first=Brian |title=The failed welfare revolution |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2007 |pages=70–78 |isbn= 978-0-691-12714-9}}</ref><ref>''"Is a Negative Income Tax Practical?"'', James Tobin, Joseph A. Pechman, and Peter M. Mieszkowski, Yale Law Journal 77 (1967): 1–27.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.minneapolisfed.org/publications_papers/pub_display.cfm?id=3649 |title=Interview with James Tobin – The Region – Publications & Papers | The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis |first=David |last=Fettig |work=minneapolisfed.org |year=2011 |quote=I would pursue my recommendations of years ago for a negative income tax. |access-date=25 October 2011 |archive-date=15 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015124538/http://www.minneapolisfed.org/publications_papers/pub_display.cfm?id=3649 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
|||
Most developed nations give [[development aid]] to [[developing countries]]. The UN target for development aid is 0.7% of [[GDP]]; currently only a few nations achieve this. Some [[think tanks]] and [[NGO]]s have argued that Western monetary aid often only serves to increase poverty and social inequality, either because it is conditioned with the implementation of harmful economic policies in the recipient countries <ref>[http://www.heritagekonpa.com/archives/Haiti;s%20rice%20farmers%20suffered%20since%20trade%20barrier%20in%201994.htm Haiti's rice farmers and poultry growers have suffered greatly since trade barriers were lowered in 1994.] By Jane Regan</ref>, or because it's tied with the importing of products from the donor country over cheaper alternatives,<ref>[http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=24509 Tied Aid Strangling Nations, Says U.N.] by Thalif Deen</ref> or because foreign aid is seen to be serving the interests of the donor more than the recipient.<ref>[http://www.globalissues.org/TradeRelated/Debt/USAid.asp US and Foreign Aid], GlobalIssues.org</ref> Critics also argue that some of the foreign aid is stolen by corrupt governments and officials, and that higher aid levels erode the quality of governance. Policy becomes much more oriented toward what will get more aid money than it does towards meeting the needs of the people.<ref name="ABC-myth">[http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=1955664&page=1 MYTH: More Foreign Aid Will End Global Poverty]</ref> [[Victor Bout]], one of the worlds most notorious [[arms dealer]]s, told the [[New York Times]] how he saw firsthand in [[Angola]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]] and elsewhere "how Western donations to impoverished countries lead to the destruction of social and ecological balance, mutual resentment and eventually war."<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C06E0DB1031F934A2575BC0A9659C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=3 Arms and the Man] [[New York Times]] Retrieved on March 25, 2008</ref> "Once countries give money, they control you." he says. |
|||
and [[James Meade]].<ref name=Standing >{{cite book|year=2005 |publisher=Anthem Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-84331-174-4 |title=Promoting Income Security as a Right: Europe and North America |chapter=1. About Time: Basic Income Security As A Right |page=18 |first=Guy |last=Standing |edition=2nd |editor-first=Guy |editor-last=Standing |quote=Among those who have become convinced of the virtues of the basic income approach are several Nobel Prize-winning economists of surprisingly diverse political convictions: Milton Friedman, Herbert Simon, Robert Solow, Jan Tinbergen and James Tobin (besides, of course, James Meade who was an advocate from his younger days).}}</ref> |
|||
Income grants are argued to be vastly more efficient in extending basic needs to the poor than [[subsidies|subsidizing]] supplies whose effectiveness in poverty alleviation is diluted by the non-poor who enjoy the same subsidized prices.<ref name=Jha> |
|||
Supporters argue that these problems may be solved with better [[audit]]ing of how the aid is used.<ref name="ABC-myth" /> Aid from [[non-governmental organization]]s may be more effective than governmental aid; this may be because it is better at reaching the poor and better controlled at the grassroots level.<ref>[http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=1955664&page=1 Does Foreign Aid Reduce Poverty? Empirical Evidence from Nongovernmental and Bilateral Aid]</ref> As a point of comparison, the annual world military spending is over $1 trillion.<ref>[http://yearbook2006.sipri.org/ SIPRI Yearbook 2006]</ref> |
|||
{{cite journal |
|||
|year = 2010 |
|||
|first1 = Shikha |
|||
|last1 = Jha |
|||
|first2 = Bharat |
|||
|last2 = Ramaswami |
|||
|title = How Can Food Subsidies Work Better? Answers from India and the Philippines |
|||
|journal = Erd Working Paper |
|||
|url = http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2010/economics-wp221.pdf |
|||
|publisher = Asian Development Bank |
|||
|location = Manila |
|||
|issn = 1655-5252 |
|||
|access-date = 23 January 2013 |
|||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150506130749/http://adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2010/economics-wp221.pdf |
|||
|archive-date = 6 May 2015 |
|||
|df = dmy-all |
|||
}}</ref> With cars and other appliances, the wealthiest 20% of Egypt uses about 93% of the country's fuel subsidies.<ref name=fossilfuel/> In some countries, fuel subsidies are a larger part of the budget than health and education.<ref name=fossilfuel>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/12/20121210104516139607.html|title=How to end fossil fuel subsidies without hurting the poor|publisher=Aljazeera|access-date=23 January 2013|date=11 December 2012|archive-date=14 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214104328/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/12/20121210104516139607.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/06/world/asia/india-takes-aim-at-poverty-with-cash-transfer-program.html?_r=0 |title= India Aims to Keep Money for Poor Out of Others' Pockets |work= The New York Times |access-date= 23 January 2013 |date= 5 January 2013 |archive-date= 15 May 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130515192059/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/06/world/asia/india-takes-aim-at-poverty-with-cash-transfer-program.html?_r=0 |url-status= live }}</ref> A 2008 study concluded that the money spent on in-kind transfers in India in a year could lift all India's poor out of poverty for that year if transferred directly.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapur |first=Devesh |author2=Mukhopadhyay, Subramanian |title=More for the Poor and Less for and by the State: The Case for Direct Cash Transfers |date=12 April 2008 |url=http://www.petersoninstitute.org/publications/papers/subramanian0408b.pdf |access-date=23 January 2013 |archive-date=14 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514165229/http://www.petersoninstitute.org/publications/papers/subramanian0408b.pdf }}</ref> Additionally, in aid models, the [[famine relief]] model increasingly used by aid groups calls for giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries, often required by law, as it wastes money on transport costs.<ref name=csmonitor>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0604/p01s02-woaf.html|title=UN aid debate: give cash not food?|journal=Christian Science Monitor|date=4 June 2008|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=3 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703113649/http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0604/p01s02-woaf.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=wfp>{{cite web|url=http://www.wfp.org/english/?ModuleID=137&Key=2899 |title=Cash roll-out to help hunger hot spots |publisher=[[World Food Program]] |date=8 December 2008 |access-date=21 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212124012/http://www.wfp.org/english/?ModuleID=137&Key=2899 |archive-date=12 February 2009 }}</ref> |
|||
The primary obstacle argued against direct cash transfers is the impractically for poor countries of such large and direct transfers. In practice, payments determined by complex iris scanning are used by war-torn [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] and Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cgdev.org/blog/biometrics-identity-and-development|title=Biometrics, Identity and Development|publisher=Center for Global Development|date=14 October 2010|access-date=6 April 2013|archive-date=26 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926053529/http://www.cgdev.org/blog/biometrics-identity-and-development|url-status=live}}</ref> while India modified its subsidies in favor of direct transfers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/28/AR2011022805299.html|title=India announces changes in subsidies, will hand out cash to its poor|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=28 February 2011|access-date=6 April 2013|archive-date=10 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010022657/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/28/AR2011022805299.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Central bank digital currency|Central bank digital currencies]] are argued to be an efficient tool in direct cash transfers to the poor as it can reach the [[unbanked]] and be more cost effective without having to physically send money and without needing an intermediary such as a bank.<ref name=imfblog/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bsr.org/en/emerging-issues/central-banks-embrace-digital-currencies|title=Central Banks Embrace Digital Currencies|newspaper=Business for Social Responsibility|date=|access-date=13 May 2024}}</ref> |
|||
==== Millennium Development Goals ==== |
|||
==== Economic freedoms ==== |
|||
Eradication of extreme poverty and [[hunger]] is the first [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goal]]. One of the targets within this goal is the halving of the proportion of people living in extreme poverty by 2015. In addition to broader approaches, the [[Jeffrey Sachs|Sachs]] Report (for the UN Millennium Project) <ref>[http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/reports/ UN Millennium Project]</ref> proposes a series of "quick wins", approaches identified by development experts which would cost relatively little but could have a major constructive effect on world poverty. Some of these "quick wins" are these such as directly assisting local entrepreneurs to grow their businesses and create jobs, access to information on [[Sexually transmitted disease|sexual and reproductive health]], drugs for [[AIDS]], [[tuberculosis]], and [[malaria]], [[free school meal]]s for schoolchildren, legislation for [[women’s rights]], providing [[fertilizer|soil nutrients]] to farmers in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], [[Rural electrification|access to electricity]], [[water]] and [[sanitation]], upgrading slums and providing land for public housing, among other things. |
|||
{{see also|Economic freedom|Red tape}} |
|||
Corruption often leads to many [[civil service]]s being treated by governments as employment agencies to loyal supporters<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21678243-regions-countries-desperately-need-reform-their-public-sectors-aiwa-yes|title=Arab bureaucracies|publisher=economist.com|access-date=5 January 2016|date=14 November 2014|archive-date=16 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116150858/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21678243-regions-countries-desperately-need-reform-their-public-sectors-aiwa-yes|url-status=live}}</ref> and so it could mean going through 20 procedures, paying $2,696 in fees, and waiting 82 business days to start a business in [[Bolivia]], while in [[Canada]] it takes two days, two registration procedures, and $280 to do the same.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dipak Das Gupta|author2=Mustapha K. Nabli|author3=World Bank|title=Trade, Investment, and Development in the Middle East and North Africa: Engaging With the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCZcHibu5OIC&pg=PA122|year=2003|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-5574-9|page=122|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-date=17 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517073339/https://books.google.com/books?id=hCZcHibu5OIC&pg=PA122|url-status=live}}</ref> Such costly barriers favor big firms at the expense of small enterprises, where most jobs are created.<ref name=cato>{{cite web|url=http://www.cato.org/research/articles/vas-0109.html |title=Ending mass poverty |publisher=cato.org |access-date=27 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524064149/http://www.cato.org/research/articles/vas-0109.html |archive-date=24 May 2011 }}</ref> Often, businesses have to bribe government officials even for routine activities, which is, in effect, a tax on business.<ref name="macroeconomics1">Krugman, Paul, and Robin Wells. ''Macroeconomics''. 2. New York City: Worth Publishers, 2009. Print.</ref> Noted reductions in poverty in recent decades has occurred in China and India mostly as a result of the abandonment of [[collective farming]] in China and the ending of the [[central planning]] model known as the [[License Raj]] in India.<ref name=bbc1>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5407770.stm|title=Can aid bring an end to poverty|work=BBC News|access-date=28 May 2011|first=Mark|last=Doyle|date=4 October 2006|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402201358/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5407770.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/55427.stm|title=India:the economy|work=BBC News|date=3 December 1998|access-date=5 July 2011|archive-date=3 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803020137/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/55427.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/06/24/poor_little_rich_country?page=0,1|title=Poor Little Rich Country|publisher=foreignpolicy.com|date=24 June 2011|access-date=5 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628204700/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/06/24/poor_little_rich_country?page=0,1|archive-date=28 June 2011}}</ref> |
|||
The [[World Bank]] concludes that governments and feudal elites extending to the poor the right to the land that they live and use are 'the key to reducing poverty' citing that land rights greatly increase poor people's wealth, in some cases doubling it.<ref name=landrights>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3006562.stm|title=Land rights help fight poverty|publisher=bbcnews.com|access-date=23 January 2013|date=20 June 2003|archive-date=16 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416033026/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3006562.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Providing secure tenure to land ownership creates incentives to improve the land and thus improves the welfare of the poor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deininger |first=Klaus |date=2003 |title=Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/15125 |publisher=[[World Bank]] |series=World Bank Policy Research Report |language=en-US |location=Washington, DC|doi=10.1596/0-8213-5071-4 |hdl=10986/15125 |isbn=978-0-8213-5071-3 }}</ref> It is argued that those in power have an incentive to not secure property rights as they are able to then more easily take land or any small business that does well to their supporters.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.economist.com/leaders/2020/09/12/who-owns-what?partnerize_clickref=1011lwUDLckW|title= Who owns what? Enforceable property rights are still far too rare in poor countries|publisher=economist.com|access-date=24 June 2023|date=12 September 2020 }}</ref> |
|||
Greater access to markets brings more income to the poor. Road infrastructure has a direct impact on poverty.<ref name="GCR">{{cite web|url=http://www.weforum.org/en/initiatives/gcp/Global%20Competitiveness%20Report/index.htm |title=Global Competitiveness Report 2006, World Economic Forum |publisher=weforum.org |access-date=28 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619083349/http://www.weforum.org/en/initiatives/gcp/Global%2BCompetitiveness%2BReport/index.htm |archive-date=19 June 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adbi.org/conf-seminar-papers/2004/11/26/830.infrastructure.poverty.reduction/|title=Infrastructure and Poverty Reduction: Cross-country Evidence|publisher=abdi.org|access-date=28 May 2011|archive-date=26 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926192919/http://www.adbi.org/conf-seminar-papers/2004/11/26/830.infrastructure.poverty.reduction/|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, migration from poorer countries resulted in $328 billion sent from richer to poorer countries in 2010, more than double the $120 billion in official aid flows from [[OECD]] members. In 2011, India got $52 billion from its [[diaspora]], more than it took in [[foreign direct investment]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjectid=894664&story_id=14586906|title=Migration and development: The aid workers who really help|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=27 May 2011|date=8 October 2009|archive-date=10 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310212904/http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjectid=894664&story_id=14586906|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
=== Successful Cases === |
|||
==== East and Southeast Asia ==== |
|||
==== Financial services ==== |
|||
Some of the best prospects for [[economic growth]] in the last few decades have been found in [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. [[China]], [[South Korea]], [[Japan]], [[Thailand]], [[Taiwan]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Indonesia]] are developing at high to moderate levels. Thailand, for example, has grown at double-digit rates most years since the early 1980’s. China has been the world leader in economic growth since 2001. It is estimated that it took [[England]] around 60 years to double its economy when the [[Industrial Revolution]] began. It took the [[United States]] around 50 years to double its economy during the American economic take-off in the late nineteenth century. Several East and Southeast Asian countries today have been doubling their economies every 10 years. <ref>Kristof, Nicholas D., and Sheryl WuDunn. 2000. ''Thunder From the East: Portrait of a Rising Asia.'' New York: Knopf.</ref> |
|||
{{See also|Unbanked|Microfinance|Microcredit}} |
|||
[[File:Kiwanja uganda charging 1.jpg|thumb|Information and communication technologies for development help to fight poverty.]] |
|||
[[Microloan]]s, made famous by the [[Grameen Bank]], is where small amounts of money are loaned to borrowers who typically lack collateral, steady employment, or a verifiable credit history.. However, microlending has been criticized for making hyperprofits off the poor even from its founder, [[Muhammad Yunus]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/15/opinion/15yunus.html|title=Sacrificing microcredit for megaprofits|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Muhammad|last=Yunus|date=14 January 2011|archive-date=29 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229061555/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/15/opinion/15yunus.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and in India, [[Arundhati Roy]] asserts that some 250,000 debt-ridden farmers have been driven to suicide.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/06/business/global/06micro.html|title=Microlenders, honored with Nobel, are struggling|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Vikas|last=Bajaj|date=5 January 2011|archive-date=17 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617105040/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/06/business/global/06micro.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/18/world/asia/18micro.html|title=India microcredit faces collapse from defaults|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first1=Lydia|last1=Polgreen|first2=Vikas|last2=Bajaj|date=17 November 2010|archive-date=27 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127014631/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/18/world/asia/18micro.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.democracynow.org/blog/2014/4/8/wednesday_arundhati_roy_on_elections_in Excerpt From "Capitalism: A Ghost Story" By Arundhati Roy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529045003/http://www.democracynow.org/blog/2014/4/8/wednesday_arundhati_roy_on_elections_in |date=29 May 2014 }}. ''[[Democracy Now!]]'' Retrieved 27 May 2014.</ref> |
|||
Those in poverty place more importance on having a safe place to save money than on receiving loans.<ref name=time.com>{{cite news|last=Kiviat |first=Barbara |url=http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1918733,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831064814/http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1918733,00.html |archive-date=31 August 2009 |title=Microfinance's next step: deposits|magazine=Time|access-date=23 October 2010 |date=30 August 2009}}</ref> Additionally, a large part of [[microfinance]] loans are spent not on investments but on products that would usually be paid by a [[checking account|checking]] or [[savings account]].<ref name=time.com/> A large portion of the poor are [[unbanked]] because it is often not profitable to open bank accounts for the poor. One altervative option is the [[postal savings system]]. Another option is [[mobile banking]] which utilizes the wide availability of mobile phones.<ref name=time.com/> This usually involves a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers who would take deposits in cash and translate these onto an account on customers' phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and issued back in cash with a small commission, making [[remittance]]s safer.<ref name=safaricom>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8194241.stm|title=Africa's mobile banking revolution|work=BBC News |access-date=28 May 2011|first=Louise|last=Greenwood|date=12 August 2009|archive-date=28 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828014936/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8194241.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Central bank digital currency|Central bank digital currencies]] could allow, even in areas without internet access, digital transactions with little or no cost using simple feature phones.<ref name=imfblog>{{Cite web|last1=Habtamu |first1=Fuje |last2=Quayyum|first2=Saad|last3=Ouattara|first3= Franck|date=June 24, 2022 |title=More African Central Banks Are Exploring Digital Currencies |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2022/06/23/blog-africa-cbdc |access-date=2024-05-05 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref> |
|||
It is important to note that in most these Asian countries, it is not just that the rich are getting richer, but the poor are becoming less poor. For example, poverty has dropped dramatically in Thailand. Research in the 1960’s showed that 60 percent of the people in Thailand lived below a poverty level estimated with cost of basic necessities. By 2004, however, similar estimates showed that poverty there was around 13 to 15 percent. Thailand has been shown by some [[World Bank]] figures to have had the best record for reducing poverty per increase in [[GNP]] of any nation in the world. <ref>Nabi, Ijaz, and Jayasankur Shivakumer. 2001. ''Back from the Brink: Thailand’s Response to the 1997 Economic Crisis.'' Washington, DC: World Bank. </ref> <ref>United Nations Development Report. 1999. Human Development Report of Thailand 1999. Bangkok: Author.</ref> <ref name=worldbank2000>World Bank. 2000. ''World Development Report 2000/2001.'' New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> |
|||
==== Education and vocational training ==== |
|||
In the late 1990’s a study was conducted in which the researchers interviewed people from 24 large factories in [[Thailand]] owned by [[Japan]]ese and American corporations. They found that most of the employees in these corporations made more than the average in Thailand, and substantially more than the $4.40 a day [[minimum wage]] in the country at the time. The researchers’ analysis of over 1,000 detailed questionnaires indicated that the employees rate their income and benefits significantly above average compared to Thai-owned factories. They found the working conditions in all 24 companies far from conditions reported about [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] in Southeast Asia. <ref>Richter, Frank-Jurgen. 2000. ''The Asian Economic Crisis.'' New York: Quorum Press.</ref> |
|||
[[File:Early Childhood Education USAID Africa.jpg|thumb|Early childhood education through [[USAID]] in [[Ziway]], Ethiopia]] |
|||
[[Free education]] through [[public education]] or charitable organizations rather than through tuition, from [[early childhood education]] through the [[tertiary level]] provides children from low-income families who may not otherwise have the financial resources with better job prospects and higher earnings and promotes social mobility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Steven Barnett |first=W. |date=1998-03-01 |title=Long-Term Cognitive and Academic Effects of Early Childhood Education on Children in Poverty |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743598902754 |journal=Preventive Medicine |language=en |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=204–207 |doi=10.1006/pmed.1998.0275 |pmid=9578996 |issn=0091-7435}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=King |first1=Mary |date=December 8, 2021 |title=A Strong Economic Case for Federal Investment in Universal Preschool |url=https://inequality.org/research/build-back-better-universal-preschool/ |access-date=2023-02-24 |publisher=Institute for Policy Studies}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=García |first1=Rosa M. |title=Debt-Free College: Principles for Prioritizing Low-Income Students |website=Center for Law and Social Policy |date=February 2019 |url=https://www.clasp.org/sites/default/files/publications/2019/02/2019_DebtFreeCollegePrinciples.pdf |access-date=24 February 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |author=Jon Marcus |author2=Holly K. Hacker |date=2015-12-17 |title=The rich-poor divide on America's college campuses is getting wider, fast |url=http://hechingerreport.org/the-socioeconomic-divide-on-americas-college-campuses-is-getting-wider-fast/ |access-date=2023-02-22 |work=The Hechinger Report |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Job training]] and [[vocational education]] programs that target training in technical skills in specific industries or occupations that are in high demand can reduce poverty and wealth concentration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oh |first1=Sehun |last2=DiNitto |first2=Diana M. |last3=Kim |first3=Yeonwoo |date=2021-01-01 |title=Exiting poverty: a systematic review of U.S. postsecondary education and job skills training programs in the post-welfare reform era |journal=International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy |volume=41 |issue=11/12 |pages=1210–1226 |doi=10.1108/IJSSP-09-2020-0429 |s2cid=234253474 |issn=0144-333X}}</ref> |
|||
Strategies to provide education cost effectively include [[deworming]] children, which costs about 50 cents per child per year and reduces non-attendance from [[anemia]], illness and malnutrition, while being only a twenty-fifth as expensive as increasing school attendance by constructing schools.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/22/books/review/Kristof-t.html?_r=1&ref=global-|title=How can we help the world's poor|publisher=NYTimes|date=20 November 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|first=Nicholas D.|last=Kristof|archive-date=15 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515194939/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/22/books/review/Kristof-t.html?_r=1&ref=global-|url-status=live}}</ref> Schoolgirl absenteeism could be cut in half by simply providing free [[sanitary towel]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8488375.stm|title=Sanitary pads help Ghana girls go to school|work=BBC News|date=29 January 2010|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=2 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902124432/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8488375.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Paying for school meals is argued to be an efficient strategy in increasing school enrollment, reducing absenteeism and increasing student attention.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/oct/27/free-school-meals-young-learners-liberia-marys-meals|title=Free school meals a recipe for success for young learners in Liberia|work=The Guardian|date=27 October 2016|access-date=30 October 2016|archive-date=31 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031030422/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/oct/27/free-school-meals-young-learners-liberia-marys-meals|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
===== Explanations ===== |
|||
Desirable actions such as enrolling children in school or receiving vaccinations can be encouraged by a form of aid known as [[conditional cash transfer]]s.<ref name=Brazil>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/1113/p01s03-woam.html?page=1|title=Brazil becomes antipoverty showcase|journal=Christian Science Monitor|date=13 November 2008|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225956/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2008/1113/p01s03-woam.html?page=1|url-status=live}}</ref> In Mexico, for example, dropout rates of 16- to 19-year-olds in rural area dropped by 20% and children gained half an inch in height.<ref name=csm>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2009/0921/p06s10-woam.html|title=Latin America makes dent in poverty with 'conditional cash' programs|journal=Christian Science Monitor|date=21 September 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=26 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926054924/http://www.csmonitor.com/2009/0921/p06s10-woam.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Initial fears that the program would encourage families to stay at home rather than work to collect benefits have proven to be unfounded. Instead, there is less excuse for neglectful behavior as, for example, children stopped begging on the streets instead of going to school because it could result in suspension from the program.<ref name=csm/> |
|||
* Some researchers have identified some characteristics of Asian societies that are relatively common and in contrast to Western societies. For example, Asian nations tend to have [[collectivist]] rather than [[individualistic]] value orientations. This means individual desires and interests are secondary when the needs of a broader group such as the local community, the family, work group, or nation come into conflict with these individual interests. However, not all Asian nations equally value the suppression of the individual, nor do Western nations equally value individualism. There are also differences in Western versus Asian nations on values such as “avoidance of uncertainty,” “power-distance” (power and respect for authority), and a “long-term orientation.” <ref>Hampden-Turnder, Charles, and Alfons Trompenaars. 1993. ''The Seven Cultures of Capitalism.'' New York: Doubleday.</ref> <ref>Hofstede, Geert. 1991. ''Cultures and Organization: Software of the Mind.'' New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> |
|||
* The [[Four Asian Tigers]] (Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Singapore) achieved rapid economic growth in the 1980s with extensive state intervention. <ref name=vogel991>Vogel, Ezra F. 1991. ''The Four Little Dragons: The Spread of Industrialization in East Asia.'' Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.</ref> As many other researchers have shown, it was [[Japan]] that led the way as an Asian late-developing nation with extensive state intervention from the late 1800s to become the second largest economic power in the world after the [[United States]]. It was Japan that perfected what is now known as the Asian development model that has been copied in one form or another by Asian nations recently achieving at least some success with economic development. <ref name=johnson1982>Johnson, Chalmers. 1982. ''MITI and the Japanese Miracle.'' Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.</ref> |
|||
* In countries such as [[Thailand]], [[Taiwan]], [[Malaysia]], [[South Korea]], and increasingly [[Vietnam]], the governments are able and willing to protect their people from the negative consequences of foreign corporate exploitation. They tend to have a strong government, also called a ''hard state'' or ''[[development state]]'', and have leaders who can confront [[multinational corporations|multinationals]] and demand that they operate to protect their people’s interests. These “hard states” have the will and authority to create and maintain policies that lead to long-term development that helps all their citizens, not just the wealthy. Multinational corporations are regulated so that they follow reasonable standards for pay and labor conditions, pay reasonable taxes to help develop the country, and keep some of the profits in the country, reinvesting them to provide further development. In many other periphery nations around the world, local governments are either to weak to stop foreign corporate exploitation or don’t care, with the corrupt leaders choosing to enrich themselves at the expense of their own people. |
|||
* One answer to the discrepancies found between multinational corporations in [[Thailand]] and the conditions described for [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] workers is that companies such as [[Wal-Mart]], [[The Gap]], or Nike subcontract work to small local factories. These subcontractors remain more invisible, making it more easy to [[bribery|bribe]] local officials to maintain poor working conditions. When multinational corporations set up business in countries like [[Malaysia]], [[Taiwan]], or [[Thailand]], their visibility makes much less likely employees will have [[wages]] and [[working conditions|conditions]] below the standards of living of the country. <ref name="kerbo2006b">Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> |
|||
* Thailand continued to protect its economy during the 1980’s and 1990’s despite the flood of foreign investment the nation had attracted. Thai [[bureaucrats]] started rules such as those demanding a sufficient percentage of domestic content in goods [[manufactured]] by foreign companies in Thailand and the 51 percent rule. <ref name=muscat1994>Muscat, Robert J. 1994. ''The Fifth Tiger: A Study of Thai Development.'' Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.</ref> Under the 51 percent rule, a multinational corporation starting operations in Thailand must form a joint venture with a Thai company. The result is that a Thai company with 51 percent control is better able to keep [[jobs]] and [[profits]] in the country. Countries such as Thailand have been able to keep foreign investors from leaving because the government has maintained more [[infrastructure]] investment to provide good [[transportation]] and a rather educated [[labor force]], enhancing [[productivity]]. |
|||
== Obstacles == |
|||
== Barriers to economic development and poverty reduction == |
|||
Economist [[William Easterly]] diagnoses a problem with the traditional approach to poverty reduction, whose advocates he calls "Planners." He notes that $2.3 trillion were spent on [[Aid|foreign aid]] in five decades, yet twelve-cent medicines were not able to be given to children to prevent [[malaria]]-related deaths and three dollars were not given to new mothers to help prevent millions of child deaths. He argues that even though the aid was well-meaning, it failed to bring results because "Planners," and not "Searchers," are supplying it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Easterly |first=William |title=The White Man's Burden: Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good |publisher=Penguin Press |year=2006 |location=New York}}</ref> |
|||
{| class="wikitable" |
|||
|+ |
|||
!Planners |
|||
!Searchers |
|||
|- |
|||
|Unable to motivate people to carry out their good intentions |
|||
|Find ways to make things work |
|||
|- |
|||
|Take no responsibility for their actions |
|||
|Accept responsibility |
|||
|- |
|||
|Determine what to supply |
|||
|Find out what is in demand |
|||
|- |
|||
|Apply global blueprints |
|||
|Adapt to local conditions |
|||
|- |
|||
|Lack knowledge of the bottom |
|||
|Find out what the reality is at the bottom |
|||
|- |
|||
|Believe outsiders know enough to offer solutions |
|||
|Believe that solutions must be homegrown |
|||
|} |
|||
==Antipoverty institutions== |
|||
For years [[economists]] thought that countries throughout the world would follow a the same basic pattern for [[economic development]]. It was thought that with some initial capital investment, nations would continue on a path from pre-industrial [[agrarian societies]] to [[industrialization]].<ref>Rostow, Walter. 1960. ''The Stages of Economic Development.'' New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> However, many today hold that these theories are highly misleading when they are applied to developing nations today.<ref name=frank1998>Frank, Andre Gunder. 1998. ''ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age.'' Los Angeles: University of California Press.</ref> <ref name=vogel991>Vogel, Ezra F. 1991. ''The Four Little Dragons: The Spread of Industrialization in East Asia.'' Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.</ref> <ref name=johnson1982>Johnson, Chalmers. 1982. ''MITI and the Japanese Miracle.'' Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.</ref> <ref name=chasedunn1975>Chase-Dunn, Christopher. 1975. “The Effects of International Economic Dependence on Development and Inequality: A Cross-National Study.” American Sociological Review, 40:720-738.</ref> <ref name=portes1976>Portes, Alejandro. 1976. “On the Sociology of National Development: Theories and Issues.” ''American Journal of Sociology'', 85:55-85.</ref> The situation faced by developing nations today are very different than those faced by the developed nations when they were going through economic development. Among the new realities facing developing nations are a much larger [[population]], fewer [[natural resources]], and a poorer [[climate]]. <ref name=myrdal1968>Myrdal, Gunnar. 1968. ''Asian Drama: An Inquiry into the Poverty of Nations'', 3 vol. New York: Pantheon Books.</ref> Most importantly, today’s developed nations did not have other powerful developed nations to contend with during their early process of development. This means that it is much more difficult for poor nations today to achieve economic development. <ref name=thurow1991>Thurow, Lester. 1991. ''Head to Head: The Coming Economic Battle Between the United States, Japan, and Europe.'' New York: Morrow. </ref> |
|||
===Intergovernmental organizations=== |
|||
{{See also|Sustainable Development Goals}} |
|||
In 2015 all UN Member States adopted the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] as part of the [[Post-2015 Development Agenda]], which sought to create a future global development framework to succeed the [[Millennium Development Goals]], which were goals set in 2000 and were meant to be achieved by 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |last2=Kanie |first2=Norichika |last3=Kim |first3=Rakhyun E |date=2017-06-01 |title=Global governance by goal-setting: the novel approach of the UN Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343517300209 |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |series=Open issue, part II |language=en |volume=26–27 |pages=26–31 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2017.01.010 |bibcode=2017COES...26...26B |hdl=1874/358246 |issn=1877-3435|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Most targets are to be achieved by 2030, although some have no end date.<ref name="UN Stats-2017">{{Cite web |title=SDG Indicators - Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/ |access-date=6 August 2020 |website=United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD)}}</ref> [[Sustainable Development Goal 1|Goal 1]] is to "end poverty in all its forms everywhere".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/poverty/|title = Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere}}</ref> It aims to eliminate extreme poverty for all people measured by daily wages less than $1.25 and at least half the total number of men, women, and children living in poverty. In addition, social protection systems must be established at the national level and equal access to economic resources must be ensured.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/sdg-2030/targets/lang--en/index.htm|title=2030 Development agenda: ILO Focus targets (The 2030 development agenda)|website=www.ilo.org|date=28 January 2024 }}</ref> Strategies have to be developed at the national, regional and international levels to support the eradication of poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal1|title = Goal 1 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs}}</ref> |
|||
===Development banks=== |
|||
=== World-systems perspective === |
|||
{{Main|Development bank}} |
|||
A ''development financial institution'', also known as a ''development bank'', is a [[financial institution]] that provides [[risk capital]] for [[Economic development|economic development projects]] on a non-commercial basis. They are often established and owned by governments to finance projects that would otherwise not be able to get financing from commercial lenders. These include [[international financial institutions]] such as the [[World Bank]], which is the largest development bank. |
|||
===Nongovernmental organizations=== |
|||
[[world-systems theory|World-systems perspective]] has generated a great deal of [[empirical research]] on poverty and economic growth, mostly showing consistent results. World-systems theory predicts that developing nations (refered to as periphery countries by world-system analysts) have less long-term [[economic growth]] when they have extensive [[multinational corporations|multinational corporate]] investment from core (develeoped) nations. Though there is definitely variance among periphery nations, several studies have shown that many periphery nations that have extensive investment from the core do in fact have less long-term economic growth. <ref name=chasedunn1975>Chase-Dunn, Christopher. 1975. “The Effects of International Economic Dependence on Development and Inequality: A Cross-National Study.” ''American Sociological Review'', 40:720-738.</ref> <ref name=chasedunn1989>Chase-Dunn, Christopher. 1989. ''Global Formation: Structures of the World-Economy.'' Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. </ref> <ref name="bornschierandchasedunn1985">Bornschier, Volker, and Christopher Chase-Dunn. 1985. ''Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment.'' New York: Praeger.</ref> <ref name=bornschieretall1978>Bornschier, Volker, Christopher Chase-Dunn, and Richard Rubinson. 1978. “Cross-National Evidence of the Effects of Foreign Investment and Aid on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Survey of Findings and a Reanalysis.” ''American Journal of Sociology'', 84:651-683.</ref> <ref name=snyderandkick1979>Snyder, David, and Edward Kick. 1979. “Structural Position in the World System and Economic Growth, 1955-1970: A Multiple Analysis of Transnational Interactions.” ''American Journal of Sociology'', 84:1096-1128.</ref> <ref>Stokes, Randall, and David Jaffee. 1982. “Another Look at the Export of Raw Materials and Economic Growth.” American Sociological Review, 47:402-407. </ref> <ref>Nolan, Patrick D. 1983. “Status in the World Economy and National Structure and Development.” International ''Journal of Contemporary Sociology'', 24:109-120.</ref> These nations are likely to have some short-term economic growth (less than 5 years), but the long-term prospects may be harmed by the kinds of outside aid and investment they have received. |
|||
{{See also|Nongovernmental organization}} |
|||
In recent decades, the number of [[nongovernmental organization]]s has increased dramatically. The [[High level forums on aid effectiveness]] that was coordinated by the [[OECD]] found that this leads to fragmentation where too many agencies were financing too many small projects using too many different procedures and that the civil service of the donor countries were overstretched producing reports for each.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/international/2008/09/04/a-scramble-in-africa|title=A scramble in Africa|publisher=Economist magazine|access-date=2 June 2023|date=4 September 2008}}</ref> |
|||
A major proportion of aid from donor nations is [[tied aid|tied]], mandating that a receiving nation spend on products and expertise originating only from the donor country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=24509|title=Tied aid strangling nations, says UN|publisher=ispnews.net|access-date=27 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223203509/http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=24509|archive-date=23 December 2010}}</ref> US law requires [[food aid]] be spent on buying food at home, instead of where the hungry live, and, as a result, half of what is spent is used on transport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/160075|title=Let them eat micronutrients|work=Newsweek|access-date=27 May 2011|date=20 September 2008|archive-date=17 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090717002543/http://www.newsweek.com/id/160075|url-status=live}}</ref> Domestic NGOs have more expertise in their respective regions and have less overhead and thus tend to be more efficient in delivering aid but receive less funding. Housing only for a Western aid worker in Ethiopia is enough to pay the salaries of four or five local NGO workers, for example. Bilateral government aid programs such as [[US Agency for International Development]] aim to increase their share of funding to go through 'local partners', called 'localizing'. The obstacles include accountability where it is easier to delegate responsibility for spending on one international NGO than having to track tax payer money going to numerous smaller domestic NGOs.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/article/2024/may/07/colonial-mindset-global-aid-agencies-costs-localising-humanitarianism-ngo-|title='A colonial mindset': why global aid agencies need to get out of the way|work=The Guardian|access-date=23 June 2024|date=7 May 2024}}</ref> |
|||
==== Structural distortion ==== |
|||
===For-profit institutions=== |
|||
There seem to be many reasons for harmful effects of core dominance. The first major reason is the problem of ''structural distortion''. In an undistorted economy some [[natural resources]] lead to a chain of activity that creates [[profits]], [[jobs]], and [[economic growth|growth]]. For example, consider a core nation with an extensive amount of [[copper]] deposits. Jobs are provided and profit is made first from mining the copper. Even more jobs and profits are created when the copper is refined into [[metal]]. The metal is used by other corporations to make products, again creating jobs and profits. Next, these products are sold by [[retail]] firms, once again resulting in jobs and profits. From this whole process there is a chain of jobs and profits that provide for economic growth as well as revenue that can be used for developing things such as [[roads]], [[electrical power]], and [[educational institutions]] within the country. |
|||
The ''[[Poverty industrial complex]]'' refers to for-profit companies taking over roles previously held by government agencies. The incentive for profit in such companies has been argued to interfere with efficiently providing the needed services. Aid from richer nations increasingly go through for profit institutions. Such hospitals are found to imprison patients and retain corpses for non-payment of fees.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hassane|first=Fati|date=July 11, 2023 |title=Investments in private healthcare are not helping Africans|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2023/7/11/investments-in-private-healthcare-are-not-helping-africans|work=Al Jazeera |location= |access-date=May 28, 2024}}</ref> |
|||
==Economic theories== |
|||
Imagine now what happens when the copper is mined in a periphery nation with ties to core nations. The copper is mined by native workers, but the metal is shipped to the core where the rest of the chain is completed. The rest of the jobs and profits from the chain of activities are lost to the core nations. This is an example of structural distortion. <ref name=chasedunn1975>Chase-Dunn, Christopher. 1975. “The Effects of International Economic Dependence on Development and Inequality: A Cross-National Study.” American Sociological Review, 40:720-738.</ref> |
|||
{{See also|Causes of poverty}} |
|||
[[File:20220801 Economic stratification - cross-class friendships - bar chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.5| Data shows substantial social segregation correlating with economic income groups.<ref name=EconomicStratification/> However, social connectedness to people of higher income levels is a strong predictor of upward income mobility.<ref name=EconomicStratification>Data from {{cite journal |last1=Chetty |first1=Raj |last2=Jackson |first2=Matthew O. |last3=Kuchler |first3=Theresa |last4=Stroebel |first4=Johannes |last5=Hendren |first5=Nathaniel |last6=Fluegge |first6=Robert B. |last7=Gong |first7=Sara |last8=Gonzalez |first8=Frederico |last9=Grondin |first9=Armelle |last10=Jacob |first10=Matthew |display-authors=4 |title=Social capital I: measurement and associations with economic mobility |journal=Nature |date=August 1, 2022 |volume=608 |issue=7921 |pages=108–121 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04996-4 |pmid=35915342 |pmc=9352590 |bibcode=2022Natur.608..108C }} Charted in {{cite news |last1=Leonhardt |first1=David |title='Friending Bias' / A large new study offers clues about how lower-income children can rise up the economic ladder. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/01/briefing/economic-ladder-rich-poor-americans.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=August 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801104004/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/01/briefing/economic-ladder-rich-poor-americans.html |archive-date=August 1, 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] |
|||
The cause of poverty is a highly ideologically charged subject, as different causes point to different remedies. Very broadly speaking, the [[socialism|socialist]] tradition locates the roots of poverty in problems of distribution and the use of the [[means of production]] as capital benefiting individuals, and calls for [[redistribution of wealth]] as the solution, whereas the [[neoliberal]] school of thought holds that creating conditions for profitable private investment is the solution. Neoliberal [[think tank]]s have received extensive funding,<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://harpers.org/archive/2004/09/tentacles-of-rage/|title=Tentacles of rage|first=Lewis|last=Lapham|date=October 2004|magazine=Harper's Magazine|volume=September 2004|access-date=28 September 2019|archive-date=19 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019043338/https://harpers.org/archive/2004/09/tentacles-of-rage/|url-status=live}}</ref> and proponents of neoliberalism have been able to apply their ideas in highly indebted countries in the [[global South]] as a condition for receiving emergency loans from the [[International Monetary Fund]]. |
|||
The existence of inequality is in part due to a set of self-reinforcing behaviors that all together constitute one aspect of the [[cycle of poverty]]. These behaviors, in addition to unfavorable, external circumstances, also explain the existence of the [[Matthew effect]], which not only exacerbates existing inequality, but is more likely to make it multigenerational. Widespread, multigenerational poverty is an important contributor to civil unrest and political instability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eda.admin.ch/deza/en/home/themes-sdc/fragile-contexts-and-prevention/fragile-states.html|title=Fragile states – poverty, instability and violence|website=www.eda.admin.ch|language=en|access-date=15 June 2018|archive-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615110941/https://www.eda.admin.ch/deza/en/home/themes-sdc/fragile-contexts-and-prevention/fragile-states.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, [[Raghuram Rajan|Raghuram G. Rajan]], former governor of the [[Reserve Bank of India]] and former chief economist at the International Monetary Fund, has blamed the ever-widening gulf between the rich and the poor, especially [[income inequality in the United States|in the US]], to be one of the main fault lines which caused the financial institutions to pump money into [[subprime mortgages]]—on political behest, as a palliative and not a remedy, for poverty—causing the [[Subprime mortgage crisis|financial crisis of 2007–2009]]. In Rajan's view the main cause of the increasing gap between high income and low income earners was lack of equal access to higher education for the latter.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6/ref=sr_1_12?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1466701032&sr=1-12&keywords=fault+lines+how+hidden+fractures+still+threaten+the+world+economy|title=Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy by Raghuram G. Rajan (2012) Paperback|date=1 January 2012|publisher=HarperCollins India|access-date=24 June 2016|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126113725/https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6/ref=sr_1_12?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1466701032&sr=1-12&keywords=fault+lines+how+hidden+fractures+still+threaten+the+world+economy|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
==== Agricultural disruption ==== |
|||
Several studies have found a relationship between poverty reduction and good governance. A number of articles have found linkages between poverty reduction and good governance.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Terry |last2=Rosenberg |first2=Talia |date=November 20, 2024 |title=Is Governance Associated with Poverty Reduction Independent of Economic Growth? |url=https://www.mcc.gov/resources/doc/paper-governance-and-economic-growth/ |journal=[[Millennium Challenge Corporation]]}}</ref> Some find that economic growth is more impactful at reducing poverty in well governed countries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Appiah-Otoo |first1=Isaac |last2=Chen |first2=Xudong |last3=Song |first3=Na |last4=Dumor |first4=Koffi |date=2022-11-01 |title=Financial development, institutional improvement, poverty reduction: The multiple challenges in West Africa |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0161893822001065 |journal=Journal of Policy Modeling |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=1296–1312 |doi=10.1016/j.jpolmod.2022.11.002 |issn=0161-8938}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kaidi |first1=Nasreddine |last2=Mensi |first2=Sami |date=2020-12-01 |title=Financial Development, Income Inequality, and Poverty Reduction: Democratic Versus Autocratic Countries |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13132-019-00606-3 |journal=Journal of the Knowledge Economy |language=en |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=1358–1381 |doi=10.1007/s13132-019-00606-3 |issn=1868-7873}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dörffel |first1=Christoph |last2=Freytag |first2=Andreas |date=2023-05-01 |title=The poverty effect of democratization |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X23000049 |journal=World Development |volume=165 |pages=106186 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106186 |issn=0305-750X|hdl=10419/251483 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Others find that there is a direct effect of governance on poverty reduction.<ref>Dankumo, A. M., Ishak, S., Bani, Y., & Hamza, H. Z. (2021). Governance, public expenditure, trade and poverty reduction in sub-saharan african countries. ''Jurnal Ekonomi dan Studi Pembangunan'', ''13''(1), 16-35.</ref><ref>Gao, Y., & Zang, L. (2022). Is democracy pro‐poor? An empirical test of the Sen Hypothesis based on global evidence. ''Governance'', ''35''(3), 847-868.</ref> Research also finds that governance above a certain level contributes to poverty reduction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kabir |first1=M. Adnan |last2=Alam |first2=Najib |date=May 2021 |title=The Efficacy of Democracy and Freedom in Fostering Economic Growth |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/23949015211057942 |journal=Emerging Economy Studies |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=76–93 |doi=10.1177/23949015211057942 |issn=2394-9015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ochi |first1=Anis |last2=Saidi |first2=Yosra |last3=Labidi |first3=Mohamed Ali |date=2023-12-01 |title=Non-linear Threshold Effect of Governance Quality on Economic Growth in African Countries: Evidence from Panel Smooth Transition Regression Approach |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13132-022-01084-w |journal=Journal of the Knowledge Economy |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=4707–4729 |doi=10.1007/s13132-022-01084-w |issn=1868-7873}}</ref> Others still find a relationship between governance and poverty even controlling for economic growth, indicating an independent association.<ref name=":3" /> A [[Empirical evidence|data based]] scientific [[empirical research]], which studied the impact of [[Political family|dynastic politics]] on the level of poverty of the provinces, found a [[Correlation and dependence|positive correlation]] between dynastic politics and poverty; i.e. the higher proportion of dynastic politicians in power in a province leads to higher poverty rate.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Inequality in democracy: Insights from an empirical analysis of political dynasties in the 15th Philippine Congress|journal = Philippine Political Science Journal|date = 1 December 2012|issn = 0115-4451|pages = 132–145|volume = 33|issue = 2|doi = 10.1080/01154451.2012.734094|first1 = Ronald U.|last1 = Mendoza|first2 = Edsel L. Jr.|last2 = Beja|first3 = Victor S.|last3 = Venida|first4 = David B.|last4 = Yap|s2cid = 154856834|url = https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/40104/1/MPRA_paper_40104.pdf|access-date = 22 September 2019|archive-date = 1 August 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200801200741/https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/40104/1/MPRA_paper_40104.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref> There is significant evidence that these political dynasties use their political dominance over their respective regions to enrich themselves, using methods such as graft or outright bribery of legislators.<ref name=enough8>{{Cite web|title = What is wrong with political dynasties?|url = http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/276345/opinion/what-is-wrong-with-political-dynasties|website = GMA News Online| date=October 2012 |access-date = 8 November 2015|archive-date = 26 November 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151126001056/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/276345/opinion/what-is-wrong-with-political-dynasties|url-status = live}}</ref> |
|||
Another harmful effect on the economic growth of periphery nations is [[agriculture|agricultural]] disruption. A very important economic activity of periphery nations brought into the modern world-system is export agriculture. Before the modern world-system, agriculture was for local consumption, and there was little incentive for labor-saving farming methods. As a result of these traditional methods of farming and lack of a large market for their products, food was cheaper, some land was left for [[peasants]], and jobs were more plentiful. However, with export agriculture and labor-saving methods of farming, food is more expensive, peasants are pushed off the land so more land may be used to grow products for the world market, and more machines are doing the work, resulting in less jobs. <ref name="kerbo2006b">Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> This also causes a higher degree of [[urbanization]] as peasants lose their land and jobs and move to the city hoping to find work.<ref>Kentor, Jeffrey. 1981. “Structural Determinants of Peripheral Urbanization: The Effects of International Dependence.” ''American Sociological Review'', 46:201-211.</ref> Profits are made by a small group of landowners and multinational agribusinesses, with peasants losing jobs, land, and income, which prevents them from being consumers needed for an economy to naturally develop. |
|||
Most economic historians believe that throughout most of human history, extreme poverty was the norm for roughly 90% of the population, and only with the emergence of [[industrialization]] in the 19th century were the masses of people lifted out of it.<ref name=SullivanHickel2023>{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan |first1=Dylan |last2=Hickel|first2=Jason |date=2023 |title=Capitalism and extreme poverty: A global analysis of real wages, human height, and mortality since the long 16th century|url= |journal=[[World Development (journal)|World Development]]|volume=161 |issue= |page=106026 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106026|s2cid=252315733 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{ r | Vox_2019-02-12 | p=1 | q=But in some ways, Hickel's response reflects the crux of the dispute between him and Roser. Roser — like most economic historians — does not view poverty as created but as the original state of humankind from its inception until the Industrial Revolution. }} This narrative is advanced by, among others, [[Martin Ravallion]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ravallion|first=Martin|date=2016 |title=The Economics of Poverty: History, Measurement, and Policy|url= |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press|page= |isbn=978-0-19-021277-3}}</ref> [[Nicholas Kristof]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Kristof|first=Nicholas|date=December 28, 2019 |title=This Has Been the Best Year Ever|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/28/opinion/sunday/2019-best-year-poverty.html|work=The New York Times |location= |access-date=December 13, 2022}}</ref> and [[Steven Pinker]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinker|first=Steven|date=2018 |title=Enlightenment now: The case for reason, science, humanism, and progress|url= |location= |publisher=Viking|page= |isbn=978-0-525-42757-5}}</ref> |
|||
==== Class conflict ==== |
|||
Some academics, including Dylan Sullivan and [[Jason Hickel]] have challenged this contemporary mainstream narrative on poverty, arguing that extreme poverty was not the norm throughout human history, but emerged during "periods of severe social and economic dislocation", including high European feudalism and the apex of the Roman Empire, and that it expanded significantly after 1500 with the emergence of colonialism and the beginnings of capitalism, stating that "the expansion of the capitalist world-system caused a dramatic and prolonged process of impoverishment on a scale unparalleled in recorded history." Sullivan and Hickel assert that only with the rise of [[anti-colonial]] and socialist political movements in the 20th century did human welfare begin to see significant improvement.<ref name="SullivanHickel2023" /> However, all scholars and intellectuals, including Hickel, agree that the incomes of the poorest people in the world have increased since 1981.<ref name="Vox_2019-02-12">{{Cite web |last=Matthews |first=Dylan |date=2019-02-12 |title=Bill Gates tweeted out a chart and sparked a huge debate about global poverty |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/2/12/18215534/bill-gates-global-poverty-chart |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref> Nevertheless, Sullivan and Hickel argue that poverty persists under contemporary global capitalism (in spite of it being highly productive) because masses of working people are cut off from common land and resources, have no ownership or control over the [[means of production]], and have their labor power "appropriated by a ruling class or an external imperial power," thereby maintaining extreme inequality.<ref name="SullivanHickel2023" /> |
|||
A third difficulty for periphery nations are the [[class conflict]]s within the nation. Economic and political elites in periphery nations often become more accommodating to corporate elites from core nations that have investments in their country. Of course, these elites in periphery nations receive lucrative profits because of multinational corporate [[investment]]. These elites know that the corporations are investing in the country because of low [[labor cost]]s, low [[taxes]], no [[unions]], and other things such as lax [[environmental policy|environmental policies]], that are favorable to multinational corporate interests. For self-serving elites in periphery nations, it creates a [[conflict of interest]] between them and the people. These people, of course, want better wages and more humane working conditions, but if these things are worked on it can mean multinational corporations will leave the country. It is important to realize that the problems mentioned above, structural distortion and agricultural disruption, could be reduced. However, the local elites with the power to change these things do not do so in fear of losing the multinational investment. <ref name="kerbo2006b">Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> |
|||
Marian L. Tupy, a senior fellow of the [[Cato Institute]], a [[right-libertarian]] think tank, criticized Hickel's claim that people before industrialization lived well without a lot of monetary income, stating that "The evidence from contemporary accounts and academic research" shows that "Compared to today, Western European living standards prior to industrialization were miserably low.", that "poverty was widespread and it was precisely the onset of industrialization and global trade … which led to poverty alleviation first in the West and then in the Rest."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2019-02-14 |title=The Romantic Idea of a Plentiful Past Is Pure Fantasy |url=https://www.humanprogress.org/the-romantic-idea-of-a-plentiful-past-is-pure-fantasy/ |access-date=2023-07-22 |website=HumanProgress |language=en-US}}</ref> and that both [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]], while advocating for socialism, recognized that the capitalist system developing around them had improved people's material conditions.<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
Following the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) in 1994, thousands of U.S., Japanese, and European factories moved into [[Mexico]] for the free access to the North American market and the low wages. There were about 4,000 of these new factories by 2000. However, by 2002, the factories began moving to nations such as China where wages for factory jobs are as low as $0.25/hour, as opposed to $1.50/hour in Mexico. <ref>http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-53746987.html</ref> |
|||
==Ethics== |
|||
==== Global power imbalances ==== |
|||
===Human rights=== |
|||
It is sometimes argued that poverty is a violation of [[human rights]]. The [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] state that “Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to [[social security]].”<ref>{{Cite web |title=(Re)claiming the Right to Social Security |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/12/19/reclaiming-right-social-security |website = Human Rights Watch|date=19 December 2023|access-date=27 April 2024}}</ref> |
|||
===Environmentalism=== |
|||
Another problem for periphery nations has to do with global power imbalances, and the dominating [[market economy|free market ideology]] pushed by the U.S. and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), which is influenced heavily by the U.S. One of the things core nations and agencies such as the IMF fail to understand is that in very critical ways the [[global economy]] is very different than it was hundreds of years ago. [[Free markets]] then were very rare. Open and free markets can contribute to economic efficiency and competitiveness in the core nations today. However, for periphery nations trying to develop, the same open markets are not provided for them as they are with core nations in the global economy today. Open markets do not always help periphery nations when there are already rich nations over them that are able to distort open markets with billions of dollars in [[subsidies]] to their own corporations, which prevent developing industries in periphery nations from having an equal chance of survival. These forces were not around at the time most of the core nations were developing because they were the first ones to become rich. Most of the countries that became rich more than 100 years ago did it with unfree markets that protected their infant industries. Now, the world stratification system provides core nations with the power to enforce the rules of the world economy (and avoid some of these rules themselves), which help the core nations and harm the periphery nations. <ref name="kerbo2006b">Kerbo, Harold. 2006. World Poverty in the 21st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> |
|||
{{See also|Environmentalism of the poor|Environmental justice|Green grabbing|Climate change and poverty}} |
|||
[[File:Polar Bears Fight Climate Poverty 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Demonstration against climate poverty in 2007.]] |
|||
The poor tend to suffer most from environmental degradation caused by reckless [[exploitation of natural resources]] by the rich.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anantha Duraiappah (1996). ''Poverty and Environmental Degradation: a Literature Review and Analysis'' CREED Working Paper Series No 8 International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Retrieved on June 27, 2016 |url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/8127IIED.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113164806/http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/8127IIED.pdf |archive-date=13 January 2016 |access-date=27 June 2016}}</ref> For example, it is estimated that 92% of accumulated greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to countries from the Global North while 8% of emissions are attributed to countries from the Global South.<ref name="Hickel 2020">{{cite news |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |date=September 1, 2020 |title=Quantifying national responsibility for climate breakdown: an equality-based attribution approach for carbon dioxide emissions in excess of the planetary boundary |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(20)30196-0/fulltext |access-date=January 4, 2021 |archive-date=December 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203001815/https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(20)30196-0/fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Hickel |first1=Jason |url=https://www.jasonhickel.org/less-is-more |title=Less is more: how degrowth will save the world |date=2020 |publisher=Penguin Random House |isbn=978-1785152498 |access-date=2021-01-04 |archive-date=2020-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230101429/https://www.jasonhickel.org/less-is-more |url-status=live }}</ref> However, [[developing countries]] suffer 99% of the casualties attributable to climate change.<ref name="Human Development Report">{{cite journal|title=Human Development Report 2007/2008: The 21st Century Climate Challenge.|journal=United Nations Development Programme|date=January 2008|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr_20072008_en_complete.pdf|access-date=October 23, 2010|archive-date=April 29, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429033726/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> This unfair distribution of environmental burdens and benefits has generated the global [[environmental justice]] and [[climate justice]] movement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martinez-Alier |first1=Joan |last2=Temper |first2=Leah |last3=Del Bene |first3=Daniela |last4=Scheidel |first4=Arnim |date=2016-05-03 |title=Is there a global environmental justice movement? |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198 |journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies |language=en |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=731–755 |doi=10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198 |s2cid=156535916 |issn=0306-6150}}</ref> |
|||
Core nations want open markets in other countries, not in their own. Core nations can then buy resources cheaply and sell their own goods, especially in periphery nations. Because of [[trade barriers]] placed upon them by core nations, [[global trade]] has declined for the poorest nations, despite the fact that it has increased around 60% overall in the past 10 years. [[Image:Comparative Tariff Barriers.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Tariff rates from rich and middle income vs. poor nations]] The U.S. has one of the highest [[tariffs]] on agricultural imports to protect American agriculture. For example, tariffs on textiles imported into the U.S. are high, unless the clothing is made abroad with U.S.-made textiles by companies such as [[JC Penny]], [[Target]], and [[The Gap]]. An [[Africa]]n country can export [[cocoa beans]] to manufacturers such as [[Nestle]], but if the country processes the beans itself and attempts to sell [[chocolate]] to the U.S. or Europe (which would obviously be much more profitable for the country), the tariffs are high. Nestle wants all of the profit that results from processing the cocoa beans and then selling the finished product, but they need the cocoa beans coming from Africa. |
|||
The [[Our Common Future|Brundtland Report]] concluded that poverty causes [[environmental degradation]], while other theories like [[environmentalism of the poor]] conclude that the global poor may be the most important force for sustainability.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martínez Alier |first=Juan |title=The environmentalism of the poor: a study of ecological conflicts and valuation |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-567328-9 |location=New Delhi |oclc=61669200}}</ref> A 2013 [[World Bank]] report estimated that climate change was likely to hinder future attempts to reduce poverty with a 2016 UN report claiming that by 2030, an additional 122 million more people could be driven to extreme poverty because of climate change.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/oct/17/climate-change-could-drive-122m-more-people-into-extreme-poverty-by-2030-un-united-nations-report|title=Climate change could drive 122m more people into extreme poverty by 2030|work=The Guardian|access-date=18 October 2016|date=17 October 2016|archive-date=18 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018003039/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/oct/17/climate-change-could-drive-122m-more-people-into-extreme-poverty-by-2030-un-united-nations-report|url-status=live}}</ref> The possible impacts of a temperature rise of 2 °C include: regular food shortages in Sub-Saharan Africa; a deficiency in water availability, with droughts predicted to happen much faster and last longer;<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 November 2019|title=Thirsty future ahead as climate change explodes plant growth|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/10/plants-consume-more-water-climate-change-thirsty-future/|access-date=30 November 2020|website=Science|language=en|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101043113/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/10/plants-consume-more-water-climate-change-thirsty-future/}}</ref> degradation and loss of reefs in South East Asia, resulting in reduced fish stocks; and coastal communities and cities more vulnerable to increasingly violent storms.<ref>[http://cdkn.org/2013/06/report-warmer-world-will-keep-millions-of-people-trapped-in-poverty/?loclang=en_gb REPORT: Warmer world will keep millions of people trapped in poverty.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194528/http://cdkn.org/2013/06/report-warmer-world-will-keep-millions-of-people-trapped-in-poverty/?loclang=en_gb |date=29 October 2013 }} [[Climate & Development Knowledge Network]]. Retrieved 31 July 2013.</ref> |
|||
Core nations such as the U.S., despite their free market ideology, seem to believe that open markets are best in poor nations rather than than their own. Core nations have the power through organizations such as the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], and the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] to protect their industries, but then use their power to make sure periphery nations open their borders to products produced in core nations. It is estimated that the 49 poorest countries in the world lose around $2.5 billion a year due to high [[tariffs]] and quotas placed on their products by core nations. For example, [[Oxfam]] estimates that the U.S. gets back $7 for every $1 given in aid to [[Bangladesh]] because of barriers on imports. They also estimated that rich nations [[subsidize]] their own agribusinesses at around $1 billion per day, while the IMF pushes periphery nations to keep their markets open to the food that has flood the market from these countries.<ref>Watkins, Kevin. 2001. “More Hot Air Won’t Bring the World’s Poor in From the Cold.” ''International Herald Tribune'', May 16.</ref> When pushed to open their markets to products from core nations backed by subsidies, it is very hard for them to compete. |
|||
[[Green imperialism]] is the term used to refer to influencing poorer nations in the name of environmentalism. [[Green colonialism]] is grabbing of land in the name of environmentalism. [[Fortress conservation]] is the conservation model based on the belief that biodiversity protection is best achieved by creating protected areas in isolation from humans and this has led to the eviction of indigenous people. |
|||
== Voluntary poverty == |
|||
{{See also|Simple living}} |
|||
===Spirituality=== |
|||
[[Image:Giotto - Legend of St Francis - -05- - Renunciation of Wordly Goods.jpg|thumb|right|St. [[Francis of Assisi]] renounces his worldly goods in a painting attributed to [[Giotto di Bondone]].]] |
|||
{{See also|Simple living|Mendicant|Evangelical counsels}} |
|||
[[File:50番繁多寺前で托鉢する遍路P1010122.jpg|thumb|right|A Japanese Buddhist pilgrim on [[Takuhatsu|alms round]] (during [[Shikoku Pilgrimage]] in Shikoku, Japan)]] |
|||
Among some individuals, poverty is considered a necessary or desirable condition, which must be embraced to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states. Poverty is often understood to be an essential element of [[nekkhamma|renunciation]] in religions such as [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] (only for monks, not for lay persons) and [[Jainism]], whilst in [[Christian views on poverty and wealth|Christianity]], in particular Roman Catholicism, it is one of the [[evangelical counsels]]. Some Christian communities, such as the [[The Simple Way|Simple Way]], the [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]], and the [[Amish]] value voluntary poverty;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premierchristianity.com/Past-Issues/2019/August-2019/Meet-the-Bruderhof-Our-exclusive-peek-inside-a-modern-Christian-utopia|title=Meet the Bruderhof: Our exclusive peek inside a modern Christian utopia|last=Premier|date=18 July 2019|website=Premier Christianity|language=en-GB|access-date=26 October 2019|archive-date=27 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927121322/https://www.premierchristianity.com/Past-Issues/2019/August-2019/Meet-the-Bruderhof-Our-exclusive-peek-inside-a-modern-Christian-utopia}}</ref> some even take a vow of poverty, similar to that of the traditional Catholic orders, in order to live a more complete life of discipleship.<ref name="Oved 2017">{{cite book | last=Oved | first=Iaácov | title=The witness of the brothers: a history of the Bruderhof | publisher=Routledge | publication-place=London | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-351-47253-1 | oclc=994005958 }}</ref> Another example is [[mendicancy]], where one chooses to rely chiefly or exclusively on [[alms]] to survive. The main aim of giving up things of the materialistic world is to withdraw oneself from sensual pleasures (as they are considered illusionary and only temporary in some religions—such as the concept of [[dunya]] in [[Islam]]). |
|||
<small>{{quote|'Tis the gift to be simple, |
|||
[[Pope Paul VI]] referred to "the spirit of poverty" as a fundamental characteristic of a Christian life,<ref>Pope Paul VI (1964), [https://www.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_06081964_ecclesiam.html Ecclesiam Suam], paragraph 54, accessed on 28 August 2024</ref> while Pope [[Benedict XVI]] distinguished between "poverty ''chosen''" (the poverty of spirit proposed by Jesus), and "poverty ''to be fought''" (unjust and imposed poverty).<ref name=Benedict>{{cite news|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/homilies/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_hom_20090101_world-day-peace_en.html|title=World Peace Day Address 2009|publisher=The Vatican|date=1 January 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=28 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628185005/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/homilies/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_hom_20090101_world-day-peace_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
|||
'tis the gift to be free, |
|||
Voluntary poverty can also be the result of [[solidarity]] with the poor.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://wydawnictwoumk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/CJFA/article/view/CJFA.2014.001/3213 |title=Catholic social teaching and social solidarity in the context of social security|journal=Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting |date=7 April 2014 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=9–18 |doi=10.12775/CJFA.2014.001 |access-date=19 December 2014 |archive-date=16 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416181657/http://wydawnictwoumk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/CJFA/article/view/CJFA.2014.001/3213 |url-status=live |last1=Adamiak |first1=Stanisław |last2=Walczak |first2=Damian |doi-access=free }}</ref> Benedict XVI considered that such solidarity is a necessary condition to fight effectively to eradicate the non-voluntary poverty.<ref name=Benedict/> |
|||
'tis the gift to come down where you ought to be, |
|||
And when we find ourselves in the place just right, |
|||
It will be in the valley of love and delight.|Shaker song.<ref>[http://www2.gol.com/users/quakers/simple_gifts.htm Simple Gifts]</ref>}}</small> |
|||
Among some individuals, such as [[asceticism|ascetics]], poverty is considered a necessary or desirable condition, which must be embraced in order to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states. Poverty is often understood to be an essential element of [[nekkhamma|renunciation]] in religions such as [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], whilst in [[Roman Catholicism]] it is one of the [[evangelical counsels]]. Certain [[religious order]]s also take a [[vow]] of extreme poverty. For example, the [[Franciscan]] orders have traditionally forgone all individual and corporate forms of ownership. While individual ownership of goods and wealth is forbidden for [[Benedictines]], following the [[Rule of St. Benedict]], the [[monastery]] itself may possess both goods and money, and throughout history some monasteries have become very rich indeed.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} |
|||
In this context of religious vows, poverty may be understood as a means of self-denial in order to place oneself at the service of others; Pope [[Honorius III]] wrote in 1217 that the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] "lived a life of voluntary poverty, exposing themselves to innumerable dangers and sufferings, for the salvation of others". Following [[Jesus]]' warning that riches can be like thorns that choke up the good seed of the word ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew 13:22]]), voluntary poverty is often understood by Christians as of benefit to the individual - a form of [[self-discipline]] by which one distances oneself from distractions from [[God]].{{Fact|date=December 2007}} |
|||
== See also == |
== See also == |
||
{{div col|colwidth=20em}} |
|||
{{Col-begin}} |
|||
* [[Accumulation by dispossession]] |
|||
* [[Aporophobia]] |
|||
{{Col-1-of-3}} |
|||
* [[Bottom of the pyramid]] |
|||
* [[ |
* [[Cost of poverty]] |
||
* [[Economic inequality]] |
|||
* [[List of countries and territories by fertility rate|Countries by fertility rate]] |
|||
* [[Environmental racism]] |
|||
* [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita]] |
|||
* [[ |
* [[Emotional detachment]] |
||
* [[Cycle of poverty]] |
* [[Cycle of poverty]] |
||
* [[Development state]] |
|||
* [[Diseases of poverty]] |
|||
* [[Distribution of wealth]] |
* [[Distribution of wealth]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[Food bank]] |
||
* [[Economic inequality]] |
|||
* [[Feminization of poverty]] |
|||
* [[Food security]] |
|||
* [[Food vs fuel]] |
|||
* [[Fuel poverty]] |
|||
* [[Global justice]] |
|||
* [[Green Revolution]] |
|||
{{Col-2-of-3}} |
|||
* [[Hunger]] |
|||
* [[Wikt:impoverishment|Impoverishment]] |
|||
* [[Income disparity]] |
* [[Income disparity]] |
||
* [[In-group and out-group]] |
|||
* [[International development]] |
|||
* [[International inequality]] |
* [[International inequality]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[Involuntary unemployment]] |
||
* [[Juvenilization of poverty]] |
|||
* [[IQ and Global Inequality]] |
|||
* [[ |
* [[List of countries by income inequality]] |
||
* [[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]] |
|||
* [[Kudumbashree Mission (Kerala)]] |
|||
* [[List of sovereign states by wealth inequality]] |
|||
* [[Least Developed Countries]] |
|||
* [[ |
* [[Millennium Development Goals]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[Prosperity]] |
||
* [[Redistribution of income and wealth]] |
|||
* [[Minimum wage]] |
|||
* [[ |
* [[Social programs]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[Social protection floor]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[Social safety net]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[Social stigma]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[United Nations Millennium Declaration]] |
||
* [[Universal basic income]] |
|||
{{Col-3-of-3}} |
|||
{{Portalpar|Sustainable development|Sustainable development.svg}} |
|||
* [[Poverty penalty]] |
|||
* [[Poverty reduction]] |
|||
* [[Poverty threshold]] |
|||
* [[Poverty trap]] |
|||
* [[Rural ghetto]] |
|||
* [[Shanty town]] |
|||
* [[Social exclusion]] |
|||
* [[Subsidized housing]] |
|||
* [[Street children]] |
|||
* [[Ten Threats]] identified by the [[United Nations]] |
|||
* [[Welfare (financial aid)|Welfare]] |
|||
* [[Working poor]] |
* [[Working poor]] |
||
* [[ |
* [[World Poverty Clock]] |
||
{{div col end}} |
|||
* [[The Hunger Site]] |
|||
* [[Theories of poverty]] |
|||
* [[List of famines]] |
|||
* [[2007–2008 world food price crisis]] |
|||
{{col-end}} |
|||
=== Organizations and campaigns === |
|||
{{Col-begin}} |
|||
{{Col-1-of-2}} |
|||
* [[Abahlali baseMjondolo]] - South African Shack dwellers' organisation |
|||
* [[Appropedia]] |
|||
* [[Brooks World Poverty Institute]] |
|||
* [[Catholic Charities|Catholic Charities USA]]<ref>[http://www.catholiccharitiesusa.org/poverty Campaign to Reduce Poverty in America]</ref> |
|||
* [[Center for Global Development]] |
|||
* [[Child Poverty Action Group]] |
|||
* [[Compassion Canada]] |
|||
* [[Eurodad]] |
|||
* [[Five Talents]] - Gives poverty stricken people another chance |
|||
* [[Free the Children]] |
|||
* [[Grameen Bank]] A micro lending bank for the poor. |
|||
* [[Global Call to Action Against Poverty]] (GCAP) |
|||
* [[Harlem Children's Zone]] |
|||
* [[International Day for the Eradication of Poverty|17 October: UN International Day for the Eradication of Poverty]] (White Band Day 4) |
|||
{{Col-2-of-2}} |
|||
* [[International Food Policy Research Institute]] |
|||
* [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] |
|||
* [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] |
|||
* The [[Make Poverty History]] campaign |
|||
* [[Microgiving]] Direct charitable giving |
|||
* [[Mississippi Teacher Corps]] |
|||
* [[ONE campaign]] <ref>[http://www.one.org The ONE Campaign]</ref> |
|||
* [[Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development]] |
|||
* [[United Nations Millennium Campaign]] <ref>[http://www.endpoverty2015.org/ United Nations Millennium Campaign]</ref><ref>[http://www.standagainstpoverty.org/ Stand Against Poverty]</ref> |
|||
* [[U.S. Agency for International Development]] |
|||
* [[World Bank]] |
|||
* [[World Food Day]] |
|||
* [[World Food Program]] |
|||
{{col-end}} |
|||
== References == |
== References == |
||
=== Citations === |
|||
{{Reflist}} |
|||
"Inequality and Poverty – OECD". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved 23 February 2023. |
|||
=== Sources === |
|||
<!-- this 'empty' section displays references defined elsewhere --> |
|||
{{refbegin}} |
|||
* {{Free-content attribution |
|||
{{reflist|2}} |
|||
| title = Global education monitoring report 2019: gender report: Building bridges for gender equality |
|||
| author = UNESCO |
|||
| publisher = UNESCO |
|||
| page numbers = |
|||
| source = UNESCO |
|||
| documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000368753 |
|||
| license statement URL = |
|||
| license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO |
|||
}} |
|||
{{refend}} |
|||
== Further reading == |
== Further reading == |
||
{{refbegin}} |
|||
* Allen, Robert C. 2020. "[https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-091819-014652 Poverty and the Labor Market: Today and Yesterday.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225955/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-economics-091819-014652 |date=24 July 2021 }}" Annual Review of Economomics. |
|||
<div class="references-2column"> |
|||
* [https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/half-world-s-poor-live-just-5-countries Half of the world's poor live in just 5 countries] Roy Katayama & Divinshi Wadha. World Bank Blogs. |
|||
* [http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/jhu/agresearchlive.asp Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries] Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007),Johns Hopkins University Press [http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/fpr/pr16.pdf Food Policy Report (Brief)] |
|||
* [[Tony Atkinson|Atkinson, Anthony]]. ''Poverty in Europe'' 1998 |
|||
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21050421~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html World Bank, Can South Asia End Poverty in a Generation?] |
|||
* {{cite book |author=Babb, Sarah |title=Behind the Development Banks: Washington Politics, World Poverty, and the Wealth of Nations |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-03365-5}} |
|||
* [http://womennewsnetwork.net/2007/08/28/%e2%80%9ceducate-a-woman-you-educate-a-nation%e2%80%9d-%e2%80%93-south-africa-aims-to-improve-its-education-for-girls/ "Educate a Woman, You Educate a Nation" - South Africa Aims to Improve its Education for Girls] WNN - Women News Network. Aug. 28, 2007. Lys Anzia |
|||
* Banerjee, Abhijit & Esther Duflo, Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011) |
|||
* Atkinson, Anthony B. ''Poverty in Europe'' 1998 |
|||
* Bergmann, Barbara. [http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2000/0300bergmann.html "Deciding Who's Poor"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520150222/http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2000/0300bergmann.html |date=20 May 2008 }}, [[Dollars & Sense]], March/April 2000 |
|||
* Betson, David M., and Jennifer L. Warlick "Alternative Historical Trends in Poverty." ''American Economic Review'' 88:348-51. 1998. in JSTOR |
|||
* Betson, David M. & Warlick, Jennifer L. "Alternative Historical Trends in Poverty." ''American Economic Review'' 88:348–51. 1998. |
|||
* Brady, David "Rethinking the Sociological Measurement of Poverty" ''Social Forces'' 81#3 2003, pp. 715-751 Online in Project Muse. Abstract: Reviews shortcomings of the official U.S. measure; examines several theoretical and methodological advances in poverty measurement. Argues that ideal measures of poverty should: (1) measure comparative historical variation effectively; (2) be relative rather than absolute; (3) conceptualize poverty as social exclusion; (4) assess the impact of taxes, transfers, and state benefits; and (5) integrate the depth of poverty and the inequality among the poor. Next, this article evaluates sociological studies published since 1990 for their consideration of these criteria. This article advocates for three alternative poverty indices: the interval measure, the ordinal measure, and the sum of ordinals measure. Finally, using the [[Luxembourg Income Study]], it examines the empirical patterns with these three measures, across advanced capitalist democracies from 1967 to 1997. Estimates of these poverty indices are made available. |
|||
* Brady, David "Rethinking the Sociological Measurement of Poverty" ''Social Forces'' 81#3 2003, pp. 715–751 Online in Project Muse. |
|||
* Buhmann, Brigitte, Lee Rainwater, Guenther Schmaus, and Timothy M. Smeeding. 1988. "Equivalence Scales, Well-Being, Inequality, and Poverty: Sensitivity Estimates Across Ten Countries Using the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database." Review of Income and Wealth 34:115-42. |
|||
* Buhmann, Brigitte, et al. 1988. "Equivalence Scales, Well-Being, Inequality, and Poverty: Sensitivity Estimates Across Ten Countries Using the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database." Review of Income and Wealth 34:115–142. |
|||
* Cox, W. Michael, and Richard Alm. ''Myths of Rich and Poor'' 1999 |
|||
* {{cite book |author1=Chase, Elaine |author2=Bantebya-Kyomuhendo, Grace|title=Poverty and Shame. Global Experiences |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-968672-8}} |
|||
* Danziger, Sheldon H., and Daniel H. Weinberg. "The Historical Record: Trends in Family Income, Inequality, and Poverty." Pp. 18-50 in ''Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change,'' edited by Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel. H. Weinberg. Russell Sage Foundation. 1994. |
|||
* Danziger, Sheldon H. & Weinberg, Daniel H. "The Historical Record: Trends in Family Income, Inequality, and Poverty." pp. 18–50 in ''Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change,'' edited by Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel. H. Weinberg. Russell Sage Foundation. 1994. |
|||
* Firebaugh, Glenn. "Empirics of World Income Inequality." ''American Journal of Sociology'' (2000) 104:1597-1630. in JSTOR |
|||
* {{cite book |last=Desmond|first=Matthew |author-link=Matthew Desmond|date=2023 |title=[[Poverty, by America]]|url= |location= |publisher=[[Crown Publishing Group]]|page= |isbn=978-0-593-23991-9}} |
|||
* [[Herbert J. Gans|Gans, Herbert, J.]], [http://www.sociology.org.uk/as4p3.pdf "The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All"], Social Policy, July/August 1971: pp. 20-24 |
|||
* Firebaugh, Glenn. "Empirics of World Income Inequality." ''American Journal of Sociology'' (2000) 104:1597–1630. in JSTOR |
|||
* [[Abraham George|George, Abraham]], [http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/india/article.cfm?articleid=4114&specialid=1&CFID=1824805&CFTOKEN=37907590 Wharton Business School Publications - Why the Fight Against Poverty is Failing: A Contrarian View] |
|||
* [[Herbert J. Gans|Gans, Herbert J.]], [http://www.sociology.org.uk/as4p3.pdf "The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605004424/http://www.sociology.org.uk/as4p3.pdf |date=5 June 2007 }}, Social Policy, July/August 1971: pp. 20–24 |
|||
* Gordon, David M. ''Theories of Poverty and Underemployment: Orthodox, Radical, and Dual Labor Market Perspectives.'' 1972. |
* Gordon, David M. ''Theories of Poverty and Underemployment: Orthodox, Radical, and Dual Labor Market Perspectives.'' 1972. |
||
* Haveman, Robert H. ''Poverty Policy and Poverty Research.'' University of Wisconsin Press 1987 |
* Haveman, Robert H. ''Poverty Policy and Poverty Research.'' [[University of Wisconsin Press]] 1987 {{ISBN|978-0-299-11150-2}} |
||
* Haymes, Stephen, Maria Vidal de Haymes and Reuben Miller (eds). ''[http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415673440/ The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617164555/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415673440/ |date=17 June 2015 }}.'' [[Routledge]], 2015. {{ISBN|978-0-415-67344-0}}. |
|||
* John Iceland; ''Poverty in America: A Handbook'' University of California Press, 2003 |
|||
* Iceland, John ''Poverty in America: a handbook'' University of California Press, 2003 |
|||
* Alice O'Connor; "Poverty Research and Policy for the Post-Welfare Era" ''Annual Review of Sociology'', 2000 |
|||
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Lee|first=Dwight R. |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter=Wealth and Poverty|chapter-url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n326.xml|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n326 |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=537–539}} |
|||
* Osberg, Lars, and Kuan Xu. "International Comparisons of Poverty Intensity: Index Decomposition and Bootstrap Inference." ''The Journal of Human Resources'' 2000. 35:51-81. |
|||
* McEwan, Joanne, and Pamela Sharpe, eds. ''Accommodating Poverty: The Housing and Living Arrangements of the English Poor, c. 1600–1850'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2010) 292 pages; scholarly studies of rural and urban poor, as well as vagrants, unmarried mothers, and almshouse dwellers. |
|||
* Paugam, Serge. "Poverty and Social Exclusion: A Sociological View." Pp. 41-62 in ''The Future of European Welfare'', edited by Martin Rhodes and Yves Meny, 1998. |
|||
* {{cite journal | last1 = O'Connor | first1 = Alice | year = 2000 | title = Poverty Research and Policy for the Post-Welfare Era | doi = 10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.547 | journal = Annual Review of Sociology | volume = 26| pages = 547–562}} |
|||
* Rothman, David J., (editor). "The Almshouse Experience", in series ''Poverty U.S.A.: The Historical Record'', 1971. ISBN 0405030924 |
|||
* {{cite journal | last1 = Osberg | first1 = Lars | last2 = Xu | first2 = Kuan | title = International Comparisons of Poverty Intensity: index decomposition and bootstrap inference | journal = The Journal of Human Resources | volume = 2000 | issue = 35| pages = 51–81 }} |
|||
* Amartya Sen; ''Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation'' Oxford University Press, 1982 |
|||
* Paugam, Serge. "Poverty and Social Exclusion: a sociological view." pp. 41–62 in ''The Future of European Welfare'', edited by Martin Rhodes and Yves Meny, 1998. |
|||
* Sen, Amartya. ''Development as Freedom'' (1999) |
|||
* {{cite journal | last1 = Philippou | first1 = Lambros | year = 2010 | title = Public Space, Enlarged Mentality and Being-In-Poverty | journal = Philosophical Inquiry | volume = 32 | issue = 1–2| pages = 103–115 | doi=10.5840/philinquiry2010321/218}} |
|||
* Smeeding, Timothy M., Michael O'Higgins, and Lee Rainwater. ''Poverty, Inequality and Income Distribution in Comparative Perspective.'' Urban Institute Press 1990. |
|||
* [[Vijay Prashad|Prashad, Vijay]]. ''The Poorer Nations: A Possible History of the Global South.'' [[Verso Books]], June 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-78168-158-9}} |
|||
* Triest, Robert K. "Has Poverty Gotten Worse?" ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 1998. 12:97-114. |
|||
* Prashad, Vijay. "[https://www.jacobinmag.com/2014/11/making-poverty-history/ Making Poverty History]". ''[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]].'' 10 November 2014. |
|||
* [[World Bank Group|World Bank]], "[http://go.worldbank.org/ZPTUFPVPG0 World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work For Poor People"], 2004. |
|||
* [[Steven Pressman (economist)|Pressman, Steven]], ''Poverty in America: an annotated bibliography.'' Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1994 {{ISBN|978-0-8108-2833-9}} |
|||
* Frank, Ellen, [http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2006/0106dollar.html ''Dr. Dollar: How Is Poverty Defined in Government Statistics?''] [[Dollars & Sense]], January/February 2006 |
|||
* [[Marilynne Robinson|Robinson, Marilynne]], "Is Poverty Necessary? An idea that won't go away", ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'', vol. 338, no. 2029 (June 2019), pp. 25–33. "To bring up the subject of providing a better life is to lean too far left, to flirt with [[socialism]].... 'Why... do wages tend to a minimum which will give but a bare living?' A short answer would be: because they can.... Insofar as the public is barred from taking a central role in society, we lose wisdom to stealth, stupidity, parochialism." |
|||
* Bergmann, Barbara. [http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2000/0300bergmann.html "Deciding Who's Poor"], [[Dollars & Sense]], March/April 2000</div> |
|||
* Rothman, David J., (editor). ''The Almshouse Experience'' (Poverty U.S.A.: the Historical Record). New York: Arno Press, 1971. {{ISBN|978-0-405-03092-5}}<small>Reprint of Report of the committee appointed by the Board of Guardians of the Poor of the City and Districts of Philadelphia to visit the cities of Baltimore, New York, Providence, Boston, and Salem (published in Philadelphia, 1827); Report of the Massachusetts General Court's Committee on Pauper Laws (published in [Boston?], 1821); and the 1824 Report of the New York Secretary of State on the relief and settlement of the poor (from the 24th annual report of the New York State Board of Charities, 1901).</small> |
|||
* [[Arundhati Roy|Roy, Arundhati]], ''Capitalism: A Ghost Story'', Haymarket Books, 2014, {{ISBN|978-1-60846-385-5}}. |
|||
* [[Amartya Sen|Sen, Amartya]], ''Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation'', Oxford, [[Oxford University Press|Clarendon Press]], 1981. |
|||
* [[Amartya Sen|Sen, Amartya]], ''Development as Freedom'', New York, Knopf, 1999. |
|||
* Smeeding, Timothy M., O'Higgins, Michael & Rainwater, Lee. ''Poverty, Inequality and Income Distribution in Comparative Perspective.'' Urban Institute Press 1990. |
|||
* [[Stephen C. Smith (economist)|Smith, Stephen C.]], ''Ending Global Poverty: a guide to what works'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005 |
|||
* {{cite journal | last1 = Triest | first1 = Robert K. | title = Has Poverty Gotten Worse? | journal = Journal of Economic Perspectives | year = 1998 | volume = 12| pages = 97–114 | doi = 10.1257/jep.12.1.97 | doi-access = free }} |
|||
* Wilson, Richard & Pickett, Kate. ''The Spirit Level'', London: Allen Lane, 2009 |
|||
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21050421~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html World Bank: "Can South Asia End Poverty in a Generation?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415192500/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21050421~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html |date=15 April 2008 }} |
|||
* [[World Bank Group|World Bank]], "[http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100411043749/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTWDRS/EXTWDR2004/0%2C%2CmenuPK%3A477704%7EpagePK%3A64167702%7EpiPK%3A64167676%7EtheSitePK%3A477688%2C00.html World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work For Poor People"], 2004 |
|||
{{refend}} |
|||
== External links == |
== External links == |
||
{{Commons category|Poverty}} |
|||
{{Wiktionary|poverty}} |
|||
{{Wikiquote}} |
|||
{{Wikiversity|Eliminating poverty}} |
|||
* [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552568 Addressing Global Poverty] from the [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] |
|||
* [https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty Data visualizations of the long-run development of poverty and list of data sources on poverty] on 'Our World in Data'. |
|||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090918223238/http://www.isdb.org/irj/portal/anonymous Islamic Development Bank] (archived 18 September 2009) |
|||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051204101908/http://www.lisproject.org/ Luxembourg Income Study] Contains a wealth of data on income inequality and poverty, and hundreds of its sponsored research papers using this data (archived 4 December 2005) |
|||
* [http://www.oecd.org/ Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development] Contains reports on economic development as well as relations between rich and poor nations. |
|||
* [https://ophi.org.uk/ OPHI] [[Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative]] (OPHI) Research to advance the human development approach to poverty reduction. |
|||
* [http://www.transparency.org/ Transparency International] Tracks issues of government and corporate corruption around the world. |
|||
* [https://www.un.org/ United Nations] Hundreds of free reports related to economic development and standards of living in countries around the world, such as the annual ''Human Development Report.'' |
|||
* [http://www.usaid.gov/ US Agency for International Development] USAID is the primary US government agency with the mission for aid to developing countries. |
|||
* [http://www.worldbank.org/ World Bank] Contains hundreds of reports which can be downloaded for free, such as the annual ''World Development Report.'' |
|||
* [http://www.wfp.org/ World Food Program] Associated with the United Nations, the World Food Program compiles hundreds of reports on hunger and food security around the world. |
|||
* [http://www.whypoverty.net/ Why poverty] Documentary films about poverty broadcast on television around the world in November 2012, then will be available online. |
|||
* [https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/annual-income-richest-100-people-enough-end-global-poverty-four-times-over Annual income of richest 100 people enough to end global poverty four times over]. ''[[Oxfam International]],'' 19 January 2013. |
|||
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=xxZi6pe2DgQC&dq=poverty+belgium+1975&pg=PA15 Contains estimates on the number of people living in poverty in selected countries from 1973 to 1985] |
|||
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=FuEXzh48RYQC&q=world+bank+poverty+1981 Contains information on poverty in 1980] |
|||
* [https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/how-was-life-volume-ii_e20f2f1a-en Contains estimates on trends in global extreme poverty since 1820] |
|||
* [https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w15433/w15433.pdf Contains estimates on trends in world poverty from 1970 to 2006] |
|||
* [http://aei.pitt.edu/100280/1/poverty_in_figures.pdf Includes estimates on poverty in various European countries in the Eighties] |
|||
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=S2W9jZcp6M0C&q=world+bank+poverty+1960 Contains estimates on global poverty in 1975] |
|||
* [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/01/history-of-global-poverty-reduction/ How can we leave widespread poverty behind? Jan 17, 2022] (Includes estimates on trends in global poverty from 1820 to 2018) |
|||
{{Clear}} |
|||
* [http://hrw.org Human Rights Watch] Tracks the abuse of people in less developed countries around the world. |
|||
{{Poverty}} |
|||
* [http://www.lisproject.org Luxembourg Income Study] Contains a wealth of data on income inequality and poverty, and hundreds of its sponsored research papers using this data. |
|||
{{Deprivation Indicators}} |
|||
* [http://www.multinationalmonitor.org Multinational Monitor] Contains reports of corporate misbehavior around the world. |
|||
{{Social class}} |
|||
* [http://www.nationmaster.com Nation Master] Provies hundreds of country rankings using data on such things as poverty, health, inequality, standards of living, crime, etc. |
|||
{{Africa topic|Poverty in}} |
|||
* [http://www.oecd.org Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development] Contains reports on economic development as well as relations between rich and poor nations. |
|||
{{Americas topic|Poverty in}} |
|||
* [http://www.transparency.org Transparency International] Tracks issues of government and corporate corruption around the world. |
|||
{{Asia topic|Poverty in}} |
|||
* [http://www.un.org/english United Nations] Hundres of free reports related to economic development and standards of living in countries around the world, such as the annual ''Human Development Report.'' |
|||
{{Europe topic|Poverty in}} |
|||
* [http://www.usaid.gov U.S. Agency for International Development] USAID is the primary U.S. government agency with the mission for aid to developing countries. |
|||
{{Oceania topic|Poverty in}} |
|||
* [http://wwww.worldbank.com World Bank] Contains hundreds of reports which can be downloaded for free, such as the annual ''World Development Report.''' |
|||
{{Effective altruism}} |
|||
* [http://www.wfp.org World Food Program] Associated with the United Nations, the World Food Program compiles hundreds of reports on hunger and food security around the world. |
|||
{{Authority control}} |
|||
{{commonscat|Poverty}} |
|||
{{Wiktionarypar2|poverty}} |
|||
{{wikiquote}} |
|||
{{Asia topic|Poverty in}} |
|||
[[Category:Poverty| ]] |
[[Category:Poverty| ]] |
||
[[Category: |
[[Category:Aid]] |
||
[[Category:Development economics]] |
|||
[[af:Armoede]] |
|||
[[ar:فقر]] |
|||
[[gn:Sogue]] |
|||
[[bg:Бедност]] |
|||
[[ca:Pobresa]] |
|||
[[cs:Chudoba]] |
|||
[[cy:Tlodi]] |
|||
[[da:Fattigdom]] |
|||
[[pdc:Aarmut]] |
|||
[[de:Armut]] |
|||
[[el:Φτώχεια]] |
|||
[[es:Pobreza]] |
|||
[[eo:Malriĉeco]] |
|||
[[eu:Pobrezia]] |
|||
[[fa:فقر]] |
|||
[[fr:Pauvreté]] |
|||
[[fur:Puaretât]] |
|||
[[gl:Pobreza]] |
|||
[[ko:빈곤]] |
|||
[[hr:Siromaštvo]] |
|||
[[id:Kemiskinan]] |
|||
[[is:Fátækt]] |
|||
[[it:Povertà]] |
|||
[[he:עוני]] |
|||
[[jv:Kere]] |
|||
[[ku:Xizanî]] |
|||
[[la:Paupertas]] |
|||
[[lb:Aarmut]] |
|||
[[lt:Skurdas]] |
|||
[[hu:Szegénység]] |
|||
[[ms:Kemiskinan]] |
|||
[[mn:Ядуурал]] |
|||
[[nl:Armoede]] |
|||
[[ja:貧困]] |
|||
[[no:Fattigdom]] |
|||
[[nn:Fattigdom]] |
|||
[[nrm:Pouortaé]] |
|||
[[oc:Pauretat]] |
|||
[[pl:Bieda]] |
|||
[[pt:Pobreza]] |
|||
[[ro:Limita sărăciei]] |
|||
[[qu:Wakcha]] |
|||
[[ru:Бедность]] |
|||
[[sq:Varfëria]] |
|||
[[scn:Puvireddu]] |
|||
[[simple:Poverty]] |
|||
[[sr:Сиромаштво]] |
|||
[[fi:Köyhyys]] |
|||
[[sv:Fattigdom]] |
|||
[[ta:வறுமை]] |
|||
[[vi:Nghèo]] |
|||
[[tr:Yoksulluk]] |
|||
[[uk:Бідність]] |
|||
[[ur:غربت]] |
|||
[[yo:Àìní]] |
|||
[[zh:貧窮]] |
Latest revision as of 17:57, 20 December 2024
Poverty is a state or condition in which an individual lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic standard of living. Poverty can have diverse environmental, legal, social, economic, and political causes and effects.[1] When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: absolute poverty which compares income against the amount needed to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter;[2] secondly, relative poverty measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of relative poverty varies from one country to another, or from one society to another.[2]
Statistically, as of 2019[update], most of the world's population live in poverty: in PPP dollars, 85% of people live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per day, and 10% live on less than $1.90 per day.[3] According to the World Bank Group in 2020, more than 40% of the poor live in conflict-affected countries.[4] Even when countries experience economic development, the poorest citizens of middle-income countries frequently do not gain an adequate share of their countries' increased wealth to leave poverty.[5] Governments and non-governmental organizations have experimented with a number of different policies and programs for poverty alleviation, such as electrification in rural areas or housing first policies in urban areas. The international policy frameworks for poverty alleviation, established by the United Nations in 2015, are summarized in Sustainable Development Goal 1: "No Poverty".
Social forces, such as gender, disability, race and ethnicity, can exacerbate issues of poverty—with women, children and minorities frequently bearing unequal burdens of poverty. Moreover, impoverished individuals are more vulnerable to the effects of other social issues, such as the environmental effects of industry or the impacts of climate change or other natural disasters or extreme weather events. Poverty can also make other social problems worse; economic pressures on impoverished communities frequently play a part in deforestation, biodiversity loss and ethnic conflict. For this reason, the UN's Sustainable Development Goals and other international policy programs, such as the international recovery from COVID-19, emphasize the connection of poverty alleviation with other societal goals.[6]
Definitions and etymology
[edit]The word poverty comes from the old (Norman) French word poverté (Modern French: pauvreté), from Latin paupertās from pauper (poor).[7]
There are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in. It usually references a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic standard of living.
United Nations: Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one's food or a job to earn one's living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation.[8]
World Bank: Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one's life.[9]
European Union (EU): The European Union's definition of poverty is significantly different from definitions in other parts of the world, and consequently policy measures introduced to combat poverty in EU countries also differ from measures in other nations. Poverty is measured in relation to the distribution of income in each member country using relative income poverty lines.[10] Relative-income poverty rates in the EU are compiled by the Eurostat, in charge of coordinating, gathering, and disseminating member country statistics using European Union Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) surveys.[10]
Measuring poverty
[edit]Absolute poverty
[edit]Absolute poverty, often synonymous with 'extreme poverty' or 'abject poverty', refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. This set standard usually refers to "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services."[12][13][14] Having an income below the poverty line, which is defined as an income needed to purchase basic needs, is also referred to as primary poverty.
The "dollar a day" poverty line was first introduced in 1990 as a measure to meet such standards of living. For nations that do not use the US dollar as currency, "dollar a day" does not translate to living a day on the equivalent amount of local currency as determined by the exchange rate.[15] Rather, it is determined by the purchasing power parity rate, which would look at how much local currency is needed to buy the same things that a dollar could buy in the United States.[15] Usually, this would translate to having less local currency than if the exchange rate were used.[15]
From 1993 through 2005, the World Bank defined absolute poverty as $1.08 a day on such a purchasing power parity basis, after adjusting for inflation to the 1993 US dollar[16] In 2009, it was updated as $1.25 a day (equivalent to $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices)[17][18] and in 2015, it was updated as living on less than US$1.90 per day,[19] and moderate poverty as less than $2 or $5 a day.[20] Similarly, 'ultra-poverty' is defined by a 2007 report issued by International Food Policy Research Institute as living on less than 54 cents per day.[21] The poverty line threshold of $1.90 per day, as set by the World Bank, is controversial. Each nation has its own threshold for absolute poverty line; in the United States, for example, the absolute poverty line was US$15.15 per day in 2010 (US$22,000 per year for a family of four),[22] while in India it was US$1.0 per day[23] and in China the absolute poverty line was US$0.55 per day, each on PPP basis in 2010.[24] These different poverty lines make data comparison between each nation's official reports qualitatively difficult. Some scholars argue that the World Bank method sets the bar too high,[25] others argue it is too low.
There is disagreement among experts as to what would be considered a realistic poverty rate with one considering it "an inaccurately measured and arbitrary cut off".[26] Some contend that a higher poverty line is needed, such as a minimum of $7.40 or even $10 to $15 a day. They argue that these levels are a minimum for basic needs and to achieve normal life expectancy.[27]
One estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people (59% of the world's population) living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately.[28] Philip Alston, a UN special rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, stated the World Bank's international poverty line of $1.90 a day is fundamentally flawed, and has allowed for "self congratulatory" triumphalism in the fight against extreme global poverty, which he asserts is "completely off track" and that nearly half of the global population, or 3.4 billion, lives on less than $5.50 a day, and this number has barely moved since 1990.[29] Still others suggest that poverty line misleads because many live on far less than that line.[23][30][31]
Other measures of absolute poverty without using a certain dollar amount include the standard defined as receiving less than 80% of minimum caloric intake whilst spending more than 80% of income on food, sometimes called ultra-poverty.[32]
Relative poverty
[edit]Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context. It is argued that the needs considered fundamental is not an objective measure[33][34] and could change with the custom of society.[35][33] For example, a person who cannot afford housing better than a small tent in an open field would be said to live in relative poverty if almost everyone else in that area lives in modern brick homes, but not if everyone else also lives in small tents in open fields (for example, in a nomadic tribe). Since richer nations would have lower levels of absolute poverty,[36][37] relative poverty is considered the "most useful measure for ascertaining poverty rates in wealthy developed nations"[38][39][40][41][42] and is the "most prominent and most-quoted of the EU social inclusion indicators".[43]
Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of the population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. This is a calculation of the percentage of people whose family household income falls below the Poverty Line. The main poverty line used in the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU) is based on "economic distance", a level of income set at 60% of the median household income.[44] The United States federal government typically regulates this line to three times the cost of an adequate meal.[45]
There are several other different income inequality metrics, for example, the Gini coefficient or the Theil Index.
Other aspects
[edit] ≥ 0.900 0.850–0.899 0.800–0.849 0.750–0.799 0.700–0.749 | 0.650–0.699 0.600–0.649 0.550–0.599 0.500–0.549 0.450–0.499 | 0.400–0.449 ≤ 0.399 Data unavailable |
Rather than income, poverty is also measured through individual basic needs at a time. Life expectancy has greatly increased in the developing world since World War II and is starting to close the gap to the developed world.[47] Child mortality has decreased in every developing region of the world.[48] The proportion of the world's population living in countries where the daily per-capita supply of food energy is less than 9,200 kilojoules (2,200 kilocalories) decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean water and electricity and basic consumer items.[49]
Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal social status and inequitable social relationships, experienced as social exclusion, dependency, and diminished capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society.[50][51][52] Such social exclusion can be minimized through strengthened connections with the mainstream, such as through the provision of relational care to those who are experiencing poverty. The World Bank's "Voices of the Poor", based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, identifies a range of factors which poor people identify as part of poverty. These include abuse by those in power, dis-empowering institutions, excluded locations, gender relationships, lack of security, limited capabilities, physical limitations, precarious livelihoods, problems in social relationships, weak community organizations and discrimination. Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished "capability" of people to live the kinds of lives they value. The social aspects of poverty may include lack of access to information, education, health care, social capital or political power.[53][54]
Relational poverty is the idea that societal poverty exists if there is a lack of human relationships. Relational poverty can be the result of a lost contact number, lack of phone ownership, isolation, or deliberate severing of ties with an individual or community. Relational poverty is also understood "by the social institutions that organize those relationships...poverty is importantly the result of the different terms and conditions on which people are included in social life".[55]
In the United Kingdom, the second Cameron ministry came under attack for its redefinition of poverty; poverty is no longer classified by a family's income, but as to whether a family is in work or not.[56] Considering that two-thirds of people who found work were accepting wages that are below the living wage (according to the Joseph Rowntree Foundation[57]) this has been criticised by anti-poverty campaigners as an unrealistic view of poverty in the United Kingdom.[56]
Secondary poverty
[edit]Secondary poverty refers to those that earn enough income to not be impoverished, but who spend their income on unnecessary pleasures, such as alcoholic beverages, thus placing them below it in practice.[58] In 18th- and 19th-century Great Britain, the practice of temperance among Methodists, as well as their rejection of gambling, allowed them to eliminate secondary poverty and accumulate capital.[59] Factors that contribute to secondary poverty includes but are not limited to: alcohol, gambling, tobacco and drugs. Substance abuse means that the poor typically spend about 2% of their income educating their children but larger percentages of alcohol and tobacco (for example, 6% in Indonesia and 8% in Mexico as of 2006).[60][needs update]
Variability
[edit]Poverty levels are snapshot pictures in time that omits the transitional dynamics between levels. Mobility statistics supply additional information about the fraction who leave the poverty level. For example, one study finds that in a sixteen-year period (1975 to 1991 in the US) only 5% of those in the lower fifth of the income level were still at that level, while 95% transitioned to a higher income category.[61] Poverty levels can remain the same while those who rise out of poverty are replaced by others. The transient poor and chronic poor differ in each society. In a nine-year period ending in 2005 for the US, 50% of the poorest quintile transitioned to a higher quintile.[62]
Global prevalence
[edit]According to Chen and Ravallion, about 1.76 billion people in the developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.9 billion people lived below $1.25 per day in 1981. In 2005, about 4.09 billion people in the developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.4 billion people lived below $1.25 per day (both 1981 and 2005 data are on inflation adjusted basis).[63][64] The share of the world's population living in absolute poverty fell from 43% in 1981 to 14% in 2011.[65] The absolute number of people in poverty fell from 1.95 billion in 1981 to 1.01 billion in 2011.[66] The economist Max Roser estimates that the number of people in poverty is therefore roughly the same as 200 years ago.[66] This is the case since the world population was just little more than 1 billion in 1820 and the majority (84% to 94%)[67] of the world population was living in poverty.
According to one study, the percentage of the world population in hunger and poverty fell in absolute percentage terms from 50% in 1950 to 30% in 1970.[68] According to another study the number of people worldwide living in absolute poverty fell from 1.18 billion in 1950 to 1.04 billion in 1977.[69] According to another study, the number of people worldwide estimated to be starving fell from almost 920 million in 1971 to below 797 million in 1997.[70] The proportion of the developing world's population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28% in 1990 to 21% in 2001.[65] Most of this improvement has occurred in East and South Asia.[71]
In 2012 it was estimated that, using a poverty line of $1.25 a day, 1.2 billion people lived in poverty.[72] Given the current economic model, built on GDP, it would take 100 years to bring the world's poorest up to the poverty line of $1.25 a day.[73] UNICEF estimates half the world's children (or 1.1 billion) live in poverty.[74] The World Bank forecasted in 2015 that 702.1 million people were living in extreme poverty, down from 1.75 billion in 1990.[75] Extreme poverty is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies.[76][77] Of the 2015 population, about 347.1 million people (35.2%) lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million (13.5%) lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the world's population living in extreme poverty fell from 37.1% to 9.6%, falling below 10% for the first time.[78]
During the 2013 to 2015 period, the World Bank reported that extreme poverty fell from 11% to 10%, however they also noted that the rate of decline had slowed by nearly half from the 25 year average with parts of sub-saharan Africa returning to early 2000 levels.[79][80] The World Bank attributed this to increasing violence following the Arab Spring, population increases in Sub-Saharan Africa, and general African inflationary pressures and economic malaise were the primary drivers for this slow down.[81][82] Many wealthy nations have seen an increase in relative poverty rates ever since the Great Recession, in particular among children from impoverished families who often reside in substandard housing and find educational opportunities out of reach.[83] It has been argued by some academics that the neoliberal policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank are actually exacerbating both inequality and poverty.[84][85]
In East Asia the World Bank reported that "The poverty headcount rate at the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990."[86] The People's Republic of China accounts for over three quarters of global poverty reduction from 1990 to 2005, which according to the World Bank is "historically unprecedented".[87] China accounted for nearly half of all extreme poverty in 1990.[88]
In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme poverty went up from 41% in 1981 to 46% in 2001,[89] which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in extreme poverty from 231 million to 318 million.[90] Statistics of 2018 shows population living in extreme conditions has declined by more than 1 billion in the last 25 years. As per the report published by the world bank on 19 September 2018 world poverty falls below 750 million.[91]
In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia experienced a sharp drop in income.[92] The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in large declines in GDP per capita, of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the through year of 1998 (when it was at its minimum). As a result, poverty rates tripled,[93] excess mortality increased,[94] and life expectancy declined.[95] Russian President Boris Yeltsin's IMF-backed rapid privatization and austerity policies resulted in unemployment rising to double digits and half the Russian population falling into destitution by the early to mid 1990s.[96] By 1999, during the peak of the poverty crisis, 191 million people were living on less than $5.50 a day.[97] In subsequent years as per capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from 31.4% of the population to 19.6%.[98][99] The average post-communist country had returned to 1989 levels of per-capita GDP by 2005,[100] although as of 2015 some are still far behind that.[101] According to the World Bank in 2014, around 80 million people were still living on less than $5.00 a day.[97]
World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the world except Middle East and North Africa since 1990:[102][103]
In July 2023, a group of over 200 economists from 67 countries, including Jayati Ghosh, Joseph Stiglitz and Thomas Piketty, sent a letter to the United Nations secretary general António Guterres and World Bank president Ajay Banga warning that "extreme poverty and extreme wealth have risen sharply and simultaneously for the first time in 25 years."[104] In 2024, Oxfam reported that roughly five billion people have become poorer since 2020 and warned that current trends could postpone global poverty eradication for 229 years.[105]
Region | $2.15 per day[106] | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1981 | 1990 | 2000 | 2010 | 2018 | 2019 | |
East Asia and Pacific | 83.5% | 65.8% | 39.5% | 13.3% | 1.6% | 1.2% |
Europe and Central Asia | — | — | 9.1% | 4.1% | 2.3% | 2.3% |
Latin America and the Caribbean | 15.1% | 16.8% | 13.5% | 6.4% | 4.3% | 4.3% |
Middle East and North Africa | — | 6.5% | 3.5% | 1.9% | 9.6% | — |
South Asia | 58% | 49.8% | — | 26% | 10.1% | 8.6% |
Sub-Saharan Africa | — | 53.8% | 56.5% | 42.2% | 35.4% | 34.9% |
World | 43.6% | 37.9% | 29.3% | 16.3% | 9% | 8.5% |
Characteristics
[edit]The effects of poverty may also be causes as listed above, thus creating a "poverty cycle" operating across multiple levels, individual, local, national and global.
Health
[edit]One-third of deaths around the world—some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day—are due to poverty-related causes. People living in developing nations, among them women and children, are over represented among the global poor and these effects of severe poverty.[108][109][110] Those living in poverty suffer disproportionately from hunger or even starvation and disease, as well as lower life expectancy.[111][112] According to the World Health Organization, hunger and malnutrition are the single gravest threats to the world's public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases.[113]
Almost 90% of maternal deaths during childbirth occur in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world.[114] Those who live in poverty have also been shown to have a far greater likelihood of having or incurring a disability within their lifetime.[115] Infectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis can perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations and AIDS decreases African growth by 0.3–1.5% annually.[116][117][118]
Studies have shown that poverty impedes cognitive function although some of these findings could not be replicated in follow-up studies.[119] One hypothesised mechanism is that financial worries put a severe burden on one's mental resources so that they are no longer fully available for solving complicated problems. The reduced capability for problem solving can lead to suboptimal decisions and further perpetuate poverty.[120] Many other pathways from poverty to compromised cognitive capacities have been noted, from poor nutrition and environmental toxins to the effects of stress on parenting behavior, all of which lead to suboptimal psychological development.[121][122] Neuroscientists have documented the impact of poverty on brain structure and function throughout the lifespan.[123]
Infectious diseases continue to blight the lives of the poor across the world. 36.8 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, with 954,492 deaths in 2017.[124]
Poor people often are more prone to severe diseases due to the lack of health care, and due to living in non-optimal conditions. Among the poor, girls tend to suffer even more due to gender discrimination. Economic stability is paramount in a poor household; otherwise they go in an endless loop of negative income trying to treat diseases. Often when a person in a poor household falls ill it is up to the family members to take care of them due to limited access to health care and lack of health insurance. The household members often have to give up their income or stop seeking further education to tend to the sick member. There is a greater opportunity cost imposed on the poor to tend to someone compared to someone with better financial stability.[125] Increased access to healthcare and improved health outcomes help prevent individuals from falling into poverty due to medical expenses.[126][127]
Hunger
[edit]It is estimated that 1.02 billion people go to bed hungry every night.[128] According to the Global Hunger Index, Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest child malnutrition rate of the world's regions over the 2001–2006 period.[129]
Poor people spend a greater portion of their budgets on food than wealthy people and, as a result, they can be particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For example, in late 2007, increases in the price of grains[130] led to food riots in some countries.[131][132][133] Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the water crisis.[134] Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields.[135] Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.[136][137] Goal 2 of the Sustainable Development Goals is the elimination of hunger and undernutrition by 2030.[138]
Mental health
[edit]A psychological study has been conducted by four scientists during inaugural Convention of Psychological Science. The results find that people who thrive with financial stability or fall under low socioeconomic status (SES) tend to perform worse cognitively due to external pressure imposed upon them. The research found that stressors such as low income, inadequate health care, discrimination, and exposure to criminal activities all contribute to mental disorders. This study also found that children exposed to poverty-stricken environments have slower cognitive thinking.[139] It is seen that children perform better under the care of their parents and that children tend to adopt speaking language at a younger age. Since being in poverty from childhood is more harmful than it is for an adult, it is seen that children in poor households tend to fall behind in certain cognitive abilities compared to other average families.[140]
For a child to grow up emotionally healthy, the children under three need "A strong, reliable primary caregiver who provides consistent and unconditional love, guidance, and support. Safe, predictable, stable environments. Ten to 20 hours each week of harmonious, reciprocal interactions. This process, known as attunement, is most crucial during the first 6–24 months of infants' lives and helps them develop a wider range of healthy emotions, including gratitude, forgiveness, and empathy. Enrichment through personalized, increasingly complex activities".[citation needed]
In a 1996 survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged inner cities said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33% reported witnessing a homicide.[141] 51% of fifth graders from New Orleans (median income for a household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in Washington, DC (mean income for a household: $40,127).[142] Studies have shown that poverty changes the personalities of children who live in it. The Great Smoky Mountains Study was a ten-year study that was able to demonstrate this. During the study, about one-quarter of the families saw a dramatic and unexpected increase in income. The study showed that among these children, instances of behavioral and emotional disorders decreased, and conscientiousness and agreeableness increased.[143]
Education
[edit]Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. This is often a process that begins in primary school. Instruction in the US educational system, as well as in most other countries, tends to be geared towards those students who come from more advantaged backgrounds. As a result, children in poverty are at a higher risk than advantaged children for retention in their grade, special deleterious placements during the school's hours and not completing their high school education.[144] Advantage breeds advantage.[145] There are many explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. One is the conditions in which they attend school. Schools in poverty-stricken areas have conditions that hinder children from learning in a safe environment. Researchers have developed a name for areas like this: an urban war zone is a poor, crime-laden district in which deteriorated, violent, even warlike conditions and underfunded, largely ineffective schools promote inferior academic performance, including irregular attendance and disruptive or non-compliant classroom behavior.[146] Because of poverty, "Students from low-income families are 2.4 times more likely to drop out than middle-income kids, and over 10 times more likely than high-income peers to drop out."[147]
For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to others such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher levels of teenage pregnancy, and economic dependency upon their low-income parent or parents.[144] Families and society who submit low levels of investment in the education and development of less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early childbearing with all the connected risks to family, health and well-being are major issues to address since education from preschool to high school is identifiably meaningful in a life.[144]
Poverty often drastically affects children's success in school. A child's "home activities, preferences, mannerisms" must align with the world and in the cases that they do not do these, students are at a disadvantage in the school and, most importantly, the classroom.[148] Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from school. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, flu, and colds.[148] These illnesses could potentially restrict a student's focus and concentration.[149]
In general, the interaction of gender with poverty or location tends to work to the disadvantage of girls in poorer countries with low completion rates and social expectations that they marry early, and to the disadvantage of boys in richer countries with high completion rates but social expectations that they enter the labour force early.[150] At the primary education level, most countries with a completion rate below 60% exhibit gender disparity at girls' expense, particularly poor and rural girls. In Mauritania, the adjusted gender parity index is 0.86 on average, but only 0.63 for the poorest 20%, while there is parity among the richest 20%. In countries with completion rates between 60% and 80%, gender disparity is generally smaller, but disparity at the expense of poor girls is especially marked in Cameroon, Nigeria and Yemen. Exceptions in the opposite direction are observed in countries with pastoralist economies that rely on boys' labour, such as the Kingdom of Eswatini, Lesotho and Namibia.[150]
Shelter
[edit]The right to housing is argued to be a human right.[152][153] Higher density and lower cost housing affords low-income families and first-time homebuyers with more and less expensive shelter opportunities, reducing economic inequality.[154][155]
The geographic concentration of poverty is argued to be a factor in entrenching poverty. William J. Wilson's "concentration and isolation" hypothesis states that the economic difficulties of the very poorest African Americans are compounded by the fact that as the better-off African Americans move out, the poorest are more and more concentrated, having only other very poor people as neighbors. This concentration causes social isolation, Wilson suggests, because the very poor are now isolated from access to the job networks, role models, institutions, and other connections that might help them escape poverty.[156] Gentrification means converting an aging neighborhood into a more affluent one, as by remodeling homes. Landlords then increase rent on newly renovated real estate; the poor people cannot afford to pay high rent, and may need to leave their neighborhood to find affordable housing.[157] The poor also get more access to income and services, while studies suggest poor residents living in gentrifying neighbourhoods are actually less likely to move than poor residents of non-gentrifying areas.[158]
Poverty increases the risk of homelessness.[159] Slum-dwellers, who make up a third of the world's urban population, live in a poverty no better, if not worse, than rural people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in the developing world, according to a report by the United Nations.[160]
There are over 100 million street children worldwide.[161] Most of the children living in institutions around the world have a surviving parent or close relative, and they most commonly entered orphanages because of poverty.[151] It is speculated that, flush with money, for-profit orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families usually take in children whose parents have died.[151] Many child advocates maintain that this can harm children's development by separating them from their families and that it would be more effective and cheaper to aid close relatives who want to take in the orphans.[151]
Utilities
[edit]The poor tend to pay more for access to utilities and ensuring the availability of water, sanitation, energy, and telecommunication services such as broadband internet service[162] help in reducing poverty in general.[163][164]
Water and sanitation
[edit]As of 2012, 2.5 billion people lack access to sanitation services and 15% practice open defecation.[165] Even while providing latrines is a challenge, people still do not use them even when available. Bangladesh had half the GDP per capita of India but has a lower mortality from diarrhea than India or the world average, with diarrhea deaths declining by 90% since the 1990s. By strategically providing pit latrines to the poorest, charities in Bangladesh sparked a cultural change as those better off perceived it as an issue of status to not use one. The vast majority of the latrines built were then not from charities but by villagers themselves.[166]
Water utility subsidies tend to subsidize water consumption by those connected to the supply grid, which is typically skewed towards the richer and urban segment of the population and those outside informal housing. As a result of heavy consumption subsidies, the price of water decreases to the extent that only 30%, on average, of the supplying costs in developing countries is covered.[167][168] This results in a lack of incentive to maintain delivery systems, leading to losses from leaks annually that are enough for 200 million people.[167][169] This also leads to a lack of incentive to invest in expanding the network, resulting in much of the poor population being unconnected to the network. Instead, the poor buy water from water vendors for, on average, about 5 to 16 times the metered price.[167][170] However, subsidies for laying new connections to the network rather than for consumption have shown more promise for the poor.[168]
Energy
[edit]In developing countries and some areas of more developed countries, energy poverty is lack of access to modern energy services in the home.[171] In 2022, 759 million people lacked access to consistent electricity and 2.6 billion people used dangerous and inefficient cooking systems.[172] Their well-being is negatively affected by very low consumption of energy, use of dirty or polluting fuels, and excessive time spent collecting fuel to meet basic needs.
Predominant indices for measuring the complex nature of energy poverty include the Energy Development Index (EDI), the Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index (MEPI), and Energy Poverty Index (EPI). Both binary and multidimensional measures of energy poverty are required to establish indicators that simplify the process of measuring and tracking energy poverty globally.[173] Energy poverty often exacerbates existing vulnerabilities amongst underprivileged communities and negatively impacts public and household health, education, and women's opportunities.[174]
According to the Energy Poverty Action initiative of the World Economic Forum, "Access to energy is fundamental to improving quality of life and is a key imperative for economic development. In the developing world, energy poverty is still rife."[175] As a result of this situation, the United Nations (UN) launched the Sustainable Energy for All Initiative and designated 2012 as the International Year for Sustainable Energy for All, which had a major focus on reducing energy poverty.
The term energy poverty is also sometimes used in the context of developed countries to mean an inability to afford energy in the home. This concept is also known as fuel poverty or household energy insecurity.[171]Financial services
[edit]For low-income individuals and families, access to credit can be limited, predatory, or both, making it difficult to find the financial resources they need to invest in their futures.[176][177]
Prejudice and exploitation
[edit]Cultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds, can negatively affect productivity such as age discrimination, stereotyping,[178] discrimination against people with physical disability,[179] gender discrimination, racial discrimination, and caste discrimination. Children are more than twice as likely to live in poverty as adults.[180] Women are the group suffering from the highest rate of poverty after children, in what is referred to as the feminization of poverty. In addition, the fact that women are more likely to be caregivers, regardless of income level, to either the generations before or after them, exacerbates the burdens of their poverty.[181] Those in poverty have increased chances of incurring a disability which leads to a cycle where disability and poverty are mutually reinforcing.
Max Weber and some schools of modernization theory suggest that cultural values could affect economic success.[182][183] However, researchers[who?] have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values.[184] A 2018 report on poverty in the United States by UN special rapporteur Philip Alston asserts that caricatured narratives about the rich and the poor (that "the rich are industrious, entrepreneurial, patriotic and the drivers of economic success" while "the poor are wasters, losers and scammers") are largely inaccurate, as "the poor are overwhelmingly those born into poverty, or those thrust there by circumstances largely beyond their control, such as physical or mental disabilities, divorce, family breakdown, illness, old age, unlivable wages or discrimination in the job market."[185] Societal perception of people experiencing economic difficulty has historically appeared as a conceptual dichotomy: the "good" poor (people who are physically impaired, disabled, the "ill and incurable," the elderly, pregnant women, children) vs. the "bad" poor (able-bodied, "valid" adults, most often male).[186]
According to experts, many women become victims of trafficking, the most common form of which is prostitution, as a means of survival and economic desperation.[187] Deterioration of living conditions can often compel children to abandon school to contribute to the family income, putting them at risk of being exploited.[188] For example, in Zimbabwe, a number of girls are turning to sex in return for food to survive because of the increasing poverty.[189] According to studies, as poverty decreases there will be fewer and fewer instances of violence.[190] Some data such as the UNICEF reports and also a research called "Echo of Silence" show that there is a close correlation between economic poverty and early marriage. In some developing countries, child marriage is considered an economic measure that can improve the family’s poor condition, strengthen family bonds.[191][192][193][194]
Poverty reduction
[edit]Various poverty reduction strategies are broadly categorized based on whether they make more of the basic human needs available or whether they increase the disposable income needed to purchase those needs.[196] Some strategies such as building roads can both bring access to various basic needs, such as fertilizer or healthcare from urban areas, as well as increase incomes, by bringing better access to urban markets.[197][198]
Reducing relative poverty would also involve reducing inequality. Oxfam, among others,[199] has called for an international movement to end extreme wealth concentration arguing that the concentration of resources in the hands of the top 1% depresses economic activity and makes life harder for everyone else—particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder.[200][201] And they say that the gains of the world's billionaires in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, were enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.[202] Methods to reduce inequality and relative poverty include progressive taxation, which involves increasing tax rates on high-income earners,[203][204] wealth taxes, which involve taxing a portion of an individual's net worth above a certain threshold,[205][206][207] reducing payroll taxes, which are taxes on employees and employers and reducing this provides workers greater take-home pay and allows employers to spend more on wages and salaries,[208][209][210] and increasing the labor share, which is the proportion of business income paid as wages and salaries instead of allocated to shareholders as profit.[211][212]
Increasing the supply of basic needs
[edit]Improving technology
[edit]Agricultural technologies such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides, new seed varieties and new irrigation methods have dramatically reduced food shortages in modern times by boosting yields past previous constraints.[213] Before the Industrial Revolution, poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as economies produced little, making wealth scarce.[214] Geoffrey Parker wrote that "In Antwerp and Lyon, two of the largest cities in western Europe, by 1600 three-quarters of the total population were too poor to pay taxes, and therefore likely to need relief in times of crisis."[215] The initial industrial revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass absolute poverty in what is now considered the developed world.[216] Mass production of goods in places such as rapidly industrializing China has made what were once considered luxuries, such as vehicles and computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who were otherwise too poor to afford them.[217][218]
Other than technology, advancements in sciences such as medicine help provide basic needs better. For example, Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today, but reduced it to 0.5–0.6% in the 1950s and to 0.6% in 2006 while spending less each year on maternal health because it learned what worked and what did not.[219][220] Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive and educational measures have been made to disseminate what works, such as the Copenhagen Consensus.[221] Cheap water filters and promoting hand washing are some of the most cost effective health interventions and can cut deaths from diarrhea and pneumonia.[222][223] Fortification with micronutrients was ranked the most cost effective aid strategy by the Copenhagen Consensus.[224] For example, iodised salt costs 2 to 3 cents per person a year while even moderate iodine deficiency in pregnancy shaves off 10 to 15 IQ points.[225]
State funding
[edit]Certain basic needs are argued to be better provided by the state. Universal healthcare can reduce the overall cost of providing healthcare by having a single payer negotiating with healthcare providers and minimizing administrative costs.[126][127] It is also argued that subsidizing essential goods such as fuel is less efficient in helping the poor than providing that same money as income grants to the poor.[226]
Government revenue can be diverted away from basic services by corruption.[227][228] Funds from aid and natural resources are often sent by government individuals for money laundering to overseas banks which insist on bank secrecy, instead of spending on the poor.[229] A Global Witness report asked for more action from Western banks as they have proved capable of stanching the flow of funds linked to terrorism.[229]
Illicit capital flight, such as corporate tax avoidance,[230] from the developing world is estimated at ten times the size of aid it receives and twice the debt service it pays,[231] with one estimate that most of Africa would be developed if the taxes owed were paid.[232] About 60 per cent of illicit capital flight from Africa is from transfer mispricing, where a subsidiary in a developing nation sells to another subsidiary or shell company in a tax haven at an artificially low price to pay less tax.[233] An African Union report estimates that about 30% of sub-Saharan Africa's GDP has been moved to tax havens.[234] Solutions include corporate "country-by-country reporting" where corporations disclose activities in each country and thereby prohibit the use of tax havens where no effective economic activity occurs.[233]
Developing countries' debt service to banks and governments from richer countries can constrain government spending on the poor.[235] For example, Zambia spent 40% of its total budget to repay foreign debt, and only 7% for basic state services in 1997.[236] One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been debt relief. Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from a 2005 round of debt relief.[237] Since that round of debt relief, private creditors accounted for an increasing share of poor countries' debt service obligations. This complicated efforts to renegotiate easier terms for borrowers during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic because the multiple private creditors involved say they have a fiduciary obligation to their clients such as the pension funds.[238][239]
The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, as primary holders of developing countries' debt, attach structural adjustment conditionalities in return for loans which are generally geared toward loan repayment with austerity measures such as the elimination of state subsidies and the privatization of state services. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot afford them at market prices.[240] In Malawi, almost 5 million of its 13 million people used to need emergency food aid but after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007 as Malawi became a major food exporter.[240]
Distressed securities funds, also known as vulture funds, buy up the debt of poor nations cheaply and then sue countries for the full value of the debt plus interest which can be ten or 100 times what they paid.[241] They may pursue any companies which do business with their target country to force them to pay to the fund instead.[241] Considerable resources are diverted on costly court cases. For example, a court in Jersey ordered the Democratic Republic of the Congo to pay an American speculator $100 million in 2010.[241] Now, the UK, Isle of Man and Jersey have banned such payments.[241]
Improving access to available basic needs
[edit]Even with new products, such as better seeds, or greater volumes of them, such as industrial production, the poor still require access to these products. Improving road and transportation infrastructure helps solve this major bottleneck. In Africa, it costs more to move fertilizer from an African seaport 100 kilometres (60 mi) inland than to ship it from the United States to Africa because of sparse, low-quality roads, leading to fertilizer costs two to six times the world average.[242] Microfranchising models such as door-to-door distributors who earn commission-based income or Coca-Cola's successful distribution system[243][244] are used to disseminate basic needs to remote areas for below market prices.[245][246]
The loss of basic needs providers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging effect.[247] As of 2004, there were more Ethiopia-trained doctors living in Chicago than in Ethiopia[248] and this often leaves inadequately less skilled doctors to remain in their home countries.[249] Proposals to mitigate the problem include compulsory government service for graduates of public medical and nursing schools[247] and promoting medical tourism so that health care personnel have more incentive to practice in their home countries.[250] Telehealth is the use of telecommunication technologies to deliver health services. For remotes communities in Alaska, telehealth has been found to reduce travel costs alone for the state by $13 million in 2021[251] and, according to one study, reduced the life expectancy gap between whites and American Indian population in Alaska from eight to five years.[252]
Preventing overpopulation
[edit]Poverty and lack of access to birth control can lead to population increases that put pressure on local economies and access to resources, amplifying other economic inequality and creating increase poverty.[253][90][254] Better education for both men and women, and more control of their lives, reduces population growth due to family planning.[255][256] According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), those who receive better education can earn money for their lives, thereby strengthening economic security.[257]
Increasing personal income
[edit]The following are strategies used or proposed to increase personal incomes among the poor. Raising farm incomes is described as the core of the antipoverty effort as three-quarters of the poor today are farmers.[258] Estimates show that growth in the agricultural productivity of small farmers is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country's population as growth generated in nonagricultural sectors.[259]
Income grants
[edit]A guaranteed minimum income ensures that every citizen will be able to purchase a desired level of basic needs. One method is through a basic income (or negative income tax), which is a system of social security, that periodically provides each citizen, rich or poor, with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on.[260] Studies of large cash-transfer programs in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Malawi show that the programs can be effective in increasing consumption, schooling, and nutrition, whether they are tied to such conditions or not.[261][262][263]
Employment subsidies go to those already employed and this has shown to have little effect on those at the lowest income levels.[208][264][265] Proponents argue that a basic income is more efficient than a minimum wage and unemployment benefits, as the minimum wage effectively imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing losses in efficiency. In 1968, Paul Samuelson, John Kenneth Galbraith and another 1,200 economists signed a document calling for the US Congress to introduce a system of income guarantees.[266] Winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics, with often diverse political convictions, who support a basic income include Herbert A. Simon,[267] Friedrich Hayek,[268] Robert Solow,[267] Milton Friedman,[269] Jan Tinbergen,[267] James Tobin[270][271][272] and James Meade.[267]
Income grants are argued to be vastly more efficient in extending basic needs to the poor than subsidizing supplies whose effectiveness in poverty alleviation is diluted by the non-poor who enjoy the same subsidized prices.[226] With cars and other appliances, the wealthiest 20% of Egypt uses about 93% of the country's fuel subsidies.[273] In some countries, fuel subsidies are a larger part of the budget than health and education.[273][274] A 2008 study concluded that the money spent on in-kind transfers in India in a year could lift all India's poor out of poverty for that year if transferred directly.[275] Additionally, in aid models, the famine relief model increasingly used by aid groups calls for giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries, often required by law, as it wastes money on transport costs.[276][277]
The primary obstacle argued against direct cash transfers is the impractically for poor countries of such large and direct transfers. In practice, payments determined by complex iris scanning are used by war-torn Democratic Republic of Congo and Afghanistan,[278] while India modified its subsidies in favor of direct transfers.[279] Central bank digital currencies are argued to be an efficient tool in direct cash transfers to the poor as it can reach the unbanked and be more cost effective without having to physically send money and without needing an intermediary such as a bank.[280][281]
Economic freedoms
[edit]Corruption often leads to many civil services being treated by governments as employment agencies to loyal supporters[282] and so it could mean going through 20 procedures, paying $2,696 in fees, and waiting 82 business days to start a business in Bolivia, while in Canada it takes two days, two registration procedures, and $280 to do the same.[283] Such costly barriers favor big firms at the expense of small enterprises, where most jobs are created.[284] Often, businesses have to bribe government officials even for routine activities, which is, in effect, a tax on business.[285] Noted reductions in poverty in recent decades has occurred in China and India mostly as a result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the ending of the central planning model known as the License Raj in India.[286][287][288]
The World Bank concludes that governments and feudal elites extending to the poor the right to the land that they live and use are 'the key to reducing poverty' citing that land rights greatly increase poor people's wealth, in some cases doubling it.[289] Providing secure tenure to land ownership creates incentives to improve the land and thus improves the welfare of the poor.[290] It is argued that those in power have an incentive to not secure property rights as they are able to then more easily take land or any small business that does well to their supporters.[291]
Greater access to markets brings more income to the poor. Road infrastructure has a direct impact on poverty.[292][293] Additionally, migration from poorer countries resulted in $328 billion sent from richer to poorer countries in 2010, more than double the $120 billion in official aid flows from OECD members. In 2011, India got $52 billion from its diaspora, more than it took in foreign direct investment.[294]
Financial services
[edit]Microloans, made famous by the Grameen Bank, is where small amounts of money are loaned to borrowers who typically lack collateral, steady employment, or a verifiable credit history.. However, microlending has been criticized for making hyperprofits off the poor even from its founder, Muhammad Yunus,[295] and in India, Arundhati Roy asserts that some 250,000 debt-ridden farmers have been driven to suicide.[296][297][298]
Those in poverty place more importance on having a safe place to save money than on receiving loans.[299] Additionally, a large part of microfinance loans are spent not on investments but on products that would usually be paid by a checking or savings account.[299] A large portion of the poor are unbanked because it is often not profitable to open bank accounts for the poor. One altervative option is the postal savings system. Another option is mobile banking which utilizes the wide availability of mobile phones.[299] This usually involves a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers who would take deposits in cash and translate these onto an account on customers' phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and issued back in cash with a small commission, making remittances safer.[300] Central bank digital currencies could allow, even in areas without internet access, digital transactions with little or no cost using simple feature phones.[280]
Education and vocational training
[edit]Free education through public education or charitable organizations rather than through tuition, from early childhood education through the tertiary level provides children from low-income families who may not otherwise have the financial resources with better job prospects and higher earnings and promotes social mobility.[301][302][303][304] Job training and vocational education programs that target training in technical skills in specific industries or occupations that are in high demand can reduce poverty and wealth concentration.[305]
Strategies to provide education cost effectively include deworming children, which costs about 50 cents per child per year and reduces non-attendance from anemia, illness and malnutrition, while being only a twenty-fifth as expensive as increasing school attendance by constructing schools.[306] Schoolgirl absenteeism could be cut in half by simply providing free sanitary towels.[307] Paying for school meals is argued to be an efficient strategy in increasing school enrollment, reducing absenteeism and increasing student attention.[308]
Desirable actions such as enrolling children in school or receiving vaccinations can be encouraged by a form of aid known as conditional cash transfers.[309] In Mexico, for example, dropout rates of 16- to 19-year-olds in rural area dropped by 20% and children gained half an inch in height.[310] Initial fears that the program would encourage families to stay at home rather than work to collect benefits have proven to be unfounded. Instead, there is less excuse for neglectful behavior as, for example, children stopped begging on the streets instead of going to school because it could result in suspension from the program.[310]
Obstacles
[edit]Economist William Easterly diagnoses a problem with the traditional approach to poverty reduction, whose advocates he calls "Planners." He notes that $2.3 trillion were spent on foreign aid in five decades, yet twelve-cent medicines were not able to be given to children to prevent malaria-related deaths and three dollars were not given to new mothers to help prevent millions of child deaths. He argues that even though the aid was well-meaning, it failed to bring results because "Planners," and not "Searchers," are supplying it.[311]
Planners | Searchers |
---|---|
Unable to motivate people to carry out their good intentions | Find ways to make things work |
Take no responsibility for their actions | Accept responsibility |
Determine what to supply | Find out what is in demand |
Apply global blueprints | Adapt to local conditions |
Lack knowledge of the bottom | Find out what the reality is at the bottom |
Believe outsiders know enough to offer solutions | Believe that solutions must be homegrown |
Antipoverty institutions
[edit]Intergovernmental organizations
[edit]In 2015 all UN Member States adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals as part of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, which sought to create a future global development framework to succeed the Millennium Development Goals, which were goals set in 2000 and were meant to be achieved by 2015.[312] Most targets are to be achieved by 2030, although some have no end date.[313] Goal 1 is to "end poverty in all its forms everywhere".[314] It aims to eliminate extreme poverty for all people measured by daily wages less than $1.25 and at least half the total number of men, women, and children living in poverty. In addition, social protection systems must be established at the national level and equal access to economic resources must be ensured.[315] Strategies have to be developed at the national, regional and international levels to support the eradication of poverty.[316]
Development banks
[edit]A development financial institution, also known as a development bank, is a financial institution that provides risk capital for economic development projects on a non-commercial basis. They are often established and owned by governments to finance projects that would otherwise not be able to get financing from commercial lenders. These include international financial institutions such as the World Bank, which is the largest development bank.
Nongovernmental organizations
[edit]In recent decades, the number of nongovernmental organizations has increased dramatically. The High level forums on aid effectiveness that was coordinated by the OECD found that this leads to fragmentation where too many agencies were financing too many small projects using too many different procedures and that the civil service of the donor countries were overstretched producing reports for each.[317]
A major proportion of aid from donor nations is tied, mandating that a receiving nation spend on products and expertise originating only from the donor country.[318] US law requires food aid be spent on buying food at home, instead of where the hungry live, and, as a result, half of what is spent is used on transport.[319] Domestic NGOs have more expertise in their respective regions and have less overhead and thus tend to be more efficient in delivering aid but receive less funding. Housing only for a Western aid worker in Ethiopia is enough to pay the salaries of four or five local NGO workers, for example. Bilateral government aid programs such as US Agency for International Development aim to increase their share of funding to go through 'local partners', called 'localizing'. The obstacles include accountability where it is easier to delegate responsibility for spending on one international NGO than having to track tax payer money going to numerous smaller domestic NGOs.[320]
For-profit institutions
[edit]The Poverty industrial complex refers to for-profit companies taking over roles previously held by government agencies. The incentive for profit in such companies has been argued to interfere with efficiently providing the needed services. Aid from richer nations increasingly go through for profit institutions. Such hospitals are found to imprison patients and retain corpses for non-payment of fees.[321]
Economic theories
[edit]The cause of poverty is a highly ideologically charged subject, as different causes point to different remedies. Very broadly speaking, the socialist tradition locates the roots of poverty in problems of distribution and the use of the means of production as capital benefiting individuals, and calls for redistribution of wealth as the solution, whereas the neoliberal school of thought holds that creating conditions for profitable private investment is the solution. Neoliberal think tanks have received extensive funding,[323] and proponents of neoliberalism have been able to apply their ideas in highly indebted countries in the global South as a condition for receiving emergency loans from the International Monetary Fund.
The existence of inequality is in part due to a set of self-reinforcing behaviors that all together constitute one aspect of the cycle of poverty. These behaviors, in addition to unfavorable, external circumstances, also explain the existence of the Matthew effect, which not only exacerbates existing inequality, but is more likely to make it multigenerational. Widespread, multigenerational poverty is an important contributor to civil unrest and political instability.[324] For example, Raghuram G. Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India and former chief economist at the International Monetary Fund, has blamed the ever-widening gulf between the rich and the poor, especially in the US, to be one of the main fault lines which caused the financial institutions to pump money into subprime mortgages—on political behest, as a palliative and not a remedy, for poverty—causing the financial crisis of 2007–2009. In Rajan's view the main cause of the increasing gap between high income and low income earners was lack of equal access to higher education for the latter.[325]
Several studies have found a relationship between poverty reduction and good governance. A number of articles have found linkages between poverty reduction and good governance.[326] Some find that economic growth is more impactful at reducing poverty in well governed countries.[327][328][329] Others find that there is a direct effect of governance on poverty reduction.[330][331] Research also finds that governance above a certain level contributes to poverty reduction.[332][333] Others still find a relationship between governance and poverty even controlling for economic growth, indicating an independent association.[326] A data based scientific empirical research, which studied the impact of dynastic politics on the level of poverty of the provinces, found a positive correlation between dynastic politics and poverty; i.e. the higher proportion of dynastic politicians in power in a province leads to higher poverty rate.[334] There is significant evidence that these political dynasties use their political dominance over their respective regions to enrich themselves, using methods such as graft or outright bribery of legislators.[335]
Most economic historians believe that throughout most of human history, extreme poverty was the norm for roughly 90% of the population, and only with the emergence of industrialization in the 19th century were the masses of people lifted out of it.[336][337]: 1 This narrative is advanced by, among others, Martin Ravallion,[338] Nicholas Kristof,[339] and Steven Pinker.[340]
Some academics, including Dylan Sullivan and Jason Hickel have challenged this contemporary mainstream narrative on poverty, arguing that extreme poverty was not the norm throughout human history, but emerged during "periods of severe social and economic dislocation", including high European feudalism and the apex of the Roman Empire, and that it expanded significantly after 1500 with the emergence of colonialism and the beginnings of capitalism, stating that "the expansion of the capitalist world-system caused a dramatic and prolonged process of impoverishment on a scale unparalleled in recorded history." Sullivan and Hickel assert that only with the rise of anti-colonial and socialist political movements in the 20th century did human welfare begin to see significant improvement.[336] However, all scholars and intellectuals, including Hickel, agree that the incomes of the poorest people in the world have increased since 1981.[337] Nevertheless, Sullivan and Hickel argue that poverty persists under contemporary global capitalism (in spite of it being highly productive) because masses of working people are cut off from common land and resources, have no ownership or control over the means of production, and have their labor power "appropriated by a ruling class or an external imperial power," thereby maintaining extreme inequality.[336]
Marian L. Tupy, a senior fellow of the Cato Institute, a right-libertarian think tank, criticized Hickel's claim that people before industrialization lived well without a lot of monetary income, stating that "The evidence from contemporary accounts and academic research" shows that "Compared to today, Western European living standards prior to industrialization were miserably low.", that "poverty was widespread and it was precisely the onset of industrialization and global trade … which led to poverty alleviation first in the West and then in the Rest."[341] and that both Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, while advocating for socialism, recognized that the capitalist system developing around them had improved people's material conditions.[341]
Ethics
[edit]Human rights
[edit]It is sometimes argued that poverty is a violation of human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights state that “Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security.”[342]
Environmentalism
[edit]The poor tend to suffer most from environmental degradation caused by reckless exploitation of natural resources by the rich.[343] For example, it is estimated that 92% of accumulated greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to countries from the Global North while 8% of emissions are attributed to countries from the Global South.[344][345] However, developing countries suffer 99% of the casualties attributable to climate change.[346] This unfair distribution of environmental burdens and benefits has generated the global environmental justice and climate justice movement.[347]
The Brundtland Report concluded that poverty causes environmental degradation, while other theories like environmentalism of the poor conclude that the global poor may be the most important force for sustainability.[348] A 2013 World Bank report estimated that climate change was likely to hinder future attempts to reduce poverty with a 2016 UN report claiming that by 2030, an additional 122 million more people could be driven to extreme poverty because of climate change.[349] The possible impacts of a temperature rise of 2 °C include: regular food shortages in Sub-Saharan Africa; a deficiency in water availability, with droughts predicted to happen much faster and last longer;[350] degradation and loss of reefs in South East Asia, resulting in reduced fish stocks; and coastal communities and cities more vulnerable to increasingly violent storms.[351]
Green imperialism is the term used to refer to influencing poorer nations in the name of environmentalism. Green colonialism is grabbing of land in the name of environmentalism. Fortress conservation is the conservation model based on the belief that biodiversity protection is best achieved by creating protected areas in isolation from humans and this has led to the eviction of indigenous people.
Spirituality
[edit]Among some individuals, poverty is considered a necessary or desirable condition, which must be embraced to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states. Poverty is often understood to be an essential element of renunciation in religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism (only for monks, not for lay persons) and Jainism, whilst in Christianity, in particular Roman Catholicism, it is one of the evangelical counsels. Some Christian communities, such as the Simple Way, the Bruderhof, and the Amish value voluntary poverty;[352] some even take a vow of poverty, similar to that of the traditional Catholic orders, in order to live a more complete life of discipleship.[353] Another example is mendicancy, where one chooses to rely chiefly or exclusively on alms to survive. The main aim of giving up things of the materialistic world is to withdraw oneself from sensual pleasures (as they are considered illusionary and only temporary in some religions—such as the concept of dunya in Islam).
Pope Paul VI referred to "the spirit of poverty" as a fundamental characteristic of a Christian life,[354] while Pope Benedict XVI distinguished between "poverty chosen" (the poverty of spirit proposed by Jesus), and "poverty to be fought" (unjust and imposed poverty).[355]
Voluntary poverty can also be the result of solidarity with the poor.[356] Benedict XVI considered that such solidarity is a necessary condition to fight effectively to eradicate the non-voluntary poverty.[355]
See also
[edit]- Accumulation by dispossession
- Aporophobia
- Bottom of the pyramid
- Cost of poverty
- Economic inequality
- Environmental racism
- Emotional detachment
- Cycle of poverty
- Distribution of wealth
- Food bank
- Income disparity
- In-group and out-group
- International development
- International inequality
- Involuntary unemployment
- Juvenilization of poverty
- List of countries by income inequality
- List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty
- List of sovereign states by wealth inequality
- Millennium Development Goals
- Prosperity
- Redistribution of income and wealth
- Social programs
- Social protection floor
- Social safety net
- Social stigma
- United Nations Millennium Declaration
- Universal basic income
- Working poor
- World Poverty Clock
References
[edit]Citations
[edit]- ^ "Ending Poverty". United Nations. Archived from the original on 9 September 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
- ^ a b "Poverty | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization". www.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
- ^ Roser, Max; Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban (1 January 2019). "Global Extreme Poverty". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 30 March 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
- ^ "Fragile and Conflict-Affected Countries and Situations", The World Bank Group A to Z 2016, The World Bank, pp. 60a–62, 7 October 2015, doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0484-7_fragile_and_conflict_affected, ISBN 978-1-4648-0484-7
- ^ B. Milanovic, Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globalization (Harvard Univ. Press, 2016).
- ^ dpicampaigns. "Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere". United Nations Sustainable Development. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
- ^ Skeat, Walter (2005). An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-44052-1.
- ^ "Indicators of Poverty & Hunger" (PDF). United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
- ^ "Poverty and Inequality Analysis". worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 3 June 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ a b Dvorak, Jaroslav (November 2015). "European Union Definition of Poverty". The SAGE Encyclopedia of World Poverty. doi:10.4135/9781483345727.n270. ISBN 978-1-4833-4570-3 – via ResearchGate.
- ^ "Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
- ^ UN declaration at World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995
- ^ "Poverty". World Bank. Archived from the original on 30 August 2004. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
- ^ Sachs, Jeffrey D. (2005). The End of Poverty. Penguin Press. p. 416. ISBN 978-1-59420-045-8.
- ^ a b c Devichand, Mukul (2 December 2007). "When a dollar a day means 25 cents". bbcnews.com. Archived from the original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ Ravallion, Martin; Chen, Shaohua & Sangraula, Prem (2008). "Dollar a Day Revisited" (PDF). The World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
- ^ Ravallion, Martin; Chen, Shaohua; Sangraula, Prem (May 2008). Dollar a Day Revisited (PDF) (Report). Washington, DC: The World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
- ^ Ravallion, Martin; Chen, Shaohua; Sangraula, Prem (2009). "Dollar a day" (PDF). The World Bank Economic Review. 23 (2): 163–184. doi:10.1093/wber/lhp007. ISSN 0258-6770. S2CID 26832525. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
- ^ ""The Bank uses an updated international poverty line of US $1.90 a day, which incorporates new information on differences in the cost of living across countries (the PPP exchange rates)."". Archived from the original on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
- ^ WDI. "Societal poverty a global measure of relative poverty". Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- ^ International Food Policy Research Institute, The World's Most Deprived. Characteristics and Causes of Extreme Poverty and Hunger Archived 23 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Washington: IFPRI Oct 2007
- ^ "Poverty Definitions". US Census Bureau. 2011. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2017.
- ^ a b "World Bank's $1.25/day poverty measure – countering the latest criticisms". The World Bank. 2010. Archived from the original on 10 December 2014. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
- ^ "New Progress in Development-oriented Poverty Reduction Program for Rural China (1,274 yuan per year = US$ 0.55 per day)". The Government of China. 2011. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
- ^ Subramanian, S. (March 2009). "Poverty Measurement in the Presence of a 'Group-Affiliation' Externality". Journal of Human Development and Capabilities. 10 (1): 63–76. doi:10.1080/14649880802675168. ISSN 1945-2829. S2CID 154177441.
- ^ "Did we really reduce extreme poverty by half in 30 years?". @politifact. Archived from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
- ^ Hickel, Jason (29 January 2019). "Bill Gates says poverty is decreasing. He couldn't be more wrong". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
- ^ "Four Reasons to Question the Official 'Poverty Eradication' Story of 2015". Archived from the original on 13 September 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
- ^ Beaumont, Peter (7 July 2020). "'We squandered a decade': world losing fight against poverty, says UN academic". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 July 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
- ^ "Poverty Measures" (PDF). The World Bank. 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
- ^ Sen, Amartya (March 1976). "Poverty: An Ordinal Approach to Measurement". Econometrica. 44 (2): 219–231. doi:10.2307/1912718. JSTOR 1912718.
- ^ Lipton, Michael (1986), 'Seasonality and ultra-poverty', Sussex, IDS Bulletin 17.3
- ^ a b Adamson, Peter (2012). "Measuring child poverty: New league tables of child poverty in the world's rich countries – UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre Report Card – number 10" (PDF). Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
- ^ Minority [Republican] views, p. 46 in U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Economic Committee on the January 1964 Economic Report of the President with Minority and Additional Views (Report). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. January 1964.
- ^ Smith, Adam (1776). An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Vol. 5.
- ^ Bradshaw, Jonathan; Chzhen, Yekaterina; Main, Gill; Martorano, Bruno; Menchini, Leonardo; Chris de Neubourg (January 2012). Relative Income Poverty among Children in Rich Countries (PDF) (Report). Innocenti Working Paper. Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. ISSN 1014-7837. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- ^ A League Table of Child Poverty in Rich Nations – Innocenti Report Card No.1 (Report). Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
- ^ Raphael, Dennis (June 2009). "Poverty, Human Development, and Health in Canada: Research, Practice, and Advocacy Dilemmas". Canadian Journal of Nursing Research. 41 (2): 7–18. PMID 19650510. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 7 December 2018.
- ^ Child poverty in rich nations: Report card no. 6 (Report). Innocenti Research Centre. 2005.
- ^ "Growing unequal? Income distribution and poverty in OECD countries" (PDF). Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- ^ Human development report: Capacity development: Empowering people and institutions (Report). Geneva: United Nations Development Program. 2008.
- ^ "Child Poverty". Ottawa: Conference Board of Canada. 2013. Archived from the original on 4 June 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
- ^ Marx, Ive; van den Bosch, Karel. "How Poverty Differs From Inequality, On Poverty Management in an Enlarged EU Context: Conventional and Alternative Approaches" (PDF). ec.europa.eu. Antwerp: Centre for Social Policy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2018.
- ^ Blastland, Michael (31 July 2009). "Just what is poor?". BBC News. Retrieved 25 September 2008.
- ^ Mankiw, Gregory (2016). Principles of Economics. Boston: Cengage. p. 406. ISBN 978-1-305-58512-6.
- ^ "GINI index (World Bank estimate) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
- ^ Hardy, Melissa A.; Reyes, Adriana M. (1 February 2016). "The Longevity Legacy of World War II: The Intersection of GI Status and Mortality". The Gerontologist. 56 (1): 104–114. doi:10.1093/geront/gnv041. ISSN 0016-9013. PMID 26220413. Archived from the original on 13 October 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- ^ "Levels and Trends in Child Mortality" (PDF). UNICEF, World Health Organization, The World Bank and UN Population Division. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
- ^ Kenny, Charles (2005). "Why Are We Worried About Income? Nearly Everything that Matters is Converging". World Development. 33: 1–19. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.06.016.
- ^ H Silver, 1994, social exclusion and social solidarity, in International Labour Review, 133 5–6
- ^ G Simmel, The poor, Social Problems 1965 13
- ^ Townsend, P. (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom. London: Penguin.
- ^ "A Glossary for Social Epidemiology". World Health Organization. March 2002. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Journal of Poverty". Journal of Poverty. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Lawson, Victoria; Elwood, Sarah, eds. (2018). Relational Poverty Politics: Forms, Struggles, and Possibilities. The University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-5312-8.
- ^ a b Khan, Javed (19 July 2015). "The welfare reform and work bill will make poor children poorer". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
- ^ "Record numbers of working families in poverty due to low-paid jobs". The Guardian. 24 November 2014. Archived from the original on 14 August 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
- ^ Townsend, Peter (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom: A Survey of Household Resources and Standards of Living. University of California Press. p. 565. ISBN 978-0-520-03976-6.
- ^ Swatos, William H. (1998). Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Rowman Altamira. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-7619-8956-1.
- ^ "The economic lives of the poor". MIT. October 2006. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2013.
- ^ W. Michael Cox; Alm, Richard (1995). By Our Own Bootstraps (PDF) (Report). Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
- ^ Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005 (PDF) (Report). Department of the Treasury. 13 November 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 May 2012.
- ^ Chen, Shaohua & Ravallioniz, Martin (August 2008). "The Developing World Is Poorer Than We Thought, But No Less Successful in the Fight against Poverty" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
- ^ "Fighting poverty in emerging markets – the gloves go on; Lessons from Brazil, China and India". The Economist. 26 November 2009. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
- ^ a b "The World Bank, 2007, Understanding Poverty". Web.worldbank.org. 19 April 2005. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ a b Roser, Max (2015). "World Poverty". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 27 September 2015. Retrieved 26 September 2015.
- ^ Bourguignon, François; Morrisson, Christian (2002). "Inequality Among World Citizens: 1820–1992" (PDF). American Economic Review. 92 (4): 727–744. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.5.7307. doi:10.1257/00028280260344443. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- ^ Origins of the Organic Agriculture Debate By Thomas R. DeGregori, 2008, P.128
- ^ Economic Inequality and Poverty International Perspectives Edited by Lars Osberg, 2017, P.71
- ^ "World Bank Group – International Development, Poverty, & Sustainability". World Bank. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
- ^ "How Have the World's Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s?" Table 3, p. 28". worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2007. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ Ravallion, Martin. "How long will it take to lift one billion people out of poverty?." The World Bank Research Observer 28.2 (2013): 139.
- ^ Jason Hickel (30 March 2015). It will take 100 years for the world's poorest people to earn $1.25 a day Archived 24 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. Retrieved 31 March 2015.
- ^ Madu, Ernest C. "Investment and Development Will Secure the Rights of the Child". Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
- ^ The World Bank (2016). Global Monitoring Report 2015/2016: Development Goals in an Era of Demographic Change (PDF) (Report). Washington, DC: World Bank. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0669-8. ISBN 978-1-4648-0669-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 June 2016. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
- ^ "World Bank Sees Progress Against Extreme Poverty, But Flags Vulnerabilities". The World bank. 29 February 2012. Archived from the original on 23 November 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
- ^ "Poverty and Equity – India, 2010 World Bank Country Profile". Povertydata.worldbank.org. 30 March 2012. Archived from the original on 25 November 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- ^ "World Bank Forecasts Global Poverty to Fall Below 10% for First Time; Major Hurdles Remain in Goal to End Poverty by 2030". Worldbank.org. 4 October 2015. Archived from the original on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 6 January 2016.
- ^ "Ending Extreme Poverty: Progress, but Uneven and Slowing" (PDF). The world Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
- ^ Elliott, Larry (20 January 2019). "World's 26 richest people own as much as poorest 50%, says Oxfam". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
- ^ Inman, Phillip (19 September 2018). "World Bank reports slower progress on extreme poverty". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
- ^ Müller-Jung, Friederike (17 October 2018). "World Bank report: Poverty rates remain high in Africa". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
- ^ Charlton, Emma (20 November 2018). "Why rich countries are seeing more poverty". World Economic Forum. Archived from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2019.
- ^ Haymes, Stephen; Vidal de Haymes, Maria; Miller, Reuben, eds. (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States. London: Routledge. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-415-67344-0. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
- ^ Jones, Campbell; Parker, Martin; Ten Bos, Rene (2005). For Business Ethics. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-415-31135-9.
Critics of neoliberalism have therefore looked at the evidence that documents the results of this great experiment of the past 30 years, in which many markets have been set free. Looking at the evidence, we can see that the total amount of global trade has increased significantly, but that global poverty has increased, with more today living in abject poverty than before neoliberalism.
- ^ "East Asia Remains Robust Despite US Slow Down". worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 22 March 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Four Decades of Poverty Reduction in China: Drivers, Insights for the World, and the Way Ahead. World Bank Publications. 2022. p. ix. ISBN 978-1-4648-1878-3.
By any measure, the speed and scale of China's poverty reduction is historically unprecedented.
- ^ Stuart, Elizabeth (19 August 2015). "China has almost wiped out urban poverty. Now it must tackle inequality". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2019.
- ^ Perry (1972). Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science, 12/e. Pearson Education. p. 548. ISBN 978-81-317-3066-9. Archived from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ a b "Birth rates must be curbed to win war on global poverty". The Independent. London. 31 January 2007. Archived from the original on 15 December 2013. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
- ^ Zumbrun, Josh (19 September 2018). "World Poverty Falls Below 750 Million, Report Says". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
- ^ "Worldbank.org reference". Web.worldbank.org. 19 April 2005. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Scheidel, Walter (2017). The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-0-691-16502-8.
- ^ Rosefielde, Steven (2001). "Premature Deaths: Russia's Radical Economic Transition in Soviet Perspective". Europe-Asia Studies. 53 (8): 1159–1176. doi:10.1080/09668130120093174. S2CID 145733112.
- ^ Ghodsee, Kristen (2017). Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism. Duke University Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-0-8223-6949-3. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 14 February 2019.
- ^ Mattei, Clara E. (2022). The Capital Order: How Economists Invented Austerity and Paved the Way to Fascism. University of Chicago Press. pp. 301–303. ISBN 978-0-226-81839-9.
"If, in 1987–1988, 2 percent of the Russian people lived in poverty (i.e., survived on less than $4 a day), by 1993–1995 the number reached 50 percent: in just seven years half the Russian population became destitute.
- ^ a b Ghodsee, Kristen; Orenstein, Mitchell A. (2021). Taking Stock of Shock: Social Consequences of the 1989 Revolutions. Oxford University Press. p. 43. doi:10.1093/oso/9780197549230.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-754924-7.
- ^ "World Bank, Data and Statistics, WDI, GDF, & ADI Online Databases". World Bank. Archived from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Study Finds Poverty Deepening in Former Communist Countries". The New York Times. 12 October 2000. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ Appel, Hilary; Orenstein, Mitchell A. (2018). From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reform in Postcommunist Countries. Cambridge University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-108-43505-5. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
- ^ Milanović, Branko (2015). "After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism". Challenge. 58 (2): 135–138. doi:10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402. S2CID 153398717.
So, what is the balance sheet of transition? Only three or at most five or six countries could be said to be on the road to becoming a part of the rich and (relatively) stable capitalist world. Many of the other countries are falling behind, and some are so far behind that they cannot aspire to go back to the point where they were when the Wall fell for several decades.
- ^ "World Bank, 2007, Povcalnet Poverty Data". World Bank. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ The data can be replicated using World Bank 2007 Human Development Indicator regional tables, and using the default poverty line of $32.74 per month at 1993 PPP.
- ^ Elliott, Larry. "Top economists call for action on runaway global inequality". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 August 2023.
- ^ Neate, Rupert (14 January 2024). "World's five richest men double their money as poorest get poorer". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 January 2024.
- ^ "Poverty headcount ratio at $2.15 a day (2017 PPP) (% of population) – East Asia & Pacific, Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe & Central Asia, Middle East & North Africa, South Asia, Latin America & Caribbean, World". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
- ^ ● Homicide data from United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2024). "Homicide rate, 2023 / Annual number of deaths from homicide per 100,000 people". Archived from the original on 13 November 2024.
Data source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2024)
● Income data from Luxembourg Income Study (2024). "Median income (after tax), 1963 to 2022". Archived from the original on 23 September 2024.This data is adjusted for inflation and for differences in the cost of living between countries. Income here is measured after taxes and benefits. – Data source: Luxembourg Income Study (2024) – This data is measured in international-$ at 2017 prices. Income has been equivalized.
- ^ "Human Development Report" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2015. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
- ^ Pogge, Thomas (2010). Politics as Usual: What Lies Behind the Pro-Poor Rhetoric (1st ed.). Polity Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7456-3892-8. Archived from the original on 31 January 2015. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
- ^ "The World Health Report, World Health Organization (See annex table 2)". Who.int. Archived from the original on 26 January 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Rising food prices curb aid to global poor". Christian Science Monitor. 24 July 2007. Archived from the original on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Cano P.E., Librado (2010). Transformation of an individual family community nation and the world. Trafford. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-4269-4766-7.
- ^ "The Starvelings". The Economist. 24 January 2008. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ "The causes of maternal death". BBC News. 23 November 1998. Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
- ^ "Disability – Disability: Overview". Go.worldbank.org. 28 March 2013. Archived from the original on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- ^ "Economic costs of AIDS". Globalpolicy.org. 23 July 2003. Archived from the original on 23 March 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Sachs, Jeffrey; Malaney, Pia (3 September 2010). "The economic and social burden of malaria". Nature. 415 (6872): 680–685. doi:10.1038/415680a. PMID 11832956. S2CID 618837.
- ^ "Poverty Issues Dominate WHO Regional Meeting". Wpro.who.int. Archived from the original on 3 April 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ O'Donnell, Michael (2 November 2021). "Empirical audit and review and an assessment of evidentiary value in research on the psychological consequences of scarcity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 118 (44): e2103313118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11803313O. doi:10.1073/pnas.2103313118. PMC 8612349. PMID 34711679.
- ^ Mani, Anandi; Mullainathan, Sendhil; Shafir, Eldar; Zhao, Jiaying (2013). "Poverty Impedes Cognitive Function" (PDF). Science. 341 (6149): 976–980. Bibcode:2013Sci...341..976M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.398.6303. doi:10.1126/science.1238041. PMID 23990553. S2CID 1684186. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 October 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
- ^ Black, Maureen M; Walker, Susan P; Fernald, Lia C; Andersen, Christopher T; DiGirolamo, Ann M; Lu, Chunling; Grantham-McGregor, Sally (7 January 2017). "Early childhood development coming of age: science through the life course". The Lancet. 389 (10064): 77–90. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31389-7. PMC 5884058. PMID 27717614.
- ^ Britto, Pia R; Lye, Stephen J; Proulx, Kerrie; Yousafzai, Aisha K; Matthews, Stephen G; Vaivada, Tyler; Bhutta, Zulfiqar A (7 January 2017). "Nurturing care: promoting early child development". The Lancet. 389 (10064): 91–102. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31390-3. PMID 27717615. S2CID 39094476. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2018.
- ^ Farah, Martha J. (27 September 2017). "The neuroscience of socioeconomic status: Correlates, causes and consequences". Neuron. 96 (1): 56–71. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.08.034. PMID 28957676.
- ^ "Prevalence, new cases and deaths from HIV/AIDS". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
- ^ OECD/WHO (2003). Poverty and Health (DAC Guidelines and Reference Series). Paris: OECD. doi:10.1787/9789264100206-en. ISBN 978-92-64-10020-6. ISSN 1990-0988. OCLC 55519605.
- ^ a b Blumenthal, David (9 September 2014), "Do Health Care Costs Fuel Economic Inequality in the United States?", www.commonwealthfund.org, retrieved 22 February 2023
- ^ a b Dastidar, Biswanath Ghosh; Suri, Shailesh; Nagaraja, Vikranth H.; Jani, Anant (16 November 2022). "A virtual bridge to Universal Healthcare in India". Communications Medicine. 2 (1): 145. doi:10.1038/s43856-022-00211-7. ISSN 2730-664X. PMC 9667848. PMID 36385160. S2CID 253525261.
any strategy by India to haul its massive population out of poverty must necessarily include measures to provide UHC nationwide.
- ^ "1.02 billion people hungry". fao.org. 19 June 2009. Archived from the original on 17 November 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "2008 Global Hunger Index Key Findings & Facts". 2008. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
- ^ "The cost of food: Facts and figures". BBC News. 16 October 2008. Archived from the original on 20 January 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Watts, Jonathan (4 December 2007). "Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring". The Guardian. Beijing. Archived from the original on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Mortished, Carl (7 March 2008). "Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come?". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 14 August 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Borger, Julian (26 February 2008). "Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 25 December 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion". Planetark.com. 5 June 2007. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Exploitation and Over-exploitation in Societies Past and Present, Brigitta Benzing, Bernd Herrmann
- ^ "The Earth Is Shrinking: Advancing Deserts and Rising Seas Squeezing Civilization". Earth-policy.org. Archived from the original on 10 August 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Sample, Ian (31 August 2007). "Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Martin. "Goal 2: Zero Hunger". United Nations Sustainable Development. Archived from the original on 10 December 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
- ^ Sleek, Scott (31 August 2015). "How Poverty Affects the Brain and Behavior". APS Observer. 28 (7). Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
- ^ Farah, Martha J.; Betancourt, Laura; Shera, David M.; Savage, Jessica H.; Giannetta, Joan M.; Brodsky, Nancy L.; Malmud, Elsa K.; Hurt, Hallam (September 2008). "Environmental stimulation, parental nurturance and cognitive development in humans". Developmental Science. 11 (5): 793–801. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00688.x. PMID 18810850.
- ^ Atkins, M.S.; McKay, M.; Talbott, E.; Arvantis, P. (1996). "DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams". School Psychology Review. 25 (3): 274–283. doi:10.1080/02796015.1996.12085817. Citing: Bell, C.C.; Jenkins, E.J. (1991). "Traumatic stress and children". Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved. 2 (1): 175–185. doi:10.1353/hpu.2010.0089. PMID 1685908. S2CID 28660040.
- ^ Atkins, M.S.; McKay, M.; Talbott, E.; Arvantis, P. (1996). "DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams". School Psychology Review. 25 (3): 274–283. doi:10.1080/02796015.1996.12085817. Citing: Osofsky, J.D.; Wewers, S.; Harm, D.M.; Fick, A.C. (1993). "Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children?". Psychiatry. 56 (1): 36–45. doi:10.1080/00332747.1993.11024619. PMID 8488211.; and, Richters, J.E., & Martinez, P. (1993).
- ^ "The remarkable thing that happens to poor kids when you give their parents a little money". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015. Retrieved 8 October 2015.
- ^ a b c Huston, A. C. (1991). Children in Poverty: Child Development and Public Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Raghuram G. Rajan (2012). Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy. Archived 20 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine Published by: Collins Business
- ^ Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). Children in Danger: Coping with the Consequences. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Print.
- ^ "Cause and Effect: The High Cost of High School Dropouts". The Huffington Post. 30 November 2014. Archived from the original on 30 May 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
- ^ a b Solley, Bobbie A. (2005). When Poverty's Children Write: Celebrating Strengths, Transforming Lives. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, Inc.
- ^ Jensen, Eric. "Teaching with Poverty in Mind". ASCD. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
- ^ a b UNESCO (2019). Global education monitoring report 2019: gender report: Building bridges for gender equality. UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-100329-5. Archived from the original on 6 December 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- ^ a b c d Dugger, Celia W. (5 December 2009). "Aid gives alternatives to African orphanages". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 May 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
- ^ Desmond, Matthew (2016). Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City. Crown Books. [ISBN missing][page needed]
- ^ Bratt, Rachel G. (Editor), Stone, Michael E. (Editor), Hartman, Chester (Editor). 2006. A Right to Housing: Foundation for a New Social Agenda. Temple University Press.[ISBN missing][page needed]
- ^ Cooke, Thomas J.; Denton, Curtis (17 February 2015). "The suburbanization of poverty? An alternative perspective" (PDF). Urban Geography. 36 (2): 300–313. doi:10.1080/02723638.2014.973224. S2CID 145716858. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ^ Desmond, Matthew (2022). "Unaffordable America: Poverty, housing, and eviction". In Mueller, Elizabeth J.; Tighe, J. Rosie (eds.). The affordable housing reader (Second ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Taylor & Francis. pp. 389–395. ISBN 978-1-000-59482-9. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ^ Wilson, William J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- ^ Moss, Jeremiah. 24 July 2018. Vanishing New York: How a Great City Lost Its Soul. HarperCollins Publishers.
- ^ "In praise of gentrification". The Economist. 23 June 2018. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2021.
- ^ "Study: 744,000 homeless in United States". USA Today. 10 January 2007. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Report reveals global slum crisis". BBC News. 16 June 2006. Archived from the original on 30 October 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Street Children". Portal.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 21 May 2008. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ California LifeLine program assessment & evaluation. Sacramento, California: California Public Utilities Commission. 20 May 2022.
- ^ Giné Garriga, Ricard; Pérez Foguet, Agustí (1 March 2013). "Unravelling the Linkages Between Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Rural Poverty: The WASH Poverty Index". Water Resources Management. 27 (5): 1501–1515. Bibcode:2013WatRM..27.1501G. doi:10.1007/s11269-012-0251-6. hdl:2117/18648. ISSN 1573-1650. S2CID 189950003.
- ^ Cynthia C. Cook; et al. (2005). Assessing the impact of transport and energy infrastructure on poverty reduction. Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. ISBN 978-971-561-580-8. OCLC 61391598.
- ^ WHO and UNICEF Progress on Drinking-water and Sanitation: 2012 Update, WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York, p. 2
- ^ "How Bangladesh vanquished diarrhoea". The Economist. 22 March 2018. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
- ^ a b c d "Trickle-Down Economics". foreignpolicy.com. 5 December 2011. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2014.
- ^ a b Komives, Kristin; Foster, Vivien; Halpern, Jonathan; Wodon, Quentin (2005). Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who benefits from utility subsidies? (PDF). Washington, DC: The World Bank. ISBN 978-0-8213-6342-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 December 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
- ^ Kingdom, Bill; Liemberger, Roland; Marin, Philippe (2006). The challenge of reducing non-revenue water (NRW) in developing countries. How the private sector can help: A look at performance-based service contracting (PDF). Water supply and sanitation board discussion paper series. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
- ^ Kjellen, Marianne & McGranahan, Gordon (2006). Informal Water Vendors and the Urban Poor (PDF). Human settlements discussion paper series. London: IIED. ISBN 978-1-84369-586-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 September 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
- ^ a b Bouzarovski, Stefan; Petrova, Saska (1 November 2015). "A global perspective on domestic energy deprivation: Overcoming the energy poverty–fuel poverty binary". Energy Research & Social Science. 10: 31–40. Bibcode:2015ERSS...10...31B. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2015.06.007. ISSN 2214-6296.
- ^ "Goal 7 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs". sdgs.un.org. Retrieved 15 April 2022.
- ^ Pelz, Setu; Pachauri, Shonali; Groh, Sebastian (2018). "A critical review of modern approaches for multidimensional energy poverty measurement". WIREs Energy and Environment. 7 (6). Bibcode:2018WIREE...7E.304P. doi:10.1002/wene.304. ISSN 2041-8396.
- ^ "Gender equality and women's empowerment in UNDP". Evaluation of UNDP Contribution to Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment. United Nations. 15 December 2015. doi:10.18356/c121bb97-en.
- ^ "Access2017". Archived from the original on 1 August 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
- ^ Hartfree, Yvette; Collard, Sharon (1 October 2015). "Locating credit and debt within an anti-poverty strategy for the UK". Journal of Poverty and Social Justice. 23 (3): 203–214. doi:10.1332/175982715X14443317211950. hdl:1983/9dc0d10f-b10d-4e4a-82e9-0957a4226608. ISSN 1759-8273. S2CID 167507335.
- ^ Chaniwa, Marjorie; Nyawenze, Collen; Mandumbu, Ronald; Mutsiveri, Godfrey; Gadzirayi, Christopher T.; Munyati, Vincent T.; Rugare, Joyful Tatenda (2020), Nhamo, Godwell; Odularu, Gbadebo O. A.; Mjimba, Vuyo (eds.), "Ending Poverty Through Affordable Credit to Small-Scale Cotton Farmers: The Case of the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe", Scaling up SDGs Implementation: Emerging Cases from State, Development and Private Sectors, Sustainable Development Goals Series, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 115–127, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_8, ISBN 978-3-030-33216-7, S2CID 214161949
- ^ "Ending Poverty in Community (EPIC)". Usccb.org. Archived from the original on 9 March 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Filmer, D. (2008), "Disability, poverty, and schooling in developing countries: results from 14 household surveys", The World Bank Economic Review, 22(1), pp. 141–163
- Yeo, R. (2005), Disability, poverty and the new development agenda Archived 13 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Disability Knowledge and Research, UK Government, pp. 1–33
- ^ "Child poverty". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
- ^ "Gender Lens on Poverty" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
- ^ Moore, Wilbert. 1974. Social Change. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
- ^ Parsons, Talcott. 1966. Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
- ^ Kerbo, Harold. 2006. Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical, Comparative, and Global Perspective, 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- ^ ""Contempt for the poor in US drives cruel policies," says UN expert". OHCHR. 4 June 2018. Archived from the original on 17 September 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2019.
- ^ Brodiez-Dolino, Axelle (7 June 2021). "Perceptions of People in Poverty Throughout History". ATD Fourth World (Online written interview.). Archived from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
- ^ "Experts encourage action against sex trafficking". .voanews.com. 15 May 2009. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Child sex boom fueled by poverty". Globalpost.com. Archived from the original on 1 November 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Thomson, Mike (12 June 2009). "Zimbabwean girls trade sex for food". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 July 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Lee, Steven (1996). "Poverty and Violence". Social Theory and Practice. 22 (1): 67. doi:10.5840/soctheorpract199622119. ISSN 0037-802X.
- ^ "Towards Ending Child Marriage" (PDF).
- ^ "Child marriage | UNICEF". www.unicef.org. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
- ^ Ahmady, Kameel Et al 2017: An Echo of Silence (book) (A Comprehensive Research Study on Early Child Marriage (ECM) in Iran). Nova publishing, USA.
- ^ "Ahmady, Kameel. Feminization of Poverty- The Cause and Consequence of Early Childhood Marriages in Iran, Swift Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, March 2018 Vol. 4(1), pp. 001-010" (PDF). Swift Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 September 2018.
- ^ United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313 Archived 23 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine)
- ^ Dalglish C. and M. Tonelli (2016). Entrepreneurship at the Bottom of the Pyramid. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-84655-5.
- ^ Sanchez, Thomas W. (1 June 2008). "Poverty, policy, and public transportation". Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 42 (5): 833–841. Bibcode:2008TRPA...42..833S. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2008.01.011. ISSN 0965-8564. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ^ Hernández, Diego (1 August 2017). "Public transport, well-being and inequality: coverage and affordability in the city of Montevideo" (PDF). CEPAL Review.
- ^ "Inequality and Poverty – OECD". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
- ^ Khazan, Olga (20 January 2013). "Can we fight poverty by ending extreme wealth?". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
- ^ "Oxfam seeks 'new deal' on inequality from world leaders". BBC News. 18 January 2013. Archived from the original on 18 August 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
- ^ Hagan, Shelly (22 January 2018). "Billionaires Made So Much Money Last Year They Could End Extreme Poverty Seven Times". Money. Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
- ^ Gatzia, Dimitria E.; Woods, Douglas (September 2014). "Progressive taxation as a means to equality of condition and poverty alleviation". Economics, Management, and Financial Markets. 9 (4): 29–43. ISSN 1842-3191. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ^ Amaglobeli, David; Thevenot, Celine (March 2022), Tackling Inequality on All Fronts, International Monetary Fund, retrieved 22 February 2023
- ^ Terreblanche, Sampie (January 2018). "A Wealth Tax for South Africa" (PDF). University of Witwatersrand. SCIS Working Paper. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
wealth tax ... income could be used to set up a restitution fund to help alleviate the worst poverty.
- ^ Mattauch, Linus (31 January 2019), "Reducing wealth inequality through wealth taxes without compromising economic growth", Oxford Martin School, retrieved 22 February 2023
- ^ Michalos, Alex C. (1988). "A Case for a Progressive Annual Net Wealth Tax". Public Affairs Quarterly. 2 (2): 105–140. ISSN 0887-0373. JSTOR 40435679.
- ^ a b Scholz, John Karl (2007). "Taxation and poverty: 1960–2006" (PDF). Focus. 25 (1): 52–57. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ^ Jean-Paul, Fitoussi (2000), "Payroll tax reductions for the low paid" (PDF), OECD Economic Studies, vol. 2000/II, no. 31, pp. 115–131, OCLC 882887538
- ^ Brittain, John A. (1971). "The Incidence of Social Security Payroll Taxes". The American Economic Review. 61 (1): 110–125. ISSN 0002-8282. JSTOR 1910545.
- ^ Giovannoni, Olivier (30 January 2010), Functional Distribution of Income, Inequality and the Incidence of Poverty: Stylized Facts and the Role of Macroeconomic Policy (PDF), University of Texas Inequality Project, retrieved 25 February 2023
- ^ Jayadev, A. (20 January 2007). "Capital account openness and the labour share of income". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 31 (3): 423–443. doi:10.1093/cje/bel037. ISSN 0309-166X.
- ^ "Forgotten benefactor of humanity". Theatlantic.com. January 1997. Archived from the original on 4 January 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Poverty (sociology). britannica.com. Archived from the original on 15 March 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ Geoffrey Parker (2001). "Europe in crisis, 1598–1648 Archived 19 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine". Wiley–Blackwell. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-631-22028-2
- ^ Great Depression Archived 9 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Fuller, Thomas (27 December 2007). "In Laos, Chinese motorcycles change lives". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 9 April 2013. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ "China boosts African economies, offering a second opportunity". Christian Science Monitor. 25 June 2007. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
- ^ "Disease Control Priorities Project". dcp2.org. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Brown, David (3 April 2006). "Saving millions for just a few dollars". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Prabhat, Jha. "Benefits and costs of the health targets for the post-2015 development agenda". copenhageconsensus.com. Copenhagen Consensus Center. Archived from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 10 November 2016.
- ^ "India's Tata launches water filter for rural poor". BBC News. 7 December 2009. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Millions mark UN hand-washing day". BBC News. 15 October 2008. Archived from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Raising the World's I.Q." New York Times. 4 December 2008. Archived from the original on 17 July 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ "In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt". The New York Times. 16 December 2006. Archived from the original on 17 July 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ a b Jha, Shikha; Ramaswami, Bharat (2010). "How Can Food Subsidies Work Better? Answers from India and the Philippines" (PDF). Erd Working Paper. Manila: Asian Development Bank. ISSN 1655-5252. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2015. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
- ^ "Anti-Corruption Climate Change: it started in Nigeria". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 13 November 2007. Archived from the original on 22 April 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Nigeria: the Hidden Cost of Corruption". Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 14 April 2009. Archived from the original on 23 October 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ a b "Banks, graft and development". The Economist. 12 March 2009. Archived from the original on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ José Antonio Ocampo and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona (30 September 2015). Tax avoidance by corporations is out of control. The United Nations must step in Archived 10 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
- ^ Fröberg, Kristina; Waris, Attiya (January 2011). Bringing The Billions Back – How Africa And Europe Can End Illicit Capital Flight. Stockholm: Forum Syd. p. 7. ISBN 978-91-89542-59-4. Retrieved 13 April 2022 – via Academia.edu.
- ^ "Africa losing billions in tax evasion". Al-Jazeera. 16 January 2012. Archived from the original on 6 January 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ a b Sharife, Khadija (18 June 2011). "'Transparency' hides Zambia's lost billions". Al-Jazeera. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
- ^ Mathiason, Nick (21 January 2007). "Western bankers and lawyers 'rob Africa of $150bn every year'". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ The World Bank and International Monetary Fund. 2001. Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, Progress Report. Retrieved from Worldbank.org Archived 13 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "Third World Debt". worldcentric.org. Archived from the original on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ "Zambia overwhelmed by free health care". BBC News. 7 April 2006. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ "World poverty rising as rich nations call in debt amid Covid, warns Gordon Brown". The Guardian. 15 November 2020. Archived from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
- ^ "UK urged to take lead in easing debt crisis in developing countries". The Guardian. 21 February 2021. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
- ^ a b Dugger, Celia W. (2 December 2007). "Ending famine simply by ignoring the experts". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ a b c d "Jersey law to stop 'vulture funds' comes into force". BBC News. 1 March 2013. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
- ^ Dugger, Celia (31 March 2006). "Overfarming African land is worsening Hunger Crisis". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
- ^ Das, Reenita (30 June 2014). "If Coca-Cola can be Delivered All Over the Developing World, Why Can't Essential Medicine?". Forbes. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
- ^ Maly, Tim (27 March 2013). "Clever Packaging: Essential Medicine Rides Coke's Distribution Into Remote Villages". wired.com. Archived from the original on 20 June 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
- ^ Kalan, Jonathan (3 June 2013). "Africa's 'Avon Ladies' saving lives door-to-door". BBC News. Archived from the original on 21 January 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
- ^ Rosenberg, Tina (10 October 2012). "The 'Avon Ladies' of Africa". nytimes.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
- ^ a b "Philippine Medical Brain Drain Leaves Public Health System in Crisis". voanews.com. 3 May 2006. Archived from the original on 30 January 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Blomfield, Adrian (2 November 2004). "Out of Africa – health workers leave in droves". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 25 May 2010. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ "What educated people from poor countries make of the "brain drain" argument". The Economist. 27 August 2018. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
- ^ "Inpatients abroad". foreignpolicy.com. 30 May 2011. Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
- ^ "Medicaid reform improves access to healthcare for Alaska Natives". www.alaskajournal.com. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
- ^ Sequist, T; Cullen, T; Acton, K (2011). "Indian health service innovations have helped reduce health disparities affecting american Indian and alaska native people". Health Aff (Millwood). 30 (10): 1965–1973. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0630. PMID 21976341. S2CID 31770979.
- ^ "Population and poverty". www.unfpa.org. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 11 February 2019.
- ^ "Population growth driving climate change, poverty: experts Archived 23 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine". Agence France-Presse. 21 September 2009.
- ^ World Bank. 2001. Engendering Development – Through Gender Equality in Right, Resources and Voice. New York: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Crist, Eileen; Ripple, William J.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Rees, William E.; Wolf, Christopher (2022). "Scientists' warning on population" (PDF). Science of the Total Environment. 845: 157166. Bibcode:2022ScTEn.84557166C. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166. PMID 35803428. S2CID 250387801.
Alongside ambitious investment in schooling girls (and more broadly, of course, all children), priority should be given to making high-quality family-planning services available to every woman on the planet, while economic, geographic, and cultural barriers to access should be removed. The combination of institutional support to plan one's child-bearing choices and educational attainment, including enhanced opportunity for higher education for women, yields immediate fertility declines.
- ^ "Population and Poverty". 2014. Archived from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
- ^ Dugger, Celia W. (20 October 2007). "World Bank report puts agriculture at core of antipoverty effort". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 November 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ "Climate Change: Bangladesh facing the challenge". The World Bank. 8 September 2008. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ Wright, Erik Olin (14 February 2017), "Can the universal basic income solve global inequalities?", en.unesco.org, retrieved 22 February 2023
- ^ Davis, Benjamin; Gaarder, Marie; Handa, Sudhanshu; Yablonski, Jenn (2012). "Special Section on Social Cash Transfers in Sub-Saharan Africa". Journal of Development Effectiveness. 4 (1): 1–187. doi:10.1080/19439342.2012.659024. S2CID 129406705. Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
- ^ Krahe, Dialika (10 August 2009). "A new approach to aid: How a basic income program saved a Namibian village". Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ "Namibians line up for free cash". BBC News. 23 May 2008. Archived from the original on 20 June 2017. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ Hoynes, Hilary; Patel, Ankur (July 2015). "Effective Policy for Reducing Inequality? The Earned Income Tax Credit and the Distribution of Income" (PDF). Journal of Human Resources. 53 (4). Cambridge, MA. doi:10.3386/w21340. S2CID 153263015.
- ^ Orszag, J. Michael; Snower, Dennis J. (1 October 2003). "Designing employment subsidies". Labour Economics. 10 (5): 557–572. doi:10.1016/S0927-5371(03)00035-6. ISSN 0927-5371.
- ^ Economists' Statement on Guaranteed Annual Income, 1/15/1968 – April 18, 1969 folder, General Correspondence Series, Papers of John Kenneth Galbraith, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Cited in: Jyotsna Sreenivasan, "Poverty and the Government in America: A Historical Encyclopedia." Archived 29 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009), p. 269
- ^ a b c d Standing, Guy (2005). "1. About Time: Basic Income Security As A Right". In Standing, Guy (ed.). Promoting Income Security as a Right: Europe and North America (2nd ed.). London: Anthem Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-84331-174-4.
Among those who have become convinced of the virtues of the basic income approach are several Nobel Prize-winning economists of surprisingly diverse political convictions: Milton Friedman, Herbert Simon, Robert Solow, Jan Tinbergen and James Tobin (besides, of course, James Meade who was an advocate from his younger days).
- ^ Hayek, Friedrich (1973). Law, Legislation and Liberty: A New Statement of the Liberal Principles of Justice and Political Economy. Vol. 2. Routledge. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-7100-8403-3.
- ^ Friedman, Milton; Friedman, Rose (1990). Free to Choose: A Personal Statement. Harcourt. pp. 120–123. ISBN 978-0-15-633460-0.
- ^ Steensland, Brian (2007). The failed welfare revolution. Princeton University Press. pp. 70–78. ISBN 978-0-691-12714-9.
- ^ "Is a Negative Income Tax Practical?", James Tobin, Joseph A. Pechman, and Peter M. Mieszkowski, Yale Law Journal 77 (1967): 1–27.
- ^ Fettig, David (2011). "Interview with James Tobin – The Region – Publications & Papers | The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis". minneapolisfed.org. Archived from the original on 15 October 2011. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
I would pursue my recommendations of years ago for a negative income tax.
- ^ a b "How to end fossil fuel subsidies without hurting the poor". Aljazeera. 11 December 2012. Archived from the original on 14 December 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
- ^ "India Aims to Keep Money for Poor Out of Others' Pockets". The New York Times. 5 January 2013. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
- ^ Kapur, Devesh; Mukhopadhyay, Subramanian (12 April 2008). "More for the Poor and Less for and by the State: The Case for Direct Cash Transfers" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
- ^ "UN aid debate: give cash not food?". Christian Science Monitor. 4 June 2008. Archived from the original on 3 July 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Cash roll-out to help hunger hot spots". World Food Program. 8 December 2008. Archived from the original on 12 February 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Biometrics, Identity and Development". Center for Global Development. 14 October 2010. Archived from the original on 26 September 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
- ^ "India announces changes in subsidies, will hand out cash to its poor". The Washington Post. 28 February 2011. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
- ^ a b Habtamu, Fuje; Quayyum, Saad; Ouattara, Franck (24 June 2022). "More African Central Banks Are Exploring Digital Currencies". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
- ^ "Central Banks Embrace Digital Currencies". Business for Social Responsibility. Retrieved 13 May 2024.
- ^ "Arab bureaucracies". economist.com. 14 November 2014. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
- ^ Dipak Das Gupta; Mustapha K. Nabli; World Bank (2003). Trade, Investment, and Development in the Middle East and North Africa: Engaging With the World. World Bank Publications. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-8213-5574-9. Archived from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
- ^ "Ending mass poverty". cato.org. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Krugman, Paul, and Robin Wells. Macroeconomics. 2. New York City: Worth Publishers, 2009. Print.
- ^ Doyle, Mark (4 October 2006). "Can aid bring an end to poverty". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ "India:the economy". BBC News. 3 December 1998. Archived from the original on 3 August 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ "Poor Little Rich Country". foreignpolicy.com. 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ "Land rights help fight poverty". bbcnews.com. 20 June 2003. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
- ^ Deininger, Klaus (2003). Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction. World Bank Policy Research Report. Washington, DC: World Bank. doi:10.1596/0-8213-5071-4. hdl:10986/15125. ISBN 978-0-8213-5071-3.
- ^ "Who owns what? Enforceable property rights are still far too rare in poor countries". economist.com. 12 September 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2023.
- ^ "Global Competitiveness Report 2006, World Economic Forum". weforum.org. Archived from the original on 19 June 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ "Infrastructure and Poverty Reduction: Cross-country Evidence". abdi.org. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ "Migration and development: The aid workers who really help". The Economist. 8 October 2009. Archived from the original on 10 March 2010. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Yunus, Muhammad (14 January 2011). "Sacrificing microcredit for megaprofits". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Bajaj, Vikas (5 January 2011). "Microlenders, honored with Nobel, are struggling". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 June 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Polgreen, Lydia; Bajaj, Vikas (17 November 2010). "India microcredit faces collapse from defaults". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 November 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ Excerpt From "Capitalism: A Ghost Story" By Arundhati Roy Archived 29 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Democracy Now! Retrieved 27 May 2014.
- ^ a b c Kiviat, Barbara (30 August 2009). "Microfinance's next step: deposits". Time. Archived from the original on 31 August 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
- ^ Greenwood, Louise (12 August 2009). "Africa's mobile banking revolution". BBC News. Archived from the original on 28 August 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
- ^ Steven Barnett, W. (1 March 1998). "Long-Term Cognitive and Academic Effects of Early Childhood Education on Children in Poverty". Preventive Medicine. 27 (2): 204–207. doi:10.1006/pmed.1998.0275. ISSN 0091-7435. PMID 9578996.
- ^ King, Mary (8 December 2021). "A Strong Economic Case for Federal Investment in Universal Preschool". Institute for Policy Studies. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ^ García, Rosa M. (February 2019). "Debt-Free College: Principles for Prioritizing Low-Income Students" (PDF). Center for Law and Social Policy. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ^ Jon Marcus; Holly K. Hacker (17 December 2015), "The rich-poor divide on America's college campuses is getting wider, fast", The Hechinger Report, retrieved 22 February 2023
- ^ Oh, Sehun; DiNitto, Diana M.; Kim, Yeonwoo (1 January 2021). "Exiting poverty: a systematic review of U.S. postsecondary education and job skills training programs in the post-welfare reform era". International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy. 41 (11/12): 1210–1226. doi:10.1108/IJSSP-09-2020-0429. ISSN 0144-333X. S2CID 234253474.
- ^ Kristof, Nicholas D. (20 November 2009). "How can we help the world's poor". NYTimes. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Sanitary pads help Ghana girls go to school". BBC News. 29 January 2010. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ "Free school meals a recipe for success for young learners in Liberia". The Guardian. 27 October 2016. Archived from the original on 31 October 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
- ^ "Brazil becomes antipoverty showcase". Christian Science Monitor. 13 November 2008. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ a b "Latin America makes dent in poverty with 'conditional cash' programs". Christian Science Monitor. 21 September 2009. Archived from the original on 26 September 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Easterly, William (2006). The White Man's Burden: Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good. New York: Penguin Press.
- ^ Biermann, Frank; Kanie, Norichika; Kim, Rakhyun E (1 June 2017). "Global governance by goal-setting: the novel approach of the UN Sustainable Development Goals". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. Open issue, part II. 26–27: 26–31. Bibcode:2017COES...26...26B. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2017.01.010. hdl:1874/358246. ISSN 1877-3435.
- ^ "SDG Indicators - Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development". United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). Retrieved 6 August 2020.
- ^ "Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere".
- ^ "2030 Development agenda: ILO Focus targets (The 2030 development agenda)". www.ilo.org. 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Goal 1 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs".
- ^ "A scramble in Africa". Economist magazine. 4 September 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
- ^ "Tied aid strangling nations, says UN". ispnews.net. Archived from the original on 23 December 2010. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ "Let them eat micronutrients". Newsweek. 20 September 2008. Archived from the original on 17 July 2009. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- ^ "'A colonial mindset': why global aid agencies need to get out of the way". The Guardian. 7 May 2024. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
- ^ Hassane, Fati (11 July 2023). "Investments in private healthcare are not helping Africans". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ a b Data from Chetty, Raj; Jackson, Matthew O.; Kuchler, Theresa; Stroebel, Johannes; et al. (1 August 2022). "Social capital I: measurement and associations with economic mobility". Nature. 608 (7921): 108–121. Bibcode:2022Natur.608..108C. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04996-4. PMC 9352590. PMID 35915342. Charted in Leonhardt, David (1 August 2022). "'Friending Bias' / A large new study offers clues about how lower-income children can rise up the economic ladder". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 August 2022.
- ^ Lapham, Lewis (October 2004). "Tentacles of rage". Harper's Magazine. Vol. September 2004. Archived from the original on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
- ^ "Fragile states – poverty, instability and violence". www.eda.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
- ^ Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy by Raghuram G. Rajan (2012) Paperback. HarperCollins India. 1 January 2012. Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
- ^ a b Fletcher, Terry; Rosenberg, Talia (20 November 2024). "Is Governance Associated with Poverty Reduction Independent of Economic Growth?". Millennium Challenge Corporation.
- ^ Appiah-Otoo, Isaac; Chen, Xudong; Song, Na; Dumor, Koffi (1 November 2022). "Financial development, institutional improvement, poverty reduction: The multiple challenges in West Africa". Journal of Policy Modeling. 44 (6): 1296–1312. doi:10.1016/j.jpolmod.2022.11.002. ISSN 0161-8938.
- ^ Kaidi, Nasreddine; Mensi, Sami (1 December 2020). "Financial Development, Income Inequality, and Poverty Reduction: Democratic Versus Autocratic Countries". Journal of the Knowledge Economy. 11 (4): 1358–1381. doi:10.1007/s13132-019-00606-3. ISSN 1868-7873.
- ^ Dörffel, Christoph; Freytag, Andreas (1 May 2023). "The poverty effect of democratization". World Development. 165: 106186. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106186. hdl:10419/251483. ISSN 0305-750X.
- ^ Dankumo, A. M., Ishak, S., Bani, Y., & Hamza, H. Z. (2021). Governance, public expenditure, trade and poverty reduction in sub-saharan african countries. Jurnal Ekonomi dan Studi Pembangunan, 13(1), 16-35.
- ^ Gao, Y., & Zang, L. (2022). Is democracy pro‐poor? An empirical test of the Sen Hypothesis based on global evidence. Governance, 35(3), 847-868.
- ^ Kabir, M. Adnan; Alam, Najib (May 2021). "The Efficacy of Democracy and Freedom in Fostering Economic Growth". Emerging Economy Studies. 7 (1): 76–93. doi:10.1177/23949015211057942. ISSN 2394-9015.
- ^ Ochi, Anis; Saidi, Yosra; Labidi, Mohamed Ali (1 December 2023). "Non-linear Threshold Effect of Governance Quality on Economic Growth in African Countries: Evidence from Panel Smooth Transition Regression Approach". Journal of the Knowledge Economy. 14 (4): 4707–4729. doi:10.1007/s13132-022-01084-w. ISSN 1868-7873.
- ^ Mendoza, Ronald U.; Beja, Edsel L. Jr.; Venida, Victor S.; Yap, David B. (1 December 2012). "Inequality in democracy: Insights from an empirical analysis of political dynasties in the 15th Philippine Congress" (PDF). Philippine Political Science Journal. 33 (2): 132–145. doi:10.1080/01154451.2012.734094. ISSN 0115-4451. S2CID 154856834. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
- ^ "What is wrong with political dynasties?". GMA News Online. October 2012. Archived from the original on 26 November 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
- ^ a b c Sullivan, Dylan; Hickel, Jason (2023). "Capitalism and extreme poverty: A global analysis of real wages, human height, and mortality since the long 16th century". World Development. 161: 106026. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106026. S2CID 252315733.
- ^ a b Matthews, Dylan (12 February 2019). "Bill Gates tweeted out a chart and sparked a huge debate about global poverty". Vox. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
- ^ Ravallion, Martin (2016). The Economics of Poverty: History, Measurement, and Policy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-021277-3.
- ^ Kristof, Nicholas (28 December 2019). "This Has Been the Best Year Ever". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
- ^ Pinker, Steven (2018). Enlightenment now: The case for reason, science, humanism, and progress. Viking. ISBN 978-0-525-42757-5.
- ^ a b "The Romantic Idea of a Plentiful Past Is Pure Fantasy". HumanProgress. 14 February 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
- ^ "(Re)claiming the Right to Social Security". Human Rights Watch. 19 December 2023. Retrieved 27 April 2024.
- ^ "Anantha Duraiappah (1996). Poverty and Environmental Degradation: a Literature Review and Analysis CREED Working Paper Series No 8 International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Retrieved on June 27, 2016" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 January 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
- ^ Hickel, Jason (1 September 2020). "Quantifying national responsibility for climate breakdown: an equality-based attribution approach for carbon dioxide emissions in excess of the planetary boundary". Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
- ^ Hickel, Jason (2020). Less is more: how degrowth will save the world. Penguin Random House. ISBN 978-1785152498. Archived from the original on 30 December 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2007/2008: The 21st Century Climate Challenge" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. January 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
- ^ Martinez-Alier, Joan; Temper, Leah; Del Bene, Daniela; Scheidel, Arnim (3 May 2016). "Is there a global environmental justice movement?". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 43 (3): 731–755. doi:10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198. ISSN 0306-6150. S2CID 156535916.
- ^ Martínez Alier, Juan (2005). The environmentalism of the poor: a study of ecological conflicts and valuation. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-567328-9. OCLC 61669200.
- ^ "Climate change could drive 122m more people into extreme poverty by 2030". The Guardian. 17 October 2016. Archived from the original on 18 October 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
- ^ "Thirsty future ahead as climate change explodes plant growth". Science. 4 November 2019. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
- ^ REPORT: Warmer world will keep millions of people trapped in poverty. Archived 29 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Climate & Development Knowledge Network. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
- ^ Premier (18 July 2019). "Meet the Bruderhof: Our exclusive peek inside a modern Christian utopia". Premier Christianity. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 26 October 2019.
- ^ Oved, Iaácov (2017). The witness of the brothers: a history of the Bruderhof. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-47253-1. OCLC 994005958.
- ^ Pope Paul VI (1964), Ecclesiam Suam, paragraph 54, accessed on 28 August 2024
- ^ a b "World Peace Day Address 2009". The Vatican. 1 January 2009. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Adamiak, Stanisław; Walczak, Damian (7 April 2014). "Catholic social teaching and social solidarity in the context of social security". Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting. 3 (1): 9–18. doi:10.12775/CJFA.2014.001. Archived from the original on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
"Inequality and Poverty – OECD". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
Sources
[edit]- This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from Global education monitoring report 2019: gender report: Building bridges for gender equality, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.
Further reading
[edit]- Allen, Robert C. 2020. "Poverty and the Labor Market: Today and Yesterday. Archived 24 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine" Annual Review of Economomics.
- Half of the world's poor live in just 5 countries Roy Katayama & Divinshi Wadha. World Bank Blogs.
- Atkinson, Anthony. Poverty in Europe 1998
- Babb, Sarah (2009). Behind the Development Banks: Washington Politics, World Poverty, and the Wealth of Nations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-03365-5.
- Banerjee, Abhijit & Esther Duflo, Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011)
- Bergmann, Barbara. "Deciding Who's Poor" Archived 20 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Dollars & Sense, March/April 2000
- Betson, David M. & Warlick, Jennifer L. "Alternative Historical Trends in Poverty." American Economic Review 88:348–51. 1998.
- Brady, David "Rethinking the Sociological Measurement of Poverty" Social Forces 81#3 2003, pp. 715–751 Online in Project Muse.
- Buhmann, Brigitte, et al. 1988. "Equivalence Scales, Well-Being, Inequality, and Poverty: Sensitivity Estimates Across Ten Countries Using the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database." Review of Income and Wealth 34:115–142.
- Chase, Elaine; Bantebya-Kyomuhendo, Grace (2015). Poverty and Shame. Global Experiences. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968672-8.
- Danziger, Sheldon H. & Weinberg, Daniel H. "The Historical Record: Trends in Family Income, Inequality, and Poverty." pp. 18–50 in Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change, edited by Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel. H. Weinberg. Russell Sage Foundation. 1994.
- Desmond, Matthew (2023). Poverty, by America. Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-593-23991-9.
- Firebaugh, Glenn. "Empirics of World Income Inequality." American Journal of Sociology (2000) 104:1597–1630. in JSTOR
- Gans, Herbert J., "The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All" Archived 5 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Social Policy, July/August 1971: pp. 20–24
- Gordon, David M. Theories of Poverty and Underemployment: Orthodox, Radical, and Dual Labor Market Perspectives. 1972.
- Haveman, Robert H. Poverty Policy and Poverty Research. University of Wisconsin Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-299-11150-2
- Haymes, Stephen, Maria Vidal de Haymes and Reuben Miller (eds). The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States Archived 17 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Routledge, 2015. ISBN 978-0-415-67344-0.
- Iceland, John Poverty in America: a handbook University of California Press, 2003
- Lee, Dwight R. (2008). "Wealth and Poverty". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 537–539. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n326. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
- McEwan, Joanne, and Pamela Sharpe, eds. Accommodating Poverty: The Housing and Living Arrangements of the English Poor, c. 1600–1850 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2010) 292 pages; scholarly studies of rural and urban poor, as well as vagrants, unmarried mothers, and almshouse dwellers.
- O'Connor, Alice (2000). "Poverty Research and Policy for the Post-Welfare Era". Annual Review of Sociology. 26: 547–562. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.547.
- Osberg, Lars; Xu, Kuan. "International Comparisons of Poverty Intensity: index decomposition and bootstrap inference". The Journal of Human Resources. 2000 (35): 51–81.
- Paugam, Serge. "Poverty and Social Exclusion: a sociological view." pp. 41–62 in The Future of European Welfare, edited by Martin Rhodes and Yves Meny, 1998.
- Philippou, Lambros (2010). "Public Space, Enlarged Mentality and Being-In-Poverty". Philosophical Inquiry. 32 (1–2): 103–115. doi:10.5840/philinquiry2010321/218.
- Prashad, Vijay. The Poorer Nations: A Possible History of the Global South. Verso Books, June 2014. ISBN 978-1-78168-158-9
- Prashad, Vijay. "Making Poverty History". Jacobin. 10 November 2014.
- Pressman, Steven, Poverty in America: an annotated bibliography. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1994 ISBN 978-0-8108-2833-9
- Robinson, Marilynne, "Is Poverty Necessary? An idea that won't go away", Harper's Magazine, vol. 338, no. 2029 (June 2019), pp. 25–33. "To bring up the subject of providing a better life is to lean too far left, to flirt with socialism.... 'Why... do wages tend to a minimum which will give but a bare living?' A short answer would be: because they can.... Insofar as the public is barred from taking a central role in society, we lose wisdom to stealth, stupidity, parochialism."
- Rothman, David J., (editor). The Almshouse Experience (Poverty U.S.A.: the Historical Record). New York: Arno Press, 1971. ISBN 978-0-405-03092-5Reprint of Report of the committee appointed by the Board of Guardians of the Poor of the City and Districts of Philadelphia to visit the cities of Baltimore, New York, Providence, Boston, and Salem (published in Philadelphia, 1827); Report of the Massachusetts General Court's Committee on Pauper Laws (published in [Boston?], 1821); and the 1824 Report of the New York Secretary of State on the relief and settlement of the poor (from the 24th annual report of the New York State Board of Charities, 1901).
- Roy, Arundhati, Capitalism: A Ghost Story, Haymarket Books, 2014, ISBN 978-1-60846-385-5.
- Sen, Amartya, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1981.
- Sen, Amartya, Development as Freedom, New York, Knopf, 1999.
- Smeeding, Timothy M., O'Higgins, Michael & Rainwater, Lee. Poverty, Inequality and Income Distribution in Comparative Perspective. Urban Institute Press 1990.
- Smith, Stephen C., Ending Global Poverty: a guide to what works, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005
- Triest, Robert K. (1998). "Has Poverty Gotten Worse?". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 12: 97–114. doi:10.1257/jep.12.1.97.
- Wilson, Richard & Pickett, Kate. The Spirit Level, London: Allen Lane, 2009
- World Bank: "Can South Asia End Poverty in a Generation?" Archived 15 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- World Bank, "World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work For Poor People", 2004
External links
[edit]- Addressing Global Poverty from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
- Data visualizations of the long-run development of poverty and list of data sources on poverty on 'Our World in Data'.
- Islamic Development Bank (archived 18 September 2009)
- Luxembourg Income Study Contains a wealth of data on income inequality and poverty, and hundreds of its sponsored research papers using this data (archived 4 December 2005)
- Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Contains reports on economic development as well as relations between rich and poor nations.
- OPHI Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI) Research to advance the human development approach to poverty reduction.
- Transparency International Tracks issues of government and corporate corruption around the world.
- United Nations Hundreds of free reports related to economic development and standards of living in countries around the world, such as the annual Human Development Report.
- US Agency for International Development USAID is the primary US government agency with the mission for aid to developing countries.
- World Bank Contains hundreds of reports which can be downloaded for free, such as the annual World Development Report.
- World Food Program Associated with the United Nations, the World Food Program compiles hundreds of reports on hunger and food security around the world.
- Why poverty Documentary films about poverty broadcast on television around the world in November 2012, then will be available online.
- Annual income of richest 100 people enough to end global poverty four times over. Oxfam International, 19 January 2013.
- Contains estimates on the number of people living in poverty in selected countries from 1973 to 1985
- Contains information on poverty in 1980
- Contains estimates on trends in global extreme poverty since 1820
- Contains estimates on trends in world poverty from 1970 to 2006
- Includes estimates on poverty in various European countries in the Eighties
- Contains estimates on global poverty in 1975
- How can we leave widespread poverty behind? Jan 17, 2022 (Includes estimates on trends in global poverty from 1820 to 2018)