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{{Short description|Species of fly}}
{{Taxobox
{{Speciesbox
| image = Luciliaailelateralview.jpg
| image = Luciliaailelateralview.jpg
| image_caption = Lateral view of ''Lucilia silvarum''
| image_caption = Lateral view of ''Lucilia silvarum''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| genus = Lucilia (fly)
⚫
| species = silvarum
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
⚫
| authority = ([[Johann Wilhelm Meigen|Meigen]], 1826)
| classis = [[Insect]]a
⚫
| synonyms = *''Bufolucilia silvarum'' (Meigen, 1826)
| ordo = [[Fly|Diptera]]
| subordo = [[Brachycera]]
| infraordo = [[Muscomorpha]]
| zoosubsectio = [[Calyptratae]]
| superfamilia = [[Oestroidea]]
| familia = [[Blow-fly|Calliphoridae]]
| subfamilia = [[Luciliinae]]
| tribus = [[Calliphorini]]
| genus = ''[[Lucilia (genus)|Lucilia]]''
⚫
| species = '''''L. silvarum'''''
| binomial = ''Lucilia silvarum''
⚫
| binomial_authority = [[Johann Wilhelm Meigen|Meigen]], 1826
⚫
| synonyms = *''Bufolucilia silvarum'' ([[Meigen]], 1826)
*''Lucilia brunicosa'' [[Robineau Desvoidy|Desvoidy]], 1830
*''Lucilia brunicosa'' [[Robineau Desvoidy|Desvoidy]], 1830
*''Lucilia nigripalpis'' [[Townsend]], 1908
*''Lucilia nigripalpis'' [[C. H. T. Townsend|Townsend]], 1908
*''Musca silvarum'' [[Meigen]], 1826
*''Musca silvarum'' [[Johann Wilhelm Meigen|Meigen]], 1826
}}
}}


The '''common toad fly''', '''''Lucilia silvarum''''', is a member of the fly [[family]] [[Calliphoridae]]. This fly was first discovered by [[Johann Wilhelm Meigen]] in 1826 and is found most notably in [[European countries]] and [[Western]] Countries.
The '''common toad fly''', '''''Lucilia silvarum''''', is a member of the fly [[family (biology)|family]] [[Calliphoridae]]. This fly was first discovered by [[Johann Wilhelm Meigen]] in 1826 and is found most notably in [[Europe]]an and [[Western world|Western]] Countries.


This species of fly is known for its ability to readily cause [[myiasis]], specifically this is done by the female gender of this species. In addition to being a species prevalent in myiasis, this fly is also known to be prevalent around rotting bodies as it is attracted to their smell, as well as areas of high filth concentration.
This species of fly is known for the ability of its larvae to cause [[myiasis]]. In addition, this fly is common around carrion which it finds by smell, as well as areas of high filth concentration.


==Description==
==Description==
Like all true [[Diptera|flies]], adults have a single pair of wings, and like most of the [[Calliphoridae]], they have a characteristic metallic color and [[wiktionary:plumose|plumose]] [[Arista_(insect_anatomy)|aristae]]. The adults ([[imago]]) of ''Lucilia silvarum'' are generally found to be between {{convert|4.5|-|10|mm|in|2|abbr=on}}. They are difficult to distinguish from many closely related green flies.
⚫
Due to the fact that this fly is of the order [[fly|Diptera]], there is one pair of wings that this fly uses for mobility. The [[larva]]e of these flies are typically about {{convert|2|mm|in|2|abbr=on}} long when laid, and grow in size to approximately {{convert|17|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Early">{{cite web |url=http://www.freewebs.com/forensicentomology/earlycommoninsects.htm |title=Common insects in the early stages of decay |work=Forensic Entomology |accessdate=2009-03-06}}</ref> In being a member of the family Calliphoridae, this fly is generalized by metallic coloring and plumose arista. In terms of size of the adults ([[imago]]), ''Lucilia silvarum'' is generally found to be between {{convert|4.5|-|10|mm|in|2|abbr=on}}.

⚫
The [[larva]]e are typically about {{convert|2|mm|in|2|abbr=on}} long when they first hatch, and grow in size to approximately {{convert|17|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Early">{{cite web |url=http://www.freewebs.com/forensicentomology/earlycommoninsects.htm |title=Common insects in the early stages of decay |work=Forensic Entomology |accessdate=2009-03-06}}</ref>


==Distribution==
==Distribution==
Since the fly has been found to be a warm-weather fly, it is typically found in areas with temperatures between {{F to C|75|0}} and {{F to C|85|0}}. Specifically, ''Lucilia silvarum'' is found in the countries: [[China]], [[Denmark]], [[United States]], [[Finland]], southern [[Norway]], [[North Africa]], [[Russia]], and [[Canada]]. <ref>{{cite book |title=Blowflies (Diptera, Calliphoridae) of Fennoscandia and Denmark |author=Knut Rognes |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=1991 |ISBN=9004093044 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-0FA-Tp4UlEC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181&dq=lucilia+silvarum%3B+meigen&source=bl&ots=iuq2b03_WD&sig=iVIIjxl0KwJdbJvljiOncjdLid0&hl=en&ei=yguiSeveJqGbtwfXtIGLDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result#PPA183,M1}}</ref><ref name="Eaton">{{cite journal |journal=[[Journal of Parasitology]] |year=2008 |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=949–952 |title=Myiasis by ''Lucilia silvarum'' (Calliphoridae) in amphibian species in boreal Alberta, Canada |author=B. R. Eaton, A. E. Moenting, C. A. Paszkowski & D. Shpeley |PMID=18576743 |doi=10.1645/GE-1373.1 |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.1645/GE-1373.1}}</ref>
Since the fly has been found to be a warm-weather fly, it is typically found in areas with temperatures between {{convert|75|°F|°C}} and {{convert|85|°F|°C}}. Specifically, ''Lucilia silvarum'' is found in the countries: [[China]], [[Denmark]], [[United States]], [[Finland]], southern [[Norway]], [[North Africa]], [[Russia]], and [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Blowflies (Diptera, Calliphoridae) of Fennoscandia and Denmark |author=Knut Rognes |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=1991 |isbn=90-04-09304-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-0FA-Tp4UlEC&q=lucilia+silvarum%3B+meigen&pg=PA181}}</ref><ref name="Eaton">{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Parasitology |year=2008 |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=949–952 |title=Myiasis by ''Lucilia silvarum'' (Calliphoridae) in amphibian species in boreal Alberta, Canada |author1=B. R. Eaton |author2=A. E. Moenting |author3=C. A. Paszkowski |author4=D. Shpeley |pmid=18576743 |doi=10.1645/GE-1373.1 |s2cid=27740698 |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.1645/GE-1373.1}}</ref>




==Life cycle==
==Life cycle==
[[Image:maggots.jpg|thumb|left|Maggots]] [[Image:Life Cycle.jpg|thumb|left|Life Cycle]]
[[File:Blowfly.jpg|thumb|left|Life Cycle]]
⚫
The life cycle begins with the mating of the male and female species of the fly. Upon completion, the female begins [[oviposition]] and will lay the eggs on a place of interest, usually [[carrion]]. Once the eggs have been laid they will take approximately one full day to hatch, which is a short time period among flies.<ref name="Early"/> Upon hatching, the larvae will begin the three stages of larval development consistent with this family. The first stage occurs approximately after 2 days, while the second stage occurs after 2 and a half days, and finally the third stage occurs at approximately 4 to 5 days.<ref name="Early"/>
⚫
''Lucilia Silvarum'' is one of the two species of [[blowflies]] that causes [[myiasis]] in anurans. This is extremely fatal to the host. The adult blowflies deposit their eggs on the [[anuran]]s' backs which hatch into larvae after a couple hours. The larvae then burrows into the skin and causes [[lesions]]. However, because of their rapid growth rate, the larvae leave the [[amphibian]]'s body in less than 1 week and migrate into soil in order to [[pupate]]. Generally, it takes them nine days to pupate into adult blowflies <ref>http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1645/GE-1373.1</ref>


⚫
Following the third stage of larval development, the larvae become uneasy and begin to roam away from their original resting place. During this stage, the larvae are termed prepupae. This stage typically occurs 8–12 days after the eggs have been laid and the larvae will reach sizes up to 12&nbsp;mm. Finally, the prepupae will begin to become a [[pupa]] after approximately 18–24 days, depending upon atmospheric conditions.
⚫
The life cycle begins with the mating of the male and female species of the fly and upon completion, the female begins [[oviposition]] and will lay the eggs on a place of interest such as an [[open wound]], an [[orifice]], or a pile of faeces. Once the eggs have been laid they will take approximately one full day to hatch, which is a short time period among flies.<ref name="Early"/> Upon hatching, the larvae will begin the three stages of larvae development consistent with this family. The first stage occurs approximately after 2 days, while the second stage occurs after 2 and a half days, and finally the third stage occurs at approximately 4 to 5 days. <ref name="Early"/>

⚫
Following the third stage of larval development, the larvae become uneasy and begin to roam away from their original resting place. It is during this stage that the larvae are now deemed a [[prepupae]]. This stage typically occurs 8-12 days after the eggs have been laid and will reach sizes up to 12&nbsp;mm. Finally, the prepupae will begin to become a [[pupa]] after approximately 18-24 days, depending upon atmospheric conditions.


==Ecology==
==Ecology==
Larvae of the family [[Calliphoridae]] are typically scavengers of [[carrion]] and [[Feces|dung]] but this species is also notorious for infesting [[necrotic]] tissue in animals and humans.<ref>{{cite web |author=John L. Foltz |publisher=[[University of Florida]] |date=2004-08-20 |url=http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/foltz/eny3005/lab1/Diptera/Calliphorid.htm |title=Diptera: Calliphoridae |access-date=2009-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220101422/http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/foltz/eny3005/lab1/Diptera/Calliphorid.htm |archive-date=2009-02-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The adults typically feed on nectar and any other available sweet liquids.<ref>{{cite web |title=Blowfly - Family Calliphoridae |url=http://www.geocities.com/brisbane_flies/Calliphoridae.htm |work=Brisbane Insects and Spiders Home Page |author=Peter Chew |accessdate=2009-03-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091024110316/http://geocities.com/brisbane_flies/Calliphoridae.htm|archivedate=2009-10-24}}</ref>
[[Image:Myiasis yellow striped frog.jpg|thumb|Frog Myiasis]]
Larvae of the family [[Calliphoridae]] are typically scavengers of [[carrion]] and [[dung]] but this species is also notorious for infesting [[necrotic]] tissue in animals and humans.<ref>{{cite web |author=John L. Foltz |publisher=[[University of Florida]] |date=2004-08-20 |url=http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/foltz/eny3005/lab1/Diptera/Calliphorid.htm |title=Diptera: Calliphoridae}}</ref> In reference to the adults, members of this family typically feed on nectar, sweet liquids, and things of that nature. <ref>{{cite web |title=Blowfly - Family Calliphoridae |url=http://www.geocities.com/brisbane_flies/Calliphoridae.htm |work=Brisbane Insects and Spiders Home Page |author=Peter Chew |accessdate=2009-03-06}}</ref> The specific distinction of the fly ''Lucilia silvarum'' that causes its common name to be the '''toad fly''' is the fact that at times the adult female will lay its eggs on toads and the larvae will become [[parasitic]] upon hatching. Studies have shown that typically parasitism by ''Lucilia silvarum'' has been [[fatal]] to their [[anuran]] host, but a recent study has found that there are two species of frog, the wood frog and boreal toad, that have actually been able to survive the parasitic larvae. <ref name="Eaton"/> Some species of frogs that are typical hosts of ''Lucilia silvarum'' are listed below, but these specific hosts are specific to the Candaian regions.
⚫
*''[[Rana sylvatica]]'' - the wood frog
⚫
*''[[Pseudacris maculata]]'' - the boreal chorus frog
⚫
*''[[Bufo boreas|Bufo boreas boreas]]'' - the boreal toad
⚫
*''[[Bufo hemiophrys]]'' - the Canadian toad


⚫
In addition, ''Lucilia Silvarum'' is one of the two species of [[blowflies]] that causes [[myiasis]] in [[anurans]]. This is almost always fatal to the host. The adult blowflies deposit their eggs on the [[anuran]]s' backs, and they hatch into larvae after a couple of hours. The larvae then enter the amphibian's body through the eye sockets or the nostrils.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mullen |first=Gary |date=2009 |title=Medical and Veterinary Entomology |chapter=Chapter 18: Myiasis (Muscoidea, Oestroidea) |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0123725004}}</ref> Because of their rapid growth rate, the larvae leave the [[amphibian]]'s body in less than a week and migrate into soil in order to [[pupate]]. Generally, it takes them about nine days to mature into adult blowflies.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1645/GE-1373.1|doi=10.1645/GE-1373.1|title=Myiasis by Lucilia silvarum (Calliphoridae) in Amphibian Species in Boreal Alberta, Canada|year=2008|last1=Eaton|first1=Brian R.|last2=Moenting|first2=Alissa E.|last3=Paszkowski|first3=Cynthia A.|last4=Shpeley|first4=Danny|journal=Journal of Parasitology|volume=94|issue=4|pages=949–952|pmid=18576743|s2cid=27740698}}</ref>
==Current Clinical Importance==
[[Image:Progression of frog myiasis bolek.jpg|thumb|left|Successive Stages of Rana sylatica infected with B. silvarum]]
By far the most important clinical aspect of this species of fly is its causation of [[myiasis]]. Specifically, myiasis occurs when fly [[larvae]], also known as [[maggots]], infest living or [[necrotic]] tissue in either humans or animals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Myiasis |author=Anna M. West |url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/parasites/ParaSites2001/myiasis/Anna%20West's%20Myiasis%20Page.htm |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |accessdate=2009-03-06}}</ref> One case of myiasis was observed in wood frogs, ''Rana sylvatica'', in southeastern Wisconsin.<ref>Bolek, Matthew G and John Janovy Jr.2002. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 38(3):593-603.</ref> The results of the study suggest that this fly is a [[facultative]] parasite of this frog and other amphibians. Previous records of ''L. silvarum'' [[parasitism]] in North America showed that myiasis is fatal to [[anuran]] hosts.<ref>Eaton, Brian R, Allisa E. Moenting, Cynthia A. Paszkowski and Danny Shpeley.2008. Myiasis by Lucilia silvarum(Calliphoridae) in Amphibian Species in Boreal Alberta, Canada. Journal of Parasitology 94(4):949-952.</ref> However, after observations made from 1998-1999, infestations on ''Rana sylvatica''(wood frog), ''Pseudacris maculata''(boreal chorus frog), ''Bufo boreas boreas''(boreal toad) and ''Bufo hemiophrys''(Canadian toad) were reported. This is believed to be the first record of this parasite on boreal and Canadian toads. The most specific areas of occurrence for myiasis are in [[third world]] countries where common occurrences of [[misdiagnosis]] or no diagnosis occurs.


Studies have shown that typically parasitism by ''Lucilia silvarum'' has been fatal to the [[anuran]] host, but a recent study has found that there are two species of frog, the wood frog and boreal toad, that have been able to survive the infestation.<ref name="Eaton"/> Some species of frogs that are typical hosts of ''Lucilia silvarum'' are listed below, but these specific hosts are specific to the Canadian regions.
The use of maggots as a medical treatment was once used regularly as a verifiable medical procedure up until it started to be deemed as unclean and people became weary of having maggots placed on their flesh. Today, the use of maggots as a medical treatment is known as [[maggot therapy]] and has recently become far more prevalent in use and is specifically used to treat illnesses such as [[bed sores]], foot [[ulcers]], or [[post-surgical]] wounds.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.livescience.com/health/081119-maggot-therapy.html |title=Maggot therapy gains in popularity |author=Robin Lloyd |date=2008-11-19 |publisher=[[LiveScience]]}}</ref> Not only has maggot therapy become more prevalent, it was recently approved by the [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] as a relevant treatment for wounds in humans. <ref>{{cite news |title=Are maggots making a medical comeback? |author=Jennifer Wenger |publisher=[[NIH Record]] |url=http://nihrecord.od.nih.gov/newsletters/2004/07_20_2004/story01.htm |date=2004-07-20}}</ref>
⚫
*''[[Rana sylvatica]]'' – the wood frog
⚫
*''[[Pseudacris maculata]]'' – the boreal chorus frog
⚫
*''[[Bufo boreas|Bufo boreas boreas]]'' – the boreal toad
⚫
*''[[Bufo hemiophrys]]'' – the Canadian toad


==Forensics==
==Forensic Importance==


This fly species is typically the first [[genus]] of fly to show up on corpses, specifically in the United States and Canada. It is this important fact that causes this fly to be of great importance to [[forensic]] scientists, specifically in determination of time of death of an individual.
In the United States and Canada, this fly is typically the first [[species]] to show up on corpses. This causes it to be of great importance to [[forensic]] scientists, assisting in the determination of time of death of an individual.


From stage to stage of this species' life cycle it is required for each particular larvae form to [[molt]]. It is this molting which allows forensic investigators to determine the time of death in forensic cases. Forensic scientists are able to measure the size of mouth parts, as well as the size of the individual larvae in order to distinguish a range of time of death for a deceased individual. However, the molting of larvae can be severely altered due to the climate, humidity, and other atmospheric conditions and all of these particular concerns must be taken into account before a precise time of death is determined. <ref name="Early"/> In the case of this fly, if a forensic entomologist were to find an empty puparia, it would be determined that the deceased individual died approximately 20 days prior. <ref name="Early"/>
The larvae [[molt]] several times during their development. It is this molting which allows forensic investigators to determine the time of death in forensic cases. Forensic scientists are able to measure the size of mouth parts, as well as the size of the individual larvae in order to distinguish a range of time of death for a deceased individual. However, the molting of larvae can be severely altered due to the climate, humidity, and other atmospheric conditions and all of these particular concerns must be taken into account before a precise time of death is determined.<ref name="Early"/> In the case of this fly, if a forensic entomologist were to find an empty puparium, it would be determined that the deceased individual died at least 20 days prior.<ref name="Early"/>


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}


==External links==
==External links==
*http://www.healthaffairs.uci.edu/som/pathology/sherman/home_pg.htm#What%20is%20Maggot%20Therapy
*http://www.healthaffairs.uci.edu/som/pathology/sherman/home_pg.htm#What%20is%20Maggot%20Therapy


{{Taxonbar|from=Q13610565}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lucilia Silvarum}}
[[Category:Calliphoridae]]
[[Category:Calliphoridae]]
[[Category:Insects described in 1826]]
[[Category:Diptera of Europe]]

Latest revision as of 06:54, 9 March 2023

Lucilia silvarum
Lateral view of Lucilia silvarum
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Calliphoridae
Genus: Lucilia
Species:
L. silvarum
Binomial name
Lucilia silvarum
(Meigen, 1826)
Synonyms
  • Bufolucilia silvarum (Meigen, 1826)
  • Lucilia brunicosa Desvoidy, 1830
  • Lucilia nigripalpis Townsend, 1908
  • Musca silvarum Meigen, 1826

The common toad fly, Lucilia silvarum, is a member of the fly family Calliphoridae. This fly was first discovered by Johann Wilhelm Meigen in 1826 and is found most notably in European and Western Countries.

This species of fly is known for the ability of its larvae to cause myiasis. In addition, this fly is common around carrion which it finds by smell, as well as areas of high filth concentration.

Description

[edit]

Like all true flies, adults have a single pair of wings, and like most of the Calliphoridae, they have a characteristic metallic color and plumose aristae. The adults (imago) of Lucilia silvarum are generally found to be between 4.5–10 mm (0.18–0.39 in). They are difficult to distinguish from many closely related green flies.

The larvae are typically about 2 mm (0.08 in) long when they first hatch, and grow in size to approximately 17 mm (0.7 in).[1]

Distribution

[edit]

Since the fly has been found to be a warm-weather fly, it is typically found in areas with temperatures between 75 °F (24 °C) and 85 °F (29 °C). Specifically, Lucilia silvarum is found in the countries: China, Denmark, United States, Finland, southern Norway, North Africa, Russia, and Canada.[2][3]

Life cycle

[edit]
Life Cycle

The life cycle begins with the mating of the male and female species of the fly. Upon completion, the female begins oviposition and will lay the eggs on a place of interest, usually carrion. Once the eggs have been laid they will take approximately one full day to hatch, which is a short time period among flies.[1] Upon hatching, the larvae will begin the three stages of larval development consistent with this family. The first stage occurs approximately after 2 days, while the second stage occurs after 2 and a half days, and finally the third stage occurs at approximately 4 to 5 days.[1]

Following the third stage of larval development, the larvae become uneasy and begin to roam away from their original resting place. During this stage, the larvae are termed prepupae. This stage typically occurs 8–12 days after the eggs have been laid and the larvae will reach sizes up to 12 mm. Finally, the prepupae will begin to become a pupa after approximately 18–24 days, depending upon atmospheric conditions.

Ecology

[edit]

Larvae of the family Calliphoridae are typically scavengers of carrion and dung but this species is also notorious for infesting necrotic tissue in animals and humans.[4] The adults typically feed on nectar and any other available sweet liquids.[5]

In addition, Lucilia Silvarum is one of the two species of blowflies that causes myiasis in anurans. This is almost always fatal to the host. The adult blowflies deposit their eggs on the anurans' backs, and they hatch into larvae after a couple of hours. The larvae then enter the amphibian's body through the eye sockets or the nostrils.[6] Because of their rapid growth rate, the larvae leave the amphibian's body in less than a week and migrate into soil in order to pupate. Generally, it takes them about nine days to mature into adult blowflies.[7]

Studies have shown that typically parasitism by Lucilia silvarum has been fatal to the anuran host, but a recent study has found that there are two species of frog, the wood frog and boreal toad, that have been able to survive the infestation.[3] Some species of frogs that are typical hosts of Lucilia silvarum are listed below, but these specific hosts are specific to the Canadian regions.

Forensics

[edit]

In the United States and Canada, this fly is typically the first species to show up on corpses. This causes it to be of great importance to forensic scientists, assisting in the determination of time of death of an individual.

The larvae molt several times during their development. It is this molting which allows forensic investigators to determine the time of death in forensic cases. Forensic scientists are able to measure the size of mouth parts, as well as the size of the individual larvae in order to distinguish a range of time of death for a deceased individual. However, the molting of larvae can be severely altered due to the climate, humidity, and other atmospheric conditions and all of these particular concerns must be taken into account before a precise time of death is determined.[1] In the case of this fly, if a forensic entomologist were to find an empty puparium, it would be determined that the deceased individual died at least 20 days prior.[1]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e "Common insects in the early stages of decay". Forensic Entomology. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
  2. ^ Knut Rognes (1991). Blowflies (Diptera, Calliphoridae) of Fennoscandia and Denmark. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09304-4.
  3. ^ a b B. R. Eaton; A. E. Moenting; C. A. Paszkowski; D. Shpeley (2008). "Myiasis by Lucilia silvarum (Calliphoridae) in amphibian species in boreal Alberta, Canada". Journal of Parasitology. 94 (4): 949–952. doi:10.1645/GE-1373.1. PMID 18576743. S2CID 27740698.
  4. ^ John L. Foltz (2004-08-20). "Diptera: Calliphoridae". University of Florida. Archived from the original on 2009-02-20. Retrieved 2009-03-05.
  5. ^ Peter Chew. "Blowfly - Family Calliphoridae". Brisbane Insects and Spiders Home Page. Archived from the original on 2009-10-24. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
  6. ^ Mullen, Gary (2009). "Chapter 18: Myiasis (Muscoidea, Oestroidea)". Medical and Veterinary Entomology. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0123725004.
  7. ^ Eaton, Brian R.; Moenting, Alissa E.; Paszkowski, Cynthia A.; Shpeley, Danny (2008). "Myiasis by Lucilia silvarum (Calliphoridae) in Amphibian Species in Boreal Alberta, Canada". Journal of Parasitology. 94 (4): 949–952. doi:10.1645/GE-1373.1. PMID 18576743. S2CID 27740698.
[edit]
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