Ivan the Terrible: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Tsar of Russia from 1547 to 1584}} |
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{{Redirect|'''Ivan the Terrible'''||Ivan the Terrible (disambiguation)}} |
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{{other uses}} |
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{{hatnote group| |
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{{redirect|Ivan IV}} |
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{{redirect|Ivan Grozny|the volcano|Grozny Group}} |
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}} |
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{{family name hatnote|Vasilyevich||lang=Eastern Slavic}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}} |
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{{Infobox royalty |
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| name = Ivan IV<br/>{{nobold|Иван IV}} |
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| image = File:Ivan grozny frame.jpg |
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| caption = Portrait of Ivan IV in the Tsarsky titulyarnik, 1672 |
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| succession = [[Tsar of all Russia]] |
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| reign = 26 January 1547 – {{awrap|28 March 1584}}{{efn|name=note 1|[[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style date]]: 16 January 1547 – 18 March 1584}} |
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| coronation = 26 January 1547{{efn|name=note 2|Old Style date: 16 January 1547}} |
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| cor-type = [[Coronation of the Russian monarch|Coronation]] |
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| predecessor = ''Himself as [[Grand Prince of Moscow|Grand Prince of all Russia]]'' |
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| successor = [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor I]] |
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| succession2 = [[List of Russian monarchs#Tsars of Russia|Grand Prince of Moscow and all Russia]] |
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| reign2 = 13 December 1533 – {{awrap|26 January 1547}}{{efn|name=note 3|Old Style date: 3 December 1533 – 16 January 1547}} |
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| regent2 = [[Elena Glinskaya]] {{awrap|(1533–1538)}} |
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| predecessor2 = [[Vasili III of Russia|Vasili III]] |
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| successor2 = ''Himself as [[Tsar of all Russia]]'' |
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| spouse-type = Spouses |
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| spouse = {{plainlist| |
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* {{marriage|[[Anastasia Romanovna]]|1547|1560|end=died}} |
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* {{marriage|[[Maria Temryukovna]]|1561|1569|end=died}} |
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* {{marriage|[[Marfa Sobakina]]|1571|1571|end=died}} |
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* {{marriage|[[Anna Koltovskaya]]|1572|1572|end=div}} |
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* {{marriage|[[Anna Vasilchikova]]|1575|1576|end=div}} |
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* {{marriage|[[Maria Nagaya]]|1580}} |
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}} |
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| issue = {{plainlist| |
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* [[Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich of Russia (1552–1553)|Dmitry Ivanovich]] |
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* [[Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich of Russia|Ivan Ivanovich]] |
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* [[Feodor I of Russia]] |
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* [[Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich of Russia (born 1582)|Dmitry Ivanovich]]}} |
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| issue-link = #Marriages and children |
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| issue-pipe = |
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| full name = Ivan Vasilyevich |
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| house = [[Rurik Dynasty|Rurik]] |
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| house-type = Dynasty |
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| father = [[Vasili III of Russia]] |
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| mother = [[Elena Glinskaya]] |
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| birth_date = {{OldStyleDate|25 August|1530|15 August}} |
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| birth_place = [[Kolomenskoye]], [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] |
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| death_date = {{OldStyleDate|28 March|1584|18 March}} (aged 53) |
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| death_place = [[Moscow]], [[Tsardom of Russia]] |
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| burial_date = |
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| burial_place = [[Cathedral of the Archangel]], Moscow |
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| religion = [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] |
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}} |
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'''Ivan IV Vasilyevich''' ({{langx|ru|Иван IV Васильевич}};{{efn|{{langx|cu|Іѡа́ннъ Васи́лїевичъ}}.}} 25 August 1530 – {{OldStyleDate|28 March|1584|18 March}}), commonly known as '''Ivan the Terrible''',{{efn|{{lang-rus|links=yes|Иван Грозный|Ivan Groznyy|ɪˈvan ˈɡroznɨj|a=Ru-Ivan Grozny.ogg|t=Ivan the Formidable, 'Ivan the Fearsome' or 'Ivan the Awe-Inspiring}};<ref>{{Cite web|title=Иван Васильевич Грозный|url=http://www.hrono.ru/biograf/bio_i/ivan4ru_inst.php|access-date=20 August 2021|website=www.hrono.ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title="Иван Грозный — первый русский модернист"|url=https://godliteratury.ru/articles/2017/12/07/ivan-groznyy-pervyy-russkiy-modern|access-date=20 August 2021|website=Год Литературы|language=ru}}</ref><ref name="oxford"/> {{langx|la|Ioannes Severus}}; [[monastic name]]: [[Jonah]].}} was [[List of Russian monarchs#Grand princes of Moscow|Grand Prince of Moscow and all Russia]] from 1533 to 1547, and the first [[List of Russian monarchs#Tsars of Russia|Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia]] from 1547 until his death in 1584.<ref name="oxford">{{cite web |title=Ivan IV the Terrible, Tsar of Russia |journal=Renaissance and Reformation |date=13 January 2014 |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780195399301-0099 |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0099.xml |last1=Halperin |first1=Charles J. |isbn=978-0-19-539930-1 }}</ref> Ivan's reign was characterised by Russia's transformation from a medieval state to a fledgling empire, but at an immense cost to its people and long-term economy. |
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{{Infobox Russian Royalty|monarch |
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| name =Ivan IV the Terrible |
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| title =Tsar of All Russia |
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| image =Kremlinpic4.jpg |
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| caption =Ivan IV, [[parsuna]], 16th-century ([[National Museum of Denmark]]) |
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| reign = December 3, 1533 - {{OldStyleDate|18 March|1584|18 March}} |
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| coronation =January 16, 1547 |
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| othertitles = |
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| predecessor =[[Vasili III of Russia|Vasili III]] |
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| successor =[[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor I]] |
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| spouse = [[Anastasia of Russia]]<br />m. 1547, died. 1560<br />[[Maria Temrjukovna]]<br />m. 1561, died. 1569<br />[[Marfa Sobakin]]<br />m. 1571, died. 1571<br />[[Anna Koltovski]]<br />m. 1572, ann. 1574<br />[[Anna Vasilchikov]]<br />m. 1575, died. 1576-77<br />[[Vasilisa Melentev]]<br />m. 1579, ann. 1579<br>[[Maria Dolgoruki]]<br />m. 1580, killed 1580<br>[[Maria Nagaya]]<br />m. 1581 |
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| issue =Tsarevna Anna Ivanovna <br>Tsarevna Maria Ivanovna <br>Tsarevich Dmitri Ivanovich <br>[[Ivan Ivanovich (Son of Ivan IV)|Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich ]]<br>Tsarevna Eudoxia Ivanovna <br>[[Feodor I of Russia|Tsarevich Feodor Ivanovich]]<br>Tsarevich Vasili Ivanovich <br>[[Tsarevich Dimitri|Tsarevich Dmitri Ivanovich]] <br> [[Xenia Shestova]] (possibly) |
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| imperial house =[[Rurik]] |
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| royal anthem = |
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| father =[[Vasili III of Russia|Vasili III]] |
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| mother =[[Elena Glinskaya]] |
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| date of birth ={{birth date|mf=yes|1530|8|25}} |
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| place of birth =[[Kolomenskoye]], near [[Moscow]] |
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| date of death = {{OldStyleDate|18 March|1584|18 March}} |
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(aged 53) |
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| place of death =[[Moscow]] |
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| date of burial = |
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| place of burial = |
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|}} |
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Ivan IV was the eldest son of [[Vasili III of Russia|Vasili III]] by his second wife [[Elena Glinskaya]], and a grandson of [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]]. He succeeded his father after his death, when he was three years old. A group of reformers united around the young Ivan, crowning him as [[tsar]] in 1547 at the age of 16. In the early years of his reign, Ivan ruled with the group of reformers known as the Chosen Council and established the ''[[Zemsky Sobor]]'', a new assembly convened by the tsar. He also revised the [[Sudebnik of 1550|legal code]] and introduced reforms, including elements of local self-government, as well as establishing the first Russian standing army, the ''[[streltsy]]''. Ivan conquered the khanates of [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] and [[Khanate of Astrakhan|Astrakhan]], and significantly expanded the territory of Russia. |
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'''Ivan IV Vasilyevich''' ({{audio-ru|Ива́н Четвёртый, Васи́льевич|Ru-Ivan Grozny.ogg}}, ''Ivan Chetvyorty, Vasilyevich''), known in [[English language|English]] as '''''Ivan the Terrible''''' (= inspiring fear) ({{audio-ru|Ива́н Гро́зный|Ru-Ivan Grozny.ogg}}, ''Ivan Grozny'') (August 25, 1530, Moscow – {{OldStyleDate|28 March|1584|18 March}},<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/quermaz/history/h4mar/h4mar28.html 28 March: This Date in History<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Moscow) was [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|'''''Grand Prince of Moscow''''']] from 1533. The epithet "Grozny" is associated with might, power and strictness, rather than poor performance, horror or cruelty.<ref>C. G. Jacobsen. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/424804 Myths, Politics and the Not-so-New World Order.] Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Aug., 1993), pp. 241-250; <small>Quote from page 242: "...his governing style and system, was that of Ivan the Terrible."</small></ref><ref>Roy Temple House, Ernst Erich Noth, University of Oklahoma. [http://books.google.com/books?id=fRsMAAAAIAAJ&q=%22ivan+the+awesome%22&dq=%22ivan+the+awesome%22&ei=jyxsSMzIE6fSigGaqeWsDw&pgis=1 Books Abroad: An International Literary Quarterly.] v. 15, 1941; page 343. ISSN: 0006-7431.</ref><ref>Frank D. McConnell. [http://books.google.com/books?id=rqhZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22ivan+the+awesome%22&dq=%22ivan+the+awesome%22&ei=rTBsSMvZLoS8jgGi4ZgU&pgis=1 Storytelling and Mythmaking: Images from Film and Literature.] [[Oxford University Press]], 1979. ISBN 0195025725; <small>Quote from page 78: "But Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, Ivan groznyi, "Ivan the Magnificent" or "Ivan the Awesome," is precisely a man who has become a legend"</small></ref>. Ivan oversaw numerous changes in the transition from a mere local medieval [[nation state]] to a small [[empire]] and emerging [[regional power]], becoming the first [[Tsar]] of a new more powerful nation, acknowledged as '''''"Tsar of All Russia"''''' from 1547. |
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After he had consolidated his power, Ivan rid himself of the advisers from the Chosen Council and triggered the [[Livonian War]] of 1558 to 1583, which ravaged Russia and resulted in failure to take control over [[Livonia]] and the loss of [[Ingria]], but allowed him to establish greater autocratic control over the [[Russian nobility]], which he violently purged using Russia's first political police, the ''[[oprichnik]]i''. The later years of Ivan's reign were marked by the [[massacre of Novgorod]] by the ''oprichniki'' and the [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|burning of Moscow]] by the [[Tatars]]. Ivan also pursued cultural improvements, such as importing the first printing press to Russia, and began several processes that would continue for centuries, including deepening connections with other European states, particularly [[Kingdom of England|England]], fighting [[History of the Russo-Turkish wars|wars]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]], and the [[Russian conquest of Siberia|conquest of Siberia]]. |
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Ivan is described in contrary terms: intelligent, devout, and impulsive by some; given to rages and prone to episodic outbreaks of [[mental illness]] by others. One notable outburst resulted in the death of his groomed and chosen heir [[Ivan Ivanovich (Son of Ivan IV)|Ivan Ivanovich]] (although this version is supported mainly by foreign authors of that time and those Russian historians who quote them; according to others Ivan Ivanovich could die of some illness), and resulted in the passing of the Tsardom to the younger son: the arguably [[mentally challenged|mentally challenged]]<ref>History International Channel coverage, 14:00-15:00 EDST on 10 June 2008</ref> [[Feodor I of Russia]]. His long reign saw the conquest of the [[Khanate of Kazan|Khanates of Kazan]], [[Khanate of Astrakhan|Astrakhan]], and [[Khanate of Sibir|Siberia]], transforming Russia into a [[multiethnic]] and [[wikt:multiconfessional|multiconfessional]] state spanning almost 1 billion acres, growing during his term at a rate of approximately 50 square miles a day. <ref>''Russia:Land Of The Tsars'', [[History Channel]]</ref> |
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Contemporary sources present disparate accounts of Ivan's complex personality. He was described as intelligent and devout, but also prone to paranoia, rage, and episodic outbreaks of mental instability that worsened with age.<ref>Shvidkovskiĭ, Dmitriĭ Olegovich (2007) ''Russian Architecture and the West''. Yale University Press. p. 147. {{ISBN|0300109121}}.</ref><ref>[[#Yanov|Yanov]], p. 208</ref><ref>Del Testa, David W. (2001) ''Government Leaders, Military Rulers and Political Activists''. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 91. {{ISBN|1573561533}}</ref> Historians generally believe that in a fit of anger, he murdered his eldest son and heir, [[Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich of Russia|Ivan Ivanovich]];{{sfn|Perrie|Pavlov|2014|p=192}} he might also have caused the miscarriage of the latter's unborn child. This left his younger son, the politically ineffectual [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor Ivanovich]], to inherit the throne, a man whose rule and subsequent childless death led directly to the end of the [[Rurikids|Rurik dynasty]] and the beginning of the [[Time of Troubles]]. |
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The '''Tsardom of Rus'''' (Russian: Царство Русское) was the official<ref name="Shmidt">[http://istrodina.com/rodina_articul.php3?id=1423&n=79 "В некотором царстве, в некотором государстве..." Sigurd Shmidt, Doctor of history sciences, academician of [[Russian Academy of Sciences|RAN]], Journal "Rodina", Nr. 12/2004]</ref> name for the Russian state between [[Ivan IV]]'s assumption of the title of [[Tsar]] (Emperor) in 1547 and [[Peter the Great]]'s foundation of the [[Russian Empire]] in 1721. The name originated from the fact that it contained all of the [[Kievan Rus'|Rus]] lands that were at the time free of foreign states' domination. This new name was recognized by [[England]] in 1554 and by [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilan II]] in 1576<ref name=diphist>[http://www.diphis.ru/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=78#7 ИСТОРИЯ ДИПЛОМАТИИ ОТ ДРЕВНЕГО МИРА ДО НАШИХ ДНЕЙ. Section 3. Chapter 2 XVI Century] by Bakhrushin S.V. and Skazkin S.D. {{ru icon}}</ref>. To this day some [[Western world|Western]] sources refer to this state as ''Muscovite Russia''<ref>{{cite book | last = Sakwa | first = Richard | title = Russian Politics and Society| publisher = Routledge | date = 1996 | pages = xi-xii | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=QTWWMRM08FUC&pg=PR11&dq=Muscovite+Russia&lr=&ei=YSYWSpHuD5byygSrvuyeAg}}</ref> or ''[[Muscovy]]'', the term originally applied in Western and Central Europe to its medieval predecessor, the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]]. Diverse researchers consider the propagation of this term in Western Europe as a result of political interests and active [[diplomacy]] of [[Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth|Poland]]<ref name="Shmidt"/><ref name=diphist/>, the strongest [[international power]] in Northern-eastern [[Europe]] at the dawning of the [[Early Modern era]]. |
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== |
==Nickname== |
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The English word ''terrible'' is usually used to translate the Russian word {{transliteration|ru|grozny}} ({{lang|ru|грозный}}) in Ivan's epithet, but this is a somewhat archaic translation. The Russian word {{transliteration|ru|grozny}} reflects the older English usage of ''terrible'' as in "inspiring fear or terror; dangerous; powerful" (i.e., similar to modern English ''terrifying'' or ''formidable''). It does not convey the more modern connotations of English ''terrible'' such as "defective" or "evil".<ref name=rbth/> According to [[Edward L. Keenan]], Ivan the Terrible's image in [[popular culture]] as a [[tyrant]] came from politicised [[Western world|Western]] travel literature of the [[Renaissance]] era.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keenan |first1=Edward L. |author1-link=Edward L. Keenan |title=How Ivan Became "Terrible" |journal=[[Harvard Ukrainian Studies]] |date=2006 |volume=28 |issue=1/4 |pages=521–542 |jstor=41036979 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41036979 |issn=0363-5570}}</ref> Anti-Russian propaganda during the [[Livonian War]] portrayed Ivan as a sadistic and oriental despot.<ref name="oxford"/> [[Vladimir Dal]] defines {{transliteration|ru|grozny}} specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "courageous, magnificent, magisterial and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience".<ref>Dal, Vladimir, [[Explanatory Dictionary of the Live Great Russian language]], article ''ГРОЗИТЬ''. Available in many editions as well as online, for example at [http://slovardalja.net/ slovardalja.net]</ref> Other translations have also been suggested by modern scholars, including ''formidable'',<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jacobsen, C.G. |jstor=424804|title=Myths, Politics and the Not-so-New World Order|journal=Journal of Peace Research|volume=30|issue=3|year=1993|pages=241–250|doi=10.1177/0022343393030003001|s2cid=146782336}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Noth, Ernst Erich |title=Books Abroad: An International Literary Quarterly|journal=Books Abroad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRsMAAAAIAAJ|year=1941|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|volume= 15|page=343|issn=0006-7431}}</ref><ref>McConnell, Frank D. (1979). [https://archive.org/details/storytellingmyth0000mcco <!-- quote="ivan the awesome". --> ''Storytelling and Mythmaking: Images from Film and Literature'']. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-502572-5}}; p. 78: "But Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, Ivan groznyi, 'Ivan the Magnificent' or 'Ivan the Great' is precisely a man who has become a legend".</ref> as well as ''awe-inspiring''.<ref name="oxford"/> |
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Ivan was the long awaited son of [[Vasili III]], who had divorced his first wife in 1525 on the grounds that she was barren (he charged her with sorcery and had her forcibly [[tonsure]]d a nun before marrying [[Elena Glinskaya]], Ivan's mother.) When Ivan was just three years old his father died from a [[boil]] and inflammation on his leg which developed into blood poisoning. Ivan was proclaimed the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Grand Prince of Moscow]] at his father’s request. At first, his mother Elena Glinskaya acted as a regent, but she died of what many believe to be assassination via poison<ref>Martin, ''Medieval Russia'', 331; Pushkareva, ''Women in Russian History'', 65-67.</ref> when Ivan was merely eight years old. She was replaced as regent by [[boyars]] from the [[Shuisky]] family until Ivan assumed power in 1544. According to his own letters, Ivan and his younger brother [[Yuri Vasilevich (son of Vasili IIl)|Yuri]] customarily felt neglected and offended by the mighty boyars from the Shuisky and [[Belsky]] families. |
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==Early life== |
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[[Image:Ivan the Terrible (cropped).JPG|thumb|left|Portrait of Ivan IV by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]], 1897 ([[Tretyakov Gallery]], [[Moscow]]).]] |
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[[File:Young Ivan IV sits on the grand throne.png|thumb|left|200px|Ivan sits on the throne, miniature from the [[Illustrated Chronicle of Ivan the Terrible]]]] |
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[[File:Венчание на царство Ивана Грозного Лицевой летописный свод.png|thumb|left|200px|Ivan crowned tsar]] |
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Ivan Vasilyevich was the first son of [[Vasili III of Russia|Vasili III]] by his second wife, [[Elena Glinskaya]]. Vasili's mother, [[Sophia Palaiologina]], was a [[Byzantine]] princess of the [[Palaiologos|Palaiologos family]]. She was a daughter of [[Thomas Palaiologos]], the younger brother of the last Byzantine emperor, [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]] ({{reign|1449|1453}}).<ref name="ODB">{{ODB|title=Sophia Palaiologina|last=Talbot|first=Alice-Mary|author-link=Alice-Mary Talbot |page=1928}}</ref> Elena's [[Ana Jakšić|mother]] was a Serbian princess and her father's family, the Tatar<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maureen Perrie, Andrei Pavlov |title=Ivan the Terrible |date=2014 |page=26}}</ref> Glinski clan (nobles based in the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]), claimed descent both from Orthodox [[Hungarian nobles]] and the Mongol ruler [[Mamai]] (1335–1380).{{sfn|Madariaga|2006|p=61}}<ref>Francis Carr, ''Ivan the Terrible'', David & Charles Publishers (1981), p. 61</ref><ref>Walter G. Moss, ''A History of Russia : To 1917, Volume 1'', Anthem Press (2003), p. 130</ref> Born on 25 August, he received the name Ivan in honor of St. [[John the Baptist]], the day of whose [[Beheading of John the Baptist|beheading]] falls on 29 August.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Литвина |first1=А. Ф. |last2=Успенский |first2=Ф. Б. |title=Выбор имени у русских князей в X–XVI вв.: Династическая история сквозь призму антропонимики. М. |date=2006 |publisher=Индрик |page=218}}</ref> In some texts of that era, it is also occasionally mentioned with the names Titus and Smaragd, in accordance with the tradition of polyonymy among the [[Rurikids]]. He was baptized in the [[Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius]] by Abbot Joasaph (Skripitsyn) and two elders of the [[Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery]] were elected as recipients—the monk Cassian Bossoy and the hegumen Daniel. Tradition says that in honor of the birth of Ivan, the Church of the Ascension was built in [[Kolomenskoye]]. |
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When Ivan was three years old, his father died from an abscess and inflammation on his leg that developed into [[blood poisoning]]. The closest contenders to the throne, except for the young Ivan, were the younger brothers of Vasily. Of the six sons of [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]], only two remained: [[Andrey of Staritsa|Andrey]] and [[Yury Ivanovich|Yuri]]. Ivan was proclaimed the [[grand prince of Moscow|grand prince]] at the request of his father. His mother Elena Glinskaya initially acted as regent, but died in 1538,<ref>[[#Martin|Martin]], p. 331</ref><ref>Pushkareva, N. (1997) ''Women in Russian History''. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 65–67. {{ISBN|0765632705}}.</ref> when Ivan was eight years old; many believe that she was poisoned. The regency then alternated between several feuding [[boyar]] families that fought for control. According to his own letters, Ivan, along with his younger brother [[Yuri Vasilevich (son of Vasili IIl)|Yuri]], often felt neglected and offended by the mighty boyars from the [[Shuisky]] and [[Belsky family (Gediminid)|Belsky]] families. In a letter to [[Andrey Kurbsky]], Ivan remembered, "My brother Iurii, of blessed memory, and me they brought up like vagrants and children of the poorest. What have I suffered for want of garments and food!"<ref>Kurbsky, Andrey, Ivan IV, ''The Correspondence Between Prince A.M. Kurbsky and Tsar Ivan IV, of Russia, 1564–1579'', Cambridge University Press, 1955, 275 pp., {{ASIN|B000X81MHO}}, p. 75.</ref> That account has been challenged by the historian Edward Keenan, who doubts the authenticity of the source in which the quotations are found.<ref>{{Cite book | url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674181724 | title=The Kurbskii-Groznyi Apocrypha – Edward L. Keenan | Harvard University Press| series=Russian Research Center Studies| date=January 1971| publisher=Harvard University Press| isbn=9780674181724}}</ref> |
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Ivan was crowned king with [[Monomakh's Cap]] at the [[Cathedral of the Dormition]] at age sixteen on January 16, 1547. Despite calamities triggered by the [[Fire of Moscow (1547)|Great Fire of 1547]], the early part of his reign was one of peaceful reforms and modernization. Ivan revised the law code (known as the [[Sudebnik of 1550|sudebnik]]), created a [[standing army]] (the [[streltsy]]),<ref>Michael C. Paul, "The Military Revolution in Russia 1550-1682," ''The Journal of Military History'' 68 No. 1 (January 2004): 9-45, esp. pp. 20-22.</ref> established the [[Zemsky Sobor]] or assembly of the land, a public, consensus-building assembly, the council of the nobles (known as the Chosen Council), and confirmed the position of the Church with the [[Stoglav|Council of the Hundred Chapters]], which unified the rituals and ecclesiastical regulations of the entire country. He introduced the local self-management in rural regions, mainly in the Northeast of Russia, populated by the state peasantry. During his reign the first [[printing press]] was introduced to Russia (although the first Russian printers [[Ivan Fedorov (printer)|Ivan Fedorov]] and [[Pyotr Mstislavets]] had to flee from [[Moscow]] to the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]). |
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On 16 January 1547, at the age of 16, Ivan was crowned at the [[Cathedral of the Dormition]] in the [[Moscow Kremlin]]. The [[metropolitan of Moscow and all Russia|metropolitan]] placed on Ivan the signs of royal dignity: the [[True cross|Cross of the Life-Giving Tree]], barmas, and the [[Monomakh's Cap|cap of Monomakh]]; Ivan Vasilyevich was anointed with [[myrrh]], and then the metropolitan [[Blessing|blessed]] the tsar. He was the first Russian monarch to be crowned the [[tsar of all Russia]], partly imitating his grandfather, Ivan III. Until then, the rulers of Moscow were crowned as grand princes, but Ivan III assumed the title of [[sovereign of all Russia]] and used the title of [[tsar]] in his correspondence with other monarchs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Riasanovsky |first1=Nicholas V. |title=Russian Identities: A Historical Survey |date=29 September 2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-534814-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T6Qb2vqUa9YC |language=en |page=65}}</ref> Two weeks after his coronation, Ivan married his first wife, [[Anastasia Romanovna]], a member of the [[Romanov family]], who became the first Russian [[tsaritsa]]. |
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In 1547 Hans Schlitte, the [[Agent (law)|agent]] of Ivan, employed handicraftsmen in Germany for work in Russia. However all these handicraftsmen were arrested in [[Lübeck]] at the request of [[Poland]] and [[Livonia]]. The [[Germans|German]] merchant companies ignored the new port built by Ivan on the river [[Narva River|Narva]] in 1550 and continued to deliver goods in the Baltic ports owned by Livonia. Russia remained isolated from sea trade. |
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[[File:Facial Chronicle - b.22, p. 43 - Birth of Ivan Ivanovich.gif|thumb|right|Birth of [[Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich of Russia|Ivan Ivanovich]], the son of Ivan IV and [[Anastasia Romanovna]], miniature from the [[Illustrated Chronicle of Ivan the Terrible]]]] |
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Ivan formed new trading connections, opening up the [[White Sea]] and the port of [[Arkhangelsk]] to the [[Muscovy Company]] of [[England|English]] merchants. In 1552 he defeated the [[Kazan Khanate|Kazan]] [[Khanate]], whose armies had repeatedly devastated the Northeast of Russia,<ref>Russian chronicles record about forty attacks of Kazan Khans on the Russian territories (mainly the regions of [[Nizhniy Novgorod]], [[Murom]], [[Vyatka]], [[Vladimir]], [[Kostroma]], and [[Galich]]) in the first half of the 16th century. In 1521, the combined forces of Khan Muhamed Giray and his Crimean allies attacked Russia and captured more than 150,000 slaves. ''The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol.13, SPb, 1904''</ref> and annexed its territory. In 1556, he annexed the [[Astrakhan Khanate]] and destroyed the largest [[slave market]] on the river Volga. These conquests complicated the [[Human migration|migration]] of the aggressive [[nomadic]] hordes from Asia to Europe through Volga and transformed Russia into a multinational and multiconfessional state. |
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By being crowned tsar, Ivan was sending a message to the world and to Russia that he was now the only supreme ruler of the country, and his will was not to be questioned. According to historian Janet Martin, the new title "symbolized an assumption of powers equivalent and parallel to those held by the former Byzantine caesar and the Tatar khan, both known in Russian sources as tsar. The political effect was to elevate Ivan's position".<ref>[[#Martin|Martin]], p. 377</ref> The new title not only secured the throne but also granted Ivan a new dimension of power that was intimately tied to religion. He was now a "divine" leader appointed to enact God's will, as "church texts described Old Testament kings as 'Tsars' and Christ as the Heavenly Tsar".<ref>[[#Bogatyrev|Bogatyrev]], p. 245</ref> The newly appointed title was then passed on from generation to generation, and "succeeding Muscovite rulers... benefited from the divine nature of the power of the Russian monarch... crystallized during Ivan's reign".<ref name="Bogatyrev, Sergei 1584" /> |
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Like the [[Habsburgs]] and other monarchs in Europe, the first Russian tsars adopted mythological genealogies that connected them to [[Ancient Rome]]. In ''[[The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir]]'', their lineage is traced to [[Rurik]], the first prince of [[Novgorod]] in northern Russia, while a certain Prus, an alleged brother of [[Augustus]] who ruled what would become [[Prussia]], is mentioned as a direct ancestor of Rurik.<ref name="Wortman">{{cite book |last1=Wortman |first1=Richard S. |title=Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy from Peter the Great to the Abdication of Nicholas II - New Abridged One-Volume Edition |date=31 October 2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-4969-7 |pages=9–10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykaVAQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> Ivan IV often mentioned his apparent kinship with Augustus, claiming not to be a "Russe" and highlighting his "German" descent from Rurik.<ref name="Wortman"/> Such genealogies served to elevate the position of the Russian monarch in the eyes of his subjects and other European powers, who were also creating mythological ancestors for themselves.{{sfn|Madariaga|2006|pp=32–34}} |
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Ivan IV corresponded with Orthodox leaders overseas as well. In response to a letter of [[Patriarch Joachim of Alexandria]] asking the Tsar for financial assistance for the [[Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai|Monastery of St. Catherine]] in [[Sinai]], which had suffered from the Turks, Ivan IV sent in 1558 a delegation to [[Egypt]] lead by [[archdeacon]] Gennady, who, however, died in [[Constantinople]] before he could reach Egypt. From then on, the embassy was headed by a [[Smolensk]] merchant Vasily Poznyakov. Poznyakov's delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo, and Sinai, brought the patriarch a [[fur coat]] and an icon sent by the Tsar, and left an interesting account of its two and half years' travels.<ref>[http://lib.pushkinskijdom.ru/Default.aspx?tabid=5142 ХОЖДЕНИЕ НА ВОСТОК ГОСТЯ ВАСИЛИЯ ПОЗНЯКОВА С ТОВАРИЩИ] (The travels to the Orient by the merchant Vasily Poznyakov and his companions) {{ru icon}}</ref> |
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==Domestic policy== |
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The Tsar had [[St. Basil's Cathedral]] constructed in [[Moscow]] to commemorate the seizure of [[Kazan]]. Legend has it that he was so impressed with the structure that he had the architect, [[Postnik Yakovlev]], blinded, so that he could never design anything as beautiful again. In fact, it is known that Yakovlev designed several churches and the kremlin walls in Kazan itself in the early 1560s, as well as the chapel over St. Vasilii's grave that was added to St. Basil's Cathedral in 1588, several years after Ivan's death, indicating that he had not, in fact, been blinded by the tsar years earlier. |
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Despite calamities triggered by the [[Fire of Moscow (1547)|Great Fire of 1547]], the early part of Ivan's reign was one of peaceful reforms and modernization. Ivan revised the law code, creating the [[Sudebnik of 1550]], founded a [[standing army]] (the {{transliteration|ru|[[streltsy]]}}),<ref>{{cite journal |first=Michael C. |last=Paul |title=The Military Revolution in Russia 1550–1682 |journal=The Journal of Military History |volume=68 |issue=1 |year=2004 |pages=9–45 [esp. pp. 20–22] |doi=10.1353/jmh.2003.0401|s2cid=159954818 }}</ref> established the {{transliteration|ru|[[Zemsky Sobor]]}} (the first Russian parliament of feudal estates) and the council of the nobles (known as the Chosen Council) and confirmed the position of the Church with the [[Council of the Hundred Chapters]] (Stoglavy Synod), which unified the rituals and ecclesiastical regulations of the whole country. He introduced local self-government to rural regions, mainly in northeastern Russia, populated by the state peasantry. |
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[[Image:Sedov1875.jpg|thumb|200px|Tsar Ivan IV watches over first wife, Anastasia Romanovna, on her death bed. Painting of 1875 by [[Georgiy Semyonovich Sedov]] (1836-1886).<!-- The painter is not the Arctic explorer Georgiy Yakovlevich Sedov (1877—1914). (Ivan the Terrible at the deathbed of his first and most-beloved wife, [[Anastasia Romanovna]] - wrong caption: neither deathbed nor Anastasia Romanovna) -->]] |
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In 1553 Ivan suffered a near-fatal illness and was thought not able to recover. While on his presumed deathbed Ivan had asked the boyars to swear an oath of allegiance to his eldest son, an infant at the time. Many boyars refused since they deemed the tsar's health too hopeless for him to survive. This angered Ivan and added to his distrust of the boyars. There followed brutal reprisals and assassinations, including those of [[Metropolitan Philip]] and Prince [[Alexander Gorbatyi-Shuisky]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Riasanovsky |first1=Nicholas V. |title=A History of Russia |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195121791 |chapter = The Second Part of Ivan the Terrible's Rule}}</ref> |
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Ivan ordered in 1553 the establishment of the [[Moscow Print Yard]], and the first [[printing press]] was introduced to Russia. Several religious books in Russian were printed during the 1550s and 1560s. The new technology provoked discontent among traditional scribes, which led to the Print Yard being burned in an arson attack. The first Russian printers, [[Ivan Fedorov (printer)|Ivan Fedorov]] and [[Pyotr Mstislavets]], were forced to flee from Moscow to the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Nevertheless, the printing of books resumed from 1568 onwards, with Andronik Timofeevich Nevezha and his son Ivan now heading the Print Yard. |
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The 1565 formation of the ''[[Oprichnina]]'' was also significant. The ''Oprichnina'' was the section of Russia (mainly the Northeast) directly ruled by Ivan and policed by his personal servicemen, the ''[[Oprichniki]]''. This system of ''Oprichnina'' has been viewed by some historians as a tool against the omnipotent hereditary nobility of Russia ([[boyar]]s) who opposed the absolutist drive of the tsar, while others have interpreted it as a sign of the [[paranoia]] and mental deterioration of the tsar. Additionally, Ivan had pestered Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] several times toward the end of his reign, inquiring of the possibility of fleeing Moscow and being granted asylum in her realm; this also has been interpreted by some as another possible sign of his deteriorating mental health. |
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[[File:Ivan IV the Terrible portrait by Weigel 1882.jpg|thumb|left|16th century portrait of Ivan by Hans Weigel]] |
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Ivan had [[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] constructed in Moscow to commemorate the seizure of [[Kazan]]. There is a legend that he was so impressed with the structure that he had the architect, [[Postnik Yakovlev]], blinded so that he could never design anything as beautiful again. However, in reality Postnik Yakovlev went on to design more churches for Ivan and the walls of the [[Kazan Kremlin]] in the early 1560s as well as the chapel over Saint Basil's grave, which was added to Saint Basil's Cathedral in 1588, several years after Ivan's death. Although more than one architect was associated with that name, it is believed that the principal architect is the same person.<ref>[https://slovar.cc/enc/bse/2031865.html Постник]. [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]</ref><ref>[http://ecology-mef.narod.ru/arch/postnik.htm Барма и Постник (Постник Яковлев)]. ecology-mef.narod.ru.</ref><ref>[http://www.russiancity.ru/hbooks/h005.htm Постник Барма – строитель собора Василия Блаженного в Москве и Казанского кремля]. russiancity.ru.</ref> |
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Other events of the period include the introduction of the first laws restricting the mobility of the peasants, which would eventually lead to [[serfdom]] and were instituted during the rule of the future Tsar [[Boris Godunov]] in 1597.<ref name=EB1911>{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Boris Fedorovich Godunov |volume=4 |page=254 |first=Robert |last=Bain |authorlink=Robert Nisbet Bain}} This cites: |
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== Later reign == |
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* Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, ''On the Historical Significance of the Reign of Boris Godunov'' (Rus.) (Moscow, 1850) |
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[[Image:REPIN Ivan Terrible&Ivan.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''Ivan the Terrible killing his son'' by [[Ilya Repin]] ([[Tretyakov Gallery]], [[Moscow]]).]] |
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* [[Sergey Solovyov (historian)|Sergyei Mikhailivich Solovev]], ''History of Russia'' (Rus.) (2nd ed., vols. vii–viii, St. Petersburg, 1897).</ref> (See also [[Serfdom in Russia]].) |
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The later half of Ivan's reign was less successful. Although [[Khan (title)|Khan]] [[Devlet I Giray]] of [[Crimea]] repeatedly devastated the Moscow region and even [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|set Moscow on fire]] in 1571, the Tsar supported [[Yermak Timofeyevich|Yermak]]'s conquest of [[Tatars|Tatar]] [[Siberia]], adopting a policy of [[empire-building]], which led him to launch a victorious war of seaward expansion to the west, only to find himself fighting the [[Swedish Empire|Swedes]], [[Lithuania]]ns, [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poles]], and the [[Livonia]]n [[Teutonic Knights]]. |
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The combination of bad harvests, devastation brought by the ''[[oprichnina]]'' and Tatar raids, the prolonged war and overpopulation caused [[Crisis of the late 16th century in Russia|a severe social and economic crisis]] in the second half of Ivan's reign. |
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For twenty-four years the [[Livonian War]] dragged on, damaging the Russian economy and military and failing to gain any territory for Russia. In the 1560s the combination of [[drought]] and [[famine]], [[Polish-Lithuanian]] raids, [[Tatar invasions]], and the sea-trading blockade carried out by the Swedes, Poles and the [[Hanseatic League]] devastated Russia. The price of grain increased by a factor of ten. Epidemics of the plague killed 10,000 in Novgorod. In 1570 the plague killed 600-1000 in Moscow daily.<ref>R.Skrynnikov, "Ivan Grosny", M., AST, 2001</ref> One of Ivan's advisors, Prince [[Andrei Kurbsky]], defected to the Lithuanians, headed the Lithuanian troops and devastated the Russian region of [[Velikiye Luki]]. This treachery deeply hurt Ivan. As the Oprichnina continued, Ivan became mentally unstable and physically disabled. In one week, he could easily pass from the most depraved orgies to anguished prayers and fasting in a remote northern monastery.<!--Please don't justify tyranism by mental problems: --Modern researchers, basing on the analysis of the remains of Ivan, assume the mercury poisoning of tsar (as well as at his mother Helena Glinskaya). The mercury poisoning destroyed his mental health.--> |
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==={{transliteration|ru|Oprichnina}}=== |
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Because he gradually grew unbalanced and violent, the Oprichniks under [[Malyuta Skuratov]] soon got out of hand and became murderous thugs. They massacred nobles and peasants, and conscripted men to fight the war in Livonia. Depopulation and famine ensued. What had been by far the richest area of Russia became the poorest. In a dispute with the wealthy city of [[Novgorod]], Ivan ordered the Oprichniks to murder inhabitants of this city, which was never to regain its former prosperity. His followers burned and pillaged the city and villages.<ref name=Novgorod1911>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Novgorod,_Russia_(Capital) Novgorod, Russia (Capital)]</ref> As many as 60,000 might have been killed during the infamous [[Massacre of Novgorod]] in 1570;<ref>[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm#IvanT Ivan the Terrible, Russia, (r.1533-84)]</ref><ref name=Novgorod1911/><ref name=PskovChronicle/> many others were [[deported]] elsewhere.<ref name=PskovChronicle> According to the Third Novgorod Chronicle, the massacre lasted for five weeks. Almost every day 500 or 600 people were killed or drowned. The First Pskov Chronicle estimates the number of victims at 60,000.</ref> Yet the official [[death toll]] named 1,500 of [[Novgorod]] ''big'' people (nobility) and only mentioned about the same number of ''smaller'' people. Many modern researchers estimate number of victims between two and three thousand. (After the famine and [[pandemic|epidemics]] of 1560s the population of Novgorod perhaps did not exceed 10,000-20,000.)<ref> Having investigated the report of Maljuta Skuratov and commemoration lists (''sinodiki''), R. Skrynnikov considers, that the number of victims was 2,000-3,000. (Skrynnikov R. G., "Ivan Grosny", M., AST, 2001) </ref> |
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{{Main|Oprichnina}} |
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[[File:Vasnetsov Ioann 4.jpg|thumb|200px|Portrait of Ivan IV by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]], 1897 ([[Tretyakov Gallery]], Moscow)]] |
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The 1560s brought to Russia hardships that led to a dramatic change in Ivan's policies. Russia was devastated by a combination of drought, famine, unsuccessful wars against the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], [[Russo-Crimean Wars|Tatar invasions]] and the sea-trading blockade carried out by the Swedes, the Poles and the [[Hanseatic League]]. His first wife, Anastasia Romanovna, died in 1560, which was suspected to be a poisoning. The personal tragedy deeply hurt Ivan and is thought to have affected his personality, if not his mental health. At the same time one of Ivan's advisors, Prince Andrey Kurbsky, defected to the Lithuanians, took command of the Lithuanian troops and devastated the Russian region of [[Velikiye Luki]]. This series of treacherous acts made Ivan paranoically suspicious of nobility. |
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On 3 December 1564 Ivan left Moscow for [[Aleksandrova Sloboda]], where he sent two letters in which he announced his [[abdication]] because of the alleged embezzlement and treason of the aristocracy and the clergy. The boyar court was unable to rule in Ivan's absence and feared the wrath of the Muscovite citizens. A boyar envoy departed for Aleksandrova Sloboda to beg Ivan to return to the throne.{{sfn|Madariaga|2006|pp=176–178}}<ref name="Pavlov">Pavlov, Andrei and Perrie, Maureen (2003) ''Ivan the Terrible (Profiles in Power)''. Harlow, UK: Longman. pp. 112–113. {{ISBN|058209948X}}.</ref> Ivan agreed to return on condition of being granted absolute power. He demanded the right to condemn and execute traitors and confiscate their estates without interference from the boyar council or church. Ivan decreed the creation of the {{transliteration|ru|[[oprichnina]]}}.{{sfn|Madariaga|2006|pp=179–180}} |
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[[Image:Ivan the Terrible and Harsey.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Ivan the Terrible and Harsey]] |
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Having rejected peace proposals from his enemies, Ivan IV found himself in a difficult position by 1579, when [[Crimean Khanate]] devastated Muscovian territories and even burnt down [[Moscow]] (see [[Russo-Crimean Wars]]). The dislocations in population fleeing the war compounded the effects of the concurrently occurring [[drought]] and exacerbated war engendered [[epidemics]] causing much loss of population. |
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The {{transliteration|ru|oprichnina}} was a separate territory within the borders of Russia, mostly in the territory of the former [[Novgorod Republic]] in the north. Ivan held exclusive power over the territory. The Boyar Council ruled the {{transliteration|ru|zemshchina}} ('land'), the second division of the state. Ivan also recruited a personal guard known as the {{transliteration|ru|[[oprichniki]]}}. Originally, it numbered 1000.<ref name=Pavlov/>{{sfn|Madariaga|2006|pp=182–183}} The {{transliteration|ru|oprichniki}} were headed by [[Malyuta Skuratov]]. One known {{transliteration|ru|oprichnik}} was the German adventurer [[Heinrich von Staden (author)|Heinrich von Staden]]. The {{transliteration|ru|oprichniki}} enjoyed social and economic privileges under the {{transliteration|ru|oprichnina}}. They owed their allegiance and status to Ivan, not heredity or local bonds.<ref name=Pavlov/> |
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All together, the prolonged war had near fatally affected the economy, [[Oprichnina]] had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The [[Grand Principality of Lithuania]] had [[Union of Lublin|united with]] [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|The Kingdom of Poland]] and acquired an energetic leader, [[Stefan Batory]], who was supported by Russia's southern enemy, The [[Ottoman Empire]] (1576). Ivan's realm was now squeezed by two of the great powers of the day. |
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The first wave of persecutions targeted primarily the princely clans of Russia, notably the influential families of Suzdal. Ivan executed, exiled or forcibly [[tonsure]]d prominent members of the boyar clans on questionable accusations of conspiracy. Among those who were executed were the Metropolitan Philip and the prominent warlord Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky. In 1566 Ivan extended the {{transliteration|ru|oprichnina}} to eight central districts. Of the 12,000 nobles, 570 became {{transliteration|ru|oprichniki}} and the rest were expelled.{{sfn|Madariaga|2006|p=183}}{{efn|As the tonsure was the distinctive hairstyle of monastic orders, a forcibly tonsured boyar was effectively exiled from power by being made to enter a monastic life.}} |
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With the failure of negotiations, Batory replied with a series of three [[offensive]]s against Muscovy in each campaign seasons of 1579–1581, trying to cut The [[Kingdom of Livonia]] from Muscovian territories. |
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Under the new political system the {{transliteration|ru|oprichniki}} were given large estates but, unlike the previous landlords, could not be held accountable for their actions. The men "took virtually all the peasants possessed, forcing them to pay 'in one year as much as [they] used to pay in ten.{{' "}}<ref>[[#Martin|Martin]], p. 410</ref> This degree of oppression resulted in increasing cases of peasants fleeing, which in turn reduced overall production. The price of grain increased ten-fold. |
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During his first offensive in 1579, he retook [[Polatsk|Polotsk]] with 22,000 men. During the second, in 1580, he took [[Wielkie Łuki|Velikie Luki]] with a 29,000-strong army. Finally, he started the [[Siege of Pskov]] in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army. |
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Ivan was repentant after the death of his son and his actions with the ''{{transliteration|ru|oprichnina}}'', and afterwards, he sent out lists compiling the deaths of his Christian victims killed by the system and asked monasteries to pray for every known one.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Great Mysteries of the Past: Experts Unravel Fact and Fallacy Behind the Headlines of History |date=April 1997 |publisher=[[Reader's Digest]] |isbn=978-0-89577-377-7 |location=Pleasantville, New York |pages=188–189}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=November 2024}} |
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[[Frederick II of Denmark and Norway|Frederick II]] had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlike [[Sweden]] and Poland. He came to an agreement with [[John III of Sweden|John III]] in 1580 giving him the titles in Livonia. That war would last from 1577 to 1582. Muscovy recognized Polish-Lithuanian control of [[Ducatus Ultradunensis]] only in 1582. After [[Magnus von Lyffland]] died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The [[Duchy of Courland]] and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of [[inheritance]]. Except for the island of [[Saaremaa]], [[Denmark]] was out of the [[Baltic region|Baltic]] by 1585. As of 1598, [[Duchy of Livonia (1561–1621)|Polish Livonia]] was divided onto: |
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* [[Wenden Voivodeship]] (''województwo wendeńskie'', [[Kieś]]) |
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* [[Dorpat Voivodeship]] (''województwo dorpackie'', [[Dorpat]]) |
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* [[Parnawa Voivodeship]] (''województwo parnawskie'', [[Parnawa]]) |
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===Sack of Novgorod=== |
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In 1581, Ivan beat his [[pregnant]] daughter-in-law for wearing immodest clothing, which may have caused a [[miscarriage]]. His son, also named [[Ivan Ivanovich (Son of Ivan IV)|Ivan]], upon learning of this, engaged in a heated argument with his father, which resulted in Ivan striking his son in the head with his pointed staff, causing his son's (accidental) death. This event is depicted in the famous painting by [[Ilya Repin]], ''Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan on Friday, November 16, 1581'' better known as ''Ivan the Terrible killing his son''. |
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{{Main|Massacre of Novgorod}} |
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Conditions under the {{transliteration|ru|oprichnina}} were worsened by the 1570 epidemic, a plague that killed 10,000 people in Novgorod and 600 to 1,000 daily in Moscow. During the grim conditions of the epidemic, a famine and the ongoing Livonian War, Ivan grew suspicious that noblemen of the wealthy city of Novgorod were planning to defect and to place the city under the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A Novgorod citizen, Petr Volynets, warned the tsar about the alleged conspiracy, which modern historians believe not to have been real. In 1570 Ivan ordered the {{transliteration|ru|oprichniki}} to raid the city. The {{transliteration|ru|oprichniki}} burned and pillaged Novgorod and the surrounding villages and the city has never regained its former prominence.<ref name="Novgorod1911">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Novgorod (town) |display=Novgorod |volume=19 |pages=839–840 |first1=Peter |last1=Kropotkin |first2=John Thomas |last2=Bealby}}</ref> |
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[[File:0NevrevNV Oprichniki BISH.jpg|thumb|left|''The Oprichniki'' by [[Nikolai Nevrev]] (1888). The painting shows the last minutes of {{transliteration|ru|boyarin}} Feodorov, who was arrested for treason. To mock his alleged ambitions on the tsar's title, the nobleman was given tsar's [[regalia]] before his execution.]] |
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Casualty figures vary greatly from different sources. The First Pskov Chronicle estimates the number of victims at 60,000.<ref name=Novgorod1911/><ref>[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat0.htm#IvanT Ivan the Terrible, Russia, (r. 1533–84)]. Users.erols.com. Retrieved 7 December 2011</ref><ref name="PskovChronicle">According to the Third Novgorod Chronicle, the massacre lasted for five weeks. Almost every day, 500 or 600 people were killed or drowned.</ref> According to the Third Novgorod Chronicle, the massacre lasted for five weeks. The massacre of Novgorod consisted of men, women and children who were tied to sleighs and run into the freezing waters of the [[Volkhov]] River, which Ivan ordered on the basis of unproved accusations of treason. He then tortured its inhabitants and killed thousands in a pogrom. The archbishop was also hunted to death. Almost every day, 500 or 600 people were killed, some by drowning, but the official death toll named 1,500 of Novgorod's "big" people (nobility) and mentioned only about the same number of "smaller" people.{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}} Many modern researchers estimate the number of victims to range from 2,000 to 3,000 since after the famine and epidemics of the 1560s the population of Novgorod most likely did not exceed 10,000–20,000.<ref>Having investigated the report of Maljuta Skuratov and commemoration lists (''sinodiki''), R. Skrynnikov considers that the number of victims was 2,000–3,000. (Skrynnikov R.G., "Ivan Grosny", M., AST, 2001)</ref> Many survivors were deported. |
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The {{transliteration|ru|oprichnina}} did not live long after the sack of Novgorod. During the [[Russo-Crimean War (1571)|1571–72 Russo-Crimean War]] the {{transliteration|ru|oprichniki}} failed to prove themselves worthy against a regular army. In 1572, Ivan abolished the {{transliteration|ru|oprichnina}} and disbanded his {{transliteration|ru|oprichniki}}. |
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== Death and legacy == |
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{{Refimprove|section|date=November 2007}} |
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[[Image:Schwarz1861.jpg|thumb|265px|''Ivan the Terrible meditating at the deathbed of his son''. Ivan's murder of his son brought about the extinction of the [[Rurik Dynasty]] and the [[Time of Troubles]]. Painting by Vyacheslav Grigorievich Schwarz (1861).]] |
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===Appointment of Simeon Bekbulatovich=== |
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Although it is thought by many that Ivan died while setting up a chess board, it is more likely that he died<ref>{{cite book | last = Waliszewski | first = Kazimierz | coauthors = Mary Loyd | title = Ivan the Terrible | publisher = J.B. Lippincott | date = 1904 | location = Philadelphia | pages = 377-78 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=IEEEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA377&dq=ivan+iv%2Bdeath&lr=&ei=5ykWSoKaD46UzQSs9LD0Cw}}</ref> while playing [[chess]] with [[Bogdan Belsky]] on March 18, 1584. When Ivan's tomb was opened during renovations in the 1960s, his remains were examined and discovered to contain very high amounts of [[Mercury (element)|mercury]],<ref>{{cite book | last = Perrie | first = Maureen | coauthors = D. C. B. Lieven, Ronald Grigor Suny | title = The Cambridge History of Russia, From early Rus' to 1689 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | date = 2006 | page = 252 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=GQcviLmjNm0C&pg=PP604&dq=ivan+iv%2Bremains%2Bmercury&lr=&ei=ay8WSuXAMYPGzQTAi6WNCQ}}</ref> indicating a high probability that he was poisoned. Modern suspicion falls on his advisors Belsky and [[Boris Godunov]] (who became tsar in 1598). Three days earlier, Ivan had allegedly attempted to rape Irina, Godunov's sister and Feodor's wife. Her cries attracted Godunov and Belsky to the noise, whereupon Ivan let Irina go, but Belsky and Godunov considered themselves marked for death. The tradition says that they either poisoned or strangled Ivan in fear for their own lives. Upon Ivan's death, the ravaged kingdom was left to his unfit and childless son [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor]]. |
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In September or October 1575,<ref name="lloyd">{{cite book |title=Rude & barbarous kingdom: Russia in the accounts of sixteenth-century English voyagers |date=1968 |publisher=Univ. of Wisconsin Press |location=Madison, Wis. |isbn=0299047644 |page=166}}</ref> Ivan proclaimed [[Simeon Bekbulatovich]], his statesman of Tatar origin, the new grand prince of all Russia.{{sfn|Madariaga|2006|p=301}} Simeon reigned as a figurehead leader for about a year. According to the English envoy [[Giles Fletcher the Elder]], Simeon acted on Ivan's instructions to confiscate all of the lands that belonged to monasteries, and Ivan pretended to disagree with the decision. When the throne was returned to Ivan in September 1576<ref name="lloyd"/> he returned some of the confiscated land and kept the rest. |
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== |
==Foreign policy== |
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===Diplomacy and trade=== |
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[[Image:LebedevKV CarIvan4GrozPrMI.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Ivan's repentance: he asks a father superior of the [[Pskovo-Pechorsky Monastery]] to let him take the [[tonsure]] at his [[monastery]]. Painting by [[Klavdiy Lebedev]].]] |
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[[File:Alexander Litovchenko - Ivan the Terrible Showing Treasures to the English Ambassador Jerome Horsey.jpg|thumb|300px|''Ivan the Terrible Showing His Treasures to [[Jerome Horsey]]'' by [[Alexander Litovchenko]] (1875)]] |
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In 1547, Hans Schlitte, the agent of Ivan, recruited craftsmen in Germany for work in Russia. However, all of the craftsmen were arrested in [[Lübeck]] at the request of Poland and [[Livonia]]. The German merchant companies ignored the new [[Ivangorod|port built by Ivan]] on the [[Narva River|River Narva]] in 1550 and continued to deliver goods in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] ports owned by Livonia. Russia remained isolated from sea trade. |
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[[D.S. Mirsky]] called Ivan "a pamphleteer of [[genius]]". The [[epistles]] attributed to him are the masterpieces of old Russian (perhaps all Russian) political [[journalism]]. They may be too full of texts from the Scriptures and the Fathers, and their [[Church Slavonic]] is not always correct. But they are full of cruel irony, expressed in pointedly forcible terms. |
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Ivan established close ties with the [[Kingdom of England]]. Russian–English relations can be traced to 1551, when the [[Muscovy Company]] was formed by [[Richard Chancellor]], [[Sebastian Cabot (explorer)|Sebastian Cabot]], Sir [[Hugh Willoughby]] and several London merchants. In 1553, Chancellor sailed to the [[White Sea]] and continued overland to Moscow, where he visited Ivan's court. Ivan opened up the White Sea and the port of [[Arkhangelsk]] to the company and granted it privilege of trading throughout his reign without paying the standard customs fees.<ref>[[#Martin|Martin]], p. 407.</ref> |
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The shameless bully and the great [[polemicist]] are seen together in a flash when he taunts the runaway prince Kurbsky with the question: "If you are so sure of your righteousness, why did you run away and not prefer martyrdom at my hands?" Such strokes were well calculated to drive his correspondent into a rage. "The part of the cruel tyrant elaborately upbraiding an escaped victim while he continues [[torture|torturing]] those in his reach may be detestable, but Ivan plays it with truly [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearian]] breadth of imagination".<ref>[[D.S. Mirsky]]. ''A History of Russian Literature''. Northwestern University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8101-1679-0. Page 21.</ref> These letters are often the only existing source on Ivan's personality and provide crucial information on his reign, but [[Harvard]] professor Edward Keenan has argued that these letters are 17th century [[forgery|forgeries]]. This contention, however, has not been widely accepted, and other scholars, such as John Fennell and Ruslan Skrynnikov continued to argue for their authenticity. Recent archival discoveries of 16th century copies of the letters strengthen the argument for their authenticity.<ref>Edward L. Keenan, ''The Kurbskii-Groznyi Apocrypha |
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the 17th-Century Genesis of the "Correspondence" Attributed to Prince A. M. Kurbskii and Tsar Ivan IV'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971); Janet Martin, ''Medieval Russia 980-1584'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 328-329.</ref> |
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With the use of English merchants, Ivan engaged in a long correspondence with [[Elizabeth I of England]]. While the queen focused on commerce, Ivan was more interested in a military alliance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dmytryshyn |first=Basil |date=2000 |title=Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850–1700 |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21443219 |location=Gulf Breeze, FL |publisher=Academic International Press |page=301 |isbn=0-875-69-218-4|oclc=21443219 }}</ref> Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his troubled relations with the boyars, he even asked her for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England if his rule was jeopardised.<ref name="muscovy">Crankshaw, Edward, ''Russia and Britain'', Collins, ''The Nations and Britain'' series.</ref> Elizabeth agreed on the condition that he provide for himself during his potential stay.<ref>{{cite news|title=Russians in London: Government in exile|url=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21692934-new-generation-migr-s-has-plans-homeland-they-never-wanted-flee-government|access-date=12 February 2016|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=12 February 2016}}</ref> |
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Besides his letters to Kurbsky he wrote other satirical invectives to men in his power. The best is his letter to the abbot of the [[Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery]], where he pours out all the poison of his grim irony on the unascetic life of the boyars, shorn monks, and those exiled by his order. His picture of their luxurious life in the citadel of [[ascetism]] is a masterpiece of trenchant sarcasm. |
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Ivan corresponded with overseas Orthodox leaders. In response to a letter of [[Patriarch Joachim of Alexandria]] asking him for financial assistance for the [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]], in the [[Sinai Peninsula]], which had suffered by the Turks, Ivan sent in 1558 a delegation to [[Egypt Eyalet]] by Archdeacon Gennady, who, however, died in Constantinople before he could reach Egypt. From then on, the embassy was headed by [[Smolensk]] merchant Vasily Poznyakov, whose delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo and Sinai; brought the patriarch a fur coat and an icon sent by Ivan and left an interesting account of his two-and-a-half years of travels.<ref>[http://lib.pushkinskijdom.ru/Default.aspx?tabid=5142 ХОЖДЕНИЕ НА ВОСТОК ГОСТЯ ВАСИЛИЯ ПОЗНЯКОВА С ТОВАРИЩИ] (The travels to the Orient by the merchant Vasily Poznyakov and his companions) {{in lang|ru}}</ref> |
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== Sobriquet == |
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The [[English language|English]] word ''terrible'' is usually used to translate the [[Russian language|Russian]] word ''grozny'' in Ivan's nickname, but the modern English usage of terrible, with a pejorative connotation of bad or evil, does not precisely represent the intended meaning. Grozny's meaning is closer to the original usage of terrible—''inspiring fear or terror'', ''dangerous'' (as in [[Old English language|Old English]] ''in one's danger''), ''formidable'', ''threatening'', or ''awesome''. Perhaps a translation closer to the intended sense would be ''Ivan the Fearsome'', or ''Ivan the Formidable''. <!--OR: The Russian people gave Ivan this nickname after he seized Kazan.--> |
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Ivan was the first ruler to begin cooperating with the free cossacks on a large scale. Relations were handled through the Posolsky Prikaz diplomatic department; Moscow sent them money and weapons, while tolerating their freedoms, to draw them into an alliance against the Tatars. The first evidence of cooperation surfaces in 1549 when Ivan ordered the Don Cossacks to attack Crimea.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alexander Filjushkin |title=Ivan the Terrible: A Military History |date=2008 |publisher=Frontline Books |isbn=978-1473815599 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQDSAwAAQBAJ&q=cossacks |chapter=Chapter 1 Russian Military Forces in the Sixteenth Century: Infrastructure of the Russian Army}}</ref> |
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==Modern controversy== |
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There is an active and controversial movement in modern Russia campaigning in favor of granting [[sainthood]] to tsar Ivan IV.<ref>[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-317469.html ''Russians Laud Ivan the Not So Terrible; Loose Coalition Presses Orthodox Church to Canonize the Notorious Czar.''] [[Washington Post]], November 10, 2003</ref> The official Russian Orthodox Church remains opposed to the idea.<ref>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-6258666_ITM ''Church says nyet to St. Rasputin.''] UPI NewsTrack, October 4, 2004</ref> |
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===Conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan=== |
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{{Main|Siege of Kazan (1552)}} |
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{{more citations needed|section|date=January 2021}} |
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[[File:ChurchMilitant.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Blessed Be the Host of the King of Heaven]]'', a [[Russian icon]] from {{circa|1550–1560}}, an allegory of the conquest of Kazan]] |
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While Ivan was a child, armies of the [[Kazan Khanate]] repeatedly raided northeastern Russia.<ref>Russian chronicles record about 40 attacks of Kazan Khans on Russian territories (the regions of [[Nizhniy Novgorod]], [[Murom]], [[Kirov, Kirov Oblast|Vyatka]], [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]], [[Kostroma]] and [[Galich, Russia|Galich]]) in the first half of the 16th century. In 1521, the combined forces of Khan [[Mehmed I Giray|Mehmed Giray]] and his Crimean allies attacked Russia, captured more than 150,000 slaves. ''The Full Collection of the Russian Annals'', vol. 13, SPb, 1904</ref> In the 1530s, the Crimean khan formed an offensive alliance with [[Safa Giray of Kazan]], his relative. When Safa Giray invaded Russia in December 1540, the Russians used [[Qasim Tatars]] to contain him. After his advance was stalled near Murom, Safa Giray was forced to withdraw to his own borders. |
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The reverses undermined Safa Giray's authority in Kazan. A pro-Russian party, represented by [[Shahgali]], gained enough popular support to make several attempts to take over the Kazan throne. In 1545, Ivan mounted an expedition to the [[River Volga]] to show his support for the pro-Russian party. |
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[[File:Siege of Kazan (Pyotr Korovin, 1890).jpeg|thumb|left|''Ivan IV under the walls of Kazan'' by Pyotr Korovin (1890)]] |
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In 1551, the tsar sent his envoy to the [[Nogai Horde]], and they promised to maintain neutrality during the impending war. The [[Ar begs]] and [[Udmurts]] submitted to Russian authority as well. In 1551, the wooden fort of [[Sviyazhsk]] was transported down the Volga from [[Uglich]] all the way to Kazan. It was used as the Russian [[place-of-arms]] during the decisive campaign of 1552. |
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On 16 June 1552, Ivan led a strong Russian army towards Kazan. The last siege of the Tatar capital commenced on 30 August. Under the supervision of Prince Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky, the Russians used battering rams, a siege tower, undermining, and 150 cannons. The Russians also had the advantage of efficient military engineers. The city's water supply was blocked and the walls were breached. Kazan finally fell on 2 October, its fortifications were razed and much of the population massacred. Many Russian prisoners and slaves were released. Ivan celebrated his victory over Kazan by building several churches with oriental features, most famously Saint Basil's Cathedral on [[Red Square]] in Moscow. The fall of Kazan was only the beginning of a series of so-called "[[Cheremis]] wars". The attempts of the Moscow government to gain a foothold on the Middle Volga kept provoking uprisings of local peoples, which was suppressed only with great difficulty. In 1557, the [[Kazan rebellion of 1552–1556|First Cheremis War]] ended, and the [[Bashkirs]] accepted Ivan's authority. |
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[[File:Crimean Khanate 1550.png|thumb|Khanates of Crimea, Astrakhan and Kazan in 1550, before Ivan's expansion into the Volga basin]] |
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In campaigns in 1554 and 1556, Russian troops conquered the [[Astrakhan Khanate]] at the mouths of the Volga River, and the new [[Astrakhan]] fortress was built in 1558 by [[Ivan Vyrodkov]] to replace the old Tatar capital. The annexation of the Tatar khanates meant the conquest of vast territories, access to large markets and control of the entire length of the Volga River. The subjugation of the Muslim khanates turned Russia into an empire.<ref>Janet Martin, ''Medieval Russia: 980–1584'', (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 396</ref> |
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After his conquest of Kazan, Ivan is said to have ordered the crescent, a symbol of Islam, to be placed underneath the [[Christian cross]] on the domes of Orthodox Christian churches.<ref name="Chaudet">{{cite journal|last=Chaudet|first=Didier|year=2009|title=When the Bear Confronts the Crescent: Russia and the Jihadist Issue|journal=China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly|publisher=Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program|volume=7|issue=2|pages=37–58|issn=1653-4212|quote=It would be convenient to characterize the relationship between Russia and Islam by its history of conquest and tension. After all, the emblem of the Orthodox Church is a cross on top on a crescent. It is said that this symbol was devised by Ivan the Terrible, after the conquest of the city of Kazan, as a symbol of the victory of Christianity over Islam through his soldiers.}}</ref><ref name="JSAMES1993">{{cite journal|year=1993|journal=Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies|volume=17|title=Russian Orthodox Church|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWxtAAAAMAAJ|quote=Finally, the Russians, under Ivan the Terrible, defeated the Tatars in 1552 and firmly established Russian rule. In celebration of this conquest, the czar built two churches in the Moscow Kremlin and on the spires of the Church installed the Orthodox Cross over an upside down crescent, the symbol of Islam.|access-date=20 May 2015|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxworld.ru/en/hram/1/index.htm|title=Church Building and Its Services|access-date=28 March 2014|quote=Sometimes the bottoms of the Crosses found on Russian churches will be adorned with a crescent. In 1486, Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible) conquered the city of Kazan which had been under the rule of Moslem Tatars, and in remembrance of this, he decreed that from henceforth the Islamic crescent be placed at the bottom of the Crosses to signify the victory of the Cross (Christianity) over the Crescent (Islam).|publisher=Orthodox World}}</ref> |
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===Russo-Turkish War=== |
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{{Main|Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570)}} |
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In 1568, Grand Vizier [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha]], who was the real power in the administration of the [[Ottoman Empire]] under [[Selim II|Sultan Selim]], initiated the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and its future northern rival. The results presaged the many disasters to come. A plan to unite the Volga and Don by a canal was detailed in Constantinople. In the summer of 1569, a large force under Kasim Pasha of 1,500 [[Janissaries]], 2,000 [[Sipahi]]s and a few thousand [[Azap]]s and [[Akıncıs]] were sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and to begin the canal works while an Ottoman fleet besieged [[Azov]]. |
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In early 1570, Ivan's ambassadors concluded a treaty at Constantinople that restored friendly relations between the sultan and the tsar.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Garvin |first1=James Louis |last2=Hooper |first2=Franklin Henry |last3=Cox |first3=Warren E. |title=The Encyclopedia Britannica |date=1929 |publisher=Encyclopedia britannica Company, Limited |page=307 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38J1JzYsy1oC |language=en}}</ref> The envoys were directed to tell to the sultan: "My Tsar is not an enemy of the Moslem faith. His servant Sain Bulat rules the Khanate of Kassimov; Prince Kaibula in Yuriev, Ibak in Suroshsk, and the Nogai Princes in Romanov.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prawdin |first1=Michael |title=The Mongol Empire: Its Rise and Legacy |date=29 September 2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-47929-5 |page=517 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_m5QDwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> |
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===Livonian War=== |
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{{Main|Livonian War}} |
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[[File:Ivan IV Ortelius 1574.JPG|thumb|''Ioannes Basilius Magnus Imperator Russiae, Dux Moscoviae'', by [[Abraham Ortelius]] (1574)]] |
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In 1558, Ivan launched the Livonian War in an attempt to gain access to the Baltic Sea and its major trade routes. The war ultimately proved unsuccessful and stretched on for 24 years, engaging the [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]], the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and the [[Teutonic Knights]] of Livonia. The prolonged war had nearly destroyed the economy, and the ''{{transliteration|ru|oprichnina}}'' had thoroughly disrupted the government. Meanwhile, the [[Union of Lublin]] had united the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]], and the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] acquired an energetic leader, [[Stephen Báthory]], who was supported by Russia's southern enemy, the Ottoman Empire. Ivan's realm was being squeezed by two of the time's great powers. |
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After rejecting peace proposals from his enemies, Ivan had found himself in a difficult position by 1579. The displaced refugees fleeing the war compounded the effects of the simultaneous drought, and the exacerbated war engendered epidemics causing much loss of life. |
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Báthory then launched a series of offensives against Muscovy in the campaign seasons of 1579–81 to try to cut the [[Kingdom of Livonia]] from Muscovy. During his first offensive in 1579, he retook [[Polotsk]] with 22,000 men. During the second, in 1580, he took [[Velikie Luki]] with a 29,000-strong force. Finally, he began the [[Siege of Pskov]] in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army. [[Narva]], in [[Estonia]], was reconquered by Sweden in 1581. |
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Unlike Sweden and Poland, [[Frederick II of Denmark]] had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy. He came to an agreement with [[John III of Sweden]] in 1580 to transfer the Danish titles of Livonia to John III. Muscovy recognised Polish–Lithuanian control of Livonia only in 1582. After [[Magnus von Lyffland]], the brother of Fredrick II and a former ally of Ivan, died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in the [[Duchy of Courland]], and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island of [[Saaremaa]], Denmark had left Livonia by 1585. |
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===Crimean raids=== |
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{{Main|Russo-Crimean Wars|Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe}} |
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[[File:Ivans ivory throne.jpg|thumb|Ivan's throne (ivory, metal, wood)]] |
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In the later years of Ivan's reign, the southern borders of Muscovy were disturbed by Crimean Tatars, mainly to capture slaves.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kizilov, Mikhail |author-link=Mikhail Kizilov |title=Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim and Jewish Sources |journal=Journal of Early Modern History |volume=11 |page=1 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2971600 |doi=10.1163/157006507780385125|year=2007 |issue=1–2 }} |
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</ref> (See also [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire]].) Khan [[Devlet I Giray]] of Crimea repeatedly raided the Moscow region. In 1571, the 40,000-strong Crimean and Turkish army launched a large-scale raid. The ongoing Livonian War left Moscow with a garrison of only 6,000 troops, which could not even delay the Tatar approach. Unresisted, Devlet devastated unprotected towns and villages around Moscow and caused the [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|Fire of Moscow]]. Historians have estimated the number of casualties of the fire to be 10,000 to 80,000. |
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To buy peace from Devlet Giray, Ivan was forced to relinquish his claims on Astrakhan for the Crimean Khanate, but the proposed transfer was only a diplomatic maneuver and was never actually completed. The defeat angered Ivan. Between 1571 and 1572, preparations were made upon his orders. In addition to [[Zasechnaya cherta]], innovative fortifications were set beyond the [[Oka River]], which defined the border. |
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The following year, Devlet launched another raid on Moscow, now with a numerous horde,<ref>120,000-strong, according to Russian cronicles // Новгородская вторая летопись. Год 7080(1572). ПСРЛ т. III, СПб, 1841</ref> reinforced by Turkish [[janissaries]] equipped with firearms and cannons. The Russian army, led by Prince [[Mikhail Vorotynsky]], was half the size but was experienced and supported by ''streltsy'', equipped with modern firearms and [[gulyay-gorod]]s. In addition, it was no longer divided into two parts (the {{transliteration|ru|oprichnina}} and {{transliteration|ru|zemsky}}), unlike during the 1571 defeat.{{sfn|Skrynnikov|2015|p=427}} On 27 July, the horde broke through the defensive line along the Oka River and moved towards Moscow. The Russian troops did not have time to intercept it, but the regiment of Prince Khvorostinin vigorously attacked the Tatars from the rear. The Khan stopped only 30 km from Moscow and brought down his entire army back on the Russians, who managed to take up defense near the [[Battle of Molodi|village of Molodi]]. After several days of heavy fighting, Mikhail Vorotynsky with the main part of the army flanked the Tatars and dealt a sudden blow on 2 August, and Khvorostinin made a [[sortie (siege warfare)|sortie]] from the fortifications. The Tatars were completely defeated and fled.{{sfn|Skrynnikov|2015|pp=417–21}} The next year, Ivan, who had sat out in distant Novgorod during the battle, killed Mikhail Vorotynsky.{{sfn|Skrynnikov|2015|pp=439–41}} |
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===Conquest of Siberia=== |
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{{Main|Russian conquest of Siberia}} |
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[[File:Growth of Russia 1547-1725.png|thumb|270px|[[Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)|Russian expansion]] into Siberia dates back to the 16th century, when Ivan granted the Stroganov family permission to conquer the [[Khanate of Sibir]]. Area conquered by Ivan IV in dark green.]] |
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During Ivan's reign, Russia started a large-scale exploration and colonization of [[Siberia]]. In 1555, shortly after the conquest of Kazan, the Siberian khan Yadegar and the [[Nogai Horde]], under Khan Ismail, pledged their allegiance to Ivan in the hope that he would help them against their opponents. However, Yadegar failed to gather the full sum of tribute that he proposed to the tsar and so Ivan did nothing to save his inefficient vassal. In 1563, Yadegar was overthrown and killed by [[Khan Kuchum]], who denied any tribute to Moscow. |
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In 1558, Ivan gave the [[Stroganov family|Stroganov merchant family]] the patent for colonising "the abundant region along the Kama River", and, in 1574, lands over the [[Ural Mountains]] along the rivers [[Tura River|Tura]] and [[Tobol]]. The family also received permission to build forts along the [[Ob River]] and the [[Irtysh River]]. Around 1577, the Stroganovs engaged the Cossack leader [[Yermak Timofeyevich]] to protect their lands from attacks of the Siberian [[Khan Kuchum]]. |
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In 1580, Yermak started his conquest of Siberia. With some 540 [[Cossacks]], he started to penetrate territories that were tributary to Kuchum. Yermak pressured and persuaded the various family-based tribes to change their loyalties and to become tributaries of Russia. Some agreed voluntarily because they were offered better terms than with Kuchum, but others were forced. He also established distant forts in the newly conquered lands. The campaign was successful, and the Cossacks managed to defeat the Siberian army in the [[Battle of Chuvash Cape]], but Yermak still needed reinforcements. He sent an envoy to Ivan the Terrible with a message that proclaimed Yermak-conquered Siberia to be part of Russia to the dismay of the Stroganovs, who had planned to keep Siberia for themselves. Ivan agreed to reinforce the Cossacks with his streltsy, but the detachment sent to Siberia died of starvation without any benefit. The Cossacks were defeated by the local peoples, Yermak died and the survivors immediately left Siberia. Only in 1586, two years after the death of Ivan, would the Russians manage to gain a foothold in Siberia by founding the city of [[Tyumen]]. |
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==Personal life== |
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===Marriages and children=== |
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[[File:Grigory Sedov - Ivan the Terrible admiring Vasilisa Melentieva.jpg|thumb|280px|Tsar Ivan IV admires his sixth wife [[Vasilisa Melentyeva]]. 1875 painting by [[Grigory Sedov]].]] |
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[[File:Iván el Terrible y su hijo, por Iliá Repin.jpg|thumb|280px|''[[Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan]]''. 1885 painting by [[Ilya Repin]]]] |
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Ivan the Terrible had at least six (possibly eight) wives, although only four of them were recognised by the Church. Three of them were allegedly poisoned by his enemies or by rival aristocratic families who wanted to promote their daughters to be his brides.<ref name=rbth>{{cite news |author=Manaev, G. |url= https://www.rbth.com/history/329825-madness-of-3-russian-tsars|title=The madness of 3 Russian tsars, and the truth behind it|newspaper = Russia Beyond |publisher = Russia Beyond the Headlines |date=7 January 2019|access-date=29 January 2020 |
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}}</ref> He also had nine children. |
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In 1580, his heir, [[Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich of Russia|Ivan Ivanovich]], married [[Yelena Sheremeteva]] from the [[Sheremetev]] noble family,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bushkovitch |first1=Paul |title=Succession to the Throne in Early Modern Russia: The Transfer of Power 1450–1725 |date=18 March 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-47934-9 |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pAEbEAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> which was a rare instance of the daughter of a boyar marrying into the dynasty.{{sfn|Martin|2012|p=158}} |
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On {{OldStyleDate|19 November|1581|9 November}}, Ivan chastised Yelena for being unsuitably dressed, considering her advanced pregnancy, leading to an altercation with his son Ivan Ivanovich.<ref name="Crummey"/> Historians generally believe that Ivan killed his son in a fit of rage,{{sfn|Perrie|Pavlov|2014|p=192}} with the argument ending after the elder Ivan fatally struck his son in the head with his pointed staff.<ref name=Zimin/> Yelena also suffered a miscarriage within hours of the incident.<ref name="Crummey">{{cite book |last1=Crummey |first1=Robert O. |title=The Formation of Muscovy 1300 - 1613 |date=6 June 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-87200-9 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMwFBAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> The event is depicted in the famous painting by [[Ilya Repin]], ''[[Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan]]''. |
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==== Confirmed marriages ==== |
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# [[Anastasia Romanovna]] (married 3 February 1547 – 7 August 1560; died):{{sfn|Martin|2012|p=160}} |
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#* Tsarevna Anna Ivanovna (10 August 1548{{spaced ndash}}20 July 1550) |
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#* Tsarevna Maria Ivanovna (17 March 1551{{spaced ndash}}young) |
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#* [[Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich of Russia (1552–1553)|Tsarevich Dmitri Ivanovich]] (October 1552{{spaced ndash}}26 June 1553) |
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#* [[Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich of Russia|Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich]] (28 March 1554{{spaced ndash}}19 November 1581) |
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#* Tsarevna Eudoxia Ivanovna (26 February 1556{{spaced ndash}}June 1558) |
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#* Tsar [[Feodor I of Russia]] (31 May 1557{{spaced ndash}}6 January 1598) |
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# [[Maria Temryukovna]] (married 21 August 1561 – 1 September 1569; died):{{sfn|Martin|2012|p=160}} |
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#* Tsarevich Vasili Ivanovich (21 March 1563{{spaced ndash}}3 May 1563) |
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# [[Marfa Sobakina]] (married 28 October 1571 – 13 November 1571; died){{sfn|Martin|2012|p=160}} |
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# [[Anna Koltovskaya]] (married 29 April 1572 – 31 May 1572; sent to monastery);{{sfn|Martin|2012|p=160}} this was the last of his church-authorized weddings and she was later canonized as Saint Daria.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ДАРИЯ|url=https://www.pravenc.ru/text/171388.html|access-date=20 August 2021|website=www.pravenc.ru}}</ref> |
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# [[Anna Vasilchikova]] (married between 7–30 January 1575 or September–October 1574; sent to monastery in August–September 1576) |
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# [[Maria Nagaya]] (6 September 1580; widow):{{sfn|Martin|2012|p=160}} |
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#* [[Dmitry of Uglich|Tsarevich Dmitri Ivanovich]] (19 October 1582{{spaced ndash}}15 May 1591); he was later [[Canonization|canonized]] as [[Saint]] [[Right-Believing]] [[Demetrius]] of [[Uglich]] and [[Moscow]], [[tsarevich]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Благоверный Дими́трий Угличский и Московский, царевич|url=https://azbyka.ru/days/sv-dimitrij-uglichskij-i-moskovskij|access-date=20 August 2021|website=azbyka.ru|language=ru}}</ref> |
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==== Unconfirmed marriages ==== |
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# [[Vasilisa Melentyeva]] (?–1579) (existence disputed) |
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# [[Maria Dolgorukaya]] (1580) (existence disputed) |
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According to historian [[Simon Sebag Montefiore]], Ivan also began an affair with the courtier [[Fyodor Basmanov]]. When the magnate Dmitri Oblensky Ovchinin sneered to Basmanov that "We serve the tsar in useful ways, you in your filthy sodomitical dealings,” Ivan scalded and stabbed him to death.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sebag Montefiore |first=Simon |title=The world: a family history of humanity |date=2023 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-525-65953-2 |location=New York}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=November 2024}} |
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===Arts=== |
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Ivan was a poet and a composer of considerable talent. His Orthodox liturgical hymn, "Stichiron No. 1 in Honor of St. Peter", and fragments of his letters were set to music by the Soviet composer [[Rodion Shchedrin]]. The recording, the first Soviet-produced CD, was released in 1988 to mark the millennium of Christianity in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Иван IV Грозный / Родион Константинович Щедрин – Стихиры (Первый отечественный компакт-диск)|url=http://www.intoclassics.net/news/2009-08-09-7942|work=intoclassics.net|date=9 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Kuzin|first=Viktor|title=Первый русский компакт-диск|url=http://www.rarity.ru/CONSALTING.htm|work=rarity.ru|access-date=20 August 2010|archive-date=23 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123125830/http://www.rarity.ru/CONSALTING.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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===Epistles=== |
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[[D. S. Mirsky]] called Ivan "a pamphleteer of genius".<ref>{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Pys__ZDJN6QC&pg=PA21 | title = A History of Russian Literature: From Its Beginnings to 1900 | isbn = 978-0810116795 |author1=Mirsky, D. S. |author2=Whitfield, Francis James | year = 1958| publisher = Northwestern University Press }}</ref> The letters are often the only existing source on Ivan's personality and provide crucial information on his reign, but Harvard professor Edward L. Keenan has argued that the letters are 17th-century forgeries. That contention, however, has not been widely accepted, and most other scholars, such as John Fennell and [[Ruslan Skrynnikov]], have continued to argue for their authenticity. Recent archival discoveries of 16th-century copies of the letters strengthen the argument for their authenticity.<ref>Keenan, Edward L. (1971) ''The Kurbskii-Groznyi Apocrypha: the 17th Century Genesis of the "Correspondence" Attributed to Prince A.M. Kurbskii and Tsar Ivan IV''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press</ref><ref>[[#Martin|Martin]], pp. 328–29.</ref> |
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==Religion== |
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[[File:Ivan Bilibin 131.jpg|thumb|''Death of Ivan the Terrible'' by [[Ivan Bilibin]] (1935)]] |
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Ivan was a devoted follower of Orthodox Christianity but in his own specific manner. He placed the most emphasis on defending the divine right of the ruler to unlimited power under God.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ivan IV {{!}} Tsar of Russia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ivan-the-Terrible|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=21 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Some scholars explain the sadistic and brutal deeds of Ivan the Terrible with the religious concepts of the 16th century,{{sfn|Perrie|Pavlov|2014}} which included drowning and roasting people alive or torturing victims with boiling or freezing water, corresponding to the torments of hell. That was consistent with Ivan's view of being God's representative on Earth with a sacred right and duty to punish. He may also have been inspired by the model of [[Archangel Michael]] with the idea of divine punishment.{{sfn|Perrie|Pavlov|2014}} |
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Ivan the Terrible is quoted stating: |
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<blockquote>I will not see the destruction of the Christian converts who are loyal to me, and to my last breath I will fight for the Orthodox faith.<ref name="y155">{{cite web | title=Ivan the Terrible: Biography, First Tsar of Russia | website=Biography | date=November 20, 2023 | url=https://www.biography.com/royalty/a45896491/ivan-the-terrible | access-date=July 24, 2024}}</ref></blockquote> |
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Despite the absolute prohibition of the Church for even the fourth marriage, Ivan had seven wives. Even while his seventh wife was alive, he was negotiating to marry [[Mary Hastings]], a distant relative of Queen [[Elizabeth I|Elizabeth of England]]. [[Polygamy]] was also prohibited by the Church. Still, Ivan planned to "put his wife away".{{sfn|Skrynnikov|2015|pp=423, 492–93}} Ivan freely interfered in church affairs by ousting [[Metropolitan Philip]] and ordering him to be killed and accusing of treason and deposing the second-oldest hierarch, [[Diocese of Novgorod|Novgorod Archbishop]] Pimen. Many monks were tortured to death during the [[Massacre of Novgorod]].{{sfn|Skrynnikov|2015|pp=350, 361–64}} |
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In the conquered Khanates of Khazan and Astrakhan, Ivan was somewhat tolerant of Islam. This was largely to avoid a conflict with the [[Ottoman sultan]] over control of newly conquered Tatar regions. He considered these conquests to be a Christian victory.{{cn|date=April 2024}} He was notable for his [[anti-Semitism]]. For example, after the capture of [[Polotsk]], all unconverted Jews were ordered to be drowned, despite their role in the city's economy.<ref name="Halperin2019">{{cite book|last=Halperin|first=Charles J. |title=Ivan the Terrible: Free to Reward and Free to Punish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gO-vDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT58|date=2019|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|isbn=978-0-8229-8722-2|page=58}}</ref> |
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==Death== |
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Ivan died from a stroke while he was playing chess with [[Bogdan Belsky]]<ref name="Waliszewski">{{cite book|last=Waliszewski|first=Kazimierz|author2=Mary Loyd|title=Ivan the Terrible|publisher=J.B. Lippincott|year=1904|location=Philadelphia|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ivanterrible00loydgoog/page/n398 377]–78|url=https://archive.org/details/ivanterrible00loydgoog}}</ref> on {{OldStyleDate|28 March|1584|18 March}}.<ref name=Waliszewski/> Upon Ivan's death, the Russian throne was left to his middle son, [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor]],<ref name="Zimin" /> a weak-minded figure.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fyodor-I|title=Fyodor I {{!}} tsar of Russia|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref> Feodor died childless in 1598, which ushered in the [[Time of Troubles]]. |
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==Appearance== |
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[[File:Lifetime portrait of Ivan the Terrible.jpg|thumb|The only authentic lifetime portrait of Ivan IV is embossed on the binding of the first printed [[Acts and Epistles of the Apostles|Apostle of 1564]].]] |
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Little is known about Ivan's appearance, as virtually all existing portraits were made after his death and contain uncertain amounts of [[artist's impression]].<ref name="Gerasimov">{{cite journal|url=http://liberea.gerodot.ru/a_quest/gerasimov01.htm|script-title=ru:Документальный портрет Ивана Грозного|author-link=Mikhail Mikhaylovich Gerasimov|author=Gerasimov, M.M.|journal=Краткие сообщения института археологии Академии наук СССР|year=1965|volume=100|pages=139–42|language=ru|access-date=21 November 2016|archive-date=4 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104085713/http://liberea.gerodot.ru/a_quest/gerasimov01.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1567, the ambassador Daniel Prinz von Buchau said about Ivan that: "He is very tall. His body is full of strength and quite thick, his large eyes, which constantly run around, observe everything carefully. His beard is red with a slight shade of black, quite long and thick, but like most Russians, he shaves his hair with a razor".<ref name=Zimin/> |
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According to [[:ru:Катырёв-Ростовский, Иван Михайлович|Ivan Katyryov-Rostovsky]], the son-in-law of [[Michael I of Russia]], Ivan had an unpleasant face with a long and crooked nose. He was tall and athletically built, with broad shoulders and a narrow waist.<ref name="Zimin">{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.portal-slovo.ru/rus/history/89/11372/ |chapter=Отечественные историки о государе Иване IV Грозном |script-title=ru:Россия времен Ивана Грозного |place=Moscow |year=1982 |author1=Zimin, A.A |author2=Khoroshkevich, A.L. |pages=147–51 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080320001845/http://www.portal-slovo.ru/rus/history/89/11372/ |archive-date=20 March 2008 |language=ru}}</ref> |
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In 1963, the graves of Ivan and his sons were excavated and examined by Soviet scientists. Chemical and structural analysis of his remains disproved earlier suggestions that Ivan suffered from [[syphilis]] or that he was poisoned by arsenic or strangled. At the time of his death, he was 178 cm tall (5 ft. 10 in.) and weighed 85–90 kg (187–198 lb.). His body was rather asymmetrical, had a large amount of [[osteophyte]]s uncharacteristic of his age and contained excessive concentration of mercury. Researchers concluded that Ivan was athletically built in his youth but, in his last years, had developed various bone diseases and could barely move. They attributed the high mercury content in his body to his use of ointments to heal his joints.<ref name=Gerasimov/> |
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==Title== |
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Ivan had the following title towards the end of his reign:{{sfn|Filyushkin|2006|p=207}} |
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{{Quotation| |
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The Great Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Prince Ivan Vasilyevich of all Russia, Vladimir, Moscow, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Sovereign of Pskov, Grand Prince of Smolensk, Tver, Yugorsk, Perm, Vyatka, Bolgar and others, Sovereign and Grand Prince of Novgorod of the Lower Land, Chernigov, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Livonia, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia and Master of all the Siberian Lands and Northern Countries.}} |
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Kazan was added to Ivan's title in 1553 and Astrakhan in 1554. The titles "tsar of Kazan, tsar of Astrakhan" first appeared in 1556. The title "master of all the Siberian lands" first appeared in 1555, and from 1582, was written as "master of all the Siberian lands and northern countries".{{efn|The "country" should be understood as [[Norrbotten County|Norrbotten]], which was added as a result of the [[Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)|Russo-Swedish War]] of 1554–1557.}} During the Livonian War, Livonia first appeared in his title in 1558. Polotsk was also included following its capture in 1562. Despite Russia's defeat in the Livonian War, the title of Livonia was not abandoned.{{sfn|Filyushkin|2006|pp=205–207}} |
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In English, Ivan's title of tsar was often translated as "emperor" from the first visit of [[Richard Chancellor]] to Moscow in 1553. For example: "We, greatest Ivan Vassilleviche by the Grace of God Emperor of all Russia and Great Duke". However, the title was not consistently translated as "emperor", such as in 1582: "The Great Lord, King and Great Duke John the sonne of Vasili of all Russia...".{{sfn|Filyushkin|2006|p=113}}{{efn|May 1582. Instructions of the Emb-ra of Russia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tolstoj |first1=Jurij V. |title=The First Forty Years of Intercourse Between England and Russia: 1553 - 1593. Documents Collected, Copied and Edited by George Tolstoy. [A. M. D. Tit.:] Pervyja Sorok Lět Snošenij Meždu Rossieju i Anglieju. 1553 - 1593. Gramoty Sobrannyja, Perepisannyja i Izdannyja Juriem Tolstym. (Umschlagtitel: Rossija i Anglija. 1553 - 1593. England and Russia) |date=1875 |page=190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iU9mAAAAcAAJ |language=ru}}</ref>}} |
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==Legacy== |
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[[File:Hw-ivan4.jpg|thumb|16th century German engraving of Ivan IV<ref>{{cite book |last1=Filjushkin |first1=Alexander |title=Ivan the Terrible: a military history |date=2008 |publisher=Frontline books |location=London |isbn=9781848325043 |page=5}}</ref>]] |
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[[File:Copecks and dengas of Ivan the Terrible (Russia).jpg|thumb|Coins of Ivan IV: [[kopeck]]s and [[denga]]s, in silver.]] |
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Ivan completely altered Russia's governmental structure, establishing the character of modern Russian political organisation.<ref>[[#Yanov|Yanov]], p. 31</ref> Ivan's creation of the ''oprichnina'', answerable only to him, afforded him personal protection and curtailed the traditional powers and rights of the boyars.<ref>[[#Yanov|Yanov]], p. 69.</ref> Henceforth, tsarist autocracy and despotism would lie at the heart of the Russian state.<ref>[[#Yanov|Yanov]], p. 68.</ref> Ivan bypassed the ''[[mestnichestvo]]'' system and offered positions of power to his supporters among the minor gentry.<ref>Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg (2011). "Russia at the Time of '''Ivan''' IV, 1533–1598" in ''A History of Russia'' 8th ed. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 151. {{ISBN|978-0195341973}}.</ref> The empire's local administration combined both locally and centrally appointed officials; the system proved durable and practical and sufficiently flexible to tolerate later modification.<ref name="Bogatyrev, Sergei 1584">[[#Bogatyrev|Bogatyrev]], p. 263.</ref> |
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Ivan's expedition against Poland failed at a military level, but it helped extend Russia's trade, political and cultural links with other European states. [[Peter the Great]] built on those connections in his bid to make Russia a major European power. At Ivan's death, the empire encompassed the Caspian to the southwest and Western Siberia to the east. His southern conquests ignited several conflicts with the expansionist Ottoman Empire, whose territories were thus confined to the [[Balkans]] and the [[Black Sea]] regions.<ref>Shrynnikov, Ruslan G. (1975) "Conclusion", p. 199 in ''Ivan the Formidable'', translated by Hugh F. Graham. Moscow: Academic International.</ref> |
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Ivan's management of Russia's economy proved disastrous, both in his lifetime and afterward. He had inherited a government in debt, and in an effort to raise more revenue for his expansionist wars, he instituted a series of increasingly-unpopular and burdensome taxes.<ref>[[#Martin|Martin]], p. 404.</ref> Successive wars drained Russia of manpower and resources and brought it "to the brink of ruin".<ref>[[#Martin|Martin]], p. 415.</ref> After Ivan's death, his empire's nearly-ruined economy contributed to the decline of his own Rurik dynasty, leading to the Time of Troubles. |
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== Posthumous reputation == |
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{{see also|Ivan the Terrible in Russian folklore|Category:Cultural depictions of Ivan the Terrible}} |
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[[File:Ivan grozny frame.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Ivan IV in the ''[[Tsarsky titulyarnik]]'', 1672]] |
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Ivan's notorious outbursts and autocratic whims helped characterise the position of tsar as one accountable to no earthly authority but only to God.<ref name="Bogatyrev, Sergei 1584" /> Tsarist absolutism faced few serious challenges until the 19th century. The earliest and most influential account of his reign prior to 1917 was by the historian [[Nikolay Karamzin]], who described Ivan as a 'tormentor' of his people, particularly from 1560, though even after that date Karamzin believed there was a mix of 'good' and 'evil' in his character. In 1922, the historian [[Robert Wipper]] wrote a biography that reassessed Ivan as a monarch "who loved the ordinary people" and praised his agrarian reforms.<ref>Maureen, Perrie (2001). ''The Cult of Ivan the Formidable in Stalin's Russia''. New York: Palgrava. pp. 6, 12-17</ref> |
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In the 1920s, [[Mikhail Pokrovsky]], who dominated the study of history in the Soviet Union, attributed the success of the ''oprichnina'' to their being on the side of the small state owners and townsfolk in a decades-long class struggle against the large landowners, and downgraded Ivan's role to that of the instrument of the emerging Russian bourgeoisie. But in February 1941, the poet [[Boris Pasternak]] observantly remarked in a letter to his cousin that "the new cult, openly proselytized, is Ivan the Terrible, the ''Oprichnina'', the brutality."<ref>{{cite book |last1=McSmith |first1=Andy |title=Fear and the Muse Kept Watch, The Russian Masters - from Akhmatova and Pasternak to Shostakovich and Eisenstein - Under Stalin |date=2015 |publisher=New Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-59558-056-6 |page=233}}</ref> [[Joseph Stalin]], who had read Wipper's biography, had decided that Soviet historians should praise the role of strong leaders, such as Ivan, [[Alexander Nevsky]] and Peter the Great, who had strengthened and expanded Russia.<ref>Perrie, Maureen (1987). ''The Image of Ivan the Formidable in Russian Folklore''. Cambridge, UK: Pitt Building.</ref> |
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A consequence was that the writer [[Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy|Alexei Tolstoy]] began work on a stage version of Ivan's life, and [[Sergei Eisenstein]] began what was to be a three-part film tribute to Ivan. Both projects were personally supervised by Stalin, at a time when the Soviet Union was engaged in a war with Nazi Germany. He read the scripts of Tolstoy's play and the first of Eisenstein's films in tandem after the [[Battle of Kursk]] in 1943, praised Eisenstein's version but rejected Tolstoy's. It took Tolstoy until 1944 to write a version that satisfied the dictator.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McSmith |title=Fear and the Muse |page=236}}</ref> Eisenstein's success with ''[[Ivan the Terrible (1944 film)|Ivan the Terrible Part 1]]'' was not repeated with the follow-up, ''The Boyar's Revolt'', which angered Stalin because it portrayed a man suffering pangs of conscience. Stalin told Eisenstein: "Ivan the Terrible was very cruel. You can show that he was cruel, but you have to show why it was essential to be cruel. One of Ivan the Terrible's mistakes was that he didn't finish off the five major families."<ref>{{cite book |last1=McSmith |title=Fear and the Muse |page=240}}</ref> The film was suppressed until 1958. |
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In post-Soviet Russia, a campaign has been run to seek the granting of [[sainthood]] to Ivan IV,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121021152642/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-317469.html "Russians Laud Ivan the Not So Formidable; Loose Coalition Presses Orthodox Church to Canonize the Notorious Czar"]. ''[[The Washington Post]]'', 10 November 2003.</ref> but the Russian Orthodox Church opposed the idea.<ref>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-6258666_ITM "Church says nyet to St. Rasputin"]. UPI NewsTrack. 4 October 2004</ref> |
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The first statue of Ivan the Terrible was officially open in [[Oryol]], Russia, in 2016. Formally, the statue was unveiled in honor of the 450th anniversary of the founding of Oryol, a Russian city of about 310,000 that was established as a fortress to defend Moscow's southern borders. Informally, there was a big political subtext. The opposition thinks that Ivan the Terrible's rehabilitation echoes Stalin's era. The erection of the statue was vastly covered in international media like ''The Guardian'',<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/14/russias-first-monument-to-ivan-the-terrible-inaugurated "Russia's first monument to Ivan the Terrible inaugurated"]. ''[[The Guardian]]'', 14 October 2016.</ref> ''The Washington Post'',<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/10/14/ivan-the-terrible-a-bloodthirsty-conquerer-gets-his-first-statue-in-russia/ "Russia just gave Ivan the Terrible his first statue ever"]. ''[[The Washington Post]]'', 14 October 2016.</ref> ''Politico'',<ref>[https://www.politico.eu/article/russia-falls-back-in-love-with-ivan-the-terrible-statue-monument-oryol// "Russia falls back in love with Ivan the Terrible"]. ''[[Politico]]'', 14 October 2016.</ref> and others. The Russian Orthodox Church officially supported the erection of the monument.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/02/russian-orthodox-church-head-backs-ivan-the-terrible-sculpture|title=Russian Orthodox church head backs Ivan the Terrible sculpture|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=2 August 2016}}</ref> |
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==Ancestry== |
==Ancestry== |
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<div style="background: #ccddcc; text-align: center; border: 1px solid #667766" class="NavHead">'''Ancestors of Ivan IV of Russia''' |
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|1= 1. '''Ivan IV of Russia''' |
|1= 1. '''Ivan IV of Russia''' |
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|2= 2. [[Vasili III of Russia]] |
|2= 2. [[Vasili III of Russia]] |
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|3= 3. [[Elena Glinskaya]] |
|3= 3. [[Elena Glinskaya]] |
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|4= 4. [[Ivan III of Russia]] |
|4= 4. [[Ivan III of Russia]] |
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|5= 5. [[Sophia |
|5= 5. [[Sophia Palaiologina]] |
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|6= 6. |
|6= 6. Vasili Lvovich Glinsky |
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|7= 7. |
|7= 7. [[Ana Jakšić]] |
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|8= 8. [[Vasily II of Moscow]] |
|8= 8. [[Vasily II of Moscow]] |
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|9= 9. [[Maria of Borovsk]] |
|9= 9. [[Maria of Borovsk]] |
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|10= 10. [[Thomas Palaiologos]] |
|10= 10. [[Thomas Palaiologos]] |
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|11= 11. [[Catherine Zaccaria]] |
|11= 11. [[Catherine Zaccaria]] |
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|12= 12. Lev Borisovich Glinsky |
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|14= 14. Stefan Iakshich |
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|13= 13. ? Esmanovna |
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|16= 16. [[Vasily I of Moscow]] |
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|14= 14. Stefan Jakšić |
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|17= 17. [[Maria Yaroslavna of Borovsk]] |
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|15= 15. Milica Belmužević |
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|20= 20. [[Manuel II Palaiologos]] |
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}} |
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|21= 21. [[Helena Dragaš]] |
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|22= 22. [[Centurione II Zaccaria]] |
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=== Patrilineal descent === |
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|23= 23. Creusa Tocco |
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{{chart top|text-align=left|Patrilineal descent}} |
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}}</center> |
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[[Patrilineal descent]] is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations – which means that if Ivan IV were to choose a historically accurate house name, it would be Rurikid, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house. |
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</div></div> |
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Ivan is a member of the [[Rurikids|Rurikid dynasty]]. Ivan's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son: |
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# [[Rurik]], Prince of Novgorod, {{died in|879}} |
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# [[Igor of Kiev|Igor]], Prince of Kiev, {{circa|877}}–945 |
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# [[Sviatoslav I]], Prince of Kiev, {{circa|943}}–972 |
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# [[Vladimir the Great|Vladimir]], Grand Prince of Kiev, {{circa|958}}–1015 |
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# [[Yaroslav the Wise|Yaroslav]], Grand Prince of Kiev, {{circa|978}}–1054 |
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# [[Vsevolod I of Kiev|Vsevolod I]], Grand Prince of Kiev, {{circa|1030}}–1093 |
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# [[Vladimir II Monomakh]], Grand Prince of Kiev, 1053–1125 |
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# [[Yuri Dolgorukiy]], Grand Prince of Kiev, 1099–1157 |
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# [[Vsevolod the Big Nest]], Grand Prince of Vladimir, 1154–1212 |
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# [[Yaroslav II of Vladimir|Yaroslav II]], Grand Prince of Vladimir, 1191–1246 |
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# [[Alexander Nevsky]], Grand Prince of Vladimir, 1221–1263 |
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# [[Daniel of Moscow|Daniel]], Prince of Moscow, 1261–1303 |
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# [[Ivan I of Moscow|Ivan I]], Grand Prince of Vladimir and Moscow, 1288–1341 |
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# [[Ivan II of Moscow|Ivan II]], Grand Prince of Vladimir and Moscow, 1326–1359 |
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# [[Dmitry Donskoy]], Grand Prince of Vladimir and Moscow, 1350–1389 |
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# [[Vasily I of Moscow|Vasily I]], Grand Prince of Vladimir and Moscow, 1371–1425 |
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# [[Vasily II of Moscow|Vasily II]], Grand Prince of Vladimir and Moscow, 1415–1462 |
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# [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]], Grand Prince of Moscow and all Russia, 1440–1505 |
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# [[Vasili III of Russia|Vasily III]], Grand Prince of Moscow and all Russia, 1479–1533 |
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# '''Ivan IV''', Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia, 1530–1584 |
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{{chart bottom}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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*[[ |
* [[Family tree of Russian monarchs]] |
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* [[ |
* [[Crisis of the late 16th century in Russia]] |
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* ''[[Ivan the Terrible (film)|Ivan the Terrible]]'' - the film by [[Sergei Eisenstein]]. |
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==Notes== |
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* ''[[Tsardom of Russia]]'' History of the Tsardom of Russia |
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{{notelist}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
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===Notes=== |
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{{reflist | 2}} |
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===Bibliography=== |
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{{Refbegin|30em}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Filyushkin |first1=A. I. |title=Титулы русских государей |date=2006 |publisher=Альянс-Архео |isbn=978-5-98874-011-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQtoAAAAMAAJ |language=ru}} |
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* {{Cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Russia |last=Bogatyrev, Sergei |publisher=Cambridge Histories Online |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-81227-6 |editor-last=Maureen Perrie |volume=1: From Early Rus' to 1689 |pages=240–63 |chapter=10. Ivan IV (1533–1584) |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521812276.011 |ref=Bogatyrev |chapter-url=http://histories.cambridge.org/extract?id=chol9780521812276_CHOL9780521812276A011 |access-date=7 December 2011 |archive-date=17 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917053106/http://histories.cambridge.org/extract?id=chol9780521812276_CHOL9780521812276A011 |url-status=dead }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Madariaga |first1=Isabel de |title=Ivan the Terrible |date=25 September 2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-11973-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC |language=en}} |
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* {{Cite book |title=Medieval Russia 980–1584 |last=Martin, Janet |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-85916-5 |edition=2nd |location=New York |chapter=Ivan IV the Terrible |ref=Martin |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9JHwVtL7qDcC&pg=PA407 }} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Russell E. |title=A Bride for the Tsar: Bride-Shows and Marriage Politics in Early Modern Russia |date=15 June 2012 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-5665-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vf7-DwAAQBAJ |language=en}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Perrie |first1=Maureen |last2=Pavlov |first2=Andrei |title=Ivan the Terrible |date=10 July 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89468-1 |page=192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mooABAAAQBAJ |language=en}} |
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* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HA423-LLsv4C |title=The Origins of Autocracy |last=Yanov, Alexander |publisher=University of California Press |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-520-04282-7 |location=Los Angeles |ref=Yanov }} |
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* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UP7dCgAAQBAJ |title=Reign of Terror: Ivan IV |last=Skrynnikov |first=Ruslan G. |date=2015 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-30401-7 |pages=439–41 }} |
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{{Refend}} |
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===General references=== |
===General references=== |
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{{Refbegin|30em}} |
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* Bobrick, Benson. ''Ivan the Terrible''. Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0-86241-288-9). |
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* Bobrick, Benson. ''Ivan the Terrible''. Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 1990 (hardcover, {{ISBN|0-86241-288-9}}). (Also published as ''Fearful Majesty'') |
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* [[Geoffrey Hosking|Hosking, Geoffrey]]. ''Russian and the Russian: A History''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-674-01114-7). |
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* |
* [[Geoffrey Hosking|Hosking, Geoffrey]]. ''Russia and the Russians: A History''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004 (paperback, {{ISBN|0-674-01114-7}}). |
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* [[Pierre Stephen Robert Payne|Payne, Robert]]; [[Prince Nikita Romanov|Romanoff, Nikita]]. ''Ivan the Terrible''. Lanham, |
* [[Pierre Stephen Robert Payne|Payne, Robert]]; [[Prince Nikita Romanov|Romanoff, Nikita]]. ''Ivan the Terrible''. Lanham, Maryland: Cooper Square Press, 2002 (paperback, {{ISBN|0-8154-1229-0}}). |
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* [[Henri Troyat|Troyat, Henri]]. ''Ivan the Terrible''. New York: Buccaneer Books, 1988 (hardcover, ISBN |
* [[Henri Troyat|Troyat, Henri]]. ''Ivan the Terrible''. New York: Buccaneer Books, 1988 (hardcover, {{ISBN|0-88029-207-5}}); London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1985 (hardback, {{ISBN|978-0-45006-119-6}}); London: Phoenix Press, 2001 (paperback, {{ISBN|1-84212-419-6}}). |
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*''Ivan IV'', World Book Inc, 2000. World Book Encyclopedia. <!-- a pretty anemic reference --> |
* ''Ivan IV'', World Book Inc, 2000. World Book Encyclopedia. <!-- a pretty anemic reference --> |
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{{Refend}} |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
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{{See also|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)}} |
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* Cherniavsky, Michael. "Ivan the Terrible as Renaissance Prince", ''[[Slavic Review]]'', Vol. 27, No. 2. (Jun., 1968), pp. 195–211. |
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* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Ivan | volume= 15 |last= Bain |first= Robert Nisbet |author-link= Robert Nisbet Bain| pages = 87–91;see page 89 }} |
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* Cherniavsky, Michael. "Ivan the Terrible as Renaissance Prince", ''[[Slavic Review]]'', Vol. 27, No. 2. (Jun. 1968), pp. 195–211. |
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* Hunt, Priscilla. "Ivan IV's Personal Mythology of Kingship", ''[[Slavic Review]]'', Vol. 52, No. 4. (Winter, 1993), pp. 769–809. |
* Hunt, Priscilla. "Ivan IV's Personal Mythology of Kingship", ''[[Slavic Review]]'', Vol. 52, No. 4. (Winter, 1993), pp. 769–809. |
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* Menken, Jules. "Ivan the Terrible." ''History Today'' (Mar 1953) 3#3, Vol. 3 Issue 3, pp. 167–73. |
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* Perrie, Maureen. ''The Image of Ivan the Terrible in Russian Folklore (Cambridge Studies in Oral and Literate Culture; 14)''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-33075-0); 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0-521-89100-0). |
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* Perrie, Maureen. ''The |
* Perrie, Maureen. ''The Image of Ivan the Terrible in Russian Folklore'' (Cambridge University Press, 1987; {{ISBN|0-521-33075-0|0-521-89100-0}}). |
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* Perrie, Maureen |
* Perrie, Maureen. ''The Cult of Ivan the Terrible in Stalin's Russia''. (New York: Palgrave, 2001 {{ISBN|0-333-65684-9}}). |
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* Platt, Kevin M.F.; Brandenberger, David. "Terribly Romantic, Terribly Progressive, or Terribly Tragic: Rehabilitating Ivan IV under I.V. Stalin", ''[[Russian Review]]'', Vol. 58, No. 4. (Oct. |
* Platt, Kevin M.F.; Brandenberger, David. "Terribly Romantic, Terribly Progressive, or Terribly Tragic: Rehabilitating Ivan IV under I.V. Stalin", ''[[Russian Review]]'', Vol. 58, No. 4. (Oct. 1999), pp. 635–54. |
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* Isolde Thyrêt, "The Royal Women of Ivan IV's Family and the Meaning of Forced Tonsure," in Anne Walthall (ed), ''Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History'' (Berkeley, Univ. California Press, 2008), 159–71. |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{sister project links}} |
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{{Commons|Ivan IV}} |
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{{Commons|Ivan IV of Russia}} |
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*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~monarchs/madmon.htm "Mad Monarchs" - Ivan IV] |
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*[http://textplay.net/pages/0003.htm The throne of Ivan the Terrible] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080302130527/http://textplay.net/pages/0003.htm The throne of Ivan the Terrible] |
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*[http://textplay.net/pages/0004.htm The holy gospel of Ivan the Terrible] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080302130537/http://textplay.net/pages/0004.htm The holy gospel of Ivan the Terrible] |
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*[http://www. |
* [http://www.awesomestories.com/biographies/ivan-terrible Ivan the Terrible with videos, images and translations from the Russian Archives and State Museums] |
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* {{ws|[[s:Ivan the Czar|Ivan the Czar]]}}, versions of a poem by [[Felicia Hemans]]. |
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*[http://kp.ru/photo/gallery/3306/?showall=1 new film] |
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*[http://www.awesomestories.com/biographies/ivan-terrible Ivan the Terrible with videos, images and translations from the Russian Archives and State Museums] |
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|NAME=Ivan IV Vasilyevich |
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ivan the Terrible |
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Tsar of Russia |
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|DATE OF DEATH=March 18, 1584 |
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Latest revision as of 07:10, 21 December 2024
Ivan IV Иван IV | |||||
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Tsar of all Russia | |||||
Reign | 26 January 1547 – 28 March 1584[a] | ||||
Coronation | 26 January 1547[b] | ||||
Predecessor | Himself as Grand Prince of all Russia | ||||
Successor | Feodor I | ||||
Grand Prince of Moscow and all Russia | |||||
Reign | 13 December 1533 – 26 January 1547[c] | ||||
Predecessor | Vasili III | ||||
Successor | Himself as Tsar of all Russia | ||||
Regent | Elena Glinskaya (1533–1538) | ||||
Born | 25 August [O.S. 15 August] 1530 Kolomenskoye, Grand Duchy of Moscow | ||||
Died | 28 March [O.S. 18 March] 1584 (aged 53) Moscow, Tsardom of Russia | ||||
Burial | Cathedral of the Archangel, Moscow | ||||
Spouses | |||||
Issue Detail | |||||
| |||||
Dynasty | Rurik | ||||
Father | Vasili III of Russia | ||||
Mother | Elena Glinskaya | ||||
Religion | Russian Orthodox |
Ivan IV Vasilyevich (Russian: Иван IV Васильевич;[d] 25 August 1530 – 28 March [O.S. 18 March] 1584), commonly known as Ivan the Terrible,[e] was Grand Prince of Moscow and all Russia from 1533 to 1547, and the first Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia from 1547 until his death in 1584.[3] Ivan's reign was characterised by Russia's transformation from a medieval state to a fledgling empire, but at an immense cost to its people and long-term economy.
Ivan IV was the eldest son of Vasili III by his second wife Elena Glinskaya, and a grandson of Ivan III. He succeeded his father after his death, when he was three years old. A group of reformers united around the young Ivan, crowning him as tsar in 1547 at the age of 16. In the early years of his reign, Ivan ruled with the group of reformers known as the Chosen Council and established the Zemsky Sobor, a new assembly convened by the tsar. He also revised the legal code and introduced reforms, including elements of local self-government, as well as establishing the first Russian standing army, the streltsy. Ivan conquered the khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan, and significantly expanded the territory of Russia.
After he had consolidated his power, Ivan rid himself of the advisers from the Chosen Council and triggered the Livonian War of 1558 to 1583, which ravaged Russia and resulted in failure to take control over Livonia and the loss of Ingria, but allowed him to establish greater autocratic control over the Russian nobility, which he violently purged using Russia's first political police, the oprichniki. The later years of Ivan's reign were marked by the massacre of Novgorod by the oprichniki and the burning of Moscow by the Tatars. Ivan also pursued cultural improvements, such as importing the first printing press to Russia, and began several processes that would continue for centuries, including deepening connections with other European states, particularly England, fighting wars against the Ottoman Empire, and the conquest of Siberia.
Contemporary sources present disparate accounts of Ivan's complex personality. He was described as intelligent and devout, but also prone to paranoia, rage, and episodic outbreaks of mental instability that worsened with age.[4][5][6] Historians generally believe that in a fit of anger, he murdered his eldest son and heir, Ivan Ivanovich;[7] he might also have caused the miscarriage of the latter's unborn child. This left his younger son, the politically ineffectual Feodor Ivanovich, to inherit the throne, a man whose rule and subsequent childless death led directly to the end of the Rurik dynasty and the beginning of the Time of Troubles.
Nickname
[edit]The English word terrible is usually used to translate the Russian word grozny (грозный) in Ivan's epithet, but this is a somewhat archaic translation. The Russian word grozny reflects the older English usage of terrible as in "inspiring fear or terror; dangerous; powerful" (i.e., similar to modern English terrifying or formidable). It does not convey the more modern connotations of English terrible such as "defective" or "evil".[8] According to Edward L. Keenan, Ivan the Terrible's image in popular culture as a tyrant came from politicised Western travel literature of the Renaissance era.[9] Anti-Russian propaganda during the Livonian War portrayed Ivan as a sadistic and oriental despot.[3] Vladimir Dal defines grozny specifically in archaic usage and as an epithet for tsars: "courageous, magnificent, magisterial and keeping enemies in fear, but people in obedience".[10] Other translations have also been suggested by modern scholars, including formidable,[11][12][13] as well as awe-inspiring.[3]
Early life
[edit]Ivan Vasilyevich was the first son of Vasili III by his second wife, Elena Glinskaya. Vasili's mother, Sophia Palaiologina, was a Byzantine princess of the Palaiologos family. She was a daughter of Thomas Palaiologos, the younger brother of the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos (r. 1449–1453).[14] Elena's mother was a Serbian princess and her father's family, the Tatar[15] Glinski clan (nobles based in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania), claimed descent both from Orthodox Hungarian nobles and the Mongol ruler Mamai (1335–1380).[16][17][18] Born on 25 August, he received the name Ivan in honor of St. John the Baptist, the day of whose beheading falls on 29 August.[19] In some texts of that era, it is also occasionally mentioned with the names Titus and Smaragd, in accordance with the tradition of polyonymy among the Rurikids. He was baptized in the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius by Abbot Joasaph (Skripitsyn) and two elders of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery were elected as recipients—the monk Cassian Bossoy and the hegumen Daniel. Tradition says that in honor of the birth of Ivan, the Church of the Ascension was built in Kolomenskoye.
When Ivan was three years old, his father died from an abscess and inflammation on his leg that developed into blood poisoning. The closest contenders to the throne, except for the young Ivan, were the younger brothers of Vasily. Of the six sons of Ivan III, only two remained: Andrey and Yuri. Ivan was proclaimed the grand prince at the request of his father. His mother Elena Glinskaya initially acted as regent, but died in 1538,[20][21] when Ivan was eight years old; many believe that she was poisoned. The regency then alternated between several feuding boyar families that fought for control. According to his own letters, Ivan, along with his younger brother Yuri, often felt neglected and offended by the mighty boyars from the Shuisky and Belsky families. In a letter to Andrey Kurbsky, Ivan remembered, "My brother Iurii, of blessed memory, and me they brought up like vagrants and children of the poorest. What have I suffered for want of garments and food!"[22] That account has been challenged by the historian Edward Keenan, who doubts the authenticity of the source in which the quotations are found.[23]
On 16 January 1547, at the age of 16, Ivan was crowned at the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin. The metropolitan placed on Ivan the signs of royal dignity: the Cross of the Life-Giving Tree, barmas, and the cap of Monomakh; Ivan Vasilyevich was anointed with myrrh, and then the metropolitan blessed the tsar. He was the first Russian monarch to be crowned the tsar of all Russia, partly imitating his grandfather, Ivan III. Until then, the rulers of Moscow were crowned as grand princes, but Ivan III assumed the title of sovereign of all Russia and used the title of tsar in his correspondence with other monarchs.[24] Two weeks after his coronation, Ivan married his first wife, Anastasia Romanovna, a member of the Romanov family, who became the first Russian tsaritsa.
By being crowned tsar, Ivan was sending a message to the world and to Russia that he was now the only supreme ruler of the country, and his will was not to be questioned. According to historian Janet Martin, the new title "symbolized an assumption of powers equivalent and parallel to those held by the former Byzantine caesar and the Tatar khan, both known in Russian sources as tsar. The political effect was to elevate Ivan's position".[25] The new title not only secured the throne but also granted Ivan a new dimension of power that was intimately tied to religion. He was now a "divine" leader appointed to enact God's will, as "church texts described Old Testament kings as 'Tsars' and Christ as the Heavenly Tsar".[26] The newly appointed title was then passed on from generation to generation, and "succeeding Muscovite rulers... benefited from the divine nature of the power of the Russian monarch... crystallized during Ivan's reign".[27]
Like the Habsburgs and other monarchs in Europe, the first Russian tsars adopted mythological genealogies that connected them to Ancient Rome. In The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir, their lineage is traced to Rurik, the first prince of Novgorod in northern Russia, while a certain Prus, an alleged brother of Augustus who ruled what would become Prussia, is mentioned as a direct ancestor of Rurik.[28] Ivan IV often mentioned his apparent kinship with Augustus, claiming not to be a "Russe" and highlighting his "German" descent from Rurik.[28] Such genealogies served to elevate the position of the Russian monarch in the eyes of his subjects and other European powers, who were also creating mythological ancestors for themselves.[29]
Domestic policy
[edit]Despite calamities triggered by the Great Fire of 1547, the early part of Ivan's reign was one of peaceful reforms and modernization. Ivan revised the law code, creating the Sudebnik of 1550, founded a standing army (the streltsy),[30] established the Zemsky Sobor (the first Russian parliament of feudal estates) and the council of the nobles (known as the Chosen Council) and confirmed the position of the Church with the Council of the Hundred Chapters (Stoglavy Synod), which unified the rituals and ecclesiastical regulations of the whole country. He introduced local self-government to rural regions, mainly in northeastern Russia, populated by the state peasantry.
In 1553 Ivan suffered a near-fatal illness and was thought not able to recover. While on his presumed deathbed Ivan had asked the boyars to swear an oath of allegiance to his eldest son, an infant at the time. Many boyars refused since they deemed the tsar's health too hopeless for him to survive. This angered Ivan and added to his distrust of the boyars. There followed brutal reprisals and assassinations, including those of Metropolitan Philip and Prince Alexander Gorbatyi-Shuisky.[31]
Ivan ordered in 1553 the establishment of the Moscow Print Yard, and the first printing press was introduced to Russia. Several religious books in Russian were printed during the 1550s and 1560s. The new technology provoked discontent among traditional scribes, which led to the Print Yard being burned in an arson attack. The first Russian printers, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets, were forced to flee from Moscow to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Nevertheless, the printing of books resumed from 1568 onwards, with Andronik Timofeevich Nevezha and his son Ivan now heading the Print Yard.
Ivan had Saint Basil's Cathedral constructed in Moscow to commemorate the seizure of Kazan. There is a legend that he was so impressed with the structure that he had the architect, Postnik Yakovlev, blinded so that he could never design anything as beautiful again. However, in reality Postnik Yakovlev went on to design more churches for Ivan and the walls of the Kazan Kremlin in the early 1560s as well as the chapel over Saint Basil's grave, which was added to Saint Basil's Cathedral in 1588, several years after Ivan's death. Although more than one architect was associated with that name, it is believed that the principal architect is the same person.[32][33][34]
Other events of the period include the introduction of the first laws restricting the mobility of the peasants, which would eventually lead to serfdom and were instituted during the rule of the future Tsar Boris Godunov in 1597.[35] (See also Serfdom in Russia.)
The combination of bad harvests, devastation brought by the oprichnina and Tatar raids, the prolonged war and overpopulation caused a severe social and economic crisis in the second half of Ivan's reign.
Oprichnina
[edit]The 1560s brought to Russia hardships that led to a dramatic change in Ivan's policies. Russia was devastated by a combination of drought, famine, unsuccessful wars against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Tatar invasions and the sea-trading blockade carried out by the Swedes, the Poles and the Hanseatic League. His first wife, Anastasia Romanovna, died in 1560, which was suspected to be a poisoning. The personal tragedy deeply hurt Ivan and is thought to have affected his personality, if not his mental health. At the same time one of Ivan's advisors, Prince Andrey Kurbsky, defected to the Lithuanians, took command of the Lithuanian troops and devastated the Russian region of Velikiye Luki. This series of treacherous acts made Ivan paranoically suspicious of nobility.
On 3 December 1564 Ivan left Moscow for Aleksandrova Sloboda, where he sent two letters in which he announced his abdication because of the alleged embezzlement and treason of the aristocracy and the clergy. The boyar court was unable to rule in Ivan's absence and feared the wrath of the Muscovite citizens. A boyar envoy departed for Aleksandrova Sloboda to beg Ivan to return to the throne.[36][37] Ivan agreed to return on condition of being granted absolute power. He demanded the right to condemn and execute traitors and confiscate their estates without interference from the boyar council or church. Ivan decreed the creation of the oprichnina.[38]
The oprichnina was a separate territory within the borders of Russia, mostly in the territory of the former Novgorod Republic in the north. Ivan held exclusive power over the territory. The Boyar Council ruled the zemshchina ('land'), the second division of the state. Ivan also recruited a personal guard known as the oprichniki. Originally, it numbered 1000.[37][39] The oprichniki were headed by Malyuta Skuratov. One known oprichnik was the German adventurer Heinrich von Staden. The oprichniki enjoyed social and economic privileges under the oprichnina. They owed their allegiance and status to Ivan, not heredity or local bonds.[37]
The first wave of persecutions targeted primarily the princely clans of Russia, notably the influential families of Suzdal. Ivan executed, exiled or forcibly tonsured prominent members of the boyar clans on questionable accusations of conspiracy. Among those who were executed were the Metropolitan Philip and the prominent warlord Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky. In 1566 Ivan extended the oprichnina to eight central districts. Of the 12,000 nobles, 570 became oprichniki and the rest were expelled.[40][f]
Under the new political system the oprichniki were given large estates but, unlike the previous landlords, could not be held accountable for their actions. The men "took virtually all the peasants possessed, forcing them to pay 'in one year as much as [they] used to pay in ten.'"[41] This degree of oppression resulted in increasing cases of peasants fleeing, which in turn reduced overall production. The price of grain increased ten-fold.
Ivan was repentant after the death of his son and his actions with the oprichnina, and afterwards, he sent out lists compiling the deaths of his Christian victims killed by the system and asked monasteries to pray for every known one.[42][better source needed]
Sack of Novgorod
[edit]Conditions under the oprichnina were worsened by the 1570 epidemic, a plague that killed 10,000 people in Novgorod and 600 to 1,000 daily in Moscow. During the grim conditions of the epidemic, a famine and the ongoing Livonian War, Ivan grew suspicious that noblemen of the wealthy city of Novgorod were planning to defect and to place the city under the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A Novgorod citizen, Petr Volynets, warned the tsar about the alleged conspiracy, which modern historians believe not to have been real. In 1570 Ivan ordered the oprichniki to raid the city. The oprichniki burned and pillaged Novgorod and the surrounding villages and the city has never regained its former prominence.[43]
Casualty figures vary greatly from different sources. The First Pskov Chronicle estimates the number of victims at 60,000.[43][44][45] According to the Third Novgorod Chronicle, the massacre lasted for five weeks. The massacre of Novgorod consisted of men, women and children who were tied to sleighs and run into the freezing waters of the Volkhov River, which Ivan ordered on the basis of unproved accusations of treason. He then tortured its inhabitants and killed thousands in a pogrom. The archbishop was also hunted to death. Almost every day, 500 or 600 people were killed, some by drowning, but the official death toll named 1,500 of Novgorod's "big" people (nobility) and mentioned only about the same number of "smaller" people.[citation needed] Many modern researchers estimate the number of victims to range from 2,000 to 3,000 since after the famine and epidemics of the 1560s the population of Novgorod most likely did not exceed 10,000–20,000.[46] Many survivors were deported.
The oprichnina did not live long after the sack of Novgorod. During the 1571–72 Russo-Crimean War the oprichniki failed to prove themselves worthy against a regular army. In 1572, Ivan abolished the oprichnina and disbanded his oprichniki.
Appointment of Simeon Bekbulatovich
[edit]In September or October 1575,[47] Ivan proclaimed Simeon Bekbulatovich, his statesman of Tatar origin, the new grand prince of all Russia.[48] Simeon reigned as a figurehead leader for about a year. According to the English envoy Giles Fletcher the Elder, Simeon acted on Ivan's instructions to confiscate all of the lands that belonged to monasteries, and Ivan pretended to disagree with the decision. When the throne was returned to Ivan in September 1576[47] he returned some of the confiscated land and kept the rest.
Foreign policy
[edit]Diplomacy and trade
[edit]In 1547, Hans Schlitte, the agent of Ivan, recruited craftsmen in Germany for work in Russia. However, all of the craftsmen were arrested in Lübeck at the request of Poland and Livonia. The German merchant companies ignored the new port built by Ivan on the River Narva in 1550 and continued to deliver goods in the Baltic ports owned by Livonia. Russia remained isolated from sea trade.
Ivan established close ties with the Kingdom of England. Russian–English relations can be traced to 1551, when the Muscovy Company was formed by Richard Chancellor, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Hugh Willoughby and several London merchants. In 1553, Chancellor sailed to the White Sea and continued overland to Moscow, where he visited Ivan's court. Ivan opened up the White Sea and the port of Arkhangelsk to the company and granted it privilege of trading throughout his reign without paying the standard customs fees.[49]
With the use of English merchants, Ivan engaged in a long correspondence with Elizabeth I of England. While the queen focused on commerce, Ivan was more interested in a military alliance.[50] Ivan even proposed to her once, and during his troubled relations with the boyars, he even asked her for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England if his rule was jeopardised.[51] Elizabeth agreed on the condition that he provide for himself during his potential stay.[52]
Ivan corresponded with overseas Orthodox leaders. In response to a letter of Patriarch Joachim of Alexandria asking him for financial assistance for the Saint Catherine's Monastery, in the Sinai Peninsula, which had suffered by the Turks, Ivan sent in 1558 a delegation to Egypt Eyalet by Archdeacon Gennady, who, however, died in Constantinople before he could reach Egypt. From then on, the embassy was headed by Smolensk merchant Vasily Poznyakov, whose delegation visited Alexandria, Cairo and Sinai; brought the patriarch a fur coat and an icon sent by Ivan and left an interesting account of his two-and-a-half years of travels.[53]
Ivan was the first ruler to begin cooperating with the free cossacks on a large scale. Relations were handled through the Posolsky Prikaz diplomatic department; Moscow sent them money and weapons, while tolerating their freedoms, to draw them into an alliance against the Tatars. The first evidence of cooperation surfaces in 1549 when Ivan ordered the Don Cossacks to attack Crimea.[54]
Conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan
[edit]This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2021) |
While Ivan was a child, armies of the Kazan Khanate repeatedly raided northeastern Russia.[55] In the 1530s, the Crimean khan formed an offensive alliance with Safa Giray of Kazan, his relative. When Safa Giray invaded Russia in December 1540, the Russians used Qasim Tatars to contain him. After his advance was stalled near Murom, Safa Giray was forced to withdraw to his own borders.
The reverses undermined Safa Giray's authority in Kazan. A pro-Russian party, represented by Shahgali, gained enough popular support to make several attempts to take over the Kazan throne. In 1545, Ivan mounted an expedition to the River Volga to show his support for the pro-Russian party.
In 1551, the tsar sent his envoy to the Nogai Horde, and they promised to maintain neutrality during the impending war. The Ar begs and Udmurts submitted to Russian authority as well. In 1551, the wooden fort of Sviyazhsk was transported down the Volga from Uglich all the way to Kazan. It was used as the Russian place-of-arms during the decisive campaign of 1552.
On 16 June 1552, Ivan led a strong Russian army towards Kazan. The last siege of the Tatar capital commenced on 30 August. Under the supervision of Prince Alexander Gorbaty-Shuisky, the Russians used battering rams, a siege tower, undermining, and 150 cannons. The Russians also had the advantage of efficient military engineers. The city's water supply was blocked and the walls were breached. Kazan finally fell on 2 October, its fortifications were razed and much of the population massacred. Many Russian prisoners and slaves were released. Ivan celebrated his victory over Kazan by building several churches with oriental features, most famously Saint Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow. The fall of Kazan was only the beginning of a series of so-called "Cheremis wars". The attempts of the Moscow government to gain a foothold on the Middle Volga kept provoking uprisings of local peoples, which was suppressed only with great difficulty. In 1557, the First Cheremis War ended, and the Bashkirs accepted Ivan's authority.
In campaigns in 1554 and 1556, Russian troops conquered the Astrakhan Khanate at the mouths of the Volga River, and the new Astrakhan fortress was built in 1558 by Ivan Vyrodkov to replace the old Tatar capital. The annexation of the Tatar khanates meant the conquest of vast territories, access to large markets and control of the entire length of the Volga River. The subjugation of the Muslim khanates turned Russia into an empire.[56]
After his conquest of Kazan, Ivan is said to have ordered the crescent, a symbol of Islam, to be placed underneath the Christian cross on the domes of Orthodox Christian churches.[57][58][59]
Russo-Turkish War
[edit]In 1568, Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, who was the real power in the administration of the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim, initiated the first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and its future northern rival. The results presaged the many disasters to come. A plan to unite the Volga and Don by a canal was detailed in Constantinople. In the summer of 1569, a large force under Kasim Pasha of 1,500 Janissaries, 2,000 Sipahis and a few thousand Azaps and Akıncıs were sent to lay siege to Astrakhan and to begin the canal works while an Ottoman fleet besieged Azov.
In early 1570, Ivan's ambassadors concluded a treaty at Constantinople that restored friendly relations between the sultan and the tsar.[60] The envoys were directed to tell to the sultan: "My Tsar is not an enemy of the Moslem faith. His servant Sain Bulat rules the Khanate of Kassimov; Prince Kaibula in Yuriev, Ibak in Suroshsk, and the Nogai Princes in Romanov.”[61]
Livonian War
[edit]In 1558, Ivan launched the Livonian War in an attempt to gain access to the Baltic Sea and its major trade routes. The war ultimately proved unsuccessful and stretched on for 24 years, engaging the Kingdom of Sweden, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Teutonic Knights of Livonia. The prolonged war had nearly destroyed the economy, and the oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government. Meanwhile, the Union of Lublin had united the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth acquired an energetic leader, Stephen Báthory, who was supported by Russia's southern enemy, the Ottoman Empire. Ivan's realm was being squeezed by two of the time's great powers.
After rejecting peace proposals from his enemies, Ivan had found himself in a difficult position by 1579. The displaced refugees fleeing the war compounded the effects of the simultaneous drought, and the exacerbated war engendered epidemics causing much loss of life.
Báthory then launched a series of offensives against Muscovy in the campaign seasons of 1579–81 to try to cut the Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovy. During his first offensive in 1579, he retook Polotsk with 22,000 men. During the second, in 1580, he took Velikie Luki with a 29,000-strong force. Finally, he began the Siege of Pskov in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army. Narva, in Estonia, was reconquered by Sweden in 1581.
Unlike Sweden and Poland, Frederick II of Denmark had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy. He came to an agreement with John III of Sweden in 1580 to transfer the Danish titles of Livonia to John III. Muscovy recognised Polish–Lithuanian control of Livonia only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland, the brother of Fredrick II and a former ally of Ivan, died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in the Duchy of Courland, and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island of Saaremaa, Denmark had left Livonia by 1585.
Crimean raids
[edit]In the later years of Ivan's reign, the southern borders of Muscovy were disturbed by Crimean Tatars, mainly to capture slaves.[62] (See also Slavery in the Ottoman Empire.) Khan Devlet I Giray of Crimea repeatedly raided the Moscow region. In 1571, the 40,000-strong Crimean and Turkish army launched a large-scale raid. The ongoing Livonian War left Moscow with a garrison of only 6,000 troops, which could not even delay the Tatar approach. Unresisted, Devlet devastated unprotected towns and villages around Moscow and caused the Fire of Moscow. Historians have estimated the number of casualties of the fire to be 10,000 to 80,000.
To buy peace from Devlet Giray, Ivan was forced to relinquish his claims on Astrakhan for the Crimean Khanate, but the proposed transfer was only a diplomatic maneuver and was never actually completed. The defeat angered Ivan. Between 1571 and 1572, preparations were made upon his orders. In addition to Zasechnaya cherta, innovative fortifications were set beyond the Oka River, which defined the border.
The following year, Devlet launched another raid on Moscow, now with a numerous horde,[63] reinforced by Turkish janissaries equipped with firearms and cannons. The Russian army, led by Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, was half the size but was experienced and supported by streltsy, equipped with modern firearms and gulyay-gorods. In addition, it was no longer divided into two parts (the oprichnina and zemsky), unlike during the 1571 defeat.[64] On 27 July, the horde broke through the defensive line along the Oka River and moved towards Moscow. The Russian troops did not have time to intercept it, but the regiment of Prince Khvorostinin vigorously attacked the Tatars from the rear. The Khan stopped only 30 km from Moscow and brought down his entire army back on the Russians, who managed to take up defense near the village of Molodi. After several days of heavy fighting, Mikhail Vorotynsky with the main part of the army flanked the Tatars and dealt a sudden blow on 2 August, and Khvorostinin made a sortie from the fortifications. The Tatars were completely defeated and fled.[65] The next year, Ivan, who had sat out in distant Novgorod during the battle, killed Mikhail Vorotynsky.[66]
Conquest of Siberia
[edit]During Ivan's reign, Russia started a large-scale exploration and colonization of Siberia. In 1555, shortly after the conquest of Kazan, the Siberian khan Yadegar and the Nogai Horde, under Khan Ismail, pledged their allegiance to Ivan in the hope that he would help them against their opponents. However, Yadegar failed to gather the full sum of tribute that he proposed to the tsar and so Ivan did nothing to save his inefficient vassal. In 1563, Yadegar was overthrown and killed by Khan Kuchum, who denied any tribute to Moscow.
In 1558, Ivan gave the Stroganov merchant family the patent for colonising "the abundant region along the Kama River", and, in 1574, lands over the Ural Mountains along the rivers Tura and Tobol. The family also received permission to build forts along the Ob River and the Irtysh River. Around 1577, the Stroganovs engaged the Cossack leader Yermak Timofeyevich to protect their lands from attacks of the Siberian Khan Kuchum.
In 1580, Yermak started his conquest of Siberia. With some 540 Cossacks, he started to penetrate territories that were tributary to Kuchum. Yermak pressured and persuaded the various family-based tribes to change their loyalties and to become tributaries of Russia. Some agreed voluntarily because they were offered better terms than with Kuchum, but others were forced. He also established distant forts in the newly conquered lands. The campaign was successful, and the Cossacks managed to defeat the Siberian army in the Battle of Chuvash Cape, but Yermak still needed reinforcements. He sent an envoy to Ivan the Terrible with a message that proclaimed Yermak-conquered Siberia to be part of Russia to the dismay of the Stroganovs, who had planned to keep Siberia for themselves. Ivan agreed to reinforce the Cossacks with his streltsy, but the detachment sent to Siberia died of starvation without any benefit. The Cossacks were defeated by the local peoples, Yermak died and the survivors immediately left Siberia. Only in 1586, two years after the death of Ivan, would the Russians manage to gain a foothold in Siberia by founding the city of Tyumen.
Personal life
[edit]Marriages and children
[edit]Ivan the Terrible had at least six (possibly eight) wives, although only four of them were recognised by the Church. Three of them were allegedly poisoned by his enemies or by rival aristocratic families who wanted to promote their daughters to be his brides.[8] He also had nine children.
In 1580, his heir, Ivan Ivanovich, married Yelena Sheremeteva from the Sheremetev noble family,[67] which was a rare instance of the daughter of a boyar marrying into the dynasty.[68]
On 19 November [O.S. 9 November] 1581, Ivan chastised Yelena for being unsuitably dressed, considering her advanced pregnancy, leading to an altercation with his son Ivan Ivanovich.[69] Historians generally believe that Ivan killed his son in a fit of rage,[7] with the argument ending after the elder Ivan fatally struck his son in the head with his pointed staff.[70] Yelena also suffered a miscarriage within hours of the incident.[69] The event is depicted in the famous painting by Ilya Repin, Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan.
Confirmed marriages
[edit]- Anastasia Romanovna (married 3 February 1547 – 7 August 1560; died):[71]
- Tsarevna Anna Ivanovna (10 August 1548 – 20 July 1550)
- Tsarevna Maria Ivanovna (17 March 1551 – young)
- Tsarevich Dmitri Ivanovich (October 1552 – 26 June 1553)
- Tsarevich Ivan Ivanovich (28 March 1554 – 19 November 1581)
- Tsarevna Eudoxia Ivanovna (26 February 1556 – June 1558)
- Tsar Feodor I of Russia (31 May 1557 – 6 January 1598)
- Maria Temryukovna (married 21 August 1561 – 1 September 1569; died):[71]
- Tsarevich Vasili Ivanovich (21 March 1563 – 3 May 1563)
- Marfa Sobakina (married 28 October 1571 – 13 November 1571; died)[71]
- Anna Koltovskaya (married 29 April 1572 – 31 May 1572; sent to monastery);[71] this was the last of his church-authorized weddings and she was later canonized as Saint Daria.[72]
- Anna Vasilchikova (married between 7–30 January 1575 or September–October 1574; sent to monastery in August–September 1576)
- Maria Nagaya (6 September 1580; widow):[71]
- Tsarevich Dmitri Ivanovich (19 October 1582 – 15 May 1591); he was later canonized as Saint Right-Believing Demetrius of Uglich and Moscow, tsarevich.[73]
Unconfirmed marriages
[edit]- Vasilisa Melentyeva (?–1579) (existence disputed)
- Maria Dolgorukaya (1580) (existence disputed)
According to historian Simon Sebag Montefiore, Ivan also began an affair with the courtier Fyodor Basmanov. When the magnate Dmitri Oblensky Ovchinin sneered to Basmanov that "We serve the tsar in useful ways, you in your filthy sodomitical dealings,” Ivan scalded and stabbed him to death.[74][better source needed]
Arts
[edit]Ivan was a poet and a composer of considerable talent. His Orthodox liturgical hymn, "Stichiron No. 1 in Honor of St. Peter", and fragments of his letters were set to music by the Soviet composer Rodion Shchedrin. The recording, the first Soviet-produced CD, was released in 1988 to mark the millennium of Christianity in Russia.[75][76]
Epistles
[edit]D. S. Mirsky called Ivan "a pamphleteer of genius".[77] The letters are often the only existing source on Ivan's personality and provide crucial information on his reign, but Harvard professor Edward L. Keenan has argued that the letters are 17th-century forgeries. That contention, however, has not been widely accepted, and most other scholars, such as John Fennell and Ruslan Skrynnikov, have continued to argue for their authenticity. Recent archival discoveries of 16th-century copies of the letters strengthen the argument for their authenticity.[78][79]
Religion
[edit]Ivan was a devoted follower of Orthodox Christianity but in his own specific manner. He placed the most emphasis on defending the divine right of the ruler to unlimited power under God.[80] Some scholars explain the sadistic and brutal deeds of Ivan the Terrible with the religious concepts of the 16th century,[81] which included drowning and roasting people alive or torturing victims with boiling or freezing water, corresponding to the torments of hell. That was consistent with Ivan's view of being God's representative on Earth with a sacred right and duty to punish. He may also have been inspired by the model of Archangel Michael with the idea of divine punishment.[81]
Ivan the Terrible is quoted stating:
I will not see the destruction of the Christian converts who are loyal to me, and to my last breath I will fight for the Orthodox faith.[82]
Despite the absolute prohibition of the Church for even the fourth marriage, Ivan had seven wives. Even while his seventh wife was alive, he was negotiating to marry Mary Hastings, a distant relative of Queen Elizabeth of England. Polygamy was also prohibited by the Church. Still, Ivan planned to "put his wife away".[83] Ivan freely interfered in church affairs by ousting Metropolitan Philip and ordering him to be killed and accusing of treason and deposing the second-oldest hierarch, Novgorod Archbishop Pimen. Many monks were tortured to death during the Massacre of Novgorod.[84]
In the conquered Khanates of Khazan and Astrakhan, Ivan was somewhat tolerant of Islam. This was largely to avoid a conflict with the Ottoman sultan over control of newly conquered Tatar regions. He considered these conquests to be a Christian victory.[citation needed] He was notable for his anti-Semitism. For example, after the capture of Polotsk, all unconverted Jews were ordered to be drowned, despite their role in the city's economy.[85]
Death
[edit]Ivan died from a stroke while he was playing chess with Bogdan Belsky[86] on 28 March [O.S. 18 March] 1584.[86] Upon Ivan's death, the Russian throne was left to his middle son, Feodor,[70] a weak-minded figure.[87] Feodor died childless in 1598, which ushered in the Time of Troubles.
Appearance
[edit]Little is known about Ivan's appearance, as virtually all existing portraits were made after his death and contain uncertain amounts of artist's impression.[88] In 1567, the ambassador Daniel Prinz von Buchau said about Ivan that: "He is very tall. His body is full of strength and quite thick, his large eyes, which constantly run around, observe everything carefully. His beard is red with a slight shade of black, quite long and thick, but like most Russians, he shaves his hair with a razor".[70]
According to Ivan Katyryov-Rostovsky, the son-in-law of Michael I of Russia, Ivan had an unpleasant face with a long and crooked nose. He was tall and athletically built, with broad shoulders and a narrow waist.[70]
In 1963, the graves of Ivan and his sons were excavated and examined by Soviet scientists. Chemical and structural analysis of his remains disproved earlier suggestions that Ivan suffered from syphilis or that he was poisoned by arsenic or strangled. At the time of his death, he was 178 cm tall (5 ft. 10 in.) and weighed 85–90 kg (187–198 lb.). His body was rather asymmetrical, had a large amount of osteophytes uncharacteristic of his age and contained excessive concentration of mercury. Researchers concluded that Ivan was athletically built in his youth but, in his last years, had developed various bone diseases and could barely move. They attributed the high mercury content in his body to his use of ointments to heal his joints.[88]
Title
[edit]Ivan had the following title towards the end of his reign:[89]
The Great Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Prince Ivan Vasilyevich of all Russia, Vladimir, Moscow, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Sovereign of Pskov, Grand Prince of Smolensk, Tver, Yugorsk, Perm, Vyatka, Bolgar and others, Sovereign and Grand Prince of Novgorod of the Lower Land, Chernigov, Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Livonia, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia and Master of all the Siberian Lands and Northern Countries.
Kazan was added to Ivan's title in 1553 and Astrakhan in 1554. The titles "tsar of Kazan, tsar of Astrakhan" first appeared in 1556. The title "master of all the Siberian lands" first appeared in 1555, and from 1582, was written as "master of all the Siberian lands and northern countries".[g] During the Livonian War, Livonia first appeared in his title in 1558. Polotsk was also included following its capture in 1562. Despite Russia's defeat in the Livonian War, the title of Livonia was not abandoned.[90]
In English, Ivan's title of tsar was often translated as "emperor" from the first visit of Richard Chancellor to Moscow in 1553. For example: "We, greatest Ivan Vassilleviche by the Grace of God Emperor of all Russia and Great Duke". However, the title was not consistently translated as "emperor", such as in 1582: "The Great Lord, King and Great Duke John the sonne of Vasili of all Russia...".[91][h]
Legacy
[edit]Ivan completely altered Russia's governmental structure, establishing the character of modern Russian political organisation.[94] Ivan's creation of the oprichnina, answerable only to him, afforded him personal protection and curtailed the traditional powers and rights of the boyars.[95] Henceforth, tsarist autocracy and despotism would lie at the heart of the Russian state.[96] Ivan bypassed the mestnichestvo system and offered positions of power to his supporters among the minor gentry.[97] The empire's local administration combined both locally and centrally appointed officials; the system proved durable and practical and sufficiently flexible to tolerate later modification.[27]
Ivan's expedition against Poland failed at a military level, but it helped extend Russia's trade, political and cultural links with other European states. Peter the Great built on those connections in his bid to make Russia a major European power. At Ivan's death, the empire encompassed the Caspian to the southwest and Western Siberia to the east. His southern conquests ignited several conflicts with the expansionist Ottoman Empire, whose territories were thus confined to the Balkans and the Black Sea regions.[98]
Ivan's management of Russia's economy proved disastrous, both in his lifetime and afterward. He had inherited a government in debt, and in an effort to raise more revenue for his expansionist wars, he instituted a series of increasingly-unpopular and burdensome taxes.[99] Successive wars drained Russia of manpower and resources and brought it "to the brink of ruin".[100] After Ivan's death, his empire's nearly-ruined economy contributed to the decline of his own Rurik dynasty, leading to the Time of Troubles.
Posthumous reputation
[edit]Ivan's notorious outbursts and autocratic whims helped characterise the position of tsar as one accountable to no earthly authority but only to God.[27] Tsarist absolutism faced few serious challenges until the 19th century. The earliest and most influential account of his reign prior to 1917 was by the historian Nikolay Karamzin, who described Ivan as a 'tormentor' of his people, particularly from 1560, though even after that date Karamzin believed there was a mix of 'good' and 'evil' in his character. In 1922, the historian Robert Wipper wrote a biography that reassessed Ivan as a monarch "who loved the ordinary people" and praised his agrarian reforms.[101]
In the 1920s, Mikhail Pokrovsky, who dominated the study of history in the Soviet Union, attributed the success of the oprichnina to their being on the side of the small state owners and townsfolk in a decades-long class struggle against the large landowners, and downgraded Ivan's role to that of the instrument of the emerging Russian bourgeoisie. But in February 1941, the poet Boris Pasternak observantly remarked in a letter to his cousin that "the new cult, openly proselytized, is Ivan the Terrible, the Oprichnina, the brutality."[102] Joseph Stalin, who had read Wipper's biography, had decided that Soviet historians should praise the role of strong leaders, such as Ivan, Alexander Nevsky and Peter the Great, who had strengthened and expanded Russia.[103]
A consequence was that the writer Alexei Tolstoy began work on a stage version of Ivan's life, and Sergei Eisenstein began what was to be a three-part film tribute to Ivan. Both projects were personally supervised by Stalin, at a time when the Soviet Union was engaged in a war with Nazi Germany. He read the scripts of Tolstoy's play and the first of Eisenstein's films in tandem after the Battle of Kursk in 1943, praised Eisenstein's version but rejected Tolstoy's. It took Tolstoy until 1944 to write a version that satisfied the dictator.[104] Eisenstein's success with Ivan the Terrible Part 1 was not repeated with the follow-up, The Boyar's Revolt, which angered Stalin because it portrayed a man suffering pangs of conscience. Stalin told Eisenstein: "Ivan the Terrible was very cruel. You can show that he was cruel, but you have to show why it was essential to be cruel. One of Ivan the Terrible's mistakes was that he didn't finish off the five major families."[105] The film was suppressed until 1958.
In post-Soviet Russia, a campaign has been run to seek the granting of sainthood to Ivan IV,[106] but the Russian Orthodox Church opposed the idea.[107] The first statue of Ivan the Terrible was officially open in Oryol, Russia, in 2016. Formally, the statue was unveiled in honor of the 450th anniversary of the founding of Oryol, a Russian city of about 310,000 that was established as a fortress to defend Moscow's southern borders. Informally, there was a big political subtext. The opposition thinks that Ivan the Terrible's rehabilitation echoes Stalin's era. The erection of the statue was vastly covered in international media like The Guardian,[108] The Washington Post,[109] Politico,[110] and others. The Russian Orthodox Church officially supported the erection of the monument.[111]
Ancestry
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Patrilineal descent
[edit]Patrilineal descent |
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Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations – which means that if Ivan IV were to choose a historically accurate house name, it would be Rurikid, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house. Ivan is a member of the Rurikid dynasty. Ivan's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son:
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See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ Old Style date: 16 January 1547 – 18 March 1584
- ^ Old Style date: 16 January 1547
- ^ Old Style date: 3 December 1533 – 16 January 1547
- ^ Church Slavonic: Іѡа́ннъ Васи́лїевичъ.
- ^ Russian: Иван Грозный, romanized: Ivan Groznyy, IPA: [ɪˈvan ˈɡroznɨj] , lit. 'Ivan the Formidable, 'Ivan the Fearsome' or 'Ivan the Awe-Inspiring';[1][2][3] Latin: Ioannes Severus; monastic name: Jonah.
- ^ As the tonsure was the distinctive hairstyle of monastic orders, a forcibly tonsured boyar was effectively exiled from power by being made to enter a monastic life.
- ^ The "country" should be understood as Norrbotten, which was added as a result of the Russo-Swedish War of 1554–1557.
- ^ May 1582. Instructions of the Emb-ra of Russia.[92]
References
[edit]- ^ "Иван Васильевич Грозный". www.hrono.ru. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ^ ""Иван Грозный — первый русский модернист"". Год Литературы (in Russian). Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ^ a b c d Halperin, Charles J. (13 January 2014). "Ivan IV the Terrible, Tsar of Russia". Renaissance and Reformation. doi:10.1093/OBO/9780195399301-0099. ISBN 978-0-19-539930-1.
- ^ Shvidkovskiĭ, Dmitriĭ Olegovich (2007) Russian Architecture and the West. Yale University Press. p. 147. ISBN 0300109121.
- ^ Yanov, p. 208
- ^ Del Testa, David W. (2001) Government Leaders, Military Rulers and Political Activists. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 91. ISBN 1573561533
- ^ a b Perrie & Pavlov 2014, p. 192.
- ^ a b Manaev, G. (7 January 2019). "The madness of 3 Russian tsars, and the truth behind it". Russia Beyond. Russia Beyond the Headlines. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
- ^ Keenan, Edward L. (2006). "How Ivan Became "Terrible"". Harvard Ukrainian Studies. 28 (1/4): 521–542. ISSN 0363-5570. JSTOR 41036979.
- ^ Dal, Vladimir, Explanatory Dictionary of the Live Great Russian language, article ГРОЗИТЬ. Available in many editions as well as online, for example at slovardalja.net
- ^ Jacobsen, C.G. (1993). "Myths, Politics and the Not-so-New World Order". Journal of Peace Research. 30 (3): 241–250. doi:10.1177/0022343393030003001. JSTOR 424804. S2CID 146782336.
- ^ Noth, Ernst Erich (1941). "Books Abroad: An International Literary Quarterly". Books Abroad. 15. University of Oklahoma Press: 343. ISSN 0006-7431.
- ^ McConnell, Frank D. (1979). Storytelling and Mythmaking: Images from Film and Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-502572-5; p. 78: "But Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, Ivan groznyi, 'Ivan the Magnificent' or 'Ivan the Great' is precisely a man who has become a legend".
- ^ Talbot, Alice-Mary (1991). "Sophia Palaiologina". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1928. ISBN 0-19-504652-8.
- ^ Maureen Perrie, Andrei Pavlov (2014). Ivan the Terrible. p. 26.
- ^ Madariaga 2006, p. 61.
- ^ Francis Carr, Ivan the Terrible, David & Charles Publishers (1981), p. 61
- ^ Walter G. Moss, A History of Russia : To 1917, Volume 1, Anthem Press (2003), p. 130
- ^ Литвина, А. Ф.; Успенский, Ф. Б. (2006). Выбор имени у русских князей в X–XVI вв.: Династическая история сквозь призму антропонимики. М. Индрик. p. 218.
- ^ Martin, p. 331
- ^ Pushkareva, N. (1997) Women in Russian History. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 65–67. ISBN 0765632705.
- ^ Kurbsky, Andrey, Ivan IV, The Correspondence Between Prince A.M. Kurbsky and Tsar Ivan IV, of Russia, 1564–1579, Cambridge University Press, 1955, 275 pp., ASIN B000X81MHO, p. 75.
- ^ The Kurbskii-Groznyi Apocrypha – Edward L. Keenan | Harvard University Press. Russian Research Center Studies. Harvard University Press. January 1971. ISBN 9780674181724.
- ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. (29 September 2005). Russian Identities: A Historical Survey. Oxford University Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-19-534814-9.
- ^ Martin, p. 377
- ^ Bogatyrev, p. 245
- ^ a b c Bogatyrev, p. 263.
- ^ a b Wortman, Richard S. (31 October 2013). Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy from Peter the Great to the Abdication of Nicholas II - New Abridged One-Volume Edition. Princeton University Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-1-4008-4969-7.
- ^ Madariaga 2006, pp. 32–34.
- ^ Paul, Michael C. (2004). "The Military Revolution in Russia 1550–1682". The Journal of Military History. 68 (1): 9–45 [esp. pp. 20–22]. doi:10.1353/jmh.2003.0401. S2CID 159954818.
- ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. (2000). "The Second Part of Ivan the Terrible's Rule". A History of Russia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195121791.
- ^ Постник. Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- ^ Барма и Постник (Постник Яковлев). ecology-mef.narod.ru.
- ^ Постник Барма – строитель собора Василия Блаженного в Москве и Казанского кремля. russiancity.ru.
- ^ public domain: Bain, Robert (1911). "Boris Fedorovich Godunov". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 254. This cites:
- Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, On the Historical Significance of the Reign of Boris Godunov (Rus.) (Moscow, 1850)
- Sergyei Mikhailivich Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.) (2nd ed., vols. vii–viii, St. Petersburg, 1897).
- ^ Madariaga 2006, pp. 176–178.
- ^ a b c Pavlov, Andrei and Perrie, Maureen (2003) Ivan the Terrible (Profiles in Power). Harlow, UK: Longman. pp. 112–113. ISBN 058209948X.
- ^ Madariaga 2006, pp. 179–180.
- ^ Madariaga 2006, pp. 182–183.
- ^ Madariaga 2006, p. 183.
- ^ Martin, p. 410
- ^ Great Mysteries of the Past: Experts Unravel Fact and Fallacy Behind the Headlines of History. Pleasantville, New York: Reader's Digest. April 1997. pp. 188–189. ISBN 978-0-89577-377-7.
- ^ a b Kropotkin, Peter; Bealby, John Thomas (1911). Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 839–840. . In
- ^ Ivan the Terrible, Russia, (r. 1533–84). Users.erols.com. Retrieved 7 December 2011
- ^ According to the Third Novgorod Chronicle, the massacre lasted for five weeks. Almost every day, 500 or 600 people were killed or drowned.
- ^ Having investigated the report of Maljuta Skuratov and commemoration lists (sinodiki), R. Skrynnikov considers that the number of victims was 2,000–3,000. (Skrynnikov R.G., "Ivan Grosny", M., AST, 2001)
- ^ a b Rude & barbarous kingdom: Russia in the accounts of sixteenth-century English voyagers. Madison, Wis.: Univ. of Wisconsin Press. 1968. p. 166. ISBN 0299047644.
- ^ Madariaga 2006, p. 301.
- ^ Martin, p. 407.
- ^ Dmytryshyn, Basil (2000). Medieval Russia: A Source Book, 850–1700. Gulf Breeze, FL: Academic International Press. p. 301. ISBN 0-875-69-218-4. OCLC 21443219.
- ^ Crankshaw, Edward, Russia and Britain, Collins, The Nations and Britain series.
- ^ "Russians in London: Government in exile". The Economist. 12 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
- ^ ХОЖДЕНИЕ НА ВОСТОК ГОСТЯ ВАСИЛИЯ ПОЗНЯКОВА С ТОВАРИЩИ (The travels to the Orient by the merchant Vasily Poznyakov and his companions) (in Russian)
- ^ Alexander Filjushkin (2008). "Chapter 1 Russian Military Forces in the Sixteenth Century: Infrastructure of the Russian Army". Ivan the Terrible: A Military History. Frontline Books. ISBN 978-1473815599.
- ^ Russian chronicles record about 40 attacks of Kazan Khans on Russian territories (the regions of Nizhniy Novgorod, Murom, Vyatka, Vladimir, Kostroma and Galich) in the first half of the 16th century. In 1521, the combined forces of Khan Mehmed Giray and his Crimean allies attacked Russia, captured more than 150,000 slaves. The Full Collection of the Russian Annals, vol. 13, SPb, 1904
- ^ Janet Martin, Medieval Russia: 980–1584, (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 396
- ^ Chaudet, Didier (2009). "When the Bear Confronts the Crescent: Russia and the Jihadist Issue". China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly. 7 (2). Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program: 37–58. ISSN 1653-4212.
It would be convenient to characterize the relationship between Russia and Islam by its history of conquest and tension. After all, the emblem of the Orthodox Church is a cross on top on a crescent. It is said that this symbol was devised by Ivan the Terrible, after the conquest of the city of Kazan, as a symbol of the victory of Christianity over Islam through his soldiers.
- ^ "Russian Orthodox Church". Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies. 17: 4. 1993. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
Finally, the Russians, under Ivan the Terrible, defeated the Tatars in 1552 and firmly established Russian rule. In celebration of this conquest, the czar built two churches in the Moscow Kremlin and on the spires of the Church installed the Orthodox Cross over an upside down crescent, the symbol of Islam.
- ^ "Church Building and Its Services". Orthodox World. Retrieved 28 March 2014.
Sometimes the bottoms of the Crosses found on Russian churches will be adorned with a crescent. In 1486, Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible) conquered the city of Kazan which had been under the rule of Moslem Tatars, and in remembrance of this, he decreed that from henceforth the Islamic crescent be placed at the bottom of the Crosses to signify the victory of the Cross (Christianity) over the Crescent (Islam).
- ^ Garvin, James Louis; Hooper, Franklin Henry; Cox, Warren E. (1929). The Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia britannica Company, Limited. p. 307.
- ^ Prawdin, Michael (29 September 2017). The Mongol Empire: Its Rise and Legacy. Routledge. p. 517. ISBN 978-1-351-47929-5.
- ^ Kizilov, Mikhail (2007). "Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim and Jewish Sources". Journal of Early Modern History. 11 (1–2): 1. doi:10.1163/157006507780385125.
- ^ 120,000-strong, according to Russian cronicles // Новгородская вторая летопись. Год 7080(1572). ПСРЛ т. III, СПб, 1841
- ^ Skrynnikov 2015, p. 427.
- ^ Skrynnikov 2015, pp. 417–21.
- ^ Skrynnikov 2015, pp. 439–41.
- ^ Bushkovitch, Paul (18 March 2021). Succession to the Throne in Early Modern Russia: The Transfer of Power 1450–1725. Cambridge University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-108-47934-9.
- ^ Martin 2012, p. 158.
- ^ a b Crummey, Robert O. (6 June 2014). The Formation of Muscovy 1300 - 1613. Routledge. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-317-87200-9.
- ^ a b c d Zimin, A.A; Khoroshkevich, A.L. (1982). "Отечественные историки о государе Иване IV Грозном". Россия времен Ивана Грозного (in Russian). Moscow. pp. 147–51. Archived from the original on 20 March 2008.
{{cite book}}
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- ^ "ДАРИЯ". www.pravenc.ru. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ^ "Благоверный Дими́трий Угличский и Московский, царевич". azbyka.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 20 August 2021.
- ^ Sebag Montefiore, Simon (2023). The world: a family history of humanity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-525-65953-2.
- ^ "Иван IV Грозный / Родион Константинович Щедрин – Стихиры (Первый отечественный компакт-диск)". intoclassics.net. 9 August 2009.
- ^ Kuzin, Viktor. "Первый русский компакт-диск". rarity.ru. Archived from the original on 23 November 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2010.
- ^ Mirsky, D. S.; Whitfield, Francis James (1958). A History of Russian Literature: From Its Beginnings to 1900. Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0810116795.
- ^ Keenan, Edward L. (1971) The Kurbskii-Groznyi Apocrypha: the 17th Century Genesis of the "Correspondence" Attributed to Prince A.M. Kurbskii and Tsar Ivan IV. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press
- ^ Martin, pp. 328–29.
- ^ "Ivan IV | Tsar of Russia". Encyclopedia Britannica. 21 August 2023.
- ^ a b Perrie & Pavlov 2014.
- ^ "Ivan the Terrible: Biography, First Tsar of Russia". Biography. 20 November 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2024.
- ^ Skrynnikov 2015, pp. 423, 492–93.
- ^ Skrynnikov 2015, pp. 350, 361–64.
- ^ Halperin, Charles J. (2019). Ivan the Terrible: Free to Reward and Free to Punish. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-8229-8722-2.
- ^ a b Waliszewski, Kazimierz; Mary Loyd (1904). Ivan the Terrible. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. pp. 377–78.
- ^ "Fyodor I | tsar of Russia". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
- ^ a b Gerasimov, M.M. (1965). Документальный портрет Ивана Грозного. Краткие сообщения института археологии Академии наук СССР (in Russian). 100: 139–42. Archived from the original on 4 January 2010. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
- ^ Filyushkin 2006, p. 207.
- ^ Filyushkin 2006, pp. 205–207.
- ^ Filyushkin 2006, p. 113.
- ^ Tolstoj, Jurij V. (1875). The First Forty Years of Intercourse Between England and Russia: 1553 - 1593. Documents Collected, Copied and Edited by George Tolstoy. [A. M. D. Tit.:] Pervyja Sorok Lět Snošenij Meždu Rossieju i Anglieju. 1553 - 1593. Gramoty Sobrannyja, Perepisannyja i Izdannyja Juriem Tolstym. (Umschlagtitel: Rossija i Anglija. 1553 - 1593. England and Russia) (in Russian). p. 190.
- ^ Filjushkin, Alexander (2008). Ivan the Terrible: a military history. London: Frontline books. p. 5. ISBN 9781848325043.
- ^ Yanov, p. 31
- ^ Yanov, p. 69.
- ^ Yanov, p. 68.
- ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg (2011). "Russia at the Time of Ivan IV, 1533–1598" in A History of Russia 8th ed. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 151. ISBN 978-0195341973.
- ^ Shrynnikov, Ruslan G. (1975) "Conclusion", p. 199 in Ivan the Formidable, translated by Hugh F. Graham. Moscow: Academic International.
- ^ Martin, p. 404.
- ^ Martin, p. 415.
- ^ Maureen, Perrie (2001). The Cult of Ivan the Formidable in Stalin's Russia. New York: Palgrava. pp. 6, 12-17
- ^ McSmith, Andy (2015). Fear and the Muse Kept Watch, The Russian Masters - from Akhmatova and Pasternak to Shostakovich and Eisenstein - Under Stalin. New York: New Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-1-59558-056-6.
- ^ Perrie, Maureen (1987). The Image of Ivan the Formidable in Russian Folklore. Cambridge, UK: Pitt Building.
- ^ McSmith. Fear and the Muse. p. 236.
- ^ McSmith. Fear and the Muse. p. 240.
- ^ "Russians Laud Ivan the Not So Formidable; Loose Coalition Presses Orthodox Church to Canonize the Notorious Czar". The Washington Post, 10 November 2003.
- ^ "Church says nyet to St. Rasputin". UPI NewsTrack. 4 October 2004
- ^ "Russia's first monument to Ivan the Terrible inaugurated". The Guardian, 14 October 2016.
- ^ "Russia just gave Ivan the Terrible his first statue ever". The Washington Post, 14 October 2016.
- ^ "Russia falls back in love with Ivan the Terrible". Politico, 14 October 2016.
- ^ "Russian Orthodox church head backs Ivan the Terrible sculpture". The Guardian. 2 August 2016.
Bibliography
[edit]- Filyushkin, A. I. (2006). Титулы русских государей (in Russian). Альянс-Архео. ISBN 978-5-98874-011-7.
- Bogatyrev, Sergei (2006). "10. Ivan IV (1533–1584)". In Maureen Perrie (ed.). The Cambridge History of Russia. Vol. 1: From Early Rus' to 1689. Cambridge Histories Online. pp. 240–63. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521812276.011. ISBN 978-0-521-81227-6. Archived from the original on 17 September 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2011.
- Madariaga, Isabel de (25 September 2006). Ivan the Terrible. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11973-2.
- Martin, Janet (2007). "Ivan IV the Terrible". Medieval Russia 980–1584 (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85916-5.
- Martin, Russell E. (15 June 2012). A Bride for the Tsar: Bride-Shows and Marriage Politics in Early Modern Russia. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-5665-8.
- Perrie, Maureen; Pavlov, Andrei (10 July 2014). Ivan the Terrible. Routledge. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-317-89468-1.
- Yanov, Alexander (1981). The Origins of Autocracy. Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04282-7.
- Skrynnikov, Ruslan G. (2015). Reign of Terror: Ivan IV. Brill. pp. 439–41. ISBN 978-90-04-30401-7.
General references
[edit]- Bobrick, Benson. Ivan the Terrible. Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 1990 (hardcover, ISBN 0-86241-288-9). (Also published as Fearful Majesty)
- Hosking, Geoffrey. Russia and the Russians: A History. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0-674-01114-7).
- Payne, Robert; Romanoff, Nikita. Ivan the Terrible. Lanham, Maryland: Cooper Square Press, 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0-8154-1229-0).
- Troyat, Henri. Ivan the Terrible. New York: Buccaneer Books, 1988 (hardcover, ISBN 0-88029-207-5); London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1985 (hardback, ISBN 978-0-45006-119-6); London: Phoenix Press, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 1-84212-419-6).
- Ivan IV, World Book Inc, 2000. World Book Encyclopedia.
Further reading
[edit]- Bain, Robert Nisbet (1911). . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–91, see page 89.
- Cherniavsky, Michael. "Ivan the Terrible as Renaissance Prince", Slavic Review, Vol. 27, No. 2. (Jun. 1968), pp. 195–211.
- Hunt, Priscilla. "Ivan IV's Personal Mythology of Kingship", Slavic Review, Vol. 52, No. 4. (Winter, 1993), pp. 769–809.
- Menken, Jules. "Ivan the Terrible." History Today (Mar 1953) 3#3, Vol. 3 Issue 3, pp. 167–73.
- Perrie, Maureen. The Image of Ivan the Terrible in Russian Folklore (Cambridge University Press, 1987; ISBN 0-521-33075-0, 0-521-89100-0).
- Perrie, Maureen. The Cult of Ivan the Terrible in Stalin's Russia. (New York: Palgrave, 2001 ISBN 0-333-65684-9).
- Platt, Kevin M.F.; Brandenberger, David. "Terribly Romantic, Terribly Progressive, or Terribly Tragic: Rehabilitating Ivan IV under I.V. Stalin", Russian Review, Vol. 58, No. 4. (Oct. 1999), pp. 635–54.
- Isolde Thyrêt, "The Royal Women of Ivan IV's Family and the Meaning of Forced Tonsure," in Anne Walthall (ed), Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History (Berkeley, Univ. California Press, 2008), 159–71.