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{{About|the grammar of Modern Hebrew|information on the various historical forms of Hebrew|Hebrew language}}
[[Hebrew grammar]] is the grammar of the [[Hebrew language]].

{{Intro-rewrite|date=September 2009}}

'''[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[grammar]]''' is partly [[analytic language|analytical]], expressing such forms as [[dative case|dative]], [[ablative case|ablative]], and [[accusative case|accusative]] using [[preposition]]al particles rather than [[declension|morphological cases]]. However, [[inflection]] plays a decisive role in the formation of the verbs, the declension of prepositions (i.e. with pronominal suffixes), and the [[genitive case|genitive]] construct of nouns as well as the formation of the plural of nouns and adjectives.

==Note on the representation of Hebrew examples==
Because this article is intended to be useful to non-Hebrew speakers, all examples of Hebrew are represented using the [[help:IPA|International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA). IPA is a system of phonetic notation that provides a standardized, accurate and unique way of representing the sounds of any spoken language. However, since the phonemes {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}} are pronounced by some speakers, while others collapse them into the phonemes {{IPA|/χ, ʔ/}}<ref name="laufer96-98">{{Harvcoltxt|Laufer|1999|p=96-98}}</ref>, they will be indicated here for maximum coverage.

That said, the IPA transcriptions have been slightly modified to incorporate some punctuation — hyphens, commas, and so on — to indicate the structure of the example. Further, since the Hebrew writing system (its [[Hebrew alphabet|alphabet]] and [[niqqud]]) reflects not only phonology but also some grammar, Hebrew text is provided alongside IPA transcriptions in those cases where appropriate. The Hebrew text may appear with or without niqqud, as the example requires.


==History of studies in Hebrew grammar==
==History of studies in Hebrew grammar==
{{See|Hebraist}}
{{Further information|Hebraist}}
The [[Masoretes]] in the 7th to 11th centuries laid the foundation for grammatical analysis of Hebrew. As early as the 9th century [[Judah ibn Kuraish]] discussed the relationship between Arabic and Hebrew. In the 10th century, [[Aaron ben Moses ben Asher]] refined the [[Tiberian vocalization]], an extinct pronunciation of the [[Hebrew Bible]].
The [[Masoretes]] in the 7th to 11th centuries laid the foundation for grammatical analysis of Hebrew. As early as the 9th century [[Judah ibn Kuraish]] discussed the relationship between Arabic and Hebrew. In the 10th century, [[Aaron ben Moses ben Asher]] refined the [[Tiberian vocalization]], an extinct pronunciation of the [[Hebrew Bible]].


The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appear in the [[High Middle Ages]], in the context of [[Midrash]] (a method of interpreting and studying the Hebrew Bible). The [[Karaite]] tradition originated in [[Abbasid]] [[Baghdad]] around the 7th century. The ''[[Diqduq]]'' (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.<ref>G. Khan , J. B. Noah, ''The Early Karaite Tradition of Hebrew Grammatical Thought'' (2000)</ref>
The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appear in the [[High Middle Ages]], in the context of [[Midrash]] (a method of interpreting and studying the Hebrew Bible). The [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] tradition originated in [[Abbasid]] [[Baghdad]] around the 7th century. The ''[[Diqduq]]'' (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.<ref>G. Khan, J. B. Noah, ''The Early Karaite Tradition of Hebrew Grammatical Thought'' (2000)</ref>


[[Solomon ibn Gabirol]] in the 11th century composed a versified Hebrew grammar, consisting of 400 verses divided into ten parts. In the 12th century, [[Ibn Barun]] compared the Hebrew language with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in the [[Islamic grammatical tradition]].<ref>Pinchas Wechter, Ibn Barūn's Arabic Works on Hebrew Grammar and Lexicography (1964)</ref>
[[Solomon ibn Gabirol]] in the 11th century composed a versified Hebrew grammar, consisting of 400 verses divided into ten parts. In the 12th century, [[Ibn Barun]] compared the [[Hebrew language]] with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in the [[Islamic grammatical tradition]].<ref>Pinchas Wechter, Ibn Barūn's Arabic Works on Hebrew Grammar and Lexicography (1964)</ref>
11th to 12th century grammarians of the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]] included [[Judah ben David Hayyuj]], [[Jonah ibn Janah]], [[Abraham ibn Ezra]], [[Joseph Kimhi]], [[Moses Kimhi]] and [[David Kimhi]]. Ibn Ezra gives a list of the oldest Hebrew grammarians in the introduction to his ''Moznayim'' (1140).
11th to 12th century grammarians of the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]] included [[Judah ben David Hayyuj]], [[Jonah ibn Janah]], [[Abraham ibn Ezra]], [[Joseph Kimhi]], [[Moses Kimhi]] and [[David Kimhi]]. Ibn Ezra gives a list of the oldest Hebrew grammarians in the introduction to his ''Moznayim'' (1140). [[Profiat Duran]] published an influential grammar in 1403.
[[Roger Bacon]] was "a tolerable Hebrew scholar". [[Profiat Duran]] published an influential grammar in 1403.


[[Judah Messer Leon (15th century)|Judah Messer Leon]]'s 1454 grammar is a product of the [[Italian Renaissance]]. Hebrew grammars by [[Christian Hebraist|Christian authors]] appeared during the [[Renaissance]]. [[Hieronymus Buclidius]], a friend of [[Erasmus]], gave more than 20,000 francs to establish a Hebrew chair at [[Leuven|Louvain]]. [[Elijah Levita]] was called to the chair of Hebrew at the [[University of Paris]]. [[Cardinal Grimani]] and other dignitaries, both of the state and of the Church, studied Hebrew and the [[Kabbalah|Cabala]] with Jewish teachers; even the warrior [[Guido Rangoni]] attempted the Hebrew language with the aid of [[Jacob Mantino]] (1526). [[Pico de la Mirandola]] (d. 1494) was the first to collect Hebrew manuscripts, and [[Reuchlin]] was the first to write a modern grammar of the Hebrew language (1506).
[[Judah Messer Leon (15th century)|Judah Messer Leon]]'s 1454 grammar is a product of the [[Italian Renaissance]]. Hebrew grammars by [[Christian Hebraist|Christian authors]] appeared during the [[Renaissance]]. [[Hieronymus Buclidius]], a friend of [[Erasmus]], gave more than 20,000 francs to establish a branch of Hebrew studies at [[Leuven|Louvain]] in [[Flanders]]. [[Elijah Levita]] was called to the chair of Hebrew at the [[University of Paris]]. [[Cardinal Grimani]] and other dignitaries, both of the state and of the Church, studied Hebrew and the [[Kabbalah|Cabala]] with Jewish teachers; even the warrior [[Guido Rangoni]] attempted the Hebrew language with the aid of [[Jacob Mantino]] (1526). [[Pico de la Mirandola]] (d. 1494) was the first to collect Hebrew manuscripts, and [[Reuchlin]] was the first Christian author to write a vocabulary and short grammar of the Hebrew language (1506).<ref>[http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/0001/bsb00017321/images/index.html?id=00017321&groesser=&fip=xsyztsxdsydewqenxssdasyztsw&no=212&seite=1 Online version of ''De rudimentis hebraicis'']</ref> A more detailed grammar was published in 1590 by [[Otto Walper]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjY8AAAAcAAJ ''Grammatica linguae sanctae'' at Google Books]</ref>
[[Conrad Gesner]] (d. 1565) was the first Christian to compile a catalogue of Hebrew books.
[[Conrad Gesner]] (d. 1565) was the first Christian to compile a catalogue of Hebrew books.
[[Paul Fagius]] and [[Elia Levita]] operated the first Hebrew printing office in the 1540s. Levita also compiled the first Hebrew-[[Yiddish]] dictionary.
[[Paul Fagius]] and [[Elia Levita]] operated the first Hebrew printing office in the 1540s. Levita also compiled the first Hebrew-[[Yiddish]] dictionary.


Through the influence of [[Johannes Buxtorf]] (d. 1629) a serious attempt was made to understand the post-Biblical literature, and many of the most important works were translated into Latin. [[Gesenius]]' ''Hebrew Grammar'' appeared in 1813.
Through the influence of [[Johannes Buxtorf]] (d. 1629) a serious attempt was made to understand the post-Biblical literature, and many of the most important works were translated into Latin. [[Wilhelm Gesenius|Gesenius]]' ''Hebrew Grammar'' appeared in 1813.


==Sentence structure==
== Eras ==
Sentence structure in Hebrew is somewhat similar to that in English, but there are a number of differences. For example, the verb ''to be'' is not used in the present tense, resulting in a number of special present-tense structures.


The Hebrew language is subdivided by era, with significant differences apparent between the varieties. All varieties, from Biblical to Modern, use a typically Semitic [[templatic morphology]] with triconsonantal stems, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have significant borrowed components of the lexicon that do not fit into this pattern. Verbal morphology has remained relatively unchanged, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have lost some modal distinctions of Biblical Hebrew and created others through the use of auxiliary verbs.
===Sentences with action verbs===
Most but not all Hebrew sentences have a [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] as well as a [[verb]], and possibly other [[argument (linguistics)|arguments]] and [[complement (linguistics)|complements]]. In this case, the word order is usually [[Subject Verb Object|Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)]], as in English. However, word order can change in the following instances:


Significant syntactic changes have arisen in Modern Hebrew as a result of non-Semitic substrate influences. In particular:
*An object can typically be [[Topic (linguistics)|topic]]alized by moving it to the front of the sentence. When the object is a question word, this topicalization is almost mandatory. Example : '''?למי''' הוא אמר {{IPA|['''leˈmi''' hu aˈmaʁ?]}}, literally "'''To-whom''' he told?", means "'''Whom''' did he tell?" In other cases, this topicalization can be used for emphasis. (''See'' [[dislocation (syntax)]].)
*Hebrew is a [[pro-drop language]]. This means that subject pronouns are sometimes omitted when verb conjugations reflect [[grammatical gender|gender]], [[grammatical number|number]], and [[grammatical person|person]].
*Indefinite subjects (like English's ''a boy'', ''a book'', and so on) are often postponed, giving the sentence some of the sense of "there exists [subject]" in addition to the verb's normal meaning. For example, פנה אליי '''איזשהו אדם''' שביקש שאעזור לו עם דבר-מה {{IPA|[paˈna eˈlaj '''ˈezeʃehu aˈdam''', ʃe-biˈkeʃ ʃe-eeˈzor lo im dvar-ˈma]}}, literally "Faced-to-me '''some man''' that-asked that-[I]-will-help to-him with something", means "'''A man''' came to me wanting me to help him with something." This serves a purpose somewhat analogous to English's narrative use of ''this'' with a semantically indefinite subject: "So, I'm at work, and this man comes up to me and asks me to help him." Indeed, outside of the present tense, mere existence is expressed using the verb ''to be'' with a postponed indefinite subject. Example: הייתה '''סיבה''' שביקשתי {{IPA|[hajˈta '''siˈba''' ʃe-biˈkaʃti]}}, literally "Was '''reason''' that-[I]-asked", means "There's a reason I asked."
*Definite subjects can be postponed for a number of reasons.
**In some cases, a postponed subject can be used to sound [[register (linguistics)|formal]] or [[archaism|archaic]]. This is because historically, Hebrew was typically [[Verb Subject Object|Verb-Subject-Object (VSO)]]. The [[Tanakh|Bible]] and other religious texts are predominantly written in VSO word order.
**Sometimes, postponing a subject can give it emphasis. One response to התחל {{IPA|[hatˈħel!]}} ("Start") might be התחל '''אתה''' {{IPA|[hatˈħel '''aˈta'''!]}} ("'''You''' start!").
**A subject might initially be omitted and then added later as an afterthought, such as נעשה את זה ביחד '''אתה ואני''' {{IPA|[naaˈse et ˈze beˈjaħad, '''aˈta vaaˈni''']}}, literally "[We]'ll-do it together, '''you and-I'''", means "You and I will do it together" or "We'll do it together, you and I".


* In Biblical Hebrew, possession is normally expressed with [[status constructus]], a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced, "construct" form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal, "absolute" form. Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this construction for phrases where the two components form a unified concept, whereas ordinary possession is more commonly expressed [[Analytic language|analytically]] with the preposition ''shel'' 'of' (etymologically consisting of the relativizer ''she''- 'that' and the preposition ''le''- 'to').<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Zuckermann|2006|p=74|note=either this link is dead, or specific sources should be added to the bibliography (or both) – thanks!}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Rosén|1969|note=either this link is dead, or specific sources should be added to the bibliography (or both) – thanks!}}</ref>
Generally, Hebrew marks every noun in a sentence with some sort of preposition, with the exception of subjects and semantically indefinite direct objects. Unlike English, indirect objects require prepositions (as in "He gave '''me''' the ball"), and semantically definite direct objects are introduced by the preposition את {{IPA|[et]}}.
* Possession in pronouns is expressed with pronominal suffixes added to the noun. Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this for a limited number of nouns, but usually prefers to use the preposition ''shel'', as in the previous case.<ref name="glinert">{{Harvcoltxt|Glinert|2004|p=52}}</ref>
* Biblical Hebrew often expresses a pronoun direct object by appending a pronominal suffix directly to the verb, as an alternative to appending it to the preposition that signals a definite direct object. The latter construction is the one generally used in Modern Hebrew.<ref name=glinert/>
* The [[Tense-aspect-mood|tense–aspect]] that is formed by prefixes could denote either the present (especially [[frequentative]]) or the future, as well as frequentative past in Biblical Hebrew (some scholars argue that it simply denoted [[imperfective aspect]]), while in modern Hebrew it is always future. The suffixed form denotes what is commonly translated as past in both cases, though some scholars argue that it denoted [[perfective aspect]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Blau|1981|pp=153–154}}</ref>
* Biblical Hebrew employs the so-called [[waw consecutive]] construction, in which the conjunction "and" seemingly reverses the tense of a verb (though its exact meaning is a matter of debate). This is not typical of Modern Hebrew.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Davis|2007|p=536}}</ref>
* The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is [[Verb–subject–object|VSO]], while Modern Hebrew is [[Subject–verb–object|SVO]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Doron|2005|p=3}}</ref>


However, most Biblical Hebrew constructions are still permissible in Modern Hebrew in formal, literary, archaic or poetic style.
===Sentences with linking verbs===
While the verb ''to be'' does have present-tense forms, they are used only in exceptional circumstances. The following structures are used instead:

*Where the past and future tenses follow the structure [sometimes-optional subject]-[form of ''to be'']-[noun complement] (analogous to English, except that in English the subject is always mandatory), the present tense follows [optional subject]-[subject pronoun]-[noun complement].(הבן שלו הוא האבא שלה {{IPA|[haˈben ʃeˈlo '''hu''' ha-ˈaba ʃeˈlah]}}, literally "the-son of-his '''he''' the-father of-hers", means "his son '''is''' her father.") While לא {{IPA|[lo]}} ("not") precedes the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] (form of ''to be'') in the past and future tenses, it follows the copula (a subject pronoun) in the present tense.
*Where the past and future tenses are structured as [optional subject]-[form of ''to be'']-[adjective complement] (analogous to English, except that in English the subject is mandatory), the present tense is simply [subject]-[adjective complement]. For example, הדלת סגורה {{IPA|[ha-ˈdelet sɡuˈʁa]}}, literally "the-door closed", means "the door is closed." That said, additional subject pronouns are sometimes used, like with noun complements, especially with complicated subjects. Example: זה מוזר שהוא אמר כך {{IPA|['''ze''' muˈzaʁʃe-hu aˈmaʁ kaχ]}}, literally " '''it''' strange that-he said thus", means "that he said that '''is''' strange," i.e. "it's strange that he said that."
*Possession in Hebrew is constructed indefinitely. There is no Hebrew translation to the English verb "to have," common in many Indo-European languages to express possession as well as to serve as a helping verb. To express the English sentence "I have a dog" in Hebrew is "יש לי כלב", literally meaning "there exists to me a dog." The word יש {{IPA|[yesh]}} expresses existence in the present tense, and is unique in the Hebrew language as a verb-like form with no inflected qualities at all. Un-possession in the present tense in Hebrew is expressed with the antithesis to יש, which is אין {{IPA|[e(j)n]}} -- "אין לי כלב" {{IPA|[e(j)n li ˈkelev]}} means "I do not have a dog." Possession in the past and the future in Hebrew is also expressed impersonally, but uses conjugated forms of the Hebrew copula, להיות [lihiyot]. For example, the same sentence "I do not have a dog" would in the past tense become "לא היה לי כלב" {{IPA|[lo haja li kelev]}}, literally meaning "there was not to me a dog."

==Verbs==
The Hebrew [[verb]] (פועל {{IPA|[ˈpoal]}}) serves essentially the same functions as the English verb, but is constructed very differently. Hebrew verbs have much more internal structure. Every Hebrew verb is formed by casting a three- or four-consonant root (שורש {{IPA|[ˈʃoʁeʃ]}}) into one of seven {{IPA|[binjaˈnim]}} (בניינים, meaning ''buildings'' or ''constructions''; the singular is {{IPA|[binˈjan]}}, written henceforth as ''[[binyan]]''). Most roots can be cast into more than one binyan, meaning more than one verb can be formed from the typical root. When this is the case, the different verbs are usually related in meaning, typically differing in [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[valency (linguistics)|valency]], [[semantics|semantic]] intensity, [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], or a combination of these features. The "concept" of the Hebrew verb's meaning is defined by the identity of the [[triliteral root]]. The "concept" of the Hebrew verb assumes verbal meaning by taking on vowel-structure as dictated by the binyan's rules.

===Conjugation===

{{Main|Hebrew verb conjugation}}

Each binyan has a certain pattern of conjugation and verbs in the same binyan are conjugated similarly. Conjugation patterns within a binyan alter somewhat depending on certain phonological qualities of the verb's root; the alterations (called גיזרה [[IPA|[gizrah]}}, meaning "form") are defined by the presence of certain letters composing the root. For example, three-letter roots (''triliterals'') whose second letter is ו {{IPA|[vav]}} or י {{IPA|[jud]}} are so-called ''hollow'' roots, losing their second letter in binyan {{IPA|[hifˈil]}}, in {{IPA|[hufˈal]}}, and in much of {{IPA|[paˈal]}}. The feature of being conjugated differently because the second root-letter is ו or י is an example of a gizrah. It is important to note that these verbs are not strictly irregular verbs, because all Hebrew verbs that possess the same feature of the gizrah are conjugated in accordance with the gizrah's particular set of rules.

Every verb has a past tense, a present tense, a future tense, and a [[conditional mood]], with the present tense doubling as a [[present participle]]. Other forms also exist for certain verbs: verbs in five of the binyanim have an [[imperative mood]] and an [[infinitive]], verbs in four of the binyanim have [[gerund]]s, and verbs in one of the binyanim have a [[past participle]]. Finally, a very small number of fixed expressions include verbs in the [[subjunctive mood|jussive mood]], which is essentially an extension of the imperative into the third person. Except for the infinitive and gerund, these forms are conjugated to reflect the number (singular or plural), person (first, second, or third) and gender (masculine or feminine) of its subject, depending on the form.

In listings such as dictionaries, Hebrew verbs are sorted by their third-person masculine singular past tense form. This differs from English verbs, which are identified by their infinitives. (Nonetheless, the Hebrew term for ''infinitive'' is ''shem po'al'', which means ''verb name''.) Further, each of the seven binyanim is identified by the third-person masculine singular past tense form of the root פ-ע-ל (''P-'-L'', meaning ''doing'', ''action'', etc.) cast into that binyan: {{IPA|[ˈpaʕal]}}, {{IPA|[nifˈʕal]}}, {{IPA|[piˈʕel]}}, {{IPA|[puˈʕal]}}, {{IPA|[hifˈʕil]}}, {{IPA|[hufˈʕal]}}, and {{IPA|[hitpaˈʕel]}}.

===Binyan ''pa'al''===
Binyan ''pa'al'', also called binyan קל {{IPA|[kal]}} (''light''), is the most common binyan. ''Pa'al'' verbs are in the active voice, and can be either transitive or intransitive. This means that they may or may not take [[direct object]]s. ''Pa'al'' verbs are never formed from four-letter roots.

Binyan ''pa'al'' is the only binyan in which a given root can have both an active and a passive participle. For example, רצוי {{IPA|[raˈt͡suj]}} (''desirable'') is the passive participle of רצה {{IPA|[ʁaˈt͡sa]}} (''want'').

Binyan "pa'al" has the most diverse number of gizrot (pl. of gizrah), and the small number of Hebrew verbs that are strictly irregular (about six to ten) are generally considered to be part of the pa'al binyan, as they have some conjugation features similar to pa'al.

===Binyan ''nif'al''===
Verbs in binyan ''nif'al'' are always intransitive, but beyond that there is little restriction on their range of meanings.

The ''nif'al'' is the passive-voice counterpart of ''pa'al''. In principle, any transitive ''pa'al'' verb can be rendered passive by taking its root and casting it into ''nif'al''. Nonetheless, this is not ''nif'al''&#39;s main use, as the passive voice is fairly rare in ordinary Modern Hebrew.

More commonly, it is ''pa'al''&#39;s middle- or reflexive-voice counterpart. [[Ergative verb]]s in English often translate into Hebrew as a ''pa'al''–''nif'al'' pair. For example, English ''he '''broke''' the plate'' corresponds to Hebrew הוא שבר את הצלחת {{IPA|[hu '''ʃaˈvaʁ''' et ha-t͡saˈlaħat]}}, using ''pa'al''; but English ''the plate '''broke''''' corresponds to Hebrew הצלחת נשברה {{IPA|[ha-t͡saˈlaħat '''niʃbeˈʁa''']}}, using ''nif'al''. The difference is that in the first case, there is an agent doing the breaking, while in the second case, the agent is ignored. (Nonetheless, as in English, it can still be made clear that there was an ultimate agent: הוא הפיל את הצלחת והיא נשברה {{IPA|[hu hiˈpil et ha-t͡saˈlaħat vehi '''niʃbeˈʁa''']}}, ''he dropped the plate and it '''broke''''', uses ''nif'al''.) Other examples of this kind include פתח {{IPA|[paˈtaħ]}}/נפתח {{IPA|[nifˈtaħ]}} (''to open'', transitive/intransitive) and גמר {{IPA|[ɡaˈmaʁ]}}/נגמר {{IPA|[niɡˈmaʁ]}} (''to end'', transitive/intransitive).

Other relationships between a ''pa'al'' verb and its ''nif'al'' counterpart can exist as well. One example is זכר {{IPA|[zaˈχaʁ]}} and נזכר {{IPA|[nizˈkaʁ]}}: both mean ''to remember'', but the latter implies that one had previously forgotten, rather like English ''to suddenly remember''. Another is פגש {{IPA|[paˈɡaʃ]}} and נפגש {{IPA|[nifˈɡaʃ]}}: both mean ''to meet'', but the latter implies an intentional meeting, while the former often means an accidental meeting.

Finally, sometimes a ''nif'al'' verb has no ''pa'al'' counterpart, or at least is much more common than its ''pa'al'' counterpart; נדבק {{IPA|[nidˈbak]}} (''to stick'', intransitive) is a fairly common verb, but דבק {{IPA|[daˈvak]}} (''to cling'') is all but non-existent by comparison. (Indeed, נדבק {{IPA|[nidˈbak]}}'s transitive counterpart is הדביק {{IPA|[hidˈbik]}}, of binyan ''hif'il''; see below.)

Like ''pa'al'' verbs, ''nif'al'' verbs are never formed from four-letter roots.

''Nif'al'' verbs, like verbs in the other passive binyanim (''pu'al'' and ''huf'al'', described below), do not have gerunds but they do have infinitives and imperatives.

===Binyan ''pi'el''===
Binyan ''pi'el'', like binyan ''pa'al'', consists of transitive and intransitive verbs in the active voice, though there is perhaps a greater tendency for ''pi'el'' verbs to be transitive.

Most roots with a ''pa'al'' verb do not have a ''pi'el'' verb, and vice versa, but even so, there are many roots that do have both. Sometimes the ''pi'el'' verb is a more intense version of the ''pa'al'' verb; for example, קיפץ {{IPA|[kiˈpet͡s]}} (''to spring'') is a more intense version of קפץ {{IPA|[kaˈfat͡s]}} (''to jump''), and שיבר {{IPA|[ʃiˈbeʁ]}} (''to smash'', ''to shatter'', transitive) is a more intense version of שבר {{IPA|[ʃaˈvaʁ]}} (''to break'', transitive). In other cases, a ''pi'el'' verb acts as a causative counterpart to the ''pa'al'' verb with the same root; for example, לימד {{IPA|[liˈmed]}} (''to teach'') is essentially the causative of למד {{IPA|[laˈmad]}} (''to learn''). And in yet other cases, the nature of the relationship is less obvious; for example, ספר {{IPA|[saˈfaʁ]}} means ''to count'', while סיפר {{IPA|[siˈpeʁ]}} means ''to narrate'' (or ''to cut (hair)''), and פתח {{IPA|[paˈtaħ]}} means ''to open'' (transitive), while פיתח {{IPA|[piˈteaħ]}} means ''to develop'' (transitive).

===Binyan ''pu'al''===

Binyan ''pu'al'' is the passive-voice counterpart of binyan ''pi'el''. Unlike binyan ''nif'al'', it is used ''only'' for the passive voice. It is therefore not very commonly used in ordinary speech, except that the present participles of a number of ''pu'al'' verbs are used as ordinary adjectives: מבולבל {{IPA|[mevulˈbal]}} means ''mixed-up'' (from בולבל {{IPA|[bulˈbal]}}, the passive of בלבל {{IPA|[bilˈbel]}}, ''to confuse''), מעוניין {{IPA|[meunˈjan]}} means ''interested'', מפורסם {{IPA|[mefuʁˈsam]}} means ''famous'' (from פורסם {{IPA|[puʁˈsam]}}, the passive of פרסם {{IPA|[piʁˈsem]}}, ''to publicize''), and so on. Indeed, the same is true of many ''pi'el'' verbs, including the ''pi'el'' counterparts of two of the above examples: מבלבל {{IPA|[mevalˈbel]}}, ''confusing'', and מעניין {{IPA|[meanˈjen]}}, ''interesting''. The difference is that ''pi'el'' verbs are also frequently used as verbs, whereas ''pu'al'' is much less common.

''Pu'al'' verbs do not have gerunds, imperatives, or infinitives.

===Binyan ''hif'il''===

Binyan ''hif'il'' is another active binyan. ''Hif'il'' verbs are often causative counterparts of verbs in other binyanim; examples include הכתיב {{IPA|[hiχˈtiv]}} (''to dictate''; the causative of כתב {{IPA|[kaˈtav]}}, ''to write''), הדליק {{IPA|[hidˈlik]}} (''to turn on (a light)'', transitive; the causative of נדלק {{IPA|[nidˈlak]}}, ''(for a light) to turn on'', intransitive), and הרשים {{IPA|[hiʁˈʃim]}} (''to impress''; the causative of התרשם {{IPA|[hitʁaˈʃem]}}, ''to be impressed''). Nonetheless, not all are causatives of other verbs; for example, הבטיח {{IPA|[hivˈtiaħ]}} (''to promise''). <!-- Further, some are even [[ergative verb|ergative]]; for example, התחיל{{IPA|[hitˈħil]}} (''to start'') can be transitive, as in התחיל את הרצאתו {{IPA|[hu '''hitˈħil''' et haʁt͡saˈato]}} (''he '''has started''' his lecture''). -->

===Binyan ''huf'al''===

Binyan ''huf'al'' is much like binyan ''pu'al'', except that it corresponds to ''hif'il'' instead of to ''pi'el''. Like ''pu'al'', it is not commonly used in ordinary speech, except in present participles that have become adjectives, such as מוכר {{IPA|[muˈkaʁ]}} (''familiar'', from הוכר {{IPA|[huˈkaʁ]}}, the passive of הכיר {{IPA|[hiˈkiʁ]}}, ''to know (a person)'') and מוגזם {{IPA|[muɡˈzam]}} (''excessive'', from {{IPA|[huɡˈzam]}}, the passive of הגזים {{IPA|[hiɡˈzim]}}, ''to exaggerate''). Like ''pu'al'' verbs, ''huf'al'' verbs do not have gerunds, imperatives, or infinitives.

===Binyan ''hitpa'el''===

Binyan ''hitpa'el'' is rather like binyan ''nif'al'', in that all ''hitpa'el'' verbs are intransitive, and most have a reflexive sense. Indeed, many ''hitpa'el'' verbs are reflexive counterparts to other verbs with the same root; for example, התרחץ {{IPA|[hitʁaˈħet͡s]}} (''to wash oneself'') is the reflexive of רחץ {{IPA|[ʁaˈħat͡s]}} (''to wash'', transitive), and התגלח {{IPA|[hitɡaˈleaħ]}} (''to shave oneself'', i.e. ''to shave'', intransitive) is the reflexive of גילח {{IPA|[ɡiˈleaħ]}} (''to shave'', transitive). Some ''hitpa'el'' verbs are a combination of causative and reflexive; for example,הסתפר {{IPA|[histaˈpeʁ]}} (''to get one's hair cut'') is the causative reflexive of סיפר {{IPA|[siˈpeʁ]}} (''to cut (hair)''), and הצטלם {{IPA|[hit͡staˈlem]}} (''to get one's picture taken'') is the causative reflexive of צילם {{IPA|[t͡siˈlem]}} (''to take a picture (of someone or something)'').

''Hitpa'el'' verbs can also be reciprocal; for example, התכתב {{IPA|[hitkaˈtev]}} (''to write to each other'', i.e. ''to correspond'') is the reciprocal of כתב {{IPA|[kaˈtav]}} (''to write'').

In all of the above uses, the ''hitpa'el'' verb contrasts with a ''pu'al'' or ''huf'al'' verb in two ways: firstly, the subject of the ''hitpa'el'' verb is generally either performing the action, or at least complicit in it, whereas the subject of the ''pu'al'' or ''huf'al'' verb is generally not; and secondly, ''pu'al'' and ''huf'al'' verbs often convey a sense of completeness, which ''hitpa'el'' verbs generally do not. So whereas the sentence אני מצולם {{IPA|[aˈni '''met͡suˈlam''']}} (''I am photographed'', using ''pu'al'') means something like ''there exists a photo of me'', implying that the photo already exists, and not specifying whether the speaker caused the photo to be taken, the sentence אני מצטלם {{IPA|[aˈni '''mit͡staˈlem''']}} (''I am photographed'', using ''hitpa'el'') means something like ''I'm having my picture taken'', implying that the picture does not exist yet, and that the speaker is causing the picture to be taken.

In other cases, ''hitpa'el'' verbs are ordinary intransitive verbs; for example, התנהג {{IPA|[hitnaˈheɡ]}} (''to behave''), while structurally the reciprocal of נהג {{IPA|[naˈhaɡ]}} (''to drive''), is essentially a separate verb; in talking about a car that drove itself, one would say מכונית שנוהגת עצמה {{IPA|[meχoˈnit ʃe-'''noˈheɡet''' at͡sˈma]}} (''a car that '''drives''' itself'', using ''nahag''), not מכונית שמתנהגת {{IPA|[meχoˈnit ʃe-'''mitnaˈheɡet''']}} (''a car that '''behaves''''', using ''hitnaheg'').

==Nouns==
The Hebrew [[noun]] (שם עצם {{IPA|[ʃem ˈet͡sem]}} is inflected for number and state, but not for [[grammatical case|case]] and therefore Hebrew nominal structure is normally not considered to be strictly [[declension|declensional]]. Nouns are generally related to verbs (by shared roots), but their formation is not as systematic, often due to [[loanword]]s from foreign languages. Hebrew nouns are also inflected for definiteness by application of the prefix ה (ha) before the given noun. "Ha" is generally translated directly to the English word "the", but strictly speaking, this is not correct. It is more accurate to view "ha" as a morpheme for definiteness in the noun inflection.

===Gender: masculine and feminine===
Every noun in Hebrew has a [[grammatical gender|gender]], either masculine or feminine; for example, ספר {{IPA|[ˈsefeʁ]}} (''book'') is masculine, while דלת {{IPA|[ˈdelet]}} (''door'') is feminine. There is no strict system of [[morphology (linguistics)|formal]] gender, but there is a tendency for nouns ending in ת ({{IPA|[-t]}}) or ה (usually {{IPA|[-a]}}) to be feminine and for nouns ending in other letters to be masculine. There is a very strong tendency toward [[natural gender]] for nouns referring to people and some animals. Such nouns generally come in pairs, one masculine and one feminine; for example, איש {{IPA|[iʃ]}} means ''man'' and אישה {{IPA|[iˈʃa]}} means ''woman''. (When discussing mixed-sex groups, the plural of the masculine noun is used.)

===Number: singular, plural, and dual===
Hebrew nouns are inflected for [[grammatical number]]; as in English, [[count noun]]s have a singular form for referring to one object and a plural form for referring to more than one. Unlike in English, some count nouns also have separate ''dual'' forms, for referring to two objects; see below.

Masculine nouns generally form their plural by adding the suffix ים {{IPA|[-im]}}:
*מחשב {{IPA|[maħˈʃev]}} (''computer'') → מחשבים {{IPA|[maħʃeˈvim]}} (''computers'')

The addition of the extra syllable often causes the vowel in the first syllable to shorten:
*דבר {{IPA|[daˈvaʁ]}} (''thing'') → דברים {{IPA|[dvaˈʁim]}} (''things'')

Many common two-syllable masculine nouns, called ''[[segolate]]s'' because most (but not all) of them have the vowel {{IPA|[seˈɡol]}} ({{IPA|[-e-]}}) in both syllables, undergo more drastic characteristic vowel changes in the plural:
*ילד {{IPA|[ˈjeled]}} (''boy'') → ילדים {{IPA|[jelaˈdim]}} (''boys'', ''children'')
*בוקר {{IPA|[ˈbokeʁ]}} (''morning'') → בקרים {{IPA|[bkaˈʁim]}} (''mornings'')
*חדר {{IPA|[ˈħedeʁ]}} (''room'') → חדרים {{IPA|[ħadaˈʁim]}} (''rooms'')

Feminine nouns ending in {{IPA|[-a]}} or {{IPA|[-at]}} generally drop this ending and add {{IPA|[-ot]}}, usually without any vowel changes:
*מיטה {{IPA|[miˈta]}} (''bed'') → מיטות {{IPA|[miˈtot]}} (''beds'')
*מסעדה {{IPA|[misaˈda]}} (''restaurant'') → מסעדות {{IPA|[misaˈdot]}} (''restaurants'')
*צלחת {{IPA|[t͡saˈlaħat]}} (''plate'') → צלחות {{IPA|[t͡salaˈħot]}} (''plates'')

Nouns ending in {{IPA|[-et]}} also replace this ending with {{IPA|[-ot]}}, with an {{IPA|[-e-]}} in the preceding syllable usually changing to {{IPA|[-a-]}}:
*מחברת {{IPA|[maħˈbeʁet]}} (''notebook'') → מחברות {{IPA|[maħbaˈʁot]}} (''notebooks'')

Nouns ending in {{IPA|[-ut]}} and {{IPA|[-it]}} replace these endings with {{IPA|[-ujot]}} and {{IPA|[-ijot]}}, respectively:
*חנות {{IPA|[ħaˈnut]}} (''store'') → חנויות {{IPA|[ħanuˈjot]}} (''stores'')
*אשכולית {{IPA|[eʃkoˈlit]}} (''grapefruit'') → אשכוליות {{IPA|[eʃkoliˈjot]}} (''grapefruits'')

====Plural exceptions====
A large number of masculine nouns take the usually-feminine ending {{IPA|[-ot]}} in the plural:
*מקום {{IPA|[maˈkom]}} (''place'') → מקומות {{IPA|[mekoˈmot]}} (''places'')
*חלון {{IPA|[ħaˈlon]}} (''window'') → חלונות {{IPA|[ħaloˈnot]}} (''windows'')

A small number of feminine nouns take the usually-masculine ending {{IPA|[-im]}}:
*מילה {{IPA|[miˈla]}} (''word'') → מילים {{IPA|[miˈlim]}} (''words'')
*שנה {{IPA|[ʃaˈna]}} (''year'') → שנים {{IPA|[ʃaˈnim]}} (''years'')

Many plurals are completely irregular:
*עיר {{IPA|[iʁ]}} (''city'') → ערים {{IPA|[aˈʁim]}} (''cities'')
*עפרון {{IPA|[ipaˈʁon]}} (''pencil'') → עפרונות {{IPA|[efʁoˈnot]}} (''pencils'')
*איש {{IPA|[iʃ]}} (''man'') → אנשים {{IPA|[anaˈʃim]}} (''men'', ''people'')

====Dual====
Hebrew also has a [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual number]], expressed in the ending {{IPA|[-ajim]}}, but even in ancient times its use was very restricted. In modern times, it is usually used in expressions of time and number, or items that are inherently dual. These nouns have plurals as well, which are used for numbers higher than two, for example:

{| class="wikitable"
! Singular || Double || Triple
|-
| פעם אחת {{IPA|['''ˈpaam''' aˈħat]}} (''once'')
| פעמיים {{IPA|['''paaˈmajim''']}} (''twice'')
| שלוש פעמים {{IPA|[ʃaˈloʃ '''peaˈmim''']}} (''thrice'')
|-
| שבוע אחד {{IPA|['''ʃaˈvua''' eˈħad]}} (''one week'')
| שבועיים {{IPA|['''ʃvuˈajim''']}} (''two weeks)
| שלושה שבועות {{IPA|[ʃloˈʃa '''ʃavuˈot''']}} (''three weeks'')
|-
| מאה {{IPA|['''ˈmea''']}} (''one hundred'')
| מאתיים {{IPA|['''maˈtajim''']}} (''two hundred'')
| שלוש מאות {{IPA|[ʃloʃ '''meˈot''']}} (''three hundred'')
|}

The dual is also used for some body parts, for instance:

*רגל {{IPA|[ˈʁeɡel]}} (''leg'') → רגליים {{IPA|[ʁaɡˈlajim]}} (''legs'')
*אוזן {{IPA|[ˈozen]}} (''ear'') → אוזניים {{IPA|[ozˈnajim]}} (''ears'')
*עין {{IPA|[ˈajin]}} (''eye'') → עיניים {{IPA|[e(j)ˈnajim]}} (''eyes'')
*יד {{IPA|[ˈjad]}} (''hand'') → ידיים {{IPA|[jaˈdajim]}} (''hands'')

In this case, even if there are more than two, the dual is still used, for instance {{IPA|[leˈkelev jeʃ ˈaʁba '''ʁaɡˈlajim''']}} ("a dog has four '''legs'''").

The dual is also used for certain objects that are "inherently" dual. These words have no singular, for instance משקפיים {{IPA|[miʃkaˈfajim]}} (''eyeglasses'') and מספריים {{IPA|[mispaˈʁajim]}} (''scissors''). As in the English "two pairs of pants", the plural of these words uses the word זוג {{IPA|[zuɡ]}} (''pair''), e.g. {{IPA|[ʃne(j) '''zuˈɡot''' mispaˈʁajim]}} ("two '''pairs-of''' scissors-<small>DUAL</small>").

The name of the city גבעתיים ''[[Giv'atayim]]'' (''Тwo Peaks'', or ''Twin Peaks'') is an atypical use of the dual number.

===Noun construct===
Hebrew's [[genitive case]], or an approximation thereof, is achieved by placing two nouns next to each other. This is called a ''[[Status constructus|noun construct]]'' (סמיכות {{IPA|[smiˈχut]}}). The first noun is dependent upon the second and the second noun can be viewed as an adjective modifying the first noun. <!-- is it accurate to call this a genitive case? I've heard the construct state of Semitic languages contrasted with the genitive case of IE languages. Correct question - it is not really genitive ~~~~ -->

The first noun in a noun construct must be in its ''construct form''. For most nouns, the construct form is derived fairly easily from the normal (indefinite) form:
*The singular of a masculine noun typically does not change form.
*The plural of a masculine noun typically replaces the suffix ים- {{IPA|[-im]}} with the suffix י- {{IPA|[-e(j)]}}.
*The singular of a feminine noun ending in ה- {{IPA|[-a]}} typically replaces that ה with a ת {{IPA|[-at]}}.
*The plural of a feminine noun typically does not change form.

There are many words (usually ancient ones) that have changes in vocalization in the construct form. For example, the construct form of {{IPA|[ˈbajit]}} (house) is {{IPA|[be(j)t]}}.

In addition, the definite article is never placed on the first noun (the one in the construct form).

*בית ספר {{IPA|['''be(j)t''' ˈsefer]}} (literally, '''''house-of''' book'' or ''book'''house''''', i.e. ''school'')
*בית הספר {{IPA|[be(j)t '''ha'''-ˈsefer]}} (literally, ''house-of '''the'''-book'', i.e. '''''the''' school'')
*בתי חולים {{IPA|[baˈte(j) ħoˈlim]}} (literally, ''houses-of sick-people'', i.e. ''hospitals'')
*עוגת השוקולד {{IPA|[uɡat ha-ʃokolad]}} (''the chocolate cake'')
*דואר אוויר {{IPA|[ˈdoaʁ aˈviʁ]}} (''air mail'')
*כלב רחוב {{IPA|[ˈkelev ʁeˈħov]}} (''street dog'')
*בקבוק החלב {{IPA|[bakˈbuk he-ħaˈlav]}} (''the bottle of milk'')

However, this rule is not always adhered to in illiterate or slang speech, as for example העורך דין (literally ''the law organiser'', i.e. ''lawyer'').

===Possession===
Possession is generally indicated using the preposition {{IPA|[ʃel]}} (של, ''of'' or ''belonging to''):

*הספר שלי {{IPA|[ha-ˈsefeʁ '''ʃeˈli''']}} (literally ''the-book '''of-me''''', i.e. '''''my''' book'')
*הדירה שלך {{IPA|[ha-diˈʁa '''ʃelˈχa''']}} (literally ''the-apartment '''of-you''''', i.e. '''''your''' apartment'')
*המשחק של אנדר {{IPA|[ha-misˈħak '''ʃel ˈendeʁ''']}} (literally ''the-game '''of-Ender''''', i.e. [[Ender's Game|'''Ender's''' Game]]'')

In literary style, nouns are inflected to show possession through noun declension; a personal suffix is added to the construct form of the noun (discussed above). So, ספרי {{IPA|[sifˈʁe(j)]}} (''books of'') can be inflected to form ספריי {{IPA|[sfaˈʁaj]}} (''my books''),ספריך {{IPA|[sfaˈʁe(j)χa]}} (''your books''), ספרינו {{IPA|[sfaˈʁenu]}} (''our books''), and so forth, while דירת {{IPA|[diˈʁat]}} (''apartment of'') gives דירתי {{IPA|[diʁaˈti]}} (my apartment), דירתך {{IPA|[diʁatˈχa]}} (''your apartment''),דירתנו {{IPA|[diʁaˈtenu]}} (''our apartment''), etc.

While the use of these forms is mostly restricted to formal and literary speech, they are in regular use in some colloquial phrases, such as ?מה שלומך {{IPA|[ma ʃlomˈχa?]}} (literally "what peace-of-you?", i.e. "what is your peace?", i.e. "how are you?") or לדעתי {{IPA|[ledaaˈti]}} (in my opinion).

In addition, the inflected possessive is commonly used for terms of kinship; for instance, בני {{IPA|[bni]}} (''my son''), בתם {{IPA|[biˈtam]}} (''their daughter''), and אשתו {{IPA|[iʃˈto]}} (''his wife'') are preferred to הבן שלי {{IPA|[ha-ˈben ʃeli]}}, הבת שלהם {{IPA|[ha-ˈbat ʃelahem]}}, and האישה שלו {{IPA|[ha-iˈʃa ʃelo]}}. However, usage differs for different [[register (linguistics)|registers]] and [[sociolect]]s: In general, the colloquial will use more analytic constructs in place of noun declensions.

===Noun derivation===
In the same way that Hebrew verbs are conjugated by applying various prefixes, suffixes and internal vowel combinations, Hebrew nouns can be formed by applying various "meters" (Hebrew {{IPA|[miʃkaˈlim]}}) to the same roots. Gerunds are one example (see above).

Many abstract nouns are derived from another noun, or from a verb (usually one in binyan ''hitpa'el'') using the suffix {{IPA|[-ut]}}:
*ספר {{IPA|[ˈsefeʁ]}} (''book'') → ספרות {{IPA|[sifˈʁut]}} (''literature'')
*התייעץ {{IPA|[hitjaˈet͡s]}} (''to consult'') → התייעצות {{IPA|[hitjaaˈt͡sut]}} (''advice'')
*התרגש {{IPA|[hitʁaˈɡeʃ]}} (''to get excited'') → התרגשות {{IPA|[hitʁaɡˈʃut]}} (''excitement'')

The {{IPA|[katˈlan]}} meter, applied to a verb, indicates "someone who does this":
*שיקר {{IPA|[ʃiˈkeʁ]}} (''to lie'') → שקרן {{IPA|[ʃakˈʁan]}} (''liar'')
*פחד {{IPA|[paˈħad]}} (''to be afraid'') → פחדן {{IPA|[paħˈdan]}} (''coward'')

The suffix {{IPA|[-on]}} denotes a smaller version of something:
*ספר {{IPA|[ˈsefeʁ]}} (''book'') → ספרון {{IPA|[sifˈʁon]}} (''booklet'')
*מחשב {{IPA|[maħˈʃev]}} (''computer'') → מחשבון {{IPA|[maħʃeˈvon]}} (''calculator'')

Repeating the last two letters of a noun or adjective can also denote a smaller or lesser version:
*כלב {{IPA|[ˈkelev]}} (''dog'') → כלבלב {{IPA|[klavˈlav]}} (''puppy'')
*קצר {{IPA|[kaˈt͡saʁ]}} (''short'') → קצרצר {{IPA|[kt͡saʁˈt͡saʁ]}} (''very short'')

The {{IPA|[kaˈtelet]}} mishkal can have a variety of meanings:
*אדום {{IPA|[aˈdom]}} (''red'') → אדמת {{IPA|[aˈdemet]}} (''measles'')
*כלב {{IPA|[ˈkelev]}} (''dog'') → כלבת {{IPA|[kaˈlevet]}} (''rabies'')
*נייר {{IPA|[niˈjaʁ]}} (''paper'') → ניירת {{IPA|[naˈjeʁet]}} (''paperwork'')
*כסף {{IPA|[ˈkesef]}} (''money'') → כספת {{IPA|[kaˈsefet]}} (''a safe'')

New nouns are also often formed by the combination of two existing stems:
*קול {{IPA|[kol]}} (''sound'') + נוע {{IPA|[ˈnoa]}} (''motion'') → קולנוע {{IPA|[kolˈnoa]}} (''cinema'')
*רמז {{IPA|[ˈʁemez]}} (''hint'') + אור {{IPA|[oʁ]}} (''light'') → רמזור {{IPA|[ʁamˈzoʁ]}} (''traffic light'')

A combination of methods (the example has the ''kat'lan'' meter plus the ending {{IPA|[-ut]}}):
*תועלת {{IPA|[toˈelet]}} (''benefit'') → תועלתנות {{IPA|[toaltaˈnut]}} (''utilitarianism'')

==Adjectives==
In Hebrew, an [[adjective]] (שם תואר {{IPA|[ʃem toaʁ]}}) comes after the noun and agrees in gender, number, and definiteness with the noun which it modifies:
*ספר '''קטן''' {{IPA|[ˈsefeʁ '''kaˈtan''']}} (''a '''small''' book'')
*ספרים '''קטנים''' {{IPA|[sfaˈʁim '''ktaˈnim''']}} ( '''small''' books'')
*בובה '''קטנה''' {{IPA|[buˈba '''ktaˈna''']}} (''a '''small''' doll'')
*בובות '''קטנות''' {{IPA|[buˈbot '''ktaˈnot''']}} ('''''small''' dolls'')

Adjectives ending in ''-i'' have slightly different forms:
*איש '''מקומי''' {{IPA|[iʃ '''mkoˈmi''']}} (''a '''local''' man'')
*אישה '''מקומית''' {{IPA|[iˈʃa '''mkoˈmit''']}} (''a '''local''' woman'')
*אנשים '''מקומיים''' {{IPA|[anaˈʃim '''mkomiˈjim''']}} ('''''local''' people'')
*נשים '''מקומיות''' {{IPA|[naˈʃim '''mkomiˈjot''']}} ('''''local''' women'')

Masculine nouns that take the feminine plural ending {{IPA|[-ot]}} still take masculine plural adjectives, e.g. מקומות '''יפים''' {{IPA|[mkoˈmot '''jaˈfim''']}} ('''''beautiful''' places''). The reverse goes for feminine plural nouns ending in {{IPA|[-im]}}, e.g. מילים '''ארוכות''' {{IPA|[miˈlim aʁuˈkot]}} ('''''long''' words'').

Note also that many adjectives, like segolate nouns, change their vowel structure in the feminine and plural.

===Use of the definite article with adjectives===
In Hebrew, unlike in English, an [[attributive]] adjective takes the definite article if it modifies a definite noun (either a proper noun, or a definite common noun).

The case of a proper noun highlights the fact that all Hebrew adjectives can be interpreted as [[appositive]] nouns. For example, contrast the following:

*דוד הגדול {{IPA|[daˈvid ha-ɡaˈdol]}} (David the Great, ''lit.'' David the-great ''(m.sing.)'')
*דוד המלך {{IPA|[daˈvid ha-ˈmeleχ]}} (David the King, ''lit.'' David the-king)

===Adjectives derived from verbs===
Many adjectives in Hebrew are derived from the present tense of verbs. These adjectives are inflected the same way as the verbs they are derived from:
*סוער {{IPA|[soˈeʁ]}} (stormy, pa'al) → סוערת {{IPA|[soˈeʁet]}}, סוערים {{IPA|[soaˈʁim]}}, סוערות {{IPA|[soaˈʁot]}}
*מנותק {{IPA|[menuˈtak]}} (alienated, pu'al) → מנותקת {{IPA|[menuˈteket]}}, מנותקים {{IPA|[menutaˈkim]}}, מנותקות {{IPA|[menutaˈkot]}}
*מרשים {{IPA|[maʁˈʃim]}} (impressive, hif'il) → מרשימה {{IPA|[maʁʃiˈma]}}, מרשימים {{IPA|[maʁʃiˈmim]}}, מרשימות {{IPA|[maʁʃiˈmot]}}

==Adverbs==
The Hebrew term for adverb is תואר הפועל {{IPA|[ˈtoaʁ ha-ˈpoal]}}.

Hebrew forms adverbs in several different ways.

Some adjectives have corresponding one-word adverbs. In many cases, the adverb is simply the adjective's masculine singular form:
* חזק {{IPA|[ħaˈzak]}} (''strong'' or ''strongly'')
* ברור {{IPA|[baˈʁuʁ]}} (''clear'' or ''clearly'')
In other cases, the adverb has a distinct form:
* מהר {{IPA|[maˈheʁ]}} (''quickly''; from the adjective מהיר {{IPA|[maˈhiʁ]}}, ''quick'')
* לאט {{IPA|[leˈat]}} (''slowly''; from the adjective איטי {{IPA|[iˈti]}}, ''slow'')
* היטב {{IPA|[hitev]}} ''well''; from the adjective טוב {{IPA|[tov]}}, ''good''

In some cases, an adverb is derived from an adjective using its singular feminine form or (mostly in poetic or archaic usage) its plural feminine form:
* אוטומטית {{IPA|[otoˈmatit]}} (''automatically'')
* מעדנות {{IPA|[maʕadaˈnot]}} (''gently'')

Most adjectives, however, do not have corresponding one-word adverbs; rather, they have corresponding adverb ''phrases'', formed using one of the following approaches:
*using the prepositional prefix ב {{IPA|[be-]}} (''in'') with the adjective's corresponding abstract noun:
** בזהירות {{IPA|[bezehiˈʁut]}} (''in carefulness'', i.e. ''carefully'')
** בעדינות {{IPA|[beadiˈnut]}} (''in gentleness'', i.e. ''gently'')
*using the same prefix, but with the noun אופן {{IPA|[ˈofen]}} (''a nature/fashion''), and modifying the noun with the adjective's masculine singular form:
** באופן אטי {{IPA|[beˈofen iˈti]}} ("in slow fashion", i.e. "slowly").
*similarly, but with the noun צורה {{IPA|[t͡suˈʁa]}} (''form''), and using the adjective's ''feminine'' singular form:
** בצורה אופיינית {{IPA|[bet͡suˈʁa ofˈjanit]}} (''in characteristic form'', i.e. ''characteristically'').

The use of one of these methods does not necessarily preclude the use of the others; for example, ''slowly'' may be either לאט {{IPA|[leˈat]}} (a one-word adverb), or באטיות {{IPA|[beitiˈut]}} (literally ''in slowness''; a somewhat more elegant way of expressing the same thing), בלאט {{IPA|[beleˈat]}} (an even more elegant way of rendering the same), or באופן אטי {{IPA|[beˈofen iˈti]}} ("in slow fashion", i.e. "slowly"), as mentioned above.

Finally, like in English, there are various adverbs that do not have corresponding adjectives at all:
* לכן {{IPA|[laˈχen]}} (''therefore'')
* ככה {{IPA|[ˈkaχa]}} (''this way'')

==Prepositions==
Like English, Hebrew is primarily a [[preposition]]al language, with a large number of prepositions. Several of Hebrew's most common prepositions, however, unlike any in English, are prefixes rather than separate words; for example, English '''''in''' the room'' is Hebrew בחדר {{IPA|['''b'''a-ˈħedeʁ]}}.

===Direct objects===

The preposition את {{IPA|[et]}} plays an important role in Hebrew grammar. Its most common use is to introduce a direct object; for example, English ''I see the book'' is in Hebrew אני רואה את הספר {{IPA|[aˈni roˈe et ha-ˈsefeʁ]}} (literally ''I see {{IPA|[et]}} the-book''). However, את {{IPA|[et]}} is used only with semantically ''definite'' direct objects, such as nouns with ''the'', proper nouns, and personal pronouns; with semantically ''indefinite'' direct objects, it is simply omitted: אני רואה ספר ''ani ro'e sefer'' (''I see a book'') does not use את {{IPA|[et]}}. This has no direct translation into English, and is best described as an object particle — that is, it denotes that the word it precedes is the direct object of the verb.

Finally, את {{IPA|[et]}} has a number of special uses; for example, when the adjective צריך {{IPA|[t͡saˈʁiχ]}} (''in need (of)'') takes a definite noun complement, it uses the preposition את {{IPA|[et]}}: היית צריך את זה {{IPA|[haˈjiti t͡saˈʁiχ et ze]}} (literally ''I-was in-need-of {{IPA|[et]}} this'', i.e. ''I needed this''). Here as elsewhere, the את {{IPA|[et]}} is dropped with an indefinite complement: היו צריכים יותר {{IPA|[haˈju t͡sʁeˈχim joˈteʁ]}} (literally ''were in-need-of more'', i.e. ''they needed more''). This is perhaps related to the verb-like fashion in which the adjective is used.

In Biblical Hebrew, there is possibly another use of et. Waltke and O'Connor (pp177–178) make the point:"...(1) ...sign of the accusative ... (2) More recent grammarians regard it as a marker of emphasis used most often which definite nouns in the accusative role. The apparent occurrences with the nominative are most problematic ... AM Wilson late in the nineteenth century concluded from his exhaustive study of all the occurrences of the debated particle that it had an intensive or reflexive force in some of its occurrences. Many grammarians have followed his lead. (reference lists studies of 1955, 1964, 1964, 1973, 1965, 1909, 1976.) On such a view, eth is a weakened emphatic particle corresponding to the English pronoun 'self' ... It resembles Greek 'autos' and Latin 'ipse' both sometimes used for emphasis, and like them it can be omitted from the text, without obscuring the grammar. This explanation of the particle's meaning harmonizes well with the facts that the particle is used in Michnaic Hebrew as a demonstrative and is found almost exclusively with determinate nouns."

===Indirect objects===
Indirect objects are objects requiring a preposition other than את {{IPA|[et]}}. The preposition used depends on the verb, and these can be very different from the one used in English. A good dictionary is required to look these up. In the case of definite indirect objects, the preposition will replace את {{IPA|[et]}}.

* אני שכחתי מהבחירות {{IPA|[ani ʃaˈχaħti me-'''ha-bħiˈrot''']}} (''I forgot about '''the election''''')

The Hebrew grammar distinguishes between various kinds of indirect objects, according to what they specify. Thus, there is a division between objects for time תיאור זמן ({{IPA|[teˈuʁ zman]}}), objects for place תיאור מקום ({{IPA|[teˈuʁ maˈkom]}}), objects for reason תיאור סיבה ({{IPA|[teˈuʁ siˈba]}}) and many others.

In Hebrew, there are no distinct [[prepositional pronoun]]s; if the object of a preposition is a pronoun, but the preposition contracts with the object, and the [[inflected preposition]] thus formed can be considered the indirect object of the sentence.

:We spoke to David (''dibarnu le-David'') = דברנו לדוד

:We spoke to him (''dibarnu lo'') = דברנו לו

As mentioned above, the direct object is often rendered with the word את (''et''). ''Et'' is excluded only when the direct object is a non-definite noun.

:We protected David (''shmarnu et David'') = שמרנו את דוד

:We protected him (''shmarnu oto'') = שמרנו אותו
<!-- Additionally, Hebrew distinguishes between various kinds of verbless fragments according to their use, such as תמורה {{IPA|[tmuˈʁa]}} for elaboration, קריאה {{IPA|[kʁiˈa]}} for exclamation, פנייה {{IPA|[pniˈja]}} for approach and הסגר {{IPA|[hesˈɡeʁ]}} for disclosing the opinion of another party using direct speech (e.g. לדעת הרופא, העישון מזיק לבריאות {{IPA|[leˈdaat ha-ʁoˈfe, ha-iˈʃun ma-zik la-bʁiˈut]}} (''in the doctor's opinion, smoking is harmful to health'').-->

==Miscellaneous==
===Pronominal suffix===

There is a form called the verbal pronominal suffix, in which a pronoun direct object can be rendered as an additional suffix onto the verb-form. This form allows for a high degree of word economy, as the single fully-conjugated verb expresses the verb, its voice, its subject, its object, and its tense.

:We protected him (''shmarnuhu'') = שמרנוהו

In modern usage, the verbal pronominal suffices are rarely used, in favor of expression of direct objects as the inflected form of the separate word, et. It is used more commonly in biblical and poetic Hebrew (for instance, in prayers).

===Impersonal sentences===
A sentence may lack a subject. In this case it is called סתמי {{IPA|[staˈmi]}}, or indefinite. If several parts of the sentence have the same function and are attached to the same word, they are called כולל {{IPA|[koˈlel]}}, or collective. Two or more sentences that do not share common parts and are separated by comma are called משפט מחובר {{IPA|[miʃˈpat meħuˈbaʁ]}}, or joined sentences. In many cases, the second sentence uses a pronoun that stands for the other's subject; they are generally interconnected.

===Subordinate clauses===
Like English, Hebrew allows [[clause]]s פסוקיות ({{IPA|[psukiˈjot]}}) to serve as parts of a sentence. A sentence containing a subordinate clause is called a משפט מורכב {{IPA|[miʃˈpat muʁˈkav]}}. Subordinate clauses almost always begin with the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ש {{IPA|[ʃe-]}} (usually ''that''), which attaches as a prefix to the word that follows it. For example, in the sentence יוסי אומר שהוא אוכל {{IPA|[ˈjosi oˈmeʁ ʃe-ˈhu oˈχel]}} (''Yosi says that he is eating''), the subordinate clause שהוא אוכל {{IPA|[ʃe-ˈhu oˈχel]}} (''that he is eating'') serves as the direct object of the verb אומר {{IPA|[oˈmeʁ]}} (''says''). Unlike English, Hebrew does not have a large number of subordinating conjunctions; rather, subordinate clauses almost always act as nouns and can be introduced by prepositions in order to serve as adverbs. For example, the English '''''As''' I said, there's nothing we can do'' in Hebrew is כפי שאמרתי, אין מה לעשות {{IPA|['''keˈfi ʃe'''-aˈmaʁti, e(j)n ma laaˈsot]}} (literally '''''Like that'''-I-said, there-isn't what to-do'').

That said, [[relative clause]]s, which act as adjectives, are also formed using ש {{IPA|[ʃe-]}}. For example, English ''Yosi sees the man '''who''' is eating apples'' is in Hebrew יוסי רואה את האיש שאוכל תפוחים {{IPA|[ˈjosi roˈe et ha-ˈiʃ '''ʃe'''-oˈχel tapuˈħim]}} (literally ''Yosi sees [et] the-man '''that'''-eats apples''). In this use ש {{IPA|[ʃe-]}} sometimes acts as a [[relativizer]] rather than as a [[relative pronoun]]; that is, sometimes the pronoun remains behind in the clause: היא מכירה את האיש שדיברתי עליו {{IPA|[hi makiˈʁa et ha-ˈiʃ '''ʃe'''-diˈbaʁti '''aˈlav''']}}, which translates to ''She knows the man I talked about'', literally means ''She knows [et] the-man '''that'''-I-talked '''about him'''''. This is because in Hebrew, a preposition (in this case על {{IPA|[al]}}) cannot appear without its object, so the ''him'' יו ({{IPA|[-av]}}) could not be dropped.


==See also==
==See also==
* Grammar and Orthography
* [[Hebrew verb conjugation]]
** [[Biblical Hebrew grammar]]
* [[Prefixes and suffixes in Hebrew]]
* [[Hebrew spelling]]
** [[Modern Hebrew grammar]]
** [[Modern Hebrew verb conjugation]]
** [[Prefixes in Hebrew]]
** [[Suffixes in Hebrew]]
** [[Hebrew spelling]]
** [[Biblical Hebrew orthography]]
* Stages of Hebrew
** [[Biblical Hebrew]]&nbsp;– Attested from 10th century BCE to about 70 CE
** [[Mishnaic Hebrew]]&nbsp;– Post Temple Roman Era (1st through 4th Century CE)
** [[Medieval Hebrew]]&nbsp;– From about the 4th century until the revival of Hebrew in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
** [[Modern Hebrew]]&nbsp;– Early 20th century CE to present
* Other forms of Hebrew
** [[Israelian Hebrew]]&nbsp;– Proposed dialect of Hebrew used by the Northern Israelite tribes in the 1st millennium BCE
** [[Samaritan Hebrew]]&nbsp;– Form of Hebrew used by the Samaritans
* Pronunciation Variation
** [[Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation]] used by Jews of [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]
** [[Mizrahi Hebrew]] used by Jews of the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]]
** [[Yemenite Hebrew pronunciation]] (Temani Hebrew) used by Jews of [[Yemen]]
** [[Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation]] used by Jews of [[Germany]] and by [[Yiddish]]-speaking Jews
** [[Modern Hebrew phonology]]
* Miscellaneous
** [[Yiddish language]]&nbsp;– a High-German language with Hebrew and Slavic influence, used by [[Ashkenazi Jews]]
** [[Ladino language]]&nbsp;– a Spanish language with Hebrew and Aramaic influence, used by [[Sephardi Jews]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
<references/>

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |last=Blau |first=Joshua |year=1981 |title=The renaissance of modern Hebrew and modern standard Arabic |isbn=0520095480 |publisher=University of California Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Davis |first=Craig |year=2007 |title=Dating the Old Testament |publisher=RJ Communications |location=New York |isbn=978-0-9795062-0-8}}
* {{citation |last=Doron |first=Edit |contribution=VSO and Left-conjunct Agreement: Biblical Hebrew vs. Modern Hebrew |title=Universal Grammar in the Reconstruction of Dead Languages |year=2005 |editor-last=Kiss |editor-first=Katalin É. |location=Berlin |publisher=Mouton |pages=239–264 |url=http://pluto.huji.ac.il/~edit/edit/doron-left-conjunct-agreement.pdf |isbn=3110185504 |archive-date=25 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225041506/http://pluto.huji.ac.il/~edit/edit/doron-left-conjunct-agreement.pdf}}
* {{cite book |last=Glinert |first=Lewis |year=2004 |title=The Grammar of Modern Hebrew |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521611881}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rosén |first=H. |title=Israel Language Policy and Linguistics |journal=Ariel |volume=25 |year=1969 |pages=48–63 |url=http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israel_lang_policy_rosen.htm}}


==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
'''Modern Hebrew'''
* {{cite journal |last= Laufer |first= Asher |year= 1999 |title= Hebrew |journal= Handbook of the International Phonetic Association |pages= 96-99}}
* {{cite book | title = 501 Hebrew Verbs | first = Shmuel | last = Bolozky | isbn = 0-8120-9468-9 | publisher = Barron's Educational Series, Inc. }}
* {{Citation | last= Laufer |first= Asher |year= 1999 |title= Hebrew |journal= Handbook of the International Phonetic Association |pages= 96–99}}
* {{cite book | title = Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar | edition = 3rd edition | first = Lewis | last = Glinert | isbn = 0-415-70082-5 | publisher = Routledge UK }}
* {{Citation | title = 501 Hebrew Verbs | first = Shmuel | last = Bolozky | year = 1996 | isbn = 0-8120-9468-9 | publisher = Barron's Educational Series, Inc. }}
* {{Citation | title = Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar | edition = 3rd | first = Lewis | last = Glinert | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-415-70082-5 | publisher = Routledge UK }}
* {{cite book
* {{cite journal |last1=Zuckermann |first1=Ghil'ad |author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann |title=A New Vision for Israeli Hebrew: Theoretical and practical implications of analyzing Israel's main language as a semi-engineered Semito-European hybrid language |journal=Journal of Modern Jewish Studies |date=March 2006 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=57–71 |doi=10.1080/14725880500511175|s2cid=14682166 |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:121380/new-vision.pdf }}
| last = Waltke
* {{cite book |last1=Arad |first1=Maya |author-link=Maya Arad |title=Roots and patterns : Hebrew morpho-syntax |date=2005 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |isbn=978-1-4020-3244-8}}
| first = Bruce K.
| coauthors = M. O'Connor
| title = [[An introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax]]
| publisher = [[Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake Indiana]]
| date = 1990
| pages = 177–178


'''Biblical Hebrew'''
}}
* {{Citation | last = Waltke | first = Bruce K. |author2=M. O'Connor | title = An introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax | publisher = Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake Indiana | year = 1990 | pages = 177–178 | isbn = 0-931464-31-5}}
* {{Citation | last = Duane A. Garrett and Jason S. DeRouchie | title=A Modern Grammar for Biblical Hebrew }}


==External links==
==External links==
* {{Cite GHG}}
*[http://www.lashon.net/JMH/GlamourGrammar.html Glamour of the Grammar] - Hebraist Dr. Joel M. Hoffman's biweekly column on Hebrew grammar
*[http://www.hebrew-verbs.co.il Hebrew Verbs Conjugation Tool] - Online Hebrew Verb Learning Tool (Hebrew/English)
*[http://www.lashon.net/JMH/GlamourGrammar.html Glamour of the Grammar] – Hebraist Dr. Joel M. Hoffman's biweekly column on Hebrew grammar
*[http://foundationstone.com.au/HtmlSupport/FrameSupport/onlineHebrewTutorialFrame.html ''Foundationstone'' — Online Hebrew Tutorial]
*[http://foundationstone.com.au/HtmlSupport/FrameSupport/onlineHebrewTutorialFrame.html ''Foundationstone'' — Online Hebrew Tutorial]
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/babel-site/ Hebrew is easy, ''by Babel'']
*[http://www.yiwoodmere.org/library/cybrary/hebrew.html Learning Hebrew, Young Israel] ''(most of the links leading to language learning are now dead links)''
*[http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/grammar.html A Basic Introduction to Hebrew grammar]
*[http://www.hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/grammar.html A Basic Introduction to Hebrew grammar]
*[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrewtoc.htm History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language], David Steinberg
*[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrewtoc.htm History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language], David Steinberg
* [[:File:Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar (1910 Kautzsch-Cowley edition).djvu|Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar]] - written by [[Wilhelm Gesenius]]; 1910 edition, edited and enlarged by [[Emil Kautzsch]]; translated by [[Arthur Ernest Cowley]]; scanned public domain book


{{Hebrew language}}
{{Hebrew language}}
{{Language grammars}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Hebrew Grammar}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hebrew Grammar}}
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Hebrew grammar| ]]
[[Category:Hebrew grammar| ]]


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[[ru:Грамматика языка иврит]]

Latest revision as of 00:09, 12 September 2024

Hebrew grammar is the grammar of the Hebrew language.

History of studies in Hebrew grammar

[edit]
Further information: Hebraist

The Masoretes in the 7th to 11th centuries laid the foundation for grammatical analysis of Hebrew. As early as the 9th century Judah ibn Kuraish discussed the relationship between Arabic and Hebrew. In the 10th century, Aaron ben Moses ben Asher refined the Tiberian vocalization, an extinct pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible.

The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appear in the High Middle Ages, in the context of Midrash (a method of interpreting and studying the Hebrew Bible). The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad around the 7th century. The Diqduq (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.[1]

Solomon ibn Gabirol in the 11th century composed a versified Hebrew grammar, consisting of 400 verses divided into ten parts. In the 12th century, Ibn Barun compared the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition.[2] 11th to 12th century grammarians of the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain included Judah ben David Hayyuj, Jonah ibn Janah, Abraham ibn Ezra, Joseph Kimhi, Moses Kimhi and David Kimhi. Ibn Ezra gives a list of the oldest Hebrew grammarians in the introduction to his Moznayim (1140). Profiat Duran published an influential grammar in 1403.

Judah Messer Leon's 1454 grammar is a product of the Italian Renaissance. Hebrew grammars by Christian authors appeared during the Renaissance. Hieronymus Buclidius, a friend of Erasmus, gave more than 20,000 francs to establish a branch of Hebrew studies at Louvain in Flanders. Elijah Levita was called to the chair of Hebrew at the University of Paris. Cardinal Grimani and other dignitaries, both of the state and of the Church, studied Hebrew and the Cabala with Jewish teachers; even the warrior Guido Rangoni attempted the Hebrew language with the aid of Jacob Mantino (1526). Pico de la Mirandola (d. 1494) was the first to collect Hebrew manuscripts, and Reuchlin was the first Christian author to write a vocabulary and short grammar of the Hebrew language (1506).[3] A more detailed grammar was published in 1590 by Otto Walper.[4] Conrad Gesner (d. 1565) was the first Christian to compile a catalogue of Hebrew books. Paul Fagius and Elia Levita operated the first Hebrew printing office in the 1540s. Levita also compiled the first Hebrew-Yiddish dictionary.

Through the influence of Johannes Buxtorf (d. 1629) a serious attempt was made to understand the post-Biblical literature, and many of the most important works were translated into Latin. Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar appeared in 1813.

Eras

[edit]

The Hebrew language is subdivided by era, with significant differences apparent between the varieties. All varieties, from Biblical to Modern, use a typically Semitic templatic morphology with triconsonantal stems, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have significant borrowed components of the lexicon that do not fit into this pattern. Verbal morphology has remained relatively unchanged, though Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew have lost some modal distinctions of Biblical Hebrew and created others through the use of auxiliary verbs.

Significant syntactic changes have arisen in Modern Hebrew as a result of non-Semitic substrate influences. In particular:

  • In Biblical Hebrew, possession is normally expressed with status constructus, a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced, "construct" form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal, "absolute" form. Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this construction for phrases where the two components form a unified concept, whereas ordinary possession is more commonly expressed analytically with the preposition shel 'of' (etymologically consisting of the relativizer she- 'that' and the preposition le- 'to').[5][6]
  • Possession in pronouns is expressed with pronominal suffixes added to the noun. Modern Hebrew tends to reserve this for a limited number of nouns, but usually prefers to use the preposition shel, as in the previous case.[7]
  • Biblical Hebrew often expresses a pronoun direct object by appending a pronominal suffix directly to the verb, as an alternative to appending it to the preposition that signals a definite direct object. The latter construction is the one generally used in Modern Hebrew.[7]
  • The tense–aspect that is formed by prefixes could denote either the present (especially frequentative) or the future, as well as frequentative past in Biblical Hebrew (some scholars argue that it simply denoted imperfective aspect), while in modern Hebrew it is always future. The suffixed form denotes what is commonly translated as past in both cases, though some scholars argue that it denoted perfective aspect.[8]
  • Biblical Hebrew employs the so-called waw consecutive construction, in which the conjunction "and" seemingly reverses the tense of a verb (though its exact meaning is a matter of debate). This is not typical of Modern Hebrew.[9]
  • The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is VSO, while Modern Hebrew is SVO.[10]

However, most Biblical Hebrew constructions are still permissible in Modern Hebrew in formal, literary, archaic or poetic style.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ G. Khan, J. B. Noah, The Early Karaite Tradition of Hebrew Grammatical Thought (2000)
  2. ^ Pinchas Wechter, Ibn Barūn's Arabic Works on Hebrew Grammar and Lexicography (1964)
  3. ^ Online version of De rudimentis hebraicis
  4. ^ Grammatica linguae sanctae at Google Books
  5. ^ Zuckermann (2006:74)
  6. ^ Rosén (1969)
  7. ^ a b Glinert (2004:52)
  8. ^ Blau (1981:153–154)
  9. ^ Davis (2007:536)
  10. ^ Doron (2005:3)

Works cited

[edit]
  • Blau, Joshua (1981). The renaissance of modern Hebrew and modern standard Arabic. University of California Press. ISBN 0520095480.
  • Davis, Craig (2007). Dating the Old Testament. New York: RJ Communications. ISBN 978-0-9795062-0-8.
  • Doron, Edit (2005), "VSO and Left-conjunct Agreement: Biblical Hebrew vs. Modern Hebrew", in Kiss, Katalin É. (ed.), Universal Grammar in the Reconstruction of Dead Languages (PDF), Berlin: Mouton, pp. 239–264, ISBN 3110185504, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2011
  • Glinert, Lewis (2004). The Grammar of Modern Hebrew. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521611881.
  • Rosén, H. (1969). "Israel Language Policy and Linguistics". Ariel. 25: 48–63.

Bibliography

[edit]

Modern Hebrew

Biblical Hebrew

  • Waltke, Bruce K.; M. O'Connor (1990), An introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax, Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake Indiana, pp. 177–178, ISBN 0-931464-31-5
  • Duane A. Garrett and Jason S. DeRouchie, A Modern Grammar for Biblical Hebrew
[edit]
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