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[[File:Synthetic ice rink.jpg|thumb|[[Ice hockey]] team training on synthetic ice]]
'''Synthetic ice''' is the name given to a synthetic material intended to substitute for ice as a skating surface. It is a lightweight, low-friction, wear-resistant polymer (plastic) material used for skating with standard metal-bladed [[ice skates]]. A typical synthetic [[ice rink]] will consist of many panels (usually in typical building material sheet sizes) of thin surface material assembled on top of a sturdy, level and smooth sub-floor (anything from concrete to wood or even dirt or grass) to create a large skating area. Synthetic ice is sometimes called '''artificial ice''' but that term is ambiguous, being also used to mean the man-made skating surface created by freezing water with refrigeration equipment.
'''Synthetic ice''' is a solid polymer material designed for skating using normal metal-bladed [[ice skate]]s. Rinks are constructed by interlocking panels. Synthetic ice is sometimes called '''artificial ice''', but that term is ambiguous, as it is also used to mean the mechanically frozen skating surface created by freezing water with refrigeration equipment.

Synthetic ice is marketed under brand names including Glice, Xtraice, PolyGlide Ice and Global Synthetic Ice.<ref name=interesting1>{{cite web|url=https://interestingengineering.com/ice-skating-in-july-on-synthetic-ice |title=Ice Skating in July on Synthetic Ice |website=Interesting Engineering |date=2020-02-05 |access-date=2020-02-10}}</ref>


== History ==
== History ==
Synthetic ice has been around for many decades as an alternative to real ice, which requires either cold weather to produce natural ice or expensive refrigeration equipment to freeze water. The first known application of modern plastics as a substitute for ice for the purpose of [[ice skating]] was in the 1960s using materials such as [[polyoxymethylene plastic]] which was developed by DuPont in the early 1950s.
The first known application of plastics as a substitute for ice for the purpose of [[ice skating]] was in the 1960s using materials such as [[polyoxymethylene plastic]], which was developed by DuPont in the early 1950s.<ref name="KennedyWatkins2012">{{cite book|author1=Joseph P. Kennedy|author2=Wayne H. Watkins|title=How to Invent and Protect Your Invention: A Guide to Patents for Scientists and Engineers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SxxXvUv3jH8C&pg=PT194|date=31 July 2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-41009-7|pages=194–}}</ref> The polymers used at the time had some significant shortcomings, the most obvious being that skaters could not glide on these surfaces as they can on real ice without the regular application of a [[silicone]] compound. The compound would build up on the surface, collecting dirt and grime.


In 1982, High Density Plastics launched the first full-size synthetic skating floor under the trade name of Hi Den Ice.<ref>[http://www.noiceone.com/synthetic_ice_rinks/synthetic_rink_specifications.html "Synthetic Ice Rink Specifications"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823083942/http://www.noiceone.com/synthetic_ice_rinks/synthetic_rink_specifications.html |date=2013-08-23 }} noiceone.com</ref> The surface was made of interlocking panels of [[high-density polyethylene]] which became an ice rink when sprayed with a gliding fluid. The surface needed to be cleaned off and resprayed once a month. In a dry form, the panels were also usable for other indoor sports.{{sfn|Chandas|Roy|2007|p=7-46}}
Many synthetic ice products use the same generic polymers that were available in the 1960s. These generic materials have some significant shortcomings. The most obvious being that skaters cannot glide on these surfaces as they can on real ice without the regular application of a [[silicone]] compound. This compound builds up on the surface, collects dirt and grime, and is the source of much dissatisfaction among those who have tried synthetic ice skating on rinks using the old technology.


⚫
Research and development in the field of synthetic ice has improved its skating characteristics. Special polymer materials have been specifically engineered for skating and unique lubricants designed to work with the polymer and be absorbed by it so that the surface is less sticky and does not attract contaminants while providing an ice-like glide. Smoothness between panels at seams has been improved by ameliorations in production and assembly methods. It is estimated that synthetic ice has 90% of the glide factor of natural ice.{{sfn|Akovali|2007|p=178}}
Another shortcoming of early synthetic ice products was the methods used to join the panels. The earliest method was a simple [[butt joint]] with one flat panel butted against the next, leaving a joint that skaters could feel, or worse yet that a skate blade could catch in and trip the skater. Using simple splines on the straight-cut joint was an improvement on this, but variations in temperature could cause these joints to open up and cause the same problems. The latest technological advancement in synthetic ice panel edging is to use variations of a common [[dovetail joint]] to really hold the panels together and make the seams almost undetectable.


In 2019, the world's largest synthetic ice rink opened in [[Zócalo]] Square in Mexico City. It spanned {{cvt|43,000|sqft|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/the-worlds-largest-eco-skating-rink-opens-for-the-holidays-in-mexico-city-300975292.html#:~:text=MEXICO%20CITY%2C%20Dec.,central%20square%20known%20as%20Z%C3%B3calo. |website=PRN Newswire |access-date=2022-06-28|title=The World's Largest Eco-Skating Rink Opens for the Holidays in Mexico City }}</ref>
== Modern synthetic ice ==
⚫
Years of research and development in the field of synthetic ice have improved its skating characteristics to very near that of real ice. Special polymer materials have been specifically engineered for skating, and unique lubricants designed to work with the polymer and be absorbed by it so that the surface never feels sticky and does not attract contaminants while providing an ice-like glide. Modern production and assembly methods ensure that the seams between panels are smooth and do not vary with temperature. This provides a safer and more predictable skating surface.


== Comparison with true ice ==
== Theory ==
Skating on refrigerated ice, the blade increases the temperature of the microscopic top layers of the ice reducing drag and causing the blade to glide on top of the ice.<ref>[http://www.skridsko.net/klubbar/data/science.html] Skating and Science</ref> The most realistic recreation of natural ice is found in the high-end synthetic ice panels that incorporate microscopic beading on the surface to simulate the slight melting of ice under a skate blade.
When skating on natural ice, the molecules in the microscopic top layer of the ice acts as a "quasi-fluid" that reduces drag and causes the blade to glide on top of the ice.<ref name=nyt060221/><ref name=SS97/><ref name=PPG121223/><ref name=explorat/><ref name=SN9612/> On synthetic ice rinks, liquid surface enhancements are common among synthetic ice products to further reduce drag on the skate blade over the artificial surface. However, most synthetic ice products allow skating without liquid.


===Materials===
Liquid surface enhancements are common among synthetic ice products to further reduce drag on the skate blade over the artificial surface. Initial trials of the surface enhancers were rudimentary and many of these products required the application of silicone to reduce drag to simulate the blade of a skate on ice. Advancements in the industry have removed the need for silicone. Biodegradable and water soluble solutions have been found to be more effective in decreasing the drag or friction on the surface of the synthetic ice. The biodegradable solutions can be reconstituted by the simple application of water. These enhancements vary among the types of surfaces and on how much to use to re-create an ice-like feel.
A typical synthetic [[ice rink]] will consist of many panels (usually in typical building material sheet sizes) of thin surface material assembled on top of a sturdy, level and smooth sub-floor (anything from concrete to wood or even dirt or grass) to create a large skating area. The connection systems vary. A true commercial joint connection system can be installed virtually on any type of surface whereas the typical "dovetail" joint system requires a near perfect substrate to operate safely.

The most common material used is [[high-density polyethylene]] (HDPE), but recently{{When|date=May 2021}} [[ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene]] (UHMW-PE) is being used by some manufacturers. This new formula has the lowest coefficient levels of friction, at only 10% to 15% greater than real ice.

However, synthetics have not been able to fully duplicate the properties of real ice so far. First, more effort is required to skate. Although this side effect can be positive for resistance training, skaters report missing out on the fun of effortless skating. Second, most synthetic ice products still wear down the blade of a skate very quickly, with 30 minutes to 120 minutes the industry average.<ref>{{cite book |title=Swimming Pools and Ice Rinks |page=242 |last1=John |first1=Geraint |last2=Campbell |first2=Kit |year=1996 |publisher=Architectural Press }}</ref> Third, many synthetic rinks produce a large amount of shavings and abrasions – especially if the material is extruded sheet. [[Sintering|Sinter-pressed material]], on the other hand,{{clarify|date=June 2018|reason=Is extruded HDPE, and pressed UHMW-PE?}} uses a much higher molecular weight resin and has a far better abrasion resistance, and therefore the shavings are greatly reduced. Surfaces have to be cleaned less often with the sinter-pressed material than with an extruded product, and the attractiveness of the rink is increased significantly.

==Usage==
Synthetic ice rinks are sometimes used where frozen ice surfaces are impractical due to temperatures making natural ice impossible.<ref>{{cite web |title=Beer League Hockey |url=https://beerleaguehockey.net/polyglide-ice// |website=Beer League Hockey}}</ref> Synthetic ice rinks are also used as an alternative to artificial ice rinks due to the overall cost, not requiring any refrigeration equipment.<ref name="cpn-2008"/> For pleasure skating, rinks have been installed indoors at resorts and entertainment venues while newer installations are being made outdoors. For purposes of [[ice hockey]], synthetic ice rinks are typically smaller, at about {{Convert|50|ft}} by {{Convert|50|ft}}, and are used for specialized training, such as shooting or goalie training.<ref name="cpn-2008">{{cite journal |journal=Commercial Property News |date=August 7, 2008 |title='New Generation' of Synthetic Ice Gains Popularity. }}</ref>

==Manufacturers==
Synthetic ice manufacturers include European-based Glice and Xtraice, and [[Hauppauge, NY]]-based PolyGlide Ice.<ref name=interesting1/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/01/business/glice-fake-ice-skating-.html |title=On Roofs or in Basements, a New Way to Ice Skate |website=The NY Times |date=2020-02-01 |access-date=2020-02-10}}</ref>

===Examples===
* The 'Polar Rink' at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in [[New York City]].<ref>{{cite journal
|journal=Chemical & Engineering News |title=Synthetic Ice Rinks, Historic Hot Cocoa |department=Newscripts |page=64 |first=Rachel |last=Petkewich |date=February 16, 2009|volume=87 |issue=7 |doi=10.1021/cen-v087n007.p064 }}</ref>
* The world's largest synthetic ice rink at [[Zócalo]] in Mexico City, Mexico.
* The [https://ccmhockey.com/ CCM Performance Lab] in Montreal, Canada.
* The biggest synthetic ice rink in the US at [[Ark Encounter]], [[Williamstown, Kentucky]].
* The hockey elite training center at [[HC Davos]] in [[Switzerland]].
* The synthetic rink at Jumeirah Vittaveli in the [[Maldives]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jumeirah.com/|title=Luxury Hotels Europe, Middle East & Far East|website=Jumeirah|language=en|access-date=2019-06-18}}</ref>
* Australia’s largest synthetic ice rink at Power Kart Raceway in [[Canberra]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.powerkarts.com.au/|title=Power Kart Raceway|website=www.powerkarts.com.au|access-date=2019-06-18}}</ref>
* [[Moscow, Russia]] "circus on ice" portable rink.
* The "Winter Garden" arena in [[Ridgefield, Connecticut]]. The arena has a conventional ice rink which is closed in the summer, while a {{Convert|2600|ft2|adj=on}} synthetic ice rink is used year-round for youth hockey training and public skating.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Synthetic Ice Rinks |journal=Public Works |year=2000 |volume=131 |issue=12 |page=44}}</ref>
* The former indoor skating rink in [[Marina Bay Sands]] in [[Singapore]]. This 600-square metre indoor rink was created from very high Molecular Weight Polyethylene and was open to the public, but has since been replaced.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Marina Bay Sands replaces ice skating rink with new digital art exhibit
|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/mbs-replaces-ice-skating-rink-with-new-digital-art-permanent-exhibition
|work=[[Straits Times]]
|date=22 Dec 2017
|df=dmy
}}</ref>
* Kego Park Iceless Skating Rink in [[Fukuoka, Japan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fukuoka-now.com/feature/city-bulletin-dec-2011/|title=Fukuoka Now City Bulletin Dec. 2011|access-date=11 December 2012}}</ref>
* Mawsons Skate in [[Hobart, Tasmania]], Australia.
* The Hockey Academy Centre RedBull in [[Salzburg, Austria]].
* Parson's Chicken & Fish Winter Rink in [[Chicago, Illinois]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dnainfo.com/chicago/20151118/logan-square/parsons-skating-rink-is-back-but-theres-one-big-difference |title=Parson's Skating Rink is Back, but There's One Big Difference - Logan Square - DNAinfo.com Chicago |access-date=2015-11-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126181843/https://www.dnainfo.com/chicago/20151118/logan-square/parsons-skating-rink-is-back-but-theres-one-big-difference |archive-date=2015-11-26 }}</ref>
* The St. George Skates rink at Somers Gardens in the town of [[St. George's, Bermuda]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.royalgazette.com/news/article/20161005/ice-rink-to-open-in-st-georges |title = Ice rink to open in St George's &#124; the Royal Gazette:Bermuda News|date = 5 October 2016}}</ref>
* Bayshore Shopping Centre in [[Ottawa, Ontario]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.bayshoreshoppingcentre.com/en/holiday/crystal-hall/ | title=BAYSHORE SHOPPING CENTRE &#124; Ottawa's Favourite Mall}}</ref>
* Santo Stefano D’Aveto Sports Center in [[Genoa, Italy]].<ref>[https://www.facebook.com/CentroPolisportivoChiavari/photos/pcb.1250957701699631/1250954508366617/?type=3&theater. Facebook<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
* Velocity World. [[Doha, Qatar]].<ref>Velocity World. Doha, Qatar. Video: https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fvelocityworldqatar%2Fvideos%2F300687333726376%2F&show_text=0&width=269.</ref>
* The World's largest synthetic ice rink in [[Baku, Azerbaijan]].
* Artificial Skating Rink at Winter Glow 2019 on Lake of Love in [[Bruges, Belgium]].<ref>Artificial Skating Rink Winter Glow 2019 ([[Bruges, Belgium]]) video: https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=1023981064661363.</ref><ref>Artificial Skating Rink Winter Glow 2019 ([[Bruges, Belgium]]) video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOLpgIagIvo.</ref>
* Skating Village in Jekyll Island Historic District on [[Jekyll Island, Georgia]], USA.


== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[Tribology]]
* [[Tribology]]
* [[Ice]]

== References ==
== References ==
{{Commons category|Synthetic ice}}
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name=nyt060221>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/21/science/21ice.html |title=Explaining Ice: The Answers Are Slippery |first=Kenneth |last=Chang |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=21 February 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211055112/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/21/science/21ice.html?pagewanted=all |archive-date=11 December 2008}}</ref>

<ref name=SS97>{{cite journal |title=Molecular surface structure of ice(0001): dynamical low-energy electron diffraction, total-energy calculations and molecular dynamics simulations |journal=Surface Science |volume=381 |issue=2–3 |pages=190–210 |date=10 June 1997 |first=G.A. |last=Somorjai |quote=Most studies so far were performed at temperatures well above 240&nbsp;K (−33&nbsp;°C) and report the presence of a liquid or quasiliquid layer on ice. Those studies that went below this temperature do not suggest a liquid-like layer. |doi=10.1016/S0039-6028(97)00090-3 |bibcode=1997SurSc.381..190M}}</ref>

<ref name=PPG121223>{{cite news |url=https://www.post-gazette.com/local/city/2012/12/23/Pitt-physics-professor-explains-the-science-of-skating-across-the-ice/stories/201212230227 |title=Pitt physics professor explains the science of skating across the ice |first=Mark |last=Roth |work=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]] |date=23 December 2012 |quote=It used to be thought ... that the reason skaters can glide gracefully across the ice is because the pressure they exert on the sharp blades creates a thin layer of liquid on top of the ice... More recent research has shown, though, that this property isn't why skaters can slide on the ice... It turns out that at the very surface of the ice, water molecules exist in a state somewhere between a pure liquid and a pure solid. ''It's not exactly water – but it's like water. The atoms in this layer are 100,000 times more mobile than the atoms [deeper] in the ice, but they're still 25 times less mobile than atoms in water. So it's like proto-water, and that's what we're really skimming on.'' |access-date=15 July 2021 |archive-date=15 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715060239/https://www.post-gazette.com/local/city/2012/12/23/Pitt-physics-professor-explains-the-science-of-skating-across-the-ice/stories/201212230227 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name=explorat>{{cite web |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/hockey/ice2.html |title=Slippery All the Time |publisher=[[Exploratorium]] |quote=Professor Somorjai's findings indicate that ice itself is slippery. You don't need to melt the ice to skate on it, or need a layer of water as a lubricant to help slide along the ice... the "quasi-fluid" or "water-like" layer exists on the surface of the ice and may be thicker or thinner depending on temperature. At about 250 degrees below zero Fahrenheit (−157&nbsp;°C), the ice has a slippery layer one molecule thick. As the ice is warmed, the number of these slippery layers increases. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719170256/https://www.exploratorium.edu/hockey/ice2.html |archive-date=19 July 2012}}</ref>
<ref name=SN9612>{{cite news |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/getting-grip-ice |title=Getting a Grip on Ice |author=Science News Staff |website=Science NOW |date=9 December 1996 |access-date=30 June 2022 |archive-date=2 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202140418/https://www.science.org/content/article/getting-grip-ice |url-status=live }}</ref>

}}


{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Akovali |first=Guneri |year=2007 |title=Plastics, Rubber and Health
|publisher=iSmithers Rapra Publishing }}
* {{cite book |last1=Chandas |first1=Manas |title=Plastics Technology Handbook |edition=4th
|last2=Roy |first2=Salil |year=2007 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-8493-7039-7 }}
{{Refend}}


== External links ==
⚫
[[Category:Skating]]
* [https://www.kwikrinksyntheticice.com/blog/2016/09/21/10-dream-home-rinks/ 10 Dream Home Rinks]
* https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/13/sports/hockey/13ice.html /Who Needs Ice? Synthetic Surface Extends Season


⚫
[[Category:Ice skating]]
[[fr:Glace synthétique]]

Latest revision as of 01:38, 6 August 2024

Ice hockey team training on synthetic ice

Synthetic ice is a solid polymer material designed for skating using normal metal-bladed ice skates. Rinks are constructed by interlocking panels. Synthetic ice is sometimes called artificial ice, but that term is ambiguous, as it is also used to mean the mechanically frozen skating surface created by freezing water with refrigeration equipment.

Synthetic ice is marketed under brand names including Glice, Xtraice, PolyGlide Ice and Global Synthetic Ice.[1]

History

[edit]

The first known application of plastics as a substitute for ice for the purpose of ice skating was in the 1960s using materials such as polyoxymethylene plastic, which was developed by DuPont in the early 1950s.[2] The polymers used at the time had some significant shortcomings, the most obvious being that skaters could not glide on these surfaces as they can on real ice without the regular application of a silicone compound. The compound would build up on the surface, collecting dirt and grime.

In 1982, High Density Plastics launched the first full-size synthetic skating floor under the trade name of Hi Den Ice.[3] The surface was made of interlocking panels of high-density polyethylene which became an ice rink when sprayed with a gliding fluid. The surface needed to be cleaned off and resprayed once a month. In a dry form, the panels were also usable for other indoor sports.[4]

Research and development in the field of synthetic ice has improved its skating characteristics. Special polymer materials have been specifically engineered for skating and unique lubricants designed to work with the polymer and be absorbed by it so that the surface is less sticky and does not attract contaminants while providing an ice-like glide. Smoothness between panels at seams has been improved by ameliorations in production and assembly methods. It is estimated that synthetic ice has 90% of the glide factor of natural ice.[5]

In 2019, the world's largest synthetic ice rink opened in Zócalo Square in Mexico City. It spanned 4,000 m2 (43,000 sq ft).[6]

Comparison with true ice

[edit]

When skating on natural ice, the molecules in the microscopic top layer of the ice acts as a "quasi-fluid" that reduces drag and causes the blade to glide on top of the ice.[7][8][9][10][11] On synthetic ice rinks, liquid surface enhancements are common among synthetic ice products to further reduce drag on the skate blade over the artificial surface. However, most synthetic ice products allow skating without liquid.

Materials

[edit]

A typical synthetic ice rink will consist of many panels (usually in typical building material sheet sizes) of thin surface material assembled on top of a sturdy, level and smooth sub-floor (anything from concrete to wood or even dirt or grass) to create a large skating area. The connection systems vary. A true commercial joint connection system can be installed virtually on any type of surface whereas the typical "dovetail" joint system requires a near perfect substrate to operate safely.

The most common material used is high-density polyethylene (HDPE), but recently[when?] ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMW-PE) is being used by some manufacturers. This new formula has the lowest coefficient levels of friction, at only 10% to 15% greater than real ice.

However, synthetics have not been able to fully duplicate the properties of real ice so far. First, more effort is required to skate. Although this side effect can be positive for resistance training, skaters report missing out on the fun of effortless skating. Second, most synthetic ice products still wear down the blade of a skate very quickly, with 30 minutes to 120 minutes the industry average.[12] Third, many synthetic rinks produce a large amount of shavings and abrasions – especially if the material is extruded sheet. Sinter-pressed material, on the other hand,[clarification needed] uses a much higher molecular weight resin and has a far better abrasion resistance, and therefore the shavings are greatly reduced. Surfaces have to be cleaned less often with the sinter-pressed material than with an extruded product, and the attractiveness of the rink is increased significantly.

Usage

[edit]

Synthetic ice rinks are sometimes used where frozen ice surfaces are impractical due to temperatures making natural ice impossible.[13] Synthetic ice rinks are also used as an alternative to artificial ice rinks due to the overall cost, not requiring any refrigeration equipment.[14] For pleasure skating, rinks have been installed indoors at resorts and entertainment venues while newer installations are being made outdoors. For purposes of ice hockey, synthetic ice rinks are typically smaller, at about 50 feet (15 m) by 50 feet (15 m), and are used for specialized training, such as shooting or goalie training.[14]

Manufacturers

[edit]

Synthetic ice manufacturers include European-based Glice and Xtraice, and Hauppauge, NY-based PolyGlide Ice.[1][15]

Examples

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Synthetic ice.
  1. ^ a b "Ice Skating in July on Synthetic Ice". Interesting Engineering. 2020-02-05. Retrieved 2020-02-10.
  2. ^ Joseph P. Kennedy; Wayne H. Watkins (31 July 2012). How to Invent and Protect Your Invention: A Guide to Patents for Scientists and Engineers. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 194–. ISBN 978-1-118-41009-7.
  3. ^ "Synthetic Ice Rink Specifications" Archived 2013-08-23 at the Wayback Machine noiceone.com
  4. ^ Chandas & Roy 2007, p. 7-46.
  5. ^ Akovali 2007, p. 178.
  6. ^ "The World's Largest Eco-Skating Rink Opens for the Holidays in Mexico City". PRN Newswire. Retrieved 2022-06-28.
  7. ^ Chang, Kenneth (21 February 2006). "Explaining Ice: The Answers Are Slippery". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008.
  8. ^ Somorjai, G.A. (10 June 1997). "Molecular surface structure of ice(0001): dynamical low-energy electron diffraction, total-energy calculations and molecular dynamics simulations". Surface Science. 381 (2–3): 190–210. Bibcode:1997SurSc.381..190M. doi:10.1016/S0039-6028(97)00090-3. Most studies so far were performed at temperatures well above 240 K (−33 °C) and report the presence of a liquid or quasiliquid layer on ice. Those studies that went below this temperature do not suggest a liquid-like layer.
  9. ^ Roth, Mark (23 December 2012). "Pitt physics professor explains the science of skating across the ice". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on 15 July 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2021. It used to be thought ... that the reason skaters can glide gracefully across the ice is because the pressure they exert on the sharp blades creates a thin layer of liquid on top of the ice... More recent research has shown, though, that this property isn't why skaters can slide on the ice... It turns out that at the very surface of the ice, water molecules exist in a state somewhere between a pure liquid and a pure solid. It's not exactly water – but it's like water. The atoms in this layer are 100,000 times more mobile than the atoms [deeper] in the ice, but they're still 25 times less mobile than atoms in water. So it's like proto-water, and that's what we're really skimming on.
  10. ^ "Slippery All the Time". Exploratorium. Archived from the original on 19 July 2012. Professor Somorjai's findings indicate that ice itself is slippery. You don't need to melt the ice to skate on it, or need a layer of water as a lubricant to help slide along the ice... the "quasi-fluid" or "water-like" layer exists on the surface of the ice and may be thicker or thinner depending on temperature. At about 250 degrees below zero Fahrenheit (−157 °C), the ice has a slippery layer one molecule thick. As the ice is warmed, the number of these slippery layers increases.
  11. ^ Science News Staff (9 December 1996). "Getting a Grip on Ice". Science NOW. Archived from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
  12. ^ John, Geraint; Campbell, Kit (1996). Swimming Pools and Ice Rinks. Architectural Press. p. 242.
  13. ^ "Beer League Hockey". Beer League Hockey.
  14. ^ a b "'New Generation' of Synthetic Ice Gains Popularity". Commercial Property News. August 7, 2008.
  15. ^ "On Roofs or in Basements, a New Way to Ice Skate". The NY Times. 2020-02-01. Retrieved 2020-02-10.
  16. ^ Petkewich, Rachel (February 16, 2009). "Synthetic Ice Rinks, Historic Hot Cocoa". Newscripts. Chemical & Engineering News. 87 (7): 64. doi:10.1021/cen-v087n007.p064.
  17. ^ "Luxury Hotels Europe, Middle East & Far East". Jumeirah. Retrieved 2019-06-18.
  18. ^ "Power Kart Raceway". www.powerkarts.com.au. Retrieved 2019-06-18.
  19. ^ "Synthetic Ice Rinks". Public Works. 131 (12): 44. 2000.
  20. ^ "Marina Bay Sands replaces ice skating rink with new digital art exhibit". Straits Times. 22 December 2017.
  21. ^ "Fukuoka Now City Bulletin Dec. 2011". Retrieved 11 December 2012.
  22. ^ "Parson's Skating Rink is Back, but There's One Big Difference - Logan Square - DNAinfo.com Chicago". Archived from the original on 2015-11-26. Retrieved 2015-11-26.
  23. ^ "Ice rink to open in St George's | the Royal Gazette:Bermuda News". 5 October 2016.
  24. ^ "BAYSHORE SHOPPING CENTRE | Ottawa's Favourite Mall".
  25. ^ Facebook
  26. ^ Velocity World. Doha, Qatar. Video: https://www.facebook.com/plugins/video.php?href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fvelocityworldqatar%2Fvideos%2F300687333726376%2F&show_text=0&width=269.
  27. ^ Artificial Skating Rink Winter Glow 2019 (Bruges, Belgium) video: https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=1023981064661363.
  28. ^ Artificial Skating Rink Winter Glow 2019 (Bruges, Belgium) video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOLpgIagIvo.
  • Akovali, Guneri (2007). Plastics, Rubber and Health. iSmithers Rapra Publishing.
  • Chandas, Manas; Roy, Salil (2007). Plastics Technology Handbook (4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8493-7039-7.
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