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-In [[folklore]], '''Lycanthropy''' is the ability or power of a human being to undergo [[transmogrification|transformation]] into a wolf. The term comes from [[ancient Greek]] ''lykánthropos'' (&#955;&#965;&#954;&#940;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#962;): &#955;&#973;&#954;&#959;&#962;, ''lýkos'' ("wolf") + &#940;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#962;, ''ánthrōpos'' ("man"). The word lycanthropy is often used generically for any transformation of a human into animal form, though the precise term for that is technically [[therianthropy]].
-[[Folk-etymology]] also links the word to [[Lycaon]], a king of [[Arcadia]] who, according to [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'', was turned into a ravenous wolf in retribution for attempting to serve human flesh (his own son) to a visiting [[Zeus]] in an attempt to disprove the god's divinity.
-There is also a [[mental illness]] called lycanthropy in which a patient believes he or she is, or has transformed into, an animal and behaves accordingly. This is sometimes referred to as [[clinical lycanthropy]] to distinguish it from its use in [[legend]]s.
-==Spiritual and supernatural implications of lycanthropy==
-Lycanthropy is often confused with [[reincarnation|transmigration]]; but the essential feature of the were-animal is that it is the alternative form or the double of a living human being, while the soul-animal is the vehicle, temporary or permanent, of the spirit of a dead human being. The [[vampire]] is sometimes regarded as an example of lycanthropy; but it is in human form, sometimes only a head, sometimes a whole body, sometimes that of a living person, at others of a dead man who issues nightly from the grave to prey upon the living.
-Even if the [[denotation]] of lycanthropy is limited to the wolf-metamorphosis of living human beings, the beliefs classed together under this head are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat capriciously applied. The transformation may be voluntary or involuntary, temporary or permanent; the were-animal may be the man himself metamorphosed, it may be his double whose activity leaves the real man to all appearance unchanged, it may be his [[soul]], which goes forth seeking whom it may devour and leaving its body in a state of [[trance]]; or it may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a real animal or a [[familiar spirit]], whose intimate connection with its owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by a phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the human being.
-The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal metamorphosis, or of sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, as a messenger, and the supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are also attributed to the [[magic (paranormal)|magician]], male and female, all the world over; and [[witch]] superstitions are closely parallel to, if not identical with, lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary character of lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself in connection with the bush-soul of the West African and the ''[[nagual]]'' of [[Central America]]; but though there is no line of demarcation to be drawn on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician and the intimate association of the bush-soul or the ''nagual'' with a human being are not termed lycanthropy. Nevertheless it will be well to touch on both these beliefs here.
-In North and Central America, and to some extent in West Africa, [[Australia]] and other parts of the world, every male acquires at puberty a [[tutelary spirit]] (see [[Demonology]]); in some tribes of Indians the youth kills the animal of which he dreams in his initiation fast; its claw, skin or feathers are put into a little bag and become his "medicine" and must be carefully retained, for a "medicine" once lost can never be replaced. In West Africa this relation is said to be entered into by means of the blood bond, and it is so close that the death of the animal causes the man to die and vice versa. Elsewhere the possession of a tutelary spirit in animal form is the privilege of the magician. In [[Alaska]] the candidate for magical powers has to leave the abodes of men; the chief of the gods sends an [[otter]] to meet him, which he kills by saying "O" four times; he then cuts out its tongue and thereby secures the powers which he seeks. The [[Malaysia|Malay]]s believe that the office of ''pawang'' (priest) is only hereditary if the soul of the dead priest, in the form of a tiger, passes into the body of his son. While the familiar is often regarded as the alternative form of the magician, the ''nagual'' or bush-soul is commonly regarded as wholly distinct from the human being. Transitional beliefs, however, are found, especially in Africa, in which the power of transformation is attributed to the whole of the population of certain areas. The people of [[Banana, Congo|Banana]] are said to change themselves by magical means, composed of human [[embryo|embryos]] and other ingredients, but in their [[leopard]] form they may do no hurt to mankind under pain of retaining forever the beast shape. In other cases the change is supposed to be made for the purposes of evil magic and human victims are not prohibited. We can, therefore, draw no line of demarcation, and this makes it probable that lycanthropy is connected with nagualism and the belief in familiar spirits, rather than with [[metempsychosis]], as Dr Tylor argues, or with totemism, as suggested by J. F. M'Lennan. A further link is supplied by the [[Zulu]] belief that the magician's familiar is really a transformed human being; when he finds a dead body on which he can work his spells without fear of discovery, the wizard breathes a sort of life into it, which enables it to move and speak, it being thought that some dead wizard has taken possession of it. He then burns a hole in the head and through the aperture extracts the tongue. Further spells have the effect of changing the revivified body into the form of some animal, [[hyena]], [[owl]] or [[wild cat]], the latter being most in favour. This creature then becomes the wizard's servant and obeys him in all things; its chief use is, however, to inflict sickness and death upon persons who are disliked by its master.
-== Local animal forms found in lycanthropy ==
-Although the term lycanthropy properly speaking refers to metamorphosis into a [[wolf]] (see [[Werewolf]]), it is in popular practice used of transformation into any animal. The [[Greek mythology|Greeks]] also spoke of kynanthropy (''Kynior,'' [[dog]]) ; in [[India]] and the Asian islands the [[tiger]] is the commonest form, in North [[Europe]] the [[bear]] (see [[berserker]]), in [[Japan]] the [[fox]], in [[Africa]] the [[leopard]] or [[hyena]], sometimes also the [[lion]], in [[South America]] the [[jaguar]]; but though there is a tendency for the most important carnivorous animal of the area to take the first place in stories and beliefs as to transformation, the less important beasts of prey and even harmless animals like the [[deer]] also figure among the were-animals. Another unusual case is the were-[[shark]] of [[Polynesia]].
-=== Lycanthropy in North America ===
-Many Native cultures feature [[skinwalkers]] or a similar concept, wherein a [[shaman]] or warrior may, according to cultural tradition, take on an animal form. Animal forms vary accordingly with cultures and local species, for example, a [[coyote]] is more likely to be found as a skinwalker's alternate form in the [[Great Plains]] region. Skinwalkers tend to be [[totemism|totemic]].
-In modern folklore and fiction the [[Wendigo]] of the [[Algonquin]] people is sometimes considered to be similar to lycanthropes, in that humans could transform into them. The original legends varied significantly, however, and the fit may not be very close.
-=== Lycanthropy in South America ===
-According to K. F. P. v. Martius the ''kanaima'' is a human being who employs poison to carry out his function of blood avenger; other authorities represent the ''kanaima'' as a [[jaguar]], which is either an avenger of blood or the familiar of a [[cannibalism|cannibalistic]] sorcerer. The Europeans of [[Brazil]] hold that the seventh child of the same sex in unbroken succession becomes a were-man or woman, and takes the form of a [[horse]], [[goat]], jaguar or pig.
-=== Lycanthropy in Europe ===
-The wolf is the most common form of the were-animal, though in the north the bear disputes its pre-eminence. In ancient Greece the dog was also associated with the belief. [[Marcellus]] of [[Sida]], who wrote under the Antonines, gives an account of a disease which befell people in [[February]]; but a pathological state seems to be meant.
-See [[Vilkacis]], [[Berserker]]
-=== Lycanthropy in Africa ===
-In [[Abyssinia]] the power of transformation is attributed to the [[Bouda|Boudas]], and at the same time we have records of pathological lycanthropy (see below). [[Blacksmith]]s are credited with magical powers in many parts of the world, and it is significant that the Boudas are workers in [[iron]] and [[clay]]; in the ''Life of N. Pearce'' (i. 287) a European observer tells a story of a supposed transformation which took place in his presence and almost before his eyes; but it does not appear how far hallucination rather than coincidence must be invoked to explain the experience.
-=== The were-tiger of the East Indies ===
-The Poso-Alfures of central [[Celebes]] believe that man has three souls, the ''inosa'', the ''angga'' and the
-''tanoana''. The ''inosa'' is the vital principle; it can be detected in the veins and arteries; it is given to man by one of the great natural phenomena, more especially the wind. The ''angga'' is the intellectual part of man; its seat is unknown; after death it goes to the under-world, and, unlike the ''inosa,'' which is believed to be dissolved into its original elements, takes possession of an immaterial body. The ''tanoana'' is the
-divine in man and after death returns to its lord, [[Poewempala boeroe]]. It goes forth during [[sleep]], and all that it sees it whispers into the sleeper's ear and then he dreams. According to another account, the ''tanoana'' is the substance by which man lives, thinks and acts; the ''tanoana'' of man, plants and animals is of the same nature. A man's ''tanoana'' can be strengthened by those of others; when the ''tanoana'' is long away or destroyed the man dies. The ''tanoana'' seems to be the soul of which lycanthropic feats are asserted.
-Among the Toradjas of central Celebes it is believed that a man's "inside" can take the form of a [[cat]], wild [[pig]], [[ape]], [[deer]] or other [[animal]], and afterwards resume human form; it is termed ''lamboyo''. The exact relation of the ''lamboyo'' to the ''tanoana'' does not seem to be settled; it will be seen below that the view seems to vary. According to some the power of transformation is a gift of the gods, but others hold that werewolfism is contagious and may be acquired by eating food left by a werewolf or even by leaning one's head against the same pillar. The Todjoers hold that any one who touches blood becomes a werewolf. In accordance with this view is the belief that werewolfism can be cured; the breast and stomach of the wereman must be rubbed and pinched, just as when any other witch object has to be extracted. The patient drinks medicine, and the contagion leaves the body in the form of snakes and worms. There are certain marks by which a wereman can be recognized. His eyes are unsteady and sometimes green with dark shadows underneath. He does not sleep soundly and fireflies come out of his mouth. His lips remain red in spite of betel chewing, and he has a long tongue. The Todjoers add that his hair stands on end.
-Some of the forms of the ''lamboyo'' are distinguishable from ordinary animals by the fact that they run about among the houses; the were-[[American Bison|buffalo]] has only one horn, and the were-pig transforms itself into an ants' nest, such as hangs from trees. Some say that the wereman does not really take the form of an animal himself, but, like the sorcerer, only sends out a messenger. The ''lamboyo'' attacks by preference solitary individuals, for he does not like to be observed. The victim feels sleepy and loses consciousness; the ''lamboyo'' then assumes human form (his body being, however, still at home) and cuts up his victim, scattering the fragments all about. He then takes the [[liver]] and eats it, puts the body together again, licks it with his long [[tongue]] and joins it together. When the victim comes to himself again he has no idea that anything unusual has happened to him. He goes home. but soon begins to feel unwell. In a few days he dies, but before his death he is able sometimes to name the wereman to whom he has fallen a victim.
-From this account it might be inferred that the ''lamboyo'' was identical with the ''tanoana'': the absence of the ''lamboyo'' seems to entail a condition of unconsciousness, and it can assume human form. In other cases, however, the ''lamboyo'' seems to be analogous to the familiar of the sorcerer. The Toradjas tell a story of how a man once' came to a house and asked the woman to give him a rendezvous; it was night and she was asleep; the question was put three times before the answer was given "in the tobacco plantation". The husband was awake, and next day followed his wife, who was irresistibly drawn thither. The wereman came to meet her in human form, although his body was engaged in building a new house, and caused the woman to faint by stamping three times on the ground. Thereupon the husband attacked the wereman with a piece of wood, and the latter to escape transformed himself into a leaf; this the husband put into a piece of [[bamboo]] and fastened the ends so that he could not escape, he then went back to the village and put the bamboo in the fire. The wereman said "Don't", and as soon as it was burnt he fell dead.
-In another case a woman died, and, as her death was believed to be due to the malevolence of a werewolf, her husband watched by her body. For, like Indian witches, the werewolf, for some reason, wishes to revive his victim and comes in human form to carry off the coffin. As soon as the woman was brought to life the husband attacked the werewolf, who transformed himself into a piece of wood and was burnt. The woman remained alive, but her murderer died the same night.
-According to a third form of the belief, the body of the wereman is itself transformed. One evening a man left the hut in which a party were preparing to pass the night; one of his companions heard a deer and fired into the darkness. Soon after the man came back and said he had been shot. Although no marks were to be seen he died a few days later.
-In Central [[Java (island)|Java]] we meet with another kind of were-tiger.  The power of transformation is regarded as due to inheritance, to the use of spells, to fasting and will-power, to the use of charms, etc. Save when it is hungry or has just cause for revenge it is not hostile to man; in fact, it is said to take its animal form only at night and to guard the plantations from wild pigs. exactly as the ''[[balam]]s'' (magicians) of [[Yucatán]] were said to guard the [[maize]] fields in animal form. Variants of this belief assert that the wereman does not recognize his friends unless they call him by name, or that he goes out as a mendicant and transforms himself to take vengeance on those who refuse him alms. Somewhat similar is the belief of the Khonds &ndash; for them the tiger is friendly, and he reserves his wrath for their enemies, and a man is said to take the form of a tiger in order to wreak a just vengeance.
-==References==
-*{{1911}}
-[[Category:Werewolves]]
-[[Category:Anthropomorphism]]
-[[cs:Lykantropie]]
-[[de:Lykanthropie]]
-[[fa:گرگ‌دیسی]]
-[[fr:Lycanthropie]]
-[[pt:Licantropia]]
-[[pl:Likantropia]]