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Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) is a logic family built from bipolar junction transistors. Its name signifies that transistors perform both the logic function (the first "transistor") and the amplifying function (the second "transistor"), as opposed to earlier resistor–transistor logic (RTL) and diode–transistor logic (DTL).

TTL integrated circuits (ICs) were widely used in applications such as computers, industrial controls, test equipment and instrumentation, consumer electronics, and synthesizers.^[1]

After their introduction in integrated circuit form in 1963 by Sylvania Electric Products, TTL integrated circuits were manufactured by several semiconductor companies. The 7400 series by Texas Instruments became particularly popular. TTL manufacturers offered a wide range of logic gates, flip-flops, counters, and other circuits. Variations of the original TTL circuit design offered higher speed or lower power dissipation to allow design optimization. TTL devices were originally made in ceramic and plastic dual in-line package(s) and in flat-pack form. Some TTL chips are now also made in surface-mount technology packages.

TTL became the foundation of computers and other digital electronics. Even after Very-Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) CMOS integrated circuit microprocessors made multiple-chip processors obsolete, TTL devices still found extensive use as glue logic interfacing between more densely integrated components.

History

TTL was invented in 1961 by James L. Buie of TRW, which declared it "particularly suited to the newly developing integrated circuit design technology." The original name for TTL was transistor-coupled transistor logic (TCTL).^[2] The first commercial integrated-circuit TTL devices were manufactured by Sylvania in 1963, called the Sylvania Universal High-Level Logic family (SUHL).^[3] The Sylvania parts were used in the controls of the Phoenix missile.^[3] TTL became popular with electronic systems designers after Texas Instruments introduced the 5400 series of ICs, with military temperature range, in 1964 and the later 7400 series, specified over a narrower range and with inexpensive plastic packages, in 1966.^[4]

The Texas Instruments 7400 family became an industry standard. Compatible parts were made by Motorola, AMD, Fairchild, Intel, Intersil, Signetics, Mullard, Siemens, SGS-Thomson, Rifa, National Semiconductor,^[5]^[6] and many other companies, even in the Eastern Bloc (Soviet Union, GDR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania — for details see 7400 series). Not only did others make compatible TTL parts, but compatible parts were made using many other circuit technologies as well. At least one manufacturer, IBM, produced non-compatible TTL circuits for its own use; IBM used the technology in the IBM System/38, IBM 4300, and IBM 3081.^[7]

The term "TTL" is applied to many successive generations of bipolar logic, with gradual improvements in speed and power consumption over about two decades. The most recently introduced family 74Fxx is still sold today (as of 2019), and was widely used into the late 90s. 74AS/ALS Advanced Schottky was introduced in 1985.^[8] As of 2008, Texas Instruments continues to supply the more general-purpose chips in numerous obsolete technology families, albeit at increased prices. Typically, TTL chips integrate no more than a few hundred transistors each. Functions within a single package generally range from a few logic gates to a microprocessor bit-slice. TTL also became important because its low cost made digital techniques economically practical for tasks previously done by analog methods.^[9]

The Kenbak-1, ancestor of the first personal computers, used TTL for its CPU instead of a microprocessor chip, which was not available in 1971.^[10] The Datapoint 2200 from 1970 used TTL components for its CPU and was the basis for the 8008 and later the x86 instruction set.^[11] The 1973 Xerox Alto and 1981 Star workstations, which introduced the graphical user interface, used TTL circuits integrated at the level of arithmetic logic units (ALUs) and bitslices, respectively. Most computers used TTL-compatible "glue logic" between larger chips well into the 1990s. Until the advent of programmable logic, discrete bipolar logic was used to prototype and emulate microarchitectures under development.

Implementation

Fundamental TTL gate

TTL inputs are the emitters of bipolar transistors. In the case of NAND inputs, the inputs are the emitters of multiple-emitter transistors, functionally equivalent to multiple transistors where the bases and collectors are tied together.^[12] The output is buffered by a common emitter amplifier.

Inputs both logical ones. When all the inputs are held at high voltage, the base–emitter junctions of the multiple-emitter transistor are reverse-biased. Unlike DTL, a small “collector” current (approximately 10 μA) is drawn by each of the inputs. This is because the transistor is in reverse-active mode. An approximately constant current flows from the positive rail, through the resistor and into the base of the multiple emitter transistor.^[13] This current passes through the base–emitter junction of the output transistor, allowing it to conduct and pulling the output voltage low (logical zero).

An input logical zero. Note that the base–collector junction of the multiple-emitter transistor and the base–emitter junction of the output transistor are in series between the bottom of the resistor and ground. If one input voltage becomes zero, the corresponding base–emitter junction of the multiple-emitter transistor is in parallel with these two junctions. A phenomenon called current steering means that when two voltage-stable elements with different threshold voltages are connected in parallel, the current flows through the path with the smaller threshold voltage. That is, current flows out of this input and into the zero (low) voltage source. As a result, no current flows through the base of the output transistor, causing it to stop conducting and the output voltage becomes high (logical one). During the transition the input transistor is briefly in its active region; so it draws a large current away from the base of the output transistor and thus quickly discharges its base. This is a critical advantage of TTL over DTL that speeds up the transition over a diode input structure.^[14]

The main disadvantage of TTL with a simple output stage is the relatively high output resistance at output logical "1" that is completely determined by the output collector resistor. It limits the number of inputs that can be connected (the fanout). Some advantage of the simple output stage is the high voltage level (up to V_CC) of the output logical "1" when the output is not loaded.

Open collector wired logic

A common variation omits the collector resistor of the output transistor, making an open-collector output. This allows the designer to fabricate wired logic by connecting the open-collector outputs of several logic gates together and providing a single external pull-up resistor. If any of the logic gates becomes logic low (transistor conducting), the combined output will be low. Examples of this type of gate are the 7401^[15] and 7403^[16] series. Open-collector outputs of some gates have a higher maximum voltage, such as 15 V for the 7426,^[17] useful when driving non-TTL loads.

TTL with a "totem-pole" output stage

To solve the problem with the high output resistance of the simple output stage the second schematic adds to this a "totem-pole" ("push–pull") output. It consists of the two n-p-n transistors V₃ and V₄, the "lifting" diode V₅ and the current-limiting resistor R₃ (see the figure on the right). It is driven by applying the same current steering idea as above.

When V₂ is "off", V₄ is "off" as well and V₃ operates in active region as a voltage follower producing high output voltage (logical "1").

When V₂ is "on", it activates V₄, driving low voltage (logical "0") to the output. Again there is a current-steering effect: the series combination of V₂'s C-E junction and V₄'s B-E junction is in parallel with the series of V₃ B-E, V₅'s anode-cathode junction, and V₄ C-E. The second series combination has the higher threshold voltage, so no current flows through it, i.e. V₃ base current is deprived. Transistor V₃ turns "off" and it does not impact on the output.

In the middle of the transition, the resistor R₃ limits the current flowing directly through the series connected transistor V₃, diode V₅ and transistor V₄ that are all conducting. It also limits the output current in the case of output logical "1" and short connection to the ground. The strength of the gate may be increased without proportionally affecting the power consumption by removing the pull-up and pull-down resistors from the output stage.^[18]^[19]

The main advantage of TTL with a "totem-pole" output stage is the low output resistance at output logical "1". It is determined by the upper output transistor V₃ operating in active region as an emitter follower. The resistor R₃ does not increase the output resistance since it is connected in the V₃ collector and its influence is compensated by the negative feedback. A disadvantage of the "totem-pole" output stage is the decreased voltage level (no more than 3.5 V) of the output logical "1" (even if the output is unloaded). The reasons for this reduction are the voltage drops across the V₃ base–emitter and V₅ anode–cathode junctions.

Interfacing considerations

Like DTL, TTL is a current-sinking logic since a current must be drawn from inputs to bring them to a logic 0 voltage level. The driving stage must absorb up to 1.6 mA from a standard TTL input while not allowing the voltage to rise to more than 0.4 volts.^[20] The output stage of the most common TTL gates is specified to function correctly when driving up to 10 standard input stages (a fanout of 10). TTL inputs are sometimes simply left floating to provide a logical "1", though this usage is not recommended.^[21]

Standard TTL circuits operate with a 5-volt power supply. A TTL input signal is defined as "low" when between 0 V and 0.8 V with respect to the ground terminal, and "high" when between 2 V and V_CC (5 V),^[22]^[23] and if a voltage signal ranging between 0.8 V and 2.0 V is sent into the input of a TTL gate, there is no certain response from the gate and therefore it is considered "uncertain" (precise logic levels vary slightly between sub-types and by temperature). TTL outputs are typically restricted to narrower limits of between 0.0 V and 0.4 V for a "low" and between 2.4 V and V_CC for a "high", providing at least 0.4 V of noise immunity. Standardization of the TTL levels is so ubiquitous that complex circuit boards often contain TTL chips made by many different manufacturers selected for availability and cost, compatibility being assured. Two circuit board units off the same assembly line on different successive days or weeks might have a different mix of brands of chips in the same positions on the board; repair is possible with chips manufactured years later than original components. Within usefully broad limits, logic gates can be treated as ideal Boolean devices without concern for electrical limitations. The 0.4 V noise margins are adequate because of the low output impedance of the driver stage, that is, a large amount of noise power superimposed on the output is needed to drive an input into an undefined region.

In some cases (e.g., when the output of a TTL logic gate needs to be used for driving the input of a CMOS gate), the voltage level of the "totem-pole" output stage at output logical "1" can be increased closer to V_CC by connecting an external resistor between the V4 collector and the positive rail. It pulls up the V₅ cathode and cuts-off the diode.^[24] However, this technique actually converts the sophisticated "totem-pole" output into a simple output stage having significant output resistance when driving a high level (determined by the external resistor).

Packaging

Like most integrated circuits of the period 1963–1990, commercial TTL devices are usually packaged in dual in-line packages (DIPs), usually with 14 to 24 pins,^[25] for through-hole or socket mounting. Epoxy plastic (PDIP) packages were often used for commercial temperature range components, while ceramic packages (CDIP) were used for military temperature range parts.

Beam-lead chip dies without packages were made for assembly into larger arrays as hybrid integrated circuits. Parts for military and aerospace applications were packaged in flatpacks, a form of surface-mount package, with leads suitable for welding or soldering to printed circuit boards. Today^[when?], many TTL-compatible devices are available in surface-mount packages, which are available in a wider array of types than through-hole packages.

TTL is particularly well suited to bipolar integrated circuits because additional inputs to a gate merely required additional emitters on a shared base region of the input transistor. If individually packaged transistors were used, the cost of all the transistors would discourage one from using such an input structure. But in an integrated circuit, the additional emitters for extra gate inputs add only a small area.

At least one computer manufacturer, IBM, built its own flip chip integrated circuits with TTL; these chips were mounted on ceramic multi-chip modules.^[26]^[27]

Comparison with other logic families

TTL devices consume substantially more power than equivalent CMOS devices at rest, but power consumption does not increase with clock speed as rapidly as for CMOS devices.^[28] Compared to contemporary ECL circuits, TTL uses less power and has easier design rules but is substantially slower. Designers can combine ECL and TTL devices in the same system to achieve best overall performance and economy, but level-shifting devices are required between the two logic families. TTL is less sensitive to damage from electrostatic discharge than early CMOS devices.

Due to the output structure of TTL devices, the output impedance is asymmetrical between the high and low state, making them unsuitable for driving transmission lines. This drawback is usually overcome by buffering the outputs with special line-driver devices where signals need to be sent through cables. ECL, by virtue of its symmetric low-impedance output structure, does not have this drawback.

The TTL "totem-pole" output structure often has a momentary overlap when both the upper and lower transistors are conducting, resulting in a substantial pulse of current drawn from the power supply. These pulses can couple in unexpected ways between multiple integrated circuit packages, resulting in reduced noise margin and lower performance. TTL systems usually have a decoupling capacitor for every one or two IC packages, so that a current pulse from one TTL chip does not momentarily reduce the supply voltage to another.

Since the mid 1980s, several manufacturers supply CMOS logic equivalents with TTL-compatible input and output levels, usually bearing part numbers similar to the equivalent TTL component and with the same pinouts. For example, the 74HCT00 series provides many drop-in replacements for bipolar 7400 series parts, but uses CMOS technology.

Sub-types

Successive generations of technology produced compatible parts with improved power consumption or switching speed, or both. Although vendors uniformly marketed these various product lines as TTL with Schottky diodes, some of the underlying circuits, such as used in the LS family, could rather be considered DTL.^[29]

Variations of and successors to the basic TTL family, which has a typical gate propagation delay of 10ns and a power dissipation of 10 mW per gate, for a power–delay product (PDP) or switching energy of about 100 pJ, include:

Low-power TTL (L), which traded switching speed (33ns) for a reduction in power consumption (1 mW) (now essentially replaced by CMOS logic)
High-speed TTL (H), with faster switching than standard TTL (6ns) but significantly higher power dissipation (22 mW)
Schottky TTL (S), introduced in 1969, which used Schottky diode clamps at gate inputs to prevent charge storage and improve switching time. These gates operated more quickly (3ns) but had higher power dissipation (19 mW)
Low-power Schottky TTL (LS) – used the higher resistance values of low-power TTL and the Schottky diodes to provide a good combination of speed (9.5 ns) and reduced power consumption (2 mW), and PDP of about 20 pJ. Probably the most common type of TTL, these were used as glue logic in microcomputers, essentially replacing the former H, L, and S sub-families.
Fast (F) and Advanced-Schottky (AS) variants of LS from Fairchild and TI, respectively, circa 1985, with "Miller-killer" circuits to speed up the low-to-high transition. These families achieved PDPs of 10 pJ and 4 pJ, respectively, the lowest of all the TTL families.
Low-voltage TTL (LVTTL) for 3.3-volt power supplies and memory interfacing.

Most manufacturers offer commercial and extended temperature ranges: for example Texas Instruments 7400 series parts are rated from 0 to 70 °C, and 5400 series devices over the military-specification temperature range of −55 to +125 °C.

Special quality levels and high-reliability parts are available for military and aerospace applications.

Radiation-hardened devices (for example from the SNJ54 series) are offered for space applications.

Applications

Before the advent of VLSI devices, TTL integrated circuits were a standard method of construction for the processors of minicomputer and midrange mainframe computers, such as the DEC VAX and Data General Eclipse; however some computer families were based on proprietary components (e.g. Fairchild CTL) while supercomputers and high-end mainframes used emitter-coupled logic. They were also used for equipment such as machine tool numerical controls, printers and video display terminals, and as microprocessors became more functional for "glue logic" applications, such as address decoders and bus drivers, which tie together the function blocks realized in VLSI elements. The Gigatron TTL is a more recent (2018) example of a processor built entirely with TTL integrated circuits.

Analog applications

While originally designed to handle logic-level digital signals, a TTL inverter can be biased as an analog amplifier. Connecting a resistor between the output and the input biases the TTL element as a negative feedback amplifier. Such amplifiers may be useful to convert analog signals to the digital domain but would not ordinarily be used where analog amplification is the primary purpose.^[30] TTL inverters can also be used in crystal oscillators where their analog amplification ability is significant.

A TTL gate may operate inadvertently as an analog amplifier if the input is connected to a slowly changing input signal that traverses the unspecified region from 0.8 V to 2 V. The output can be erratic when the input is in this range. A slowly changing input like this can also cause excess power dissipation in the output circuit. If such an analog input must be used, there are specialized TTL parts with Schmitt trigger inputs available that will reliably convert the analog input to a digital value, effectively operating as a one bit A to D converter.

Serial signaling

TTL serial refers to single-ended serial communication using raw transistor voltage levels: "low" for 0 and "high" for 1.^[31] UART over TTL serial is a common debug interface for embedded devices. Handheld devices such as graphing calculators and NMEA 0183-compliant GPS receivers and fishfinders also commonly use UART with TTL. TTL serial is only a de facto standard: there are no strict electrical guidelines. Driver–receiver modules interface between TTL and longer-range serial standards: one example is the MAX232, which converts from and to RS-232.^[32]

Differential TTL is TTL serial carried over a differential pair with complement levels, providing much enhanced noise tolerance. Both RS-422 and RS-485 signals can be produced using TTL levels.^[33]

ccTalk is based on TTL voltage levels.

References

^ Eren, H. (2003), Electronic Portable Instruments: Design and Applications, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-1998-6
^ US 3283170, Buie, James L., "Coupling transistor logic and other circuits", issued 1966-11-01, assigned to TRW Semiconductors, Inc.
^ ^a ^b "1963: Standard Logic Families Introduced". Timeline. The Computer History Museum. 2007.
^ Lojek, Bo (2006), History of semiconductor engineering, Springer, pp. 212–215, ISBN 3-540-34257-5
^ Engineering Staff (1973). The TTL Data Book for Design Engineers (1st ed.). Dallas: Texas Instruments. OCLC 6908409.
^ Turner, L. W., ed. (1976), Electronics Engineer's Reference Book (4th ed.), London: Newnes-Butterworth, ISBN 0408001682
^ Pittler, M. S.; Powers, D. M.; Schnabel, D. L. (1982), "System development and technology aspects of the IBM 3081 Processor Complex" (PDF), IBM Journal of Research and Development, 26 (1): 2–11, doi:10.1147/rd.261.0002, archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-04, p. 5.
^ "Advanced Schottky Family" (PDF). Texas Instruments. 1985. SDAA010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-04.
^ Lancaster, D. (1975), TTL Cookbook, Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams and Co., p. preface, ISBN 0-672-21035-5
^ Klein, E. (2008). "Kenbak-1". Vintage-Computer.com.
^ Wood, Lamont (8 August 2008). "Forgotten PC history: The true origins of the personal computer". Computerworld. Archived from the original on 2008-08-14.
^ Gray, Paul E.; Searle, Campbell L. (1969), Electronic Principles Physics, Models, and Circuits (1st ed.), Wiley, p. 870, ISBN 978-0471323983
^ Buie 1966, column 4
^ Millman, J. (1979), Microelectronics: Digital and Analog Circuits and Systems, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, p. 147, ISBN 0-07-042327-X
^ Quadruple 2-Input Positive-NAND Gates With Open-Collector Outputs
^ Quadruple 2-Input Positive-NAND Gates With Open-Collector Outputs
^ Quadruple 2-Input High-Voltage Interface Positive-NAND Gates
^ Transistor–Transistor Logic (TTL). siliconfareast.com. 2005. Retrieved 17 September 2008. p. 1.
^ Tala, D. K. Digital Logic Gates Part-V. asic-world.com. 2006.
^ SN7400 datasheet - Texas Instruments
^ Haseloff, Eilhard. "Designing With Logic" (PDF). TI.com. Texas Instruments Incorporated. pp. 6–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-10-24. Retrieved 27 October 2018.
^ TTL logic levels
^ "DM7490A Decade and Binary Counter" (PDF). Fairchild. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2005-03-23. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
^ "ecelab Resources and Information". ecelab.com. Archived from the original on 19 September 2010. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
^ Marston, R. M. (2013). Modern TTL Circuits Manual. Elsevier. p. 16. ISBN 9781483105185. [74-series] devices are usually encapsulated in a plastic 14-pin, 16-pin, or 24-pin dual-in-line package (DIP)
^ Rymaszewski, E. J.; Walsh, J. L.; Leehan, G. W. (1981), "Semiconductor Logic Technology in IBM", IBM Journal of Research and Development, 25 (5): 603–616, doi:10.1147/rd.255.0603
^ Seraphim, D. P.; Feinberg, I. (1981), "Electronic Packaging Evolution in IBM", IBM Journal of Research and Development, 25 (5): 617–630, doi:10.1147/rd.255.0617
^ Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989), The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 970, ISBN 0-521-37095-7 states, "...CMOS devices consume power proportional to their switching frequency...At their maximum operating frequency they may use more power than equivalent bipolar TTL devices."
^ Ayers, J. UConn EE 215 notes for lecture 4. Harvard University faculty web page. Archive of web page from University of Connecticut. n.d. Retrieved 17 September 2008.
^ Wobschall, D. (1987), Circuit Design for Electronic Instrumentation: Analog and Digital Devices from Sensor to Display (2d ed.), New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 209–211, ISBN 0-07-071232-8
^ Buchanan, James Edgar (1996). Signal and Power Integrity in Digital Systems: TTL, CMOS, and BiCMOS. McGraw-Hill. p. 200. ISBN 0070087342.
^ "RS-232 vs. TTL Serial Communication - SparkFun Electronics". www.sparkfun.com.
^ "B&B Electronics - Polarities for Differential Pair Signals (RS-422 and RS-485)". www.bb-elec.com.

External links

Fairchild Semiconductor. An Introduction to and Comparison of 74HCT TTL Compatible CMOS Logic (Application Note 368). 1984. (for relative ESD sensitivity of TTL and CMOS.)
Texas Instruments logic family application notes

[1] Eren, H. (2003), Electronic Portable Instruments: Design and Applications, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-1998-6

[2] US 3283170, Buie, James L., "Coupling transistor logic and other circuits", issued 1966-11-01, assigned to TRW Semiconductors, Inc.

[The_Computer_History_Museum_2007-3] "1963: Standard Logic Families Introduced". Timeline. The Computer History Museum. 2007.

[4] Lojek, Bo (2006), History of semiconductor engineering, Springer, pp. 212–215, ISBN 3-540-34257-5

[5] Engineering Staff (1973). The TTL Data Book for Design Engineers (1st ed.). Dallas: Texas Instruments. OCLC 6908409.

[6] Turner, L. W., ed. (1976), Electronics Engineer's Reference Book (4th ed.), London: Newnes-Butterworth, ISBN 0408001682

[7] Pittler, M. S.; Powers, D. M.; Schnabel, D. L. (1982), "System development and technology aspects of the IBM 3081 Processor Complex" (PDF), IBM Journal of Research and Development, 26 (1): 2–11, doi:10.1147/rd.261.0002, archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-04, p. 5.

[8] "Advanced Schottky Family" (PDF). Texas Instruments. 1985. SDAA010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-04.

[9] Lancaster, D. (1975), TTL Cookbook, Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams and Co., p. preface, ISBN 0-672-21035-5

[10] Klein, E. (2008). "Kenbak-1". Vintage-Computer.com.

[wood-11] Wood, Lamont (8 August 2008). "Forgotten PC history: The true origins of the personal computer". Computerworld. Archived from the original on 2008-08-14.

[12] Gray, Paul E.; Searle, Campbell L. (1969), Electronic Principles Physics, Models, and Circuits (1st ed.), Wiley, p. 870, ISBN 978-0471323983

[13] Buie 1966, column 4

[14] Millman, J. (1979), Microelectronics: Digital and Analog Circuits and Systems, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, p. 147, ISBN 0-07-042327-X

[15] Quadruple 2-Input Positive-NAND Gates With Open-Collector Outputs

[16] Quadruple 2-Input Positive-NAND Gates With Open-Collector Outputs

[17] Quadruple 2-Input High-Voltage Interface Positive-NAND Gates

[18] Transistor–Transistor Logic (TTL). siliconfareast.com. 2005. Retrieved 17 September 2008. p. 1.

[19] Tala, D. K. Digital Logic Gates Part-V. asic-world.com. 2006.

[20] SN7400 datasheet - Texas Instruments

[21] Haseloff, Eilhard. "Designing With Logic" (PDF). TI.com. Texas Instruments Incorporated. pp. 6–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-10-24. Retrieved 27 October 2018.

[22] TTL logic levels

[DM7490A-23] "DM7490A Decade and Binary Counter" (PDF). Fairchild. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2005-03-23. Retrieved 14 October 2016.

[24] "ecelab Resources and Information". ecelab.com. Archived from the original on 19 September 2010. Retrieved 13 March 2023.

[25] Marston, R. M. (2013). Modern TTL Circuits Manual. Elsevier. p. 16. ISBN 9781483105185. [74-series] devices are usually encapsulated in a plastic 14-pin, 16-pin, or 24-pin dual-in-line package (DIP)

[26] Rymaszewski, E. J.; Walsh, J. L.; Leehan, G. W. (1981), "Semiconductor Logic Technology in IBM", IBM Journal of Research and Development, 25 (5): 603–616, doi:10.1147/rd.255.0603

[27] Seraphim, D. P.; Feinberg, I. (1981), "Electronic Packaging Evolution in IBM", IBM Journal of Research and Development, 25 (5): 617–630, doi:10.1147/rd.255.0617

[28] Horowitz, Paul; Hill, Winfield (1989), The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 970, ISBN 0-521-37095-7 states, "...CMOS devices consume power proportional to their switching frequency...At their maximum operating frequency they may use more power than equivalent bipolar TTL devices."

[29] Ayers, J. UConn EE 215 notes for lecture 4. Harvard University faculty web page. Archive of web page from University of Connecticut. n.d. Retrieved 17 September 2008.

[30] Wobschall, D. (1987), Circuit Design for Electronic Instrumentation: Analog and Digital Devices from Sensor to Display (2d ed.), New York: McGraw Hill, pp. 209–211, ISBN 0-07-071232-8

[31] Buchanan, James Edgar (1996). Signal and Power Integrity in Digital Systems: TTL, CMOS, and BiCMOS. McGraw-Hill. p. 200. ISBN 0070087342.

[32] "RS-232 vs. TTL Serial Communication - SparkFun Electronics". www.sparkfun.com.

[33] "B&B Electronics - Polarities for Differential Pair Signals (RS-422 and RS-485)". www.bb-elec.com.

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v t e Logic families
MOS technology	PMOS logic NMOS logic Depletion-load NMOS logic (including HMOS) Complementary MOS (CMOS) Pass transistor logic (PTL) Bipolar–CMOS (BiCMOS)
Other technologies	Diode logic Diode–transistor logic (DTL) Open collector (OC) Direct-coupled transistor logic (DCTL) Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) Gunning transceiver logic (GTL) Integrated injection logic (I²L) Resistor–transistor logic (RTL) Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) Current mode logic / Source-coupled logic (CML/SCL)
Types	Static Dynamic Domino logic Four-phase logic