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{{History of East Timor}}
{{History of East Timor}}
{{Culture of East Timor}}
'''[[East Timor]]''' is a small country in Southeast Asia, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of [[Atauro Island|Atauro]] and Jaco. The first inhabitants are thought to be descendant of [[Australoid]] and [[Melanesia]]n peoples. The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] began to trade with the island of [[Timor]] in the early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century. Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treaty in which Portugal ceded the western portion of the island. Imperial [[Japan]] occupied East Timor from 1942 to 1945, but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese defeat in [[World War II]].


[[East Timor]], officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. The country comprises the eastern half of the island of [[Timor]] and the nearby islands of [[Atauro Island|Atauro]] and Jaco. The first inhabitants are thought to be descendant of [[Australoid]] and [[Melanesians|Melanesian]] peoples. The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] began to trade with Timor by the early 16th century and [[Portuguese Timor|colonised]] it throughout the mid-century. Skirmishing with the [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch]] in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treaty for which Portugal ceded the western half of the island. [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] [[Battle of Timor|occupied East Timor]] during [[World War II]], but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the [[Surrender of Japan|Japanese surrender]].
The country declared itself independent from Portugal on 28 November 1975 and was invaded and occupied by [[Indonesia]]n forces nine days later. It was incorporated into Indonesia in July 1976 as the province of East Timor. During the subsequent [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|24-year occupation]] a campaign of pacification ensued. Between 1974 and 1999, there were an estimated 102,800 conflict-related deaths (approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness), the majority of which occurred during the Indonesian occupation.


East Timor declared itself independent from Portugal in 1975, but was [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invaded by Indonesia]]. The country was later incorporated as a [[Provinces of Indonesia|province of Indonesia]]. During the subsequent [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|two-decade occupation]], a campaign of pacification ensued. Although Indonesia did make substantial investment in infrastructures during its occupation in East Timor,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indonesia: From Economic Crisis to Political Turmoil |url=http://www.idsa-india.org/an-nov-00-9.html |last=Singh |first=Udai Bhanu |website=www.idsa-india.org |access-date=11 November 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402073833/http://www.idsa-india.org/an-nov-00-9.html |url-status=usurped }}</ref> dissatisfaction remained widespread. From 1975 to 1999, there were an estimated 102,800 conflict-related deaths (approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness), the majority of which occurred during the Indonesian occupation.
On 30 August 1999, in a [[East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum|UN-sponsored referendum]], an overwhelming majority of East Timor voted for independence from Indonesia. Immediately following the referendum, [[Pro-Indonesia militia|anti-independence Timorese militias]] — organised and supported by the Indonesian military — commenced a punitive scorched-earth campaign. The militias killed approximately 1,400 Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people into West Timor as refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure was destroyed. On 20 September 1999 the [[International Force for East Timor]] (INTERFET) was deployed to the country and brought the violence to an end. Following a [[East Timor (transition)|United Nations-administered transition period]], East Timor was internationally recognised as an independent state in 2002.

In 1999, in a [[East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum|UN-sponsored referendum]], an overwhelming majority of East Timorese voted for independence from Indonesia. Immediately following the referendum, [[Pro-Indonesia militia|anti-independence Timorese militias]] – organised and supported by the [[Military of Indonesia|Indonesian military]] – commenced a [[scorched earth]] campaign. The militias killed approximately 1,400 Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people into [[West Timor]] as refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure was destroyed during this attack. The [[International Force for East Timor]] (INTERFET) was deployed to the country and brought the violence to an end. Following a [[East Timor (transition)|United Nations-administered transition period]], East Timor was internationally recognised as an independent nation in 2002. It is the poorest country in Southeast Asia with a 20% unemployment rate, and approximately one third of the population is illiterate.


==Pre-colonial history==
==Pre-colonial history==
{{Main|Pre-colonial Timor (pre-1515)}}
{{Main article|Pre-colonial Timor}}
The island of [[Timor]] was populated as part of the human migrations that have shaped Australasia more generally. As of 2019, the oldest traces of human settlement are 43,000 to 44,000 years old, and were found in the [[Laili (cave)|Laili cave]] in [[Manatuto Municipality]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hawkins |first1=Stuart |last2=O'Connor |first2=Sue |last3=Maloney |first3=Tim Ryan |last4=Litster |first4=Mirani |last5=Kealy |first5=Shimona |last6=Fenner |first6=Jack N. |last7=Aplin |first7=Ken |last8=Boulanger |first8=Clara |last9=Brockwell |first9=Sally |last10=Willan |first10=Richard |last11=Piotto |first11=Elena |last12=Louys |first12=Julien |title=Oldest human occupation of Wallacea at Laili Cave, Timor-Leste, shows broad-spectrum foraging responses to late Pleistocene environments |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=September 2017 |volume=171 |pages=58–72 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.07.008|bibcode=2017QSRv..171...58H |doi-access=free |hdl=1885/244982 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> These early settlers had high-level maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evidence of 42,000 year old deep sea fishing revealed Article created on Saturday |url=http://www.pasthorizonspr.com/index.php/archives/11/2011/evidence-of-42000-year-old-deep-sea-fishing-revealed |date=26 November 2011 |website=Past Horizons |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515133750/http://www.pasthorizonspr.com/index.php/archives/11/2011/evidence-of-42000-year-old-deep-sea-fishing-revealed |archive-date=15 May 2013 |access-date=2012-09-06 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> One of the oldest fish hooks in the world, dated between 16,000 and 23,000 years old, was excavated at the [[Jerimalai (cave)|Jerimalai cave]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Connor |first1=S. |last2=Ono |first2=R. |last3=Clarkson |first3=C. |title=Pelagic Fishing at 42,000 Years Before the Present and the Maritime Skills of Modern Humans |journal=Science |date=24 November 2011 |volume=334 |issue=6059 |pages=1117–1121 |doi=10.1126/science.1207703|pmid=22116883 |bibcode=2011Sci...334.1117O |hdl=1885/35424 |s2cid=20791703 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is believed that survivors from three waves of migration still live in the country. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the [[Vedda people|Veddo]]-[[Australoid]] type.
The island of [[Timor]] was populated as part of the human migrations that have shaped Australasia more generally. It is believed that survivors from three waves of migration still live in the country. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the Vedo-[[Australoid]] type, who arrived from the north and west approximately 40,000 to 20,000 years BC. Others of this type include the [[Wanniyala-Aetto]] (''Veddas'') of [[Sri Lanka]]. Around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Vedo-Australoid peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior. Finally, proto-Malays arrived from south [[China]] and north [[Indochina]]. Hakka traders are among those descended from this final group.<ref name = "TL">[http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/AboutTimorleste/history.htm Timor-Leste.gov.tl], Timor Leste History.</ref> Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south. Some stories recount Timorese ancestors journeying from [[Malay Peninsula]] or the [[Minangkabau]] Highlands of [[Sumatra]].<ref name="Taylor 2003 378">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |pages=378|publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location= New Haven and London |isbn=0-300-10518-5}}</ref>

Around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Veddo-Australoid peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior. Finally, proto-Malays arrived from south [[China]] and north [[Indochina]].<ref name="TL">{{Cite web |title=About Timor-Leste – Brief History of Timor-Leste: A History |url=http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/AboutTimorleste/history.htm |website=Timor-Leste.gov.tl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029065300/http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/AboutTimorleste/history.htm |archive-date=29 October 2008}}</ref> Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south.

These multiple waves of migrations combined with the mountainous geography of the island led to a diverse mix of languages and culture. What is now East Timor was split between up to 46 kingdoms. However, there was little influence from the large Islamic Javanese powers to the west.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|41}}

The later Timorese were not seafarers, rather they were land focused people who rarely made contact with other islands. Timor was part of a region of small islands with small populations of similarly land-focused people that now make up eastern Indonesia. Contact with the outside world was via networks of foreign seafaring traders from as far as China and India that served the archipelago. Outside products brought to the region included metal goods, rice, fine textiles, and coins exchanged for local spices, [[sandalwood]], deer horn, bees' wax, and slaves.<ref name="Taylor 2003 378">{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jean Gelman|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesiapeoples00tayl|title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-300-10518-5|location=New Haven and London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesiapeoples00tayl/page/n400 378]|url-access=limited}}</ref>

Several fortifications uncovered in Timor were built between 1000 and 1300. Climatic changes, in particular during the [[Little Ice Age]], and the increased trade in sandalwood, are thought to have increased tensions around the control of resources during that time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O’Connor |first1=Sue |last2=McWilliam |first2=Andrew |last3=Fenner |first3=Jack N. |last4=Brockwell |first4=Sally |title=Examining the Origin of Fortifications in East Timor: Social and Environmental Factors |journal=The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology |date=May 2012 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=200–218 |doi=10.1080/15564894.2011.619245|hdl=1885/65610 |s2cid=130822749 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>


The first known mention of Timor in writing can be found in the 13th-century Chinese [[Zhu Fan Zhi]], which describes various products and civilisations found outside China. In the Zhu Fan Zhi, Timor is called ''Ti-Wen'' and is noted for its sandalwood. In 1365, the [[Nagarakretagama]], which contains descriptions of the Majapahit Empire at its peak, identifies Timor as an island within Majapahit's realm. However, as Portuguese chronologist Tomé Pires wrote in the 16th century, all islands east of Java were called "Timor".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population Settlements in East Timor and Indonesia |url=http://www.uc.pt/timor/CURSO1A.HTM |publisher=University of Coimbra |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990202035244/http://www.uc.pt/Timor/CURSO1A.HTM |archive-date=2 February 1999}}</ref>
The Timorese were not seafarers, rather they were land focussed peoples who did not make contact with other islands and peoples by sea. Timor was part of a region of small islands with small populations of similarly land-focussed peoples that now make up eastern Indonesia. Contact with the outside world was via networks of foreign seafaring traders from as far as China and India that served the archipelago. The earliest historical record about [[Timor]] island is 14th century [[Nagarakretagama]], Canto 14, that identify ''Timur'' as an island within [[Majapahit]]'s realm. Outside products brought to the region included metal goods, rice, fine textiles, and coins exchanged for local spices, [[sandalwood]], deer horn, bees' wax, and slaves.<ref name="Taylor 2003 378"/>


Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early 16th century. One of the most significant is the [[Wehali]] kingdom in central Timor, to which the [[Tetum]], [[Bunaq]] and [[Kemak people|Kemak]] ethnic groups were aligned.<ref name = "Precolonial">[http://www.seasite.niu.edu/EastTimor/precolonial.htm Seasite.niu.edu], Precolonial East Timor.</ref>
Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early 16th century. One of the most significant is the [[Wehali]] kingdom in central Timor, to which the [[Tetum language|Tetum]], [[Bunaq]] and [[Kemak people|Kemak]] ethnic groups were aligned.<ref name="Precolonial">{{Citation |last=Molnar |first=Andrea K. |title=East Timor: An Introduction to the History, Politics and Culture of Southeast Asia's Youngest Nation |date=May 2005 |chapter=2. a. Pre-colonial history |chapter-url=http://www.seasite.niu.edu/EastTimor/precolonial.htm |via=Seasite.niu.edu |access-date=30 December 2005 |archive-date=18 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818210143/http://www.seasite.niu.edu/EastTimor/precolonial.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>


The first circumnavigation of the world, the [[Magellan expedition]], visited Timor and they recorded that Lucoes (People from [[Luzon]], Philippines) traded in East Timor in order to gather Sandalwood for export abroad.<ref name="Scott">[http://ojs.philippinestudies.net/index.php/ps/article/view/1122 The Mediterranean Connection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519185343/http://ojs.philippinestudies.net/index.php/ps/article/view/1122 |date=19 May 2022 }}
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}
By William Henry Scott (Published in "Philippine Studies" ran by Ateneo de Manila University Press)</ref>


==Portuguese rule==
==Portuguese rule==
{{Main|Portuguese Timor}}
{{Main article|Portuguese Timor}}
{{see also|Battle of Penfui}}
The first Europeans to arrive in the area were the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who landed near modern [[Pante Macassar]]. In 1556 a group of [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[Dominican friar|friars]] established their missionary work in the area. By the seventeenth century the village of [[Lifau]] became the centre of Portuguese activities. In 1702 the territory officially became a Portuguese colony, known as [[Portuguese Timor]], when [[Lisbon]] sent its first governor, with [[Lifau]] as its capital. Portuguese control over the territory was tenuous particularly in the mountainous interior. [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friars, the occasional Dutch raid, and the Timorese themselves provided opposition to the Portuguese. The control of colonial administrators, largely restricted to [[Dili]], had to rely on traditional tribal chieftains for control and influence.<ref name="Schwarz 1994 198">{{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=A. |year=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |pages=198|publisher=Westview Press |isbn=1-86373-635-2}}</ref>
[[File:Lesser coat of arms of Portuguese Timor.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.55|Arms of Portuguese Timor (1935–1975)<ref name="Flags of the World">{{Cite web |title=East Timor: flag proposal of 1967 |url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/tl!1967.html |website=Flags of the World |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408212757/https://www.fotw.info/flags/tl!1967.html |archive-date=8 April 2014 |access-date=17 July 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>]]
The first Europeans to arrive in the area were the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who landed near present-day [[Pante Macassar]]. These Portuguese were traders that arrived between 1512 and 1515.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} However, only in 1556 did a group of [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[Dominican friar|friars]] establish their missionary work in the area, settling just north in [[Solor]].<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|42}} [[Dutch–Portuguese War|War with the Netherlands]] reduced Portuguese control in the Malay archipelago, limiting them mostly to the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. Later wars further reduced Portuguese influence, with Solor falling in 1613, and [[Kupang]] in the west of Timor falling in 1653.<ref name="Telkamp1979">{{cite book |last1=Telkamp |first1=Gerard J. |title=Between People and Statistics |date=1979 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-009-8846-0 |pages=71–72 |chapter=The Economic Structure of an Outpost in the Outer Islands in the Indonesian Archipelago: Portuguese Timor 1850–1975 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-8846-0_6 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-8846-0_6 |access-date=9 July 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408195434/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-8846-0_6 |url-status=live }}</ref>


Dutch and Portuguese sources relate that the island was divided into two collections of kingdoms. Sixteen kingdoms were grouped into {{ill|Servião|de|Servião}} in the west, while in the east fifty kingdoms were part of [[Belu (province)|Belos]].<ref name="Kammen2010">{{Cite journal |last=Kammen |first=Douglas |date=2010 |title=Subordinating Timor: Central authority and the origins of communal identities in East Timor |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27868578 |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=166 |issue=2/3 |pages=244–269 |jstor=27868578 |issn=0006-2294 |access-date=14 January 2023 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105110629/https://www.jstor.org/stable/27868578 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|246}}
For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post until the late nineteenth century. Investment in infrastructure, health, and education was minimal. Sandalwood remained the main export crop with coffee exports becoming significant in the mid-nineteenth century. In places where Portuguese rule was asserted, it tended to be brutal and exploitative. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering home economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies.<ref name="Schwarz 1994 198"/>


By the seventeenth century the village of [[Lifau]] – today part of the [[Oecusse District|Oecussi]] enclave – had become the centre of Portuguese activities. At this time, the Portuguese began to convert the Timorese to Catholicism. Starting in 1642, a military expedition led by the Portuguese Francisco Fernandes took place. The aim of this expedition was to weaken the power of the Timor kings and even as this expedition was made by the [[Topasses]], the 'Black Portuguese', it succeeded to extend the Portuguese influence into the interior of the country.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} In 1702 a Governor was appointed for Solor and Timor, based in [[Lifau]]. Portuguese control over the territory was tenuous, with opposition coming from [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friars, the Topasses, restive vassal kingdoms, and the south Sulawesi-based [[Early history of Gowa and Talloq|Gowa and Talloq]] sultanates. A rebellion in 1725 led to a campaign by Portuguese forces and allies from the north coast, which culminated in Portuguese victory at the 1726 [[Battle of Cailaco]].<ref name="Kammen2010"/>{{rp|246–247}} In 1769, seeking to wrest control from the Topasses, the Portuguese governor moved his administration along with 1,200 people from Lifau to what would become [[Dili]].<ref name="Telkamp1979"/> The control of colonial administrators, largely restricted to Dili, had to rely on traditional tribal chieftains for control and influence.<ref name="Schwarz 1994 198">{{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=A. |year=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/198 198] |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=1-86373-635-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/198 }}</ref>
The capital was moved from Lifau to [[Dili]] in 1769, due to attacks from the [[Topasses]], an independent-minded Eurasian group. Meanwhile, the Dutch were colonizing the rest of the island and the surrounding archipelago that is now [[Indonesia]]. The border between Portuguese Timor and the Dutch East Indies was formally decided in 1859 with the [[Treaty of Lisbon (1859)|Treaty of Lisbon]]. The definitive border was drawn by [[the Hague]] in 1916, and it remains the international boundary between the modern states of East Timor and Indonesia.


For both Portugal and the Netherlands, Timor remained a low priority with little presence outside of the cities of Dili and Kupang.<ref name="Telkamp1979"/> Nonetheless, continuing disputes over competing spheres of influence with the Dutch led to a number of treaties aimed at formalising borders and eliminating enclaves.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|42}} The border between Portuguese Timor and the Dutch East Indies was formally decided in 1859 with the [[Treaty of Lisbon (1859)|Treaty of Lisbon]]. Portugal received the eastern half, together with the north coast pocket of Oecussi.<ref name="Deeley2001">{{Cite book |last=Deeley |first=Neil |title=The International Boundaries of East Timor |date=2001 |publisher=IBRU |pages=8}}</ref> There are competing views over whether this border reflected existing cultural differences.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|42–43}} This 1859 treaty saw Portugal take control of [[Maubara Administrative Post|Maubara]], where the Dutch had begun [[coffee]] cultivation, in exchange for formally relinquishing claims in Solor and Flores.<ref name="Telkamp1979"/>
Although Portugal was neutral during [[World War II]], in December 1941, Portuguese Timor was occupied by [[Australia]]n and Dutch forces, which were expecting a [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] invasion. When the Japanese did occupy Timor, in February 1942, a 400-strong Dutch-Australian force and large numbers of Timorese volunteers engaged them in [[Battle of Timor (1942–43)|a one-year guerilla campaign]]. After the allied evacuation in February 1943 the East Timorese continued fighting the Japanese, with comparatively little [[collaborationism|collaboration]] with the enemy taking place. This assistance cost the civilian population dearly: Japanese forces burned many villages and seized food supplies. The Japanese occupation resulted in the deaths of 40,000–70,000 Timorese.


In 1844 Timor, along with Macau and Solor, was removed from the jurisdiction of [[Portuguese India]]. A few years later in 1850, [[Portuguese Timor]] was removed from the jurisdiction of the governor of Macau, before being returned to the jurisdiction of Portuguese India in 1856. In 1863, Dili was declared a city (although the news may not have arrived to the city until the next year), and East Timor became directly subordinate to the Lisbon government. In 1866 the territory was again put under the jurisdiction of Macau. An 1887 mutiny in Dili led to the death of the Governor at the time. The territory was separated from Macau for the last time in 1896, again coming directly under the jurisdiction of Lisbon, and becoming a full province in 1909.<ref name="Thomaz2017">{{cite journal |last1=Thomaz |first1=Luís Filipe F. R. |title=La chronologie historique de Timor Oriental |journal=Archipel |date=2017 |issue=93 |pages=199–217 |doi=10.4000/archipel.416 |hdl=10400.14/35931 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/archipel/416 |language=fr |hdl-access=free |access-date=9 July 2022 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416194819/https://journals.openedition.org/archipel/416 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|212–215}}
Portuguese Timor was handed back to Portugal after the war, but Portugal continued to neglect the colony. Very little investment was made in infrastructure, education and healthcare. The colony was declared an 'Overseas Province' of the Portuguese Republic in 1955. Locally, authority rested with the Portuguese Governor and the Legislative Council, as well as local chiefs or ''liurai''. Only a small minority of Timorese were educated, and even fewer went on to university in Portugal (there were no universities in the territory until 2000).

In 1910–12, the [[East Timorese rebellion of 1910–12|East Timorese rebelled]] against Portugal. Troops from Mozambique and naval gunfire were brought in to suppress the rebels. The definitive border was drawn by [[The Hague]] in 1914,<ref name="Deeley2001"/> and it remains the international boundary between the modern states of East Timor and Indonesia.<ref name="Reis2014">{{cite journal |last1=Reis |first1=Célia |title=Macao et Timor. La souveraineté portugaise et l'incidence de la guerre de 1914–1918 |journal=Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemporains |date=2014 |volume=256 |issue=4 |pages=69–80 |doi=10.3917/gmcc.256.0069 |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-guerres-mondiales-et-conflits-contemporains-2014-4-page-69.htm |language=fr |doi-access=free |access-date=22 July 2021 |archive-date=22 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722101633/https://www.cairn.info/revue-guerres-mondiales-et-conflits-contemporains-2014-4-page-69.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Maucatar]] became part of Portuguese Timor during this period.<ref name="Telkamp1979"/> The [[Portuguese Timorese pataca]] became the sole official currency in 1915. Difficulties in communication and logistics arising as a result of [[World War I]] led to trade disruptions. Economic difficulties and an inability to pay salaries led to a small revolt in 1919.<ref name="Reis2014"/>

For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post until the late nineteenth century. Investment in infrastructure, health, and education was minimal. The island was seen as a way to exile those who the government in Lisbon saw as "problems" – these included political prisoners as well as ordinary criminals. Portuguese ruled through a traditional system of liurai (local chiefs). Sandalwood remained the main export crop with coffee exports becoming significant in the mid-nineteenth century. In places where Portuguese rule was asserted, it tended to be brutal and exploitative. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering home economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies.<ref name="Schwarz 1994 198"/> Portuguese authorities created an administrative structure based on the existing kingdoms, while also creating a new level of administration under them, the ''suco''. This new level was created around villages, or groups of villages linked by kinship. These new administrative boundaries thus reflected family ties, and strengthened family power as villages gained administrative power. This created a permanent shift of powers from the level of the kingdom to that of the villages.<ref name="Scambary2021">{{cite book |chapter=Geographies of Power: Implementing Community Driven Development in Urban Dili, Timor-Leste |title=Rural–Urban Dichotomies and Spatial Development in Asia |author1=James Scambary |author2=Joana de Mesquita Lima |series=New Frontiers in Regional Science: Asian Perspectives |volume=48 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-16-1232-9_12 |date=2 July 2021 |pages=275–295}}</ref>{{rp|279}}

The administration of [[José Celestino da Silva]] began in 1893. He aimed to make the territory profitable. To gain more control he reduced the power of local kings, and even eliminated smaller and more disloyal ones. Implementation of the head tax required a census, and depended on the loyalty of the local leaders who would be responsible for collection. He also sought to impose a [[Poll tax|head tax]] which collected tax from each household, necessitating a census of the territory to count these households. The head tax was imposed by Silva's successor, Eduardo Augusto Marques, once the census was complete. The needs of the census meant power at this time also flowed to leaders of ''aldeias'', a smaller unit that ''sucos'' whose leaders were responsible for some tax collection and were given formal military ranks.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|279}}

The remaining power of the kings further diminished after the [[5 October 1910 revolution]] made Portugal a republic, especially as many Timorese kings were monarchist sympathisers. The kings now operated [[Administrative posts of East Timor|Administrative posts]] on behalf of the Portuguese.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|280}}

Portuguese Timor had been a place of exile for political and social opponents deported from the metropolis since the late nineteenth century. Among them a large proportion were members of the [[Anarchism|anarchist]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]] movement, which until the Second World War was the most influential of the left-wing movements in Portugal. The main waves of deportations to Timor were in 1896, 1927, and 1931. Some of the activists continued their resistance even in exile. After World War II, the remaining exiles were pardoned and allowed to return.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Damier |first1=Vadim |last2=Limanov |first2=Kirill |date=2019 |title=Portuguese Anarchist in the 'Tropical Siberia' |url=https://ahl.igh.ru/issues/12/articles/85?locale=en |journal=[[Latin-American Historical Almanac]] |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=78–106 |doi=10.32608/2305-8773-2019-22-1-78-106 |s2cid=200077700 |doi-access=free |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008033816/https://ahl.igh.ru/issues/12/articles/85?locale=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Centro de Instrução do Marobo (restored).jpg|thumb|Portuguese soldiers in East Timor]]
Although Portugal was neutral during [[World War II]], in December 1941, Portuguese Timor was occupied by [[Australia]]n and Dutch forces, which were expecting a [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] invasion. This Australian military intervention dragged Portuguese Timor into the Pacific War but it also slowed the Japanese expansion. When the Japanese did occupy Timor, in February 1942, a 400-strong Dutch-Australian force and large numbers of Timorese volunteers engaged them in [[Battle of Timor (1942–43)|a one-year guerrilla campaign]]. After the allied evacuation in February 1943 the East Timorese continued fighting the Japanese, with comparatively little [[collaborationism|collaboration]] with the enemy taking place. This assistance cost the civilian population dearly: Japanese forces burned many villages and seized food supplies. The Japanese occupation resulted in the deaths of 40,000–70,000 Timorese.

Under Japanese rule, there were changes to the administrative structures that created larger districts (the former kingdoms) and a reduced number of ''suco''.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|280}}

Portuguese Timor was handed back to Portugal after the war, but Portugal continued to neglect the colony. Very little investment was made in infrastructure, education and healthcare. The colony was declared an 'Overseas Province' of the Portuguese Republic in 1955. Locally, authority rested with the Portuguese Governor and the Legislative Council, as well as local chiefs or ''liurai''. Only a small minority of Timorese were educated, and even fewer went on to university in Portugal (there were no universities in the territory until 2000).


During this time, [[Indonesia]] did not express any interest in Portuguese Timor, despite the anti-colonial rhetoric of President [[Sukarno]]. This was partly as Indonesia was preoccupied with gaining control of [[West Irian]], now called Papua, which had been retained by the [[Netherlands]] after Indonesian independence. In fact, at the [[United Nations]], Indonesian diplomats stressed that their country did not seek control over any territory outside the former Netherlands East Indies, explicitly mentioning Portuguese Timor.
During this time, [[Indonesia]] did not express any interest in Portuguese Timor, despite the anti-colonial rhetoric of President [[Sukarno]]. This was partly as Indonesia was preoccupied with gaining control of [[West Irian]], now called Papua, which had been retained by the [[Netherlands]] after Indonesian independence. In fact, at the [[United Nations]], Indonesian diplomats stressed that their country did not seek control over any territory outside the former Netherlands East Indies, explicitly mentioning Portuguese Timor.


In 1960 East Timor [[Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples|gained the right]] to self-determination under international law, as a [[United Nations list of non-self-governing territories|Non-Self-Governing Territory]]. It retained this status, with Portugal as the administering power, throughout Indonesian rule.<ref name="Drew2001">{{cite journal |last1=Drew |first1=Catriona |title=The East Timor Story: International Law on Trial |journal=European Journal of International Law |date=1 September 2001 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=651–684 |doi=10.1093/ejil/12.4.651 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/12/4/651/488938 |doi-access=free |access-date=2 July 2022 |archive-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702142257/https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/12/4/651/488938 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|656}}
==Decolonisation, coup, and independence ==
After [[Carnation Revolution|the fall of the Portuguese regime]] in 1974, independence was encouraged by the new, democratic Portuguese government.


The small [[1959 Viqueque rebellion]] saw attempts by the rebels to seek support outside their local area, although it did not overcome local rivalries. Its calls for better services and rights led to some changes in Portuguese policy such as increases in education and civil employment. Basic schooling was increased, and more advanced schools that included secondary education were available to the most Portuguese individuals: those considered [[mestiço]] or [[assimilado]]. A catholic school in [[Soibada]], the [[Seminary of Our Lady of Fatima]] in [[Dare, East Timor|Dare]], and the [[Liceu Dr. Francisco Machado]] were important educational establishments during this time. Fatumaca College was established near [[Baucau]] in 1969, and an ''Escola Tecnica'' was set up in 1973. The politicians who came to prominence at the end of Portuguese rule tended to have studied in these schools, and some cited the Viqueque rebellion as an inspiration.<ref name="Leach2016">{{cite book |last1=Leach |first1=Michael |title=Nation-Building and National Identity in Timor-Leste |date=8 December 2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781315311647 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iiglDwAAQBAJ |access-date=2 July 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326152316/https://books.google.com/books?id=iiglDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|42–43}} This "Timorisation", which resulted in greater local participation in administration and the military, remained mostly limited to the aforementioned upper class, and did not substantially affect the majority of the population.<ref name="Croissant2020">{{cite book |author1=Aurel Croissant |author2=Rebecca Abu Sharkh |editor1-last=Croissant |editor1-first=Aurel |editor2-last=Hellmann |editor2-first=Olli |title=Stateness and Democracy in East Asia |date=21 May 2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108495745 |chapter=As Good as It Gets? Stateness and Democracy in East Timor |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YV3bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 |access-date=3 July 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326162324/https://books.google.com/books?id=YV3bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|205}}
i love screaming orgasms 'gradualist' approach to independence. One of its leaders, Mário Viegas Carrascalão, one of the few Timorese to have been educated at university in [[Portugal]], later became [[Indonesia]]n Governor of East Timor during the 1980s and early 1990s, although with the demise of Indonesian rule, he would change to supporting independence.


==Decolonisation, coup, and independence==
* The ''Associação Social Democrática Timorense'' (Timorese Social Democratic Association ASDT) supported a rapid movement to independence. It later changed its name to ''Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente'' (Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor or [[Fretilin]]). Fretilin was criticised by many in [[Australia]] and [[Indonesia]] as being Marxist, its name sounding reminiscent of [[FRELIMO]] in [[Mozambique]] but it was more influenced by [[Africa]]n nationalists like [[Amílcar Cabral]] in [[Portuguese Guinea]] (now [[Guinea-Bissau]]) and [[Cape Verde]].
The decolonisation process instigated by [[Carnation Revolution|the 1974 Portuguese revolution]] saw Portugal effectively abandon the colony of Portuguese Timor. [[East Timorese civil war|A civil war]] between supporters of Portuguese Timorese political parties, the left-wing [[Fretilin]] and the right-wing [[Timorese Democratic Union|UDT]], broke out in 1975 as UDT attempted a coup which Fretilin resisted with the help of local Portuguese military.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M. C. |title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300 |publisher=MacMillan |year=1991 |isbn=0-333-57689-6 |edition=2nd |page=301}}</ref>


One of the first acts of the new government in [[Lisbon]] was to appoint a new governor for the colony on 18 November 1974, in the form of [[Mário Lemos Pires]], who would ultimately be, as events were to prove, the last governor of Portuguese Timor.
* The ''Associação Popular Democrática Timorense'' ([[Timorese Popular Democratic Association]] or "Apodeti") supported integration with Indonesia, as an autonomous province, but had very little grassroots support. One of its leaders, Abílio Osório Soares, later served as the last Indonesian-appointed Governor of East Timor. Apodeti drew support from a few ''liurai'' in the border region, some of whom had collaborated with the [[Japan]]ese during the [[Second World War]]. It also had some support in the small [[Muslim]] minority, although [[Marí Alkatiri]], a Muslim, was a prominent Fretilin leader, and became Prime Minister in 2002.


One of his first decrees made upon his arrival in [[Dili]] was to legalise political parties in preparation for elections to a [[Constituent Assembly]] in 1976. Three main political parties were formed:
Other smaller parties included ''Klibur Oan Timur Asuwain'' or KOTA whose name translated from the [[Tetum]] language as 'Sons of the Mountain Warriors', which sought to create a form of [[monarchy]] involving the local ''liurai'', and the ''Partido Trabalhista'' or Labour Party, but neither had any significant support. They would, however, collaborate with Indonesia. The ''Associação Democrática para a Integração de Timor-Leste na Austrália'' (ADITLA), advocated integration with [[Australia]], but folded after the [[Australia]]n government emphatically ruled out the idea.


* The ''União Democrática Timorense'' (UDT, [[Timorese Democratic Union]]), was supported by the traditional elites, initially argued for a continued association with Lisbon, or as they put it in [[Tetum language|Tetum]], ''mate bandera hum'' — 'in the shadow of the [Portuguese] flag', but later adopted a 'gradualist' approach to independence. One of its leaders, Mário Viegas Carrascalão, one of the few Timorese to have been educated at university in [[Portugal]], later became [[Indonesia]]n Governor of East Timor during the 1980s and early 1990s, although with the demise of Indonesian rule, he would change to supporting independence.
===Parties Compete, Foreign Powers Take Interest===
* The ''Associação Social Democrática Timorense'' (ASDT, Timorese Social Democratic Association) supported a rapid movement to independence. It later changed its name to ''Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente'' (Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor or [[Fretilin]]). Fretilin was regarded by many in [[Australia]] and [[Indonesia]] as being Marxist, its name sounding reminiscent of [[FRELIMO]] in [[Mozambique]]. The party committed itself to "the universal doctrines of socialism".
Developments in Portuguese Timor during 1974 and 1975 were watched closely by [[Indonesia]] and [[Australia]]. [[Suharto]]'s [[New Order (Indonesia)|"New Order"]], which had effectively eliminated Indonesia's Communist Party [[Communist Party of Indonesia|PKI]] in 1965, was alarmed by what it saw as the increasingly left-leaning Fretilin, and by the prospect of a small state in the midst of the sprawling archipelago serving as an inspiration to independence-minded provinces of the Republic such as [[Aceh]], [[West Irian]] and the [[Moluccas]].
* The ''Associação Popular Democrática Timorense'' ("Apodeti", [[Timorese Popular Democratic Association]]) supported integration with Indonesia, as an autonomous province, but had little grassroots support. One of its leaders, Abílio Osório Soares, later served as the last Indonesian-appointed Governor of East Timor. Apodeti drew support from a few ''liurai'' in the border region, some of whom had collaborated with the [[Japan]]ese during the [[Second World War]]. It also had some support in the small [[Muslim]] minority, although [[Marí Alkatiri]], a Muslim, was a prominent Fretilin leader, and became prime minister in 2002.


Other smaller parties included ''Klibur Oan Timur Asuwain'' (KOTA, [[Tetum language|Tetum]] for 'Sons of the Mountain Warriors'), which sought to create a form of [[monarchy]] involving the local ''liurai'', and the ''Partido Trabalhista'' (Labour Party), but neither had any significant support. They would, however, collaborate with Indonesia. The ''Associação Democrática para a Integração de Timor-Leste na Austrália'' (ADITLA) advocated integration with [[Australia]], but folded after the [[Australia]]n government emphatically ruled out the idea.
Australia's Labor Prime Minister, [[Gough Whitlam]], had developed a close working relationship with the Indonesian leader, and also followed events with concern. At a meeting in the [[Javanese language|Java]]nese town of [[Wonosobo]] in 1974, he told Suharto that an independent Portuguese Timor would be 'an unviable state, and a potential threat to the stability of the region'. While recognising the need for an act of self-determination, he considered integration with Indonesia to be in Portuguese Timor's best interests.

This period saw the emergence of a unified national consciousness among the social elites who led the newly established political parties.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|46}} The main parties all promoted freedom of expression, association, and religion, although party support was linked to the home regions of each party's leaders. Fretilin explicitly sought to develop an overarching national identity, which was labelled ''maubere''.<ref name="Kammen2010"/>{{rp|255–256}}

===Parties compete, foreign powers take interest===
Developments in Portuguese Timor during 1974 and 1975 were watched closely by [[Indonesia]] and [[Australia]]. [[Suharto]]'s [[New Order (Indonesia)|"New Order"]], which had effectively eliminated Indonesia's Communist Party [[Communist Party of Indonesia|PKI]] in 1965, was alarmed by what it saw as the increasingly left-leaning Fretilin, and by the prospect of a small independent leftist state in the midst of the archipelago inspiring separatism in parts of the surrounding archipelago.

Australia's Labor prime minister, [[Gough Whitlam]], had developed a close working relationship with the Indonesian leader, and also followed events with concern. At a meeting in the [[Javanese language|Java]]nese town of [[Wonosobo]] in 1974, he told Suharto that an independent Portuguese Timor would be 'an unviable state, and a potential threat to the stability of the region'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/1999/03/whit-m09.html|title=Leaked documents reveal Australian Labor leader's East Timor role|last=Head|first=Mike|author-link=Mike Head|date=9 March 1999|website=World Socialist Web Site|access-date=6 March 2017|archive-date=6 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306210107/https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/1999/03/whit-m09.html|url-status=live}}</ref> While recognising the need for an act of self-determination, he considered integration with Indonesia to be in Portuguese Timor's best interests.


In local elections on 13 March 1975, Fretilin and UDT emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence.
In local elections on 13 March 1975, Fretilin and UDT emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence.
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Indonesian military intelligence, known as BAKIN, began attempting to cause divisions between the pro-independence parties, and promote the support of Apodeti. This was known as ''Operasi Komodo'' or 'Operation Komodo' after the giant [[Komodo dragon|Komodo]] lizard found in the eastern Indonesian island of the same name. Many Indonesian military figures held meetings with UDT leaders, who made it plain that [[Jakarta]] would not tolerate a Fretilin-led administration in an independent East Timor. The coalition between Fretilin and UDT later broke up.
Indonesian military intelligence, known as BAKIN, began attempting to cause divisions between the pro-independence parties, and promote the support of Apodeti. This was known as ''Operasi Komodo'' or 'Operation Komodo' after the giant [[Komodo dragon|Komodo]] lizard found in the eastern Indonesian island of the same name. Many Indonesian military figures held meetings with UDT leaders, who made it plain that [[Jakarta]] would not tolerate a Fretilin-led administration in an independent East Timor. The coalition between Fretilin and UDT later broke up.


During the course of 1975, Portugal became increasingly detached from political developments in its colony, becoming embroiled in civil unrest and political crises, and more concerned with decolonisation in its [[Africa]]n colonies of [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] than with Portuguese Timor. Many local leaders saw independence as unrealistic, and were open to discussions with Jakarta over Portuguese Timor's incorporation into the Indonesian state.
During the course of 1975, Portugal became increasingly detached from political developments in its colony, becoming embroiled in civil unrest and political crises, and more concerned with decolonisation in its [[Africa]]n colonies of [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] than with Portuguese Timor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.easttimorgovernment.com/history.htm|title=East Timor History|website=www.easttimorgovernment.com|access-date=2019-09-10|archive-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729155601/http://www.easttimorgovernment.com/history.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Many local leaders saw independence as unrealistic, and were open to discussions with Jakarta over Portuguese Timor's incorporation into the Indonesian state.<ref name=":0" />

The [[United States]] had also expressed concerns over Portuguese Timor in the wake of the war in [[Vietnam]]. Having gained Indonesia as an ally, Washington did not want to see the vast archipelago destabilised by a left-wing regime in its midst. {{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}


===The Coup===
===The coup===
{{Main|East Timorese civil war}}
On 11 August 1975, the UDT mounted a coup, in a bid to halt the increasing popularity of Fretilin. Governor Pires fled to the offshore island of [[Atauro]], north of the capital, [[Dili]], from where he later attempted to broker an agreement between the two sides. He was urged by Fretilin to return and resume the decolonisation process, but he insisted that he was awaiting instructions from the government in Lisbon, now increasingly uninterested.
On 11 August 1975, the UDT mounted a coup, in a bid to halt the increasing popularity of Fretilin. Portuguese Governor [[Mário Lemos Pires]] fled to the offshore island of [[Atauro]], north of the capital, [[Dili]], from where he later attempted to broker an agreement between the two sides. He was urged by Fretilin to return and resume the decolonisation process, but he insisted that he was awaiting instructions from the government in Lisbon, now increasingly uninterested.


Indonesia sought to portray the conflict as a civil war, which had plunged Portuguese Timor into chaos, but after only a month, aid and relief agencies from [[Australia]] and elsewhere visited the territory, and reported that the situation was stable. Nevertheless, many UDT supporters had fled across the border into Indonesian Timor, where they were coerced into supporting integration with Indonesia. In October 1975, in the border town of [[Balibo]], two Australian television crews (the "[[Balibo Five]]") reporting on the conflict were killed by Indonesian forces, after they witnessed Indonesian incursions into Portuguese Timor.
Indonesia sought to portray the conflict as a civil war, which had plunged Portuguese Timor into chaos, but after only a month, aid and relief agencies from [[Australia]] and elsewhere visited the territory, and reported that the situation was stable. Nevertheless, many UDT supporters had fled across the border into Indonesian Timor, where they were coerced into supporting integration with Indonesia. In October 1975, in the border town of [[Balibo]], two Australian television crews (the "[[Balibo Five]]") reporting on the conflict were killed by Indonesian forces, after they witnessed Indonesian incursions into Portuguese Timor.


===Unilateral declaration of independence===
===Break from Portugal===
{{See also|Proclamation of Independence Day (East Timor)#History|Democratic Republic of East Timor (1975)}}
While Fretilin had sought the return of the Portuguese Governor, pointedly flying the Portuguese flag from government offices, the deteriorating situation meant that it had to make an appeal to the world for international support, independently of Portugal.
While Fretilin had sought the return of the Portuguese governor, pointedly flying the Portuguese flag from government offices, the deteriorating situation meant that it had to make an appeal to the world for international support, independently of Portugal.


On 28 November 1975, Fretilin made a [[unilateral declaration of independence]] of the ''Democratic Republic of East Timor'' (Republica Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese). This was not recognised by either Portugal, Indonesia, or Australia; however, the new state received formal diplomatic recognition from six countries, namely [[Albania]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mozambique]], and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]. Fretilin's [[Francisco Xavier do Amaral]] became the first President, while Fretilin leader [[Nicolau dos Reis Lobato]] was Prime Minister.
On 28 November 1975, Fretilin made a [[unilateral declaration of independence]] of the ''[[Democratic Republic of East Timor (1975)|Democratic Republic of East Timor]]'' (''República Democrática de Timor-Leste'' in Portuguese). This was not recognised by either Portugal, Indonesia, or Australia; however, the UDI state received formal diplomatic recognition from six countries that were led by leftist or Marxist–Leninist parties, namely [[Socialist People's Republic of Albania|Albania]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[People's Republic of Mozambique|Mozambique]], and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]. Fretilin's [[Francisco Xavier do Amaral]] became the first president, while Fretilin leader [[Nicolau dos Reis Lobato]] was prime minister.<ref>{{cite web |title=Declaration of Independence |url=http://timor-leste.gov.tl/?p=29&lang=en |website=Timor-Leste gov |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217111645/http://timor-leste.gov.tl/?p=29&lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=East Timor: Indonesia's invasion and the long road to independence |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/30/east-timor-indonesias-invasion-and-the-long-road-to-independence |access-date=17 December 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=29 August 2019 |archive-date=5 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205001124/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/30/east-timor-indonesias-invasion-and-the-long-road-to-independence |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=A Piece Of The Story Of East Timor's Independence From Portugal Then Indonesia Was "annexed" |url=https://voi.id/en/memori/473/a-piece-of-the-story-of-east-timors-independence-from-portugal-then-indonesia-was-annexed |access-date=17 December 2021 |publisher=VOI |date=28 November 2019 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217111643/https://voi.id/en/memori/473/a-piece-of-the-story-of-east-timors-independence-from-portugal-then-indonesia-was-annexed |url-status=live }}</ref>


Indonesia's response was to have UDT, Apodeti, KOTA and Trabalhista leaders sign a declaration calling for integration with Indonesia called the ''[[Balibo]] Declaration'', although it was drafted by Indonesian intelligence and signed in [[Bali]], Indonesia not Balibo, Portuguese Timor. [[Xanana Gusmão]], now the country's Prime Minister, described this as the 'Balibohong Declaration', a [[pun]] on the [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] word for 'lie'.
Indonesia's response was to have UDT, Apodeti, KOTA and Trabalhista leaders sign a declaration calling for integration with Indonesia called the ''[[Balibo]] Declaration'', although it was drafted by Indonesian intelligence and signed in [[Bali]], Indonesia not Balibo, Portuguese Timor. [[Xanana Gusmão]], now the country's prime minister, described this as the 'Balibohong Declaration', a [[pun]] on the [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] word for 'lie'.

Fretilin restored the original administrative posts, hoping to shore up local support by more closely reflecting traditional kingdoms.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|280}}


===East Timor solidarity movement===
===East Timor solidarity movement===
An international ''East Timor solidarity movement'' arose in response to the [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|1975 invasion]] of East Timor by Indonesia and the occupation that followed. The movement was supported by churches, human rights groups, and peace campaigners, but developed its own organizations and infrastructure in many countries. Many demonstrations and vigils backed legislative actions to cut off military supplies to Indonesia. The movement was most extensive in neighboring [[Australia]], in [[Portugal]], and the former Portuguese colonies in Africa, but had significant force in the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Europe]].
An international ''East Timor solidarity movement'' arose in response to the [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|1975 invasion]] of East Timor by Indonesia and the occupation that followed. The movement was supported by churches, human rights groups, and peace campaigners, but developed its own organisations and infrastructure in many countries. Many demonstrations and vigils backed legislative actions to cut off military supplies to Indonesia. The movement was most extensive in neighbouring [[Australia]], in [[Portugal]], in the [[Philippines]] and the former Portuguese colonies in Africa, but had significant force in the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Europe]].


[[José Ramos-Horta]], current President of East Timor, stated in a 2007 interview that the solidarity movement "was instrumental. They were like our peaceful foot soldiers, and fought many battles for us."
[[José Ramos-Horta]], later president of East Timor, stated in a 2007 interview that the solidarity movement "was instrumental. They were like our peaceful foot soldiers, and fought many battles for us."


==Indonesian invasion and annexation==
==Indonesian invasion and annexation==
{{Main|Indonesian invasion of East Timor}}
{{Main article|Indonesian invasion of East Timor|Indonesian occupation of East Timor|East Timor (Indonesian province)}}
[[File:Capture of Portuguese flag.jpg|thumb|[[Indonesian army|Indonesian soldier]]s pose in November 1975 in [[Batugade]], East Timor with a captured [[Portuguese flag]].]]
The Indonesian invasion of East Timor began on 7 December 1975. [[Indonesia]]n forces launched a massive air and sea invasion, known as ''Operasi Seroja'', or 'Operation Komodo', almost entirely using US-supplied equipment.<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB174/1010.pdf GWU.edu]</ref> Reported death tolls from the 24-year occupation range from 60,000 to 200,000. <ref name="aiusa01">[http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=30AE6F0E6ABBA62A802569A60060395F AmnestyUSA.org], "Indonesia/East Timor: Seven East Timorese Still in Danger". ''[[Amnesty International USA]]''. Retrieved on 16 August 2007.</ref> A detailed statistical report prepared for the [[Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor]] cited a lower range of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period 1974-1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness.<ref>{{cite web |author=Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group |title=The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste, 1974-1999 |work=A Report to the Commission on Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste |publisher=Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG) |date=9 February 2006 |url=http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml}}</ref>
The Indonesian invasion of East Timor began on 7 December 1975. [[Indonesia]]n forces launched a massive air and sea invasion, known as ''Operasi Seroja'', or 'Operation Komodo', almost entirely using US-supplied equipment even if Kissinger feared this would be revealed to the public.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Memorandum: Indonesian Use of MAP Equipment in Timor |url=http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB174/1010.pdf |date=12 December 1975 |website=GWU.edu |access-date=24 November 2006 |archive-date=22 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061122100935/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB174/1010.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Moreover, according to declassified documents released by the [[National Security Archive]] (NSA) in December 2001, the United States gave its agreement to Indonesia for the invasion. In fact, when the Indonesian president Suharto asked the understanding of taking rapid drastic action in East Timor to US president [[Gerald Ford]], he replied, "We will understand and not press you on the issue. We understand the problem and the intentions you have."
The Australian government did not react to this invasion. The reason may be the existence of oil found in the waters between Indonesia and Australia. This lack of action resulted in massive protests by Australian citizens remembering the heroic actions of the Timorese during World War II.

Reasons given by Indonesia for the invasion included the potential for a communist government, the need to develop the territory, national and regional security risks. Public statements denied that the invasion was aimed at taking the territory, and noted continued support for [[self-determination]]. Nominal elections were held under Indonesian coercion, and on 17 December Indonesia declared that an East Timorese Provisional Government would be formed that included representatives from Apodeti, UDT, KOTA, and the Labour Party.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|46–48}}

Attempts by the [[United Nations Secretary General]]'s Special Representative, [[Vittorio Winspeare-Guicciardi]] to visit Fretilin-held areas from [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin, Australia]], were obstructed by the Indonesian military, which blockaded East Timor.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} On 31 May 1976, the government selected 37 individuals to form a 'People's Assembly' in Dili. This assembly unanimously endorsed integration into Indonesia, cementing an Indonesian narrative of union with Indonesia as an act of self-determination.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|47–48}} On 17 July, East Timor officially became the 27th province of the Republic of Indonesia ([[East Timor (province)|Timor Timur]]).{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} The provisional government made appeals to the UN to have this integration recognised as a legitimate act of self-determination.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|48}}

Nonetheless, the occupation of East Timor remained a public issue in many nations, Portugal in particular, and the UN never recognised either the regime installed by the Indonesians or the subsequent annexation. We can refer to the resolution approved by the United nations General Assembly on 12 December 1975, saying "having heard the statements of the representatives of Portugal, as the Administering Power, concerning developments in Portuguese Timor...deplores the military intervention of the armed forces of Indonesia in Portuguese Timor and calls upon the Government of Indonesia to withdraw without delay its armed forces from the Territory...and recommends that the Security Council take urgent action to protect the territorial integrity of Portuguese Timor and the inalienable right of its people to self-determination".{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} From 1975 to 1982, the General Assembly asserted each year the right of East Timor to self-determination. Portugal remained the recognised administering authority, and Indonesian forces were called to withdraw. [[José Ramos-Horta]] represented FRETILIN at the UN, where he campaigned for independence.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|48}}

Despite this international opposition, few actions were taken to support independence. Many states tacitly accepted Indonesian control. Australia went as far as to officially recognise the annexation, and downplay the [[Balibo Five|death of five Australian journalists]] during the invasion. Such actions were caused by attempts to remain on good terms with Indonesia, especially in the context of the [[Cold War]]. Despite an expressed aversion to the use of military force, the Indonesian invasion was not seriously opposed. Indeed, there was to implicit support. The United States held joint military drills with Indonesia prior to the invasion, and at the time of the invasion around 90% of Indonesia's arms originated from the United States. Military support continued, and even increased, after the invasion. There was also little support among other countries in [[ASEAN]] for East Timorese independence, with a similar fear of communism, as well as fear of regional instability. Malaysia provided strong support in international forums, despite previous conflicts with Indonesia, as it sought to repress its own independence movement and leave open the option of incorporating [[Brunei]]. The Philippines and Thailand also voted with Indonesia in the UN, with the Philippines also fighting separatists at the time. Singapore was less initially supportive, but later sought to have the situation accepted ''fait accompli''. Portugal, while not providing strong opposition leading up to the invasion, later led international support for self-determination.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|60–73}}

Resistance shifted to the interior, where FRETILIN continued to hold territory (knows as the ''zonas libertadas''). In 1976 administration of these areas was divided into six sectors, each with civilian and military leadership. These sectors covered the traditional regions (''concelhos'') of Portuguese rule, and were similarly divided into posts (''postos''), ''sucos'', and ''aldeias''. The ''sucos'' level was removed in 1977. Continuing Indonesian campaigning led to the slow capture of these territories, which this conquest being completed in 1978.<ref name="Leach2016"/>{{rp|76}} Indonesia adopted the existing ''suco'' system to manage its administration, while resistance to Indonesian rules was also organised on ''suco'' lines.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|280}}

In an effort to stamp greater control over its dissident new province – whose seizure was condemned by the United Nations – Indonesia invested considerable sums in Timor-Leste leading to more rapid economic growth which averaged 6% per year over the period 1983–1997. Unlike the Portuguese, the Indonesians favoured strong, direct rule, which was never accepted by the Timorese people, who were determined to preserve their culture and national identity.
By 1976 there were 35,000 Indonesian troops in East Timor. Falintil, the military wing of Fretilin, fought a guerrilla war with marked success in the first few years but weakened considerably thereafter. The cost of the brutal takeover to the East Timorese was huge; it's estimated that at least 100,000 died in the hostilities, and ensuing disease and famine. Other reported death tolls from the 24-year occupation range from 60,000 to 200,000.<ref name="aiusa01">A lot of rape were also taking place{{Cite web |title=Seven East Timorese Still in Danger |url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=30AE6F0E6ABBA62A802569A60060395F |date=5 July 1993 |website=[[Amnesty International USA]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714151015/http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=30AE6F0E6ABBA62A802569A60060395F |archive-date=14 July 2007 |access-date=16 August 2007}}</ref> A detailed statistical report prepared for the [[Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor]] cited a lower range of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period 1974–1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness.<ref>{{cite web |author=Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group |title=The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste, 1974–1999 |work=A Report to the Commission on Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste |publisher=Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG) |date=9 February 2006 |url=http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529004414/http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml |archive-date=29 May 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> There were also reports of rapes, burning and sacking of buildings.
By February 1976, with troops spreading out from the capital to occupy villages to the east and south, East Timor's Indonesian-appointed deputy governor, Lopez la Cruz, admitted that 60,000 East Timorese had been killed. Troop numbers were increased and draconian controls were imposed on the population, isolating the territory from the outside world.

By 1989, Indonesia had things firmly under control and opened East Timor to tourism. Then, on 12 November 1991 Indonesian troops fired on protesters gathered at the Santa Cruz Cemetery in Dili to commemorate the killing of an independence activist. With the event captured on film and aired around the world, the embarrassed Indonesian government admitted to 19 killings, although it's estimated that over 200 died in the massacre.


While Indonesia introduced a civilian administration, the military remained in control. Aided by secret police and civilian Timorese militia to crush dissent, reports of arrest, torture, and murder were numerous.
A [[puppet government|puppet]] <nowiki>''Provisional Government of East Timor''</nowiki> was installed in mid-December, consisting of Apodeti and UDT leaders. Attempts by the [[United Nations Secretary General]]'s Special Representative, [[Vittorio Winspeare-Guicciardi]] to visit Fretilin-held areas from [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin, Australia]] were obstructed by the Indonesian military, which blockaded East Timor. On 31 May 1976, a 'People's Assembly' in Dili, selected by Indonesian intelligence, unanimously endorsed an 'Act of Integration', and on 17 July, East Timor officially became the 27th province of the Republic of Indonesia. Although the [[United Nations]] had not responded to the Indonesian annexation of [[West Irian]] some years previously, the occupation of East Timor remained a public issue in many nations, Portugal in particular, and the UN never recognised either the regime installed by the Indonesians or the subsequent annexation.


== Towards independence ==
== Towards independence ==
[[File:Re-enactment Santa Cruz massacre.jpg|thumb|right|A re-enactment of the Santa Cruz [[Dili massacre]], November 1998]]
[[Image:East Timor Demo.jpg|right|thumb|Demonstration against Indonesian occupation of East Timor, September 10, 1999.]]
Timorese groups fought a campaign of resistance against Indonesian forces for the independence of East Timor, during which many atrocities and [[human rights]] violations by the Indonesian army were reported. The Indonesian army is reported to have trained and supplied militias imported from Indonesia to [[terrorism|terrorise]] the population. Foreign powers such as the [[Australia]]n government worked to prevent the push for independence, and assisted the Indonesian government in obscuring and discouraging media reporting on atrocities committed by Indonesian militias.<ref name="Fernandes, Clinton 2004">Fernandes, Clinton (2004) Reluctant Saviour: Australia, Indonesia and East Timor.</ref>
Timorese groups fought a campaign of resistance against Indonesian forces for the independence of East Timor, during which many atrocities and [[human rights]] violations by the Indonesian army were reported, which Indonesian President [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] accepted in 2008 that Indonesia had been guilty of.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Balakrishnan|first=Angela|date=15 July 2008|title=Indonesia accepts guilt over East Timor human rights abuses|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/15/indonesia.easttimor|access-date=20 December 2021|archive-date=20 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220114110/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/15/indonesia.easttimor|url-status=live}}</ref> Foreign powers such as the [[Australia]]n government, concerned to maintain good relations with Indonesia, had been consistently reluctant to assist a push for independence (despite popular sympathy for the East Timorese cause among many in the Australian electorate).<ref name="Fernandes, Clinton 2004">{{Cite book |last=Fernandes |first=Clinton |title=Reluctant Saviour: Australia, Indonesia and East Timor |year=2004}}</ref> However, the departure of President Suharto and a shift in Australian policy by the [[Howard government]] in 1998 precipitated a proposal for a referendum on the question of independence.<ref name="abc.net.au">{{Cite web |title="The Howard Years" episode 2 program transcript, "Whatever It Takes" |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/howardyears/content/s2422684.htm |date=24 November 2008 |website=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923201217/http://www.abc.net.au/news/howardyears/content/s2422684.htm |archive-date=23 September 2010 |access-date=1 May 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Ongoing lobbying by the Portuguese government also provided impetus.


===Effects of the Dili Massacre===
===Effects of the Dili Massacre===
The [[Dili Massacre]] on 12 November 1991 was a turning point for sympathy for pro-independence East Timorese. A burgeoning [[East Timor solidarity movement]] grew in Portugal, Australia, and the United States. After the massacre, the US Congress voted to cut off funding for IMET training of Indonesian military personnel. However, arms sales continued from the US to the [[Indonesian National Armed Forces
The [[Dili Massacre]] on 12 November 1991 was a turning point for sympathy for pro-independence East Timorese. A burgeoning [[East Timor solidarity movement]] grew in Portugal, Australia, and the United States. After the massacre, the US Congress voted to cut off funding for IMET training of Indonesian military personnel. However, arms sales continued from the US to the [[Indonesian National Armed Forces]].<ref name = "ETAN01">[http://etan.org/timor/uspolicy.htm ETAN.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071005095532/http://etan.org/timor/uspolicy.htm |date=5 October 2007 }}, U.S. Policy toward East Timor, East Timor and Indonesia Action Network.</ref> President [[Bill Clinton]] cut off all US military ties with the Indonesian military in 1999.<ref name = "ETAN02">[http://etan.org/news/2002a/05back.htm ETAN.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814182317/http://etan.org/news/2002a/05back.htm |date=14 August 2007 }}, ETAN Backgrounder for 20 May Independence, East Timor and Indonesia Action Network.</ref> The Australian government promoted a strong connection with the Indonesian military at the time of the massacre, but also cut off ties in 1999.<ref name = "Reuters">[http://www.etan.org/et2004/november/01-07/04adf.htm "Australia should avoid ties with Indonesia military: Study"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001230045/http://www.etan.org/et2004/november/01-07/04adf.htm |date=1 October 2006 }}. ''[[Reuters]]''. Retrieved on 16 August 2007.</ref>
]].<ref name = "ETAN01">[http://etan.org/timor/uspolicy.htm ETAN.org], U.S. Policy toward East Timor, East Timor and Indonesia Action Network.</ref> President [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] cut off all US military ties with the Indonesian military in 1999.<ref name = "ETAN02">[http://etan.org/news/2002a/05back.htm ETAN.org], ETAN Backgrounder for May 20 Independence, East Timor and Indonesia Action Network.</ref> The Australian government promoted a strong connection with the Indonesian military at the time of the massacre, but also cut off ties in 1999.<ref name = "Reuters">[http://www.etan.org/et2004/november/01-07/04adf.htm "Australia should avoid ties with Indonesia military: Study"]. ''[[Reuters]]''. Retrieved on 16 August 2007.</ref>


[[Image:East Timor Demo.jpg|right|thumb|Demonstration against Indonesian occupation of East Timor, Perth, Australia, 10 September 1999.]]
The Massacre had a profound effect on public opinion in [[Portugal]], especially after television footage showing East Timorese praying in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and independence leader [[Xanana Gusmão]] gained widespread respect, being awarded the Portugal's highest honour in 1993, after he had been captured and imprisoned by the Indonesians.
The Massacre had a profound effect on public opinion in [[Portugal]], especially after television footage showing East Timorese praying in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and independence leader [[Xanana Gusmão]] gained widespread respect, being awarded the Portugal's highest honour in 1993, after he had been captured and imprisoned by the Indonesians.


In [[Australia]], there was also widespread public outrage, and criticism of Canberra's close relationship with the Suharto regime and recognition of Jakarta's sovereignty over East Timor. This caused the Australian government embarrassment, but Foreign Minister [[Gareth Evans (politician)|Gareth Evans]] played down the killings, describing them as 'an aberration, not an act of state policy'. Gareth Evans and Prime Minister Keating, along with subsequent Prime Minister [[John Howard]] and Foreign Affairs minister [[Alexander Downer]], sought to maintain close relations with Indonesia. Neither Liberal nor Labor ministers challenged the persecution of the East Timorese until the [[Australian Labor Party]] member [[Laurie Brereton]] spoke out in 1999, and he was quickly discredited by both the Howard Government and [[Kevin Rudd]].<ref name="Fernandes, Clinton 2004"/>
Australia's troubled relationship with the Suharto regime was brought into focus by the Massacre. In [[Australia]], there was also widespread public outrage, and criticism of Canberra's close relationship with the Suharto regime and recognition of Jakarta's sovereignty over East Timor. This caused the Australian government embarrassment, but Foreign Minister [[Gareth Evans (politician)|Gareth Evans]] played down the killings, describing them as "an aberration, not an act of state policy". Prime Minister [[Paul Keating]]'s (1991–1996) first overseas trip was to Indonesia in April 1992 and sought to improve trade and cultural relations, but repression of the East Timorese continued to mar co-operation between the two nations.<ref name="primeministers.naa.gov.au">{{Cite web |title=Paul Keating > In office |url=http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/keating/in-office.aspx |website=Australia's Prime Ministers |access-date=1 May 2011 |archive-date=2 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202031451/http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/primeministers/keating/in-office.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

Gareth Evans and Keatings gave maintenance of close relations with the Indonesian government a high priority, as did the subsequent prime minister [[John Howard]] and foreign minister [[Alexander Downer]] during their first term in office (1996–1998). Australian governments saw good relations and stability in Indonesia (Australia's largest neighbour) as providing an important security buffer to Australia's north.<ref name="primeministers.naa.gov.au" /> Nevertheless, Australia provided important sanctuary to East Timorese independence advocates like [[José Ramos-Horta]] (who based himself in Australia during his exile).

The fall of President Suharto and the arrival of President [[B. J. Habibie]] in 1998 and the rise of Indonesian democracy brought a new prospect for a potential change in the dynamic between the Australian and Indonesian governments.<ref name="abc.net.au" />

===Role of the Catholic Church===
[[Image:carlosbelo.jpg|upright|thumb|150px|[[Bishop Carlos Belo]], winner of the 1996 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].]]

The [[Roman Catholicism in East Timor|Catholic Church in East Timor]] played an important role in society throughout the Indonesian occupation. While just 20% of East Timorese called themselves Catholics in 1975, the figure surged to reach 95% by the end of the first decade after the invasion. During the occupation, [[Bishop]] [[Carlos Ximenes Belo]] became one of the most prominent advocates for [[human rights]] in East Timor and many priests and nuns risked their lives in defending citizens from military abuses. [[Pope]] [[John Paul II]]'s 1989 visit to East Timor exposed the occupied territory's situation to world media and provided a catalyst for independence activists to seek global support. Officially neutral, the [[Holy See|Vatican]] wished to retain good relations with Indonesia, the world's largest Muslim nation. Upon his arrival in East Timor, the Pope symbolically kissed a cross then pressed it to the ground, alluding to his usual practice of kissing the ground on arrival in a nation, and yet avoiding overtly suggesting East Timor was a sovereign country. He spoke fervently against abuses in his sermon, whilst avoiding naming the Indonesian authorities as responsible.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4410917.stm | work=BBC News | first=Jonathan | last=Head | title=East Timor mourns 'catalyst' Pope | date=5 April 2005 | access-date=4 May 2011 | archive-date=19 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619191639/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4410917.stm | url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1996, Bishop [[Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo]] and José Ramos-Horta, two leading East Timorese activists for peace and independence, received the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for "their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor".<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 1996 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1996/summary/ |website=The Nobel Prize |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=12 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512051803/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1996/summary/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

A number of priests and nuns were murdered in the violence in East Timor that followed the 1999 Independence referendum. The newly independent nation declared three days of national mourning upon the death of Pope John Paul II in 2005.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/>


===International lobbying===
===International lobbying===
Portugal started to apply international pressure, raising the issue with its fellow [[European Union]] members as well as in wider forums such as the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]] and the [[International Court of Justice]].<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|73}} However, other EU countries like the UK had close economic relations with Indonesia, including arms sales, and saw no advantage in forcefully raising the issue.
[[Image:carlosbelo.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Bishop Carlos Belo]], winner of the 1996 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].]]
[[Image:EastTimor.JoseRamosHorta.01.jpg|upright|thumb|[[José Ramos-Horta]], 1996 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner, former Prime Minister and present President of East Timor.]]
Portugal started to apply international pressure unsuccessfully, constantly raising the issue with its fellow [[European Union]] members in their dealings with [[Indonesia]]. However, other EU countries like the UK had close economic relations with Indonesia, including arms sales, and saw no advantage in forcefully raising the issue.


Appeals by those advocating for East Timorese independence were targeted at western citizens as well as governments, emphasising the vision of the new state as a liberal democracy.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|81}}
In 1996, Bishop [[Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo]] and José Ramos-Horta, two leading East Timorese activists for peace and independence, received the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].


In the mid-1990s, the pro-democracy People's Democratic Party (PRD) in Indonesia called for withdrawal from East Timor. The party's leadership was arrested in July 1996.<ref>[http://www.solidarity-us.org/atc/miah72.html Solidarity-us.org]</ref>
In the mid-1990s, the pro-democracy People's Democratic Party (PRD) in Indonesia called for withdrawal from East Timor. The party's leadership was arrested in July 1996.<ref name="Solidarity-us.org">{{Cite web |title=Evolutionary Prospects for Indonesia, Part 2 Repression and Revival |url=http://www.solidarity-us.org/atc/miah72.html |last=Malik Miah |website=Solidarity-us.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060228220740/http://www.solidarity-us.org/atc/miah72.html |archive-date=28 February 2006 |access-date=29 December 2005 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


In July 1997, visiting [[South Africa]]n President [[Nelson Mandela]] visited Suharto as well as the imprisoned [[Xanana Gusmão]]. He urged the freeing of all East Timorese leaders in a note reading, "We can never normalize the situation in East Timor unless all political leaders, including Mr. Gusmão, are freed. They are the ones who must bring about a solution." Indonesia's government refused but did announce that it would take three months off Gusmão's 20-year sentence.<ref>[http://www.solidarity-us.org/atc/miah72.html Solidarity-us.org]</ref>
In July 1997, visiting [[South Africa]]n President [[Nelson Mandela]] visited Suharto as well as the imprisoned [[Xanana Gusmão]]. He urged the freeing of all East Timorese leaders in a note reading, "We can never normalize the situation in East Timor unless all political leaders, including Mr. Gusmão, are freed. They are the ones who must bring about a solution." Indonesia's government refused but did announce that it would take three months off Gusmão's 20-year sentence.<ref name="Solidarity-us.org" />


In 1998, following the resignation of Suharto and his replacement by President Habibie, Jakarta moved towards offering East Timor autonomy within the Indonesian state, although ruled out independence, and stated that Portugal and the UN must recognise Indonesian sovereignty.
In 1998, the [[reformasi (Indonesia)|reformasi]] movement in Indonesia led to the resignation of Suharto and his replacement by President Habibie, which brought political reform towards a more democratic system. In June 1998, facing increasing domestic and international pressure on the issue, Jakarta offered East Timor autonomy within the Indonesian state,<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|81}} although it ruled out independence, and stated that Portugal and the UN must recognise Indonesian sovereignty.


===Referendum for independence, violence===
===Referendum for independence, violence===
{{Main|East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum|1999 East Timorese crisis}}
{{Main article|1999 East Timorese independence referendum|1999 East Timorese crisis}}
[[Image:EastTimor.JoseRamosHorta.01.jpg|upright|thumb|150px|[[José Ramos-Horta]], 1996 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner, former prime minister and current president of East Timor.]]
However in 1999, the Indonesian government decided, under strong international pressure, to hold a referendum on the future of East Timor. Portugal had started to gain some political allies firstly in the EU, and after that in other places of the world to pressure Indonesia. The [[East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum|referendum]], held on 30 August, gave a clear majority (78.5%) in favour of independence, rejecting the alternative offer of being an autonomous province within Indonesia, to be known as the Special Autonomous Region of East Timor (SARET).
New Indonesian President [[B. J. Habibie]] was prepared to consider a change of status for East Timor.
Portugal had started to gain some political allies firstly in the EU, and after that in other places of the world to pressure Indonesia. In late 1998, the Australian Prime Minister [[John Howard]] with his Foreign Minister [[Alexander Downer]] drafted a letter setting out a major change in Australian policy. The letter supported the idea of autonomy but went much further by suggesting that the East Timores be given a chance to vote on independence within a decade. The letter, which compared East Timor to [[New Caledonia]], upset Habibie, who saw it as implying Indonesia was a "colonial power". He decided in response to announce a snap referendum to be conducted within six months.<ref name="abc.net.au" /><ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|81–82}} Other reasons for this change of attitude include shifting priorities, greater consideration of international image, and a belief that East Timor would vote for autonomy. In his announcement of the referendum, Habibie cited "norms of democracy and justice" as a reason to allow for self-determination.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|82}}


News of the proposal provoked a violent reaction in East Timor from pro-Indonesian militia. The Indonesian army did not intervene to restore order. At a summit in Bali John Howard told Habibie that a United Nations Peace Keeping force should oversee the process. Habibie rejected the proposal, believing it would have insulted the Indonesian military.<ref name="abc.net.au" />
Directly after this, Indonesian military-supported [[Pro-Indonesia militia|East Timorese pro-integration militia]] and Indonesian soldiers carried out a campaign of violence and terrorism in retaliation. Approximately 1,400 Timorese were killed and 300,000 and forcibly pushed into West Timor as refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure, including homes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, and nearly 100% of the country's electrical grid were destroyed. According to [[Noam Chomsky]], "In one month, this massive military operation murdered some 2,000 people, raped hundreds of women and girls, displaced three-quarters of the population, and demolished 75 percent of the country's infrastructure" (''Radical Priorities'', 72).


The [[United Nations Mission in East Timor]] (UNAMET) was created to oversee the referendum in June 1999, six months after Habibie's January announcement. Intimidation from pro-Indonesian militia continued during this period, and the referendum was delayed twice. Eventually, [[East Timor Special Autonomy Referendum|the referendum]] was held on 30 August. It produced a clear majority (78.5%) in favour of independence, rejecting the alternative offer of being an autonomous province within Indonesia,<ref name="Croissant2020"/>{{rp|207}} to be known as the Special Autonomous Region of East Timor (SARET).
On 20 September 1999 the Australian-led peacekeeping troops of the [[International Force for East Timor]] (INTERFET) deployed to the country and brought the violence to an end. Activists in Portugal, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere pressured their governments to take action, with US President [[Bill Clinton]] eventually threatening Indonesia, in [[Asian financial crisis|dire economic straits]] already, with the withdrawal of [[IMF]] loans. The Indonesian government consented to withdraw its troops and allow a multinational force into Timor to stabilize the area. It was clear that the UN did not have sufficient resources to combat the paramilitary forces directly. Instead, the UN authorised the creation of a multinational military force known as [[INTERFET]] (International Force for East Timor), with Security Council Resolution 1264.<ref>[http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/264/81/PDF/N9926481.pdf?OpenElement UN.org]</ref> Troops were contributed by 17 nations, about 9,900 in total. 4,400 came from Australia, the remainder mostly from South-East Asia.<ref>[http://www.pm.gov.au/news/speeches/1999/easttimor2311.htm PM.gov.au]</ref> The force was led by Major-General (now General) [[Peter Cosgrove]]. Troops landed in East Timor on 20 September 1999.

Before official results were announced, Indonesian military-supported [[Pro-Indonesia militia|East Timorese pro-integration militia]] and Indonesian soldiers began a campaign of violence and terrorism in retaliation, "Operation Clean Sweep". Between 1,500 and 3000 Timorese were killed, and in addition to internal displacement<ref name="Croissant2020"/>{{rp|207}} 300,000 were forcibly pushed into West Timor as refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure, including homes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, and nearly 100% of the country's electrical grid were destroyed.

Activists in Portugal, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere pressured their governments to take action. The violence was met with widespread public anger in Australia. The Opposition Spokesman on Foreign Affairs, Labor's [[Laurie Brereton]], was vocal in highlighting evidence of the Indonesian military's involvement in pro-integrationist violence and advocated United Nations peacekeeping to support the East Timor's ballot. The [[Catholic Church in Australia]] urged the Australian Government to send an armed peacekeeping force to [[East Timor]] to end the violence.<ref>http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P1-23049715.html {{Dead link|date=February 2022}}</ref> Street protesters harried the Indonesian Embassy.

[[File:K-CNRT rally Dili 07'99-25.jpg|thumb|East Timorese independence referendum, 1999]]
John Howard conferred with United Nations Secretary General [[Kofi Annan]] and lobbied [[U. S. President]] [[Bill Clinton]] for an Australian led international peace keeper force to enter East Timor to end the violence. The United States offered crucial logistical and intelligence resources and an "over-horizon" deterrent presence. Finally, on 11 September, Bill Clinton announced:

{{blockquote|I have made clear that my willingness to support future economic assistance from the international community will depend upon how Indonesia handles the situation from today.
}}

Indonesia, in [[Asian financial crisis|dire economic straits]] relented and on 12 September, Indonesian President Habibie announced:

{{blockquote|A couple of minutes ago I called the United Nations Secretary General, Mr Kofi Annan, to inform about our readiness to accept international peacekeeping forces through the United Nations, from friendly nations, to restore peace and security in East Timor.
}}

It was clear that the UN did not have sufficient resources to combat the paramilitary forces directly. Instead, on 15 September the UN authorised the creation of a multinational military force known as [[INTERFET]] (International Force for East Timor), with [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1264|Security Council Resolution 1264]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=S/RES/1264 15 September 1999 By which the Council authorized the establishment of a multinational force |url=https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/264/81/PDF/N9926481.pdf?OpenElement |date=15 September 1999 |website=UN.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730215900/https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/264/81/PDF/N9926481.pdf?OpenElement |url-status=live |archive-date=30 July 2020}}</ref> Troops were contributed by 17 nations, about 9,900 in total. 4,400 came from Australia, the remainder mostly from South-East Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statement by the Prime Minister the Hon J. W. Howard MP on East Timor |url=http://www.pm.gov.au/news/speeches/1999/easttimor2311.htm |last=Howard |first=J. W. |date=23 November 1999 |website=Prime Minister of Australia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051018094356/http://www.pm.gov.au/news/speeches/1999/easttimor2311.htm |archive-date=18 October 2005}}</ref> The force was led by Australian Major-General (now General) [[Peter Cosgrove]].

On 20 September 1999 INTERFET deployed to the country, and Indonesia withdrew both its military and its civilian administration.<ref name="Croissant2020"/>{{rp|207}}

==United Nations administration==
{{Main|United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor|United Nations Administered East Timor}}
[[File:Peter Cosgrove 2000.jpg|thumb|upright|Major General [[Peter Cosgrove]] (right) Australian commander of the United Nations backed peace keeping operation ([[INTERFET]]) to East Timor.]]
On 15 October 1999, the Indonesian [[People's Consultative Assembly]] repealed the law annexing East Timor.<ref name="Drew2001"/>{{rp|654}} The [[United Nations Administered East Timor|administration of East Timor]] was taken over by the UN through the [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]] (UNTAET), established on 25 October,<ref>{{Cite web |title=UNTAET |url=https://www.un.org/peace/etimor/etimor.htm |website=UN.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213015403/http://www.un.org/peace/etimor/etimor.htm |archive-date=13 February 2008}}</ref> and all remaining Indonesian forces left the territory in November.<ref name="Drew2001"/>{{rp|654}} The INTERFET deployment ended on 14 February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etan.org/et2000a/february/13-19/14untake.htm|title=UN takes over East Timor command|website=www.etan.org|access-date=26 August 2005|archive-date=10 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610133207/http://www.etan.org/et2000a/february/13-19/14untake.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The scope of the UNTAET mission exceeded previous UN peacekeeping efforts.<ref name="Croissant2020"/>{{rp|207}} UNTAET exercised effective sovereignty during this period, and engaged in a [[state-building]] process to develop institutions and local capacity, in addition to handling immediate humanitarian and security needs.<ref name="Strating2018">{{cite book |last1=Strating |first1=Rebecca |title=The Post-Colonial Security Dilemma: Timor-Leste and the International Community |date=20 November 2018 |publisher=ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute |isbn=9789814818407 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3tuSDwAAQBAJ |access-date=3 July 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326184358/https://books.google.com/books?id=3tuSDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|2}} Tensions existed between the mandate of effective governance, and the mandate to quickly prepare the territory for democratic self-governance. Governance was strongly centralised, with less investment in local capacity. A rapid timetable and insufficient engagement with local authorities, including limited cooperation with the [[National Council of Maubere Resistance]], further limited institutional development.<ref name="Croissant2020"/>{{rp|208}} Reconstruction efforts included rebuilding the education system. For this textbooks were bought in the new official language, Portuguese, despite many teachers and students being unable to speak it.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Supit |first1=Trina |title=Rebuilding the Education Sector in East Timor during UNTAET: International Collaboration and Timorese Agency |date=7 October 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781000203219 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RWr0DwAAQBAJ |chapter=Numbers on a Spreadsheet? East Timorese and the World Bank |access-date=4 August 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326193708/https://books.google.com/books?id=RWr0DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Elections were held in late 2001 for a constituent assembly to draft a constitution, a task finished in February 2002. East Timor became formally independent on 20 May 2002. [[Xanana Gusmão]] was sworn in as the country's president. East Timor became a member of the UN on 27 September 2002.


==The independent republic==
==The independent republic==
{{Main|East Timor independence}}
[[Image:President gusmao.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Xanana Gusmão]], first President of East Timor and present Prime Minister.]]
[[Image:President gusmao.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Xanana Gusmão]], first president of East Timor.]]
The administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]] (UNTAET), established on 25 October 1999.<ref>[http://www.un.org/peace/etimor/etimor.htm UN.org]</ref> The INTERFET deployment ended on 14 February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN.<ref>[http://www.etan.org/et2000a/february/13-19/14untake.htm ETAN.org]</ref> Elections were held in late 2001 for a constituent assembly to draft a constitution, a task finished in February 2002. East Timor became formally independent on 20 May 2002. [[Xanana Gusmão]] was sworn in as the country's President. East Timor became a member of the UN on 27 September 2002.

Destruction and violence not only destroyed the country's infrastructure and economy, but also drained its human capacity, leading to Ramos-Horta stating "we are starting from absolutely ground zero".<ref name="Carson2007">{{cite journal |author1=Amy Ochoa Carson |title=East Timor's Land Tenure Problems: A Consideration of Land Reform Programs in South Africa and Zimbabwe |journal=Indiana International & Comparative Law Review |date=2007 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=395–430 |doi=10.18060/17554 |url=https://mckinneylaw.iu.edu/iiclr/pdf/vol17p395.pdf |access-date=27 December 2022 |archive-date=27 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327234251/https://mckinneylaw.iu.edu/iiclr/pdf/vol17p395.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|402}}

On 4 December 2002, after a student had been arrested the previous day, rioting students set fire to the house of the Prime Minister [[Marí Alkatiri]] and advanced on the police station. The police opened fire and one student was killed, whose body the students carried to the National Parliament building. There they fought the police, set a supermarket on fire and plundered shops. The police opened fire again and four more students were killed. Alkatiri called an inquiry and blamed foreign influence for the violence.

Following independence, all land that had been used by both the Portuguese and Indonesian administrations was declared state land.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|283}}

The early economy was dependent on foreign funding. In 2004, three-quarters of those earning wages worked for the civil service, the UN, or NGOs. The small private sector was mostly security services.<ref name="Kammen2010"/>{{rp|261}}

Administrative borders in this period reverted again to the original Administrative post system, although much of the direct governance took place on the ''suco'' level, where administrative data was obtained and elections were held. 442 sukus and 2228 aldeias were formally designated in 2004, in preparation for the elections of ''suco'' chiefs in 2005.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|282}}

Relations with Indonesia have been cordial. The two countries have defined most of their borders. In 2005, the [[Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor]] reported on human rights violations in period of Indonesian rule and the year before and offered the first national history of East Timor driven by Timorese oral histories.<ref>Chega! The Report of the Timor-Leste Commission on Reception, Truth, and Reconciliation, English translation (Gramedia, 2015)</ref> In 2008, the [[Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship]] confirmed most of the earlier Commission's findings.


[[Australia–East Timor relations]] have been strained by disputes over the [[maritime boundary]] between the two countries. Canberra claims petroleum and natural gas fields in an area known as the '[[Timor Gap]]', which East Timor regards as lying within its maritime boundaries. Articles relating to this topic include:
On 4 December 2002, after a student had been arrested the previous day, rioting students set fire to the house of the Prime Minister [[Marí Alkatiri]] and advanced on the police station. The police opened fire and one student was killed, whose body the students carried to the National Parliament building. There they fought the police, set a supermarket on fire and plundered shops. The police opened fire again and four more students were killed. Alkatiri called an inquiry and blamed foreign influence for the violence.


* [[Timor Sea Treaty]]
Relations with Australia have been strained by disputes over the maritime boundary between the two countries. Canberra claims petroleum and natural gas fields in an area known as the 'Timor Gap', which East Timor regards as lying within its maritime boundaries.
* [[Australia-East Timor spying scandal]]
* [[Treaty on Certain Maritime Arrangements in the Timor Sea]]


===2006 crisis===
===2006 crisis===
{{Main|2006 East Timor crisis}}
{{Main article|2006 East Timor crisis}}


Unrest started in the country in April 2006 following the riots in Dili. A rally in support of 600 East Timorese soldiers, who were dismissed for deserting their barracks, turned into rioting where five people were killed and over 20,000 fled their homes. Fierce fighting between pro-government troops and disaffected Falintil troops broke out in May 2006.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5012640.stm BBC]</ref> While unclear, the motives behind the fighting appears to be the distribution of oil funds and the poor organization of the Timorese army and police, which includes former Indonesian-trained police and former Timorese rebels. Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri has called the violence a "coup" and has welcomed offers of foreign military assistance from several nations.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/australia-cant-find-timor-leaders/2006/05/25/1148524816847.html SMH.com.au], [[Sydney Morning Herald]]</ref><ref>[http://www.rte.ie/news/2006/0525/easttimor.html RTE.ie]</ref> As of 25 May 2006, Australia, Portugal, New Zealand, and Malaysia have sent troops to Timor, attempting to quell the violence.<ref>[http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=3&art_id=qw1148547965206B254 IOL.co.za]</ref><ref>[http://www.rte.ie/news/2006/0525/easttimor.html RTE.ie]</ref> At least 23 deaths occurred as a result of the violence.
Unrest started in the country in April 2006 following riots in Dili. A rally in support of 600 East Timorese soldiers, who were dismissed for deserting their barracks, turned into rioting where five people were killed and over 20,000 fled their homes. Fierce fighting between pro-government troops and disaffected Falintil troops broke out in May 2006.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Head |first=Jonathan |date=24 May 2006 |title=Analysis: E Timor's security woes |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5012640.stm |access-date=29 June 2006 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402143859/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5012640.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> While unclear, the motives behind the fighting appeared to be the distribution of oil funds and the poor organisation of the Timorese army and police, which included former Indonesian-trained police and former Timorese rebels. Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri called the violence a "coup" and welcomed offers of foreign military assistance from several nations.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 May 2006 |title=Unrest linked to failed coup: Timor PM |work=[[Sydney Morning Herald]] |agency=AAP |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/australia-cant-find-timor-leaders/2006/05/25/1148524816847.html |access-date=29 June 2006 |archive-date=12 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212083550/http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/australia-cant-find-timor-leaders/2006/05/25/1148524816847.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="RTE.ie">{{Cite news |date=25 May 2006 |title=Australian troops arrive in East Timor |work=RTE |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/2006/0525/76632-easttimor/ |access-date=2 May 2020 |archive-date=30 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730220513/https://www.rte.ie/news/2006/0525/76632-easttimor/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 25 May 2006, Australia, Portugal, New Zealand, and Malaysia sent troops to Timor, attempting to quell the violence.<ref name="RTE.ie" /><ref>{{Cite news |title=Malaysia to send troops to East Timor |url=http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=3&art_id=qw1148547965206B254 |date=25 May 2006 |website=IOL.co.za |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214124539/https://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=3&art_id=qw1148547965206B254 |archive-date=2009-02-14}}</ref> At least 23 deaths occurred as a result of the violence.


On 21 June 2006, President Xanana Gusmao formally requested Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri step down. A majority of Fretilin party members demanded the prime minister's resignation, accusing him of lying about distributing weapons to civilians.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/timor-pm-likely-to-resign-tomorrow/2006/06/21/1150845238271.html SMH.com.au], Sydney Morning Herald</ref> On 26 June 2006 Prime Minister [[Mari Alkatiri]] resigned stating, "I declare I am ready to resign my position as prime minister of the government… so as to avoid the resignation of His Excellency the President of the Republic". In August, rebel leader [[Alfredo Reinado]] escaped from Becora Prison, in Dili. Tensions were later raised after armed clashes between youth gangs forced the closure of [[Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport]] in late October.<ref>[http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/597D41F8-AB46-400E-9E2E-45C187D549EA.htm AlJazeera.net]; "Deadly clashes erupt in E Timor", [[Al Jazeera]], 25 October 2005</ref>
On 21 June 2006, President Xanana Gusmão formally requested Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri step down. A majority of Fretilin party members demanded the prime minister's resignation, accusing him of lying about distributing weapons to civilians.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2006-06-21 |title=Timor PM likely to resign tomorrow |work=Sydney Morning Herald |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/timor-pm-likely-to-resign-tomorrow/2006/06/21/1150845238271.html |access-date=29 June 2006 |archive-date=12 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212083701/http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/timor-pm-likely-to-resign-tomorrow/2006/06/21/1150845238271.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On 26 June 2006 Prime Minister [[Mari Alkatiri]] resigned stating, "I declare I am ready to resign my position as prime minister of the government... so as to avoid the resignation of His Excellency the President of the Republic". In August, rebel leader [[Alfredo Reinado]] escaped from Becora Prison, in Dili. Tensions were later raised after armed clashes between youth gangs forced the closure of [[Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport]] in late October.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 October 2005 |title=Deadly clashes erupt in E Timor |work=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/597D41F8-AB46-400E-9E2E-45C187D549EA.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070901034157/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/597D41F8-AB46-400E-9E2E-45C187D549EA.htm |archive-date=2007-09-01}}</ref>

In April 2007, Gusmão declined another presidential term. In the build-up to the [[East Timorese presidential election, 2007|April 2007 presidential elections]] there were renewed outbreaks of violence in February and March 2007. [[José Ramos-Horta]] was inaugurated as [[President of East Timor|president]] on 20 May 2007, following his election win in the second round.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Deutsch |first=Anthony |date=5 July 2007 |title=East Timor May Be Becoming Failed State |work=Guardian Unlimited |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,,-6759703,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113222417/http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,,-6759703,00.html |archive-date=13 January 2008}}</ref> Gusmão was sworn in as prime minister on 8 August 2007. President Ramos-Horta was critically injured in [[2008 East Timor coup attempt|an assassination attempt]] on 11 February 2008, in a failed coup apparently perpetrated by [[Alfredo Reinado]], a renegade soldier who died in the attack. Prime Minister Gusmão also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed. The Australian government immediately sent reinforcements to East Timor to keep order.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7238142.stm |title=BBC News |date=11 February 2008 |access-date=28 March 2010 |archive-date=14 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914203716/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7238142.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2009 law (Law No 3/2009) set out the legal responsibilities of ''suco'' administrators, assigning the formal responsibility of relaying government initiatives, and of mediating within their community. This formal power did not override traditional customary practices, with traditional leaders retaining acknowledged informal influence.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|282}}

=== From 2010s ===

[[New Zealand]] announced in early November 2012, it would be pulling its troops out of the country, saying the country was now stable and calm.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.3news.co.nz/NZ-pulls-out-of-Timor-Leste/tabid/423/articleID/275384/Default.aspx| work=3 News NZ| first=Brook| last=Sabin| title=NZ pulls out of Timor-Leste| date=5 November 2012}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Five New Zealand troops were killed in the 13 years the country had a military presence in East Timor.

[[Francisco Guterres]] of centre-left [[Fretilin]] party was the president of East Timor since May 2017 until 19 May 2022.<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-14952883|title = East Timor profile – Timeline|work = BBC News|date = 26 February 2018|access-date = 30 May 2021|archive-date = 31 May 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210531005105/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-14952883|url-status = live}}</ref> The main party of AMP coalition, [[National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction]], led by independence hero [[Xanana Gusmão]], was in power from 2007 to 2017, but leader of Fretilin [[Mari Alkatiri]] formed a coalition government after July 2017 parliamentary election. However, the new minority government soon fell, meaning second [[2018 East Timorese parliamentary election|general election]] in May 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/East-Timor-votes-in-second-general-election-in-10-months|title=East Timor votes in second general election in 10 months|access-date=30 May 2021|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212255/https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/East-Timor-votes-in-second-general-election-in-10-months|url-status=live}}</ref> In June 2018, former president and independence fighter Jose Maria de Vasconcelos known as [[Taur Matan Ruak]] of three-party coalition, Alliance of Change for Progress (AMP), became the new prime minister.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-timor-politics-idUSKBN1JI1JO|title=New East Timor PM pledges to bring unity after political deadlock|newspaper=Reuters|date=22 June 2018|access-date=30 May 2021|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213114/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-timor-politics-idUSKBN1JI1JO|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Nobel prize winner, former president [[José Ramos-Horta]] won the April 2022 [[2022 East Timorese presidential election|presidential election]] runoff against the incumbent president, Francisco Guterres .<ref>{{cite news |agency=Agence France-Presse |title=Timor-Leste presidential election: José Ramos-Horta wins in landslide |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/21/timor-leste-presidential-election-jose-ramos-horta-wins-in-landslide |work=the Guardian |date=20 April 2022 |language=en |access-date=19 July 2022 |archive-date=21 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421074707/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/21/timor-leste-presidential-election-jose-ramos-horta-wins-in-landslide |url-status=live }}</ref> In May 2022, Ramos-Horta was sworn in as East Timor president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nobel winner Jose Ramos-Horta sworn in as East Timor president to succeed Francisco Guterres |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/19/nobel-winner-jose-ramos-horta-sworn-in-as-east-timor-president |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en |access-date=19 July 2022 |archive-date=19 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719115915/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/19/nobel-winner-jose-ramos-horta-sworn-in-as-east-timor-president |url-status=live }}</ref>


===United Nations missions===
===United Nations missions===
* UNAMET [[United Nations Mission in East Timor]] June—October 1999
* UNAMET [[United Nations Mission in East Timor]]: June—October 1999
* UNTAET [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]] October 1999—May 2002
* UNTAET [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]]: October 1999 – May 2002
* UNMISET [[United Nations Mission of Support to East Timor]] May 2002—May 2005
* UNMISET [[United Nations Mission of Support to East Timor]]: May 2002 May 2005
* UNOTIL [[United Nations Office in Timor Leste]] May 2005—August 2006
* UNOTIL [[United Nations Office in Timor Leste]]: May 2005 – August 2006
* UNMIT [[United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste]] August 2006 - present
* UNMIT [[United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste]]: August 2006 – December 2012

==See also==
{{Portal|Timor-Leste}}
{{commons category}}
* [[Timeline of East Timorese history]]
* [[List of years in East Timor]]
* [[List of rulers of Timor]]
* [[History of Asia]]
* [[History of Southeast Asia]]
* [[History of Indonesia]]
* [[Politics of East Timor]]


== Notes and references ==
== Notes and references ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last1=Abraham |first1=Joseph |last2=Hamaguchi |first2=Takako |title=Timor-Leste: The History and Development of Asia's Newest Nation |date=2015 |publisher=Lexington Books |location=Lanham, MD |isbn=9780739195277}}
*{{cite book |last1=Cristalis |first1=Irena |title=East Timor: A Nation's Bitter Dawn |date=2009 |publisher=Zed Books |location=London; New York |isbn=9781848130135 |edition=2nd}}
*{{cite book |last1=Durand |first1=Frédéric B |title=History of Timor-Leste |date=2017 |publisher=Silkworm Books |location=Chiang Mai |isbn=9786162151248}}
*{{cite book |last1=Fernandes |first1=Clinton |author-link1=Clinton Fernandes |title=The Independence of East Timor: Multi-Dimensional Perspectives - Occupation, Resistance, and International Political Activism |series=Sussex Library of Asian Studies |date=2011 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |location=Portland, OR |isbn=9781845194284}}
*{{HD of East Timor}}
* Gunn, Geoffrey C. (1999), ''Timor Loro Sae: 500 years.'' Macau: Livros do Oriente. {{ISBN|972-9418-69-1}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B07TM1KZFZ ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315120814/https://www.amazon.com/dp/B07TM1KZFZ |date=15 March 2021 }}
* Gunn, Geoffrey C. and Reyko Huang (2004: 2006), ''New Nation: United Nations Peacebuilding in East Timor'' (Faculty of Economics, Nagasaki University, Southeast Asia Monograph Series No.36/ reprint, author, Tipografia Macau Hung Heng Ltd., Macau {{ISBN| 99937-706-1-2}}
*{{Cite book |last=Hägerdal |first=Hans |url=http://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=408241 |title=Lords of the Land, Lords of the Sea: Conflict and Adaptation in Early Colonial Timor, 1600–1800 |date=2012 |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=978-90-6718-378-9 |doi=10.1163/9789004253506 |doi-access=free |access-date=28 February 2012 |archive-date=20 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720223826/http://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=408241 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hicks |first1=David |title=Rhetoric and the Decolonization and Recolonization of East Timor |date=15 September 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-69534-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pEKDBAAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Kammen |first1=Douglas Anton |title=Three Centuries of Conflict in East Timor |date=2015 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=9780813574103}}
*{{cite book |last1=Kingsbury |first1=Damien |title=East Timor: The Price of Liberty |date=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9780230606418}}
*{{cite book |last1=Leach |first1=Michael |title=Nation-Building and National Identity in Timor-Leste |series=Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415582131}}
*{{cite book |last1=Pemper |first1=Tammy |title=Scorched Earth: Peacekeeping in Timor during a campaign of death and destruction|date=2019 |publisher=Big Sky Publishing |location=Australia |isbn=978-1-922265-43-2}}
* {{cite web |last1=Simmons |first1=Graham |title=The Day The Music Died: East Timor Re-Visited |url=http://thingsasian.com/story/day-music-died-east-timor-re-visited |website=ThingsAsian |access-date=17 February 2022 |date=10 September 2003 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217103742/http://thingsasian.com/story/day-music-died-east-timor-re-visited |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Tanter |editor1-first=Richard |editor2-last=Selden |editor2-first=Professor Mark |editor3-last=Shalom |editor3-first=Stephen R |editor2-link=Mark Selden |editor3-link=Stephen Shalom |title=Bitter Flowers, Sweet Flowers: East Timor, Indonesia, and the World Community |date=2001 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=0742509672}}
* Tsuchiya, Kisho (2024). ''Emplacing East Timor: Regime Change and Knowledge Production, 1860–2010''. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-9777-2.
{{refend}}


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://alertnet.org/db/crisisprofiles/TP_NAT.htm?v=in_detail Alertnet.org], Crisis profile East Timor
* [http://alertnet.org/db/crisisprofiles/TP_NAT.htm?v=in_detail Alertnet.org], Crisis profile East Timor
* The [[National Security Archive]], [http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ GWU.edu], East Timor Revisited: [[Gerald Ford|Ford]], [[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger]] and the [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|Indonesian Invasion]] document 4, pp 9,10
* The [[National Security Archive]], [http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ GWU.edu], East Timor Revisited: [[Gerald Ford|Ford]], [[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger]] and the [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|Indonesian Invasion]] document 4, pp 9,10
* [http://onebigtorrent.org/details.php?id=108&hit=1 Onebigtorrent.org], The Documentary ''Death of a Nation — The Timor Conspiracy'', produced by John Pilger in 1994 details the occupation period and exposes the involvement of Western governments in providing essential weapons systems, financial aid and the political cover for the Indonesian regime.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927065923/http://onebigtorrent.org/details.php?id=108&hit=1 Onebigtorrent.org], The Documentary ''Death of a Nation — The Timor Conspiracy'', written and presented by [[John Pilger]] in 1994 details the occupation period and exposes the involvement of Western governments in providing essential weapons systems, financial aid and the political cover for the Indonesian regime.
* [http://etan.org/ ETAN.org], East Timor Action Network
* [http://etan.org/ ETAN.org], East Timor Action Network
* [http://www.laohamutuk.org/ Laohamutuk.org], East Timor Institute for Reconstruction Monitoring and Analysis (La'o Hamutuk)
* [http://www.laohamutuk.org/ Laohamutuk.org], East Timor Institute for Reconstruction Monitoring and Analysis ([[La'o Hamutuk]])
* [http://hrw.org/doc/?t=asia_pub&c=eastti HRW.org], Human Rights Watch publications on East Timor
* [http://hrw.org/doc/?t=asia_pub&c=eastti HRW.org], Human Rights Watch publications on East Timor
* [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EE21Ae06.html Atimes.com], Timor's Tutorial in Oil Politics
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030602143536/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EE21Ae06.html Atimes.com], Timor's Tutorial in Oil Politics


{{East Timor topics}}
{{History of Asia}}
{{History of Asia}}
{{History of Oceania}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of East Timor}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of East Timor}}
[[Category:History of East Timor| ]]
[[Category:History of East Timor| ]]

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[[de:Geschichte Osttimors]]
[[es:Historia de Timor Oriental]]
[[fr:Histoire du Timor oriental]]
[[gl:Historia de Timor Leste]]
[[id:Sejarah Timor Leste]]
[[it:Storia di Timor Est]]
[[he:היסטוריה של מזרח טימור]]
[[hu:Kelet-Timor történelme]]
[[ms:Sejarah Timor Leste]]
[[mwl:Stória de Timor-Leste]]
[[pt:História de Timor-Leste]]
[[ru:История Восточного Тимора]]
[[sv:Östtimors historia]]
[[vi:Lịch sử Đông Timor]]
[[zh:东帝汶历史]]

Latest revision as of 03:41, 24 December 2024

East Timor, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. The country comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor and the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco. The first inhabitants are thought to be descendant of Australoid and Melanesian peoples. The Portuguese began to trade with Timor by the early 16th century and colonised it throughout the mid-century. Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treaty for which Portugal ceded the western half of the island. Imperial Japan occupied East Timor during World War II, but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese surrender.

East Timor declared itself independent from Portugal in 1975, but was invaded by Indonesia. The country was later incorporated as a province of Indonesia. During the subsequent two-decade occupation, a campaign of pacification ensued. Although Indonesia did make substantial investment in infrastructures during its occupation in East Timor,[1] dissatisfaction remained widespread. From 1975 to 1999, there were an estimated 102,800 conflict-related deaths (approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness), the majority of which occurred during the Indonesian occupation.

In 1999, in a UN-sponsored referendum, an overwhelming majority of East Timorese voted for independence from Indonesia. Immediately following the referendum, anti-independence Timorese militias – organised and supported by the Indonesian military – commenced a scorched earth campaign. The militias killed approximately 1,400 Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people into West Timor as refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure was destroyed during this attack. The International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) was deployed to the country and brought the violence to an end. Following a United Nations-administered transition period, East Timor was internationally recognised as an independent nation in 2002. It is the poorest country in Southeast Asia with a 20% unemployment rate, and approximately one third of the population is illiterate.

Pre-colonial history

[edit]

The island of Timor was populated as part of the human migrations that have shaped Australasia more generally. As of 2019, the oldest traces of human settlement are 43,000 to 44,000 years old, and were found in the Laili cave in Manatuto Municipality.[2] These early settlers had high-level maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.[3] One of the oldest fish hooks in the world, dated between 16,000 and 23,000 years old, was excavated at the Jerimalai cave.[4] It is believed that survivors from three waves of migration still live in the country. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the Veddo-Australoid type.

Around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Veddo-Australoid peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior. Finally, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina.[5] Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south.

These multiple waves of migrations combined with the mountainous geography of the island led to a diverse mix of languages and culture. What is now East Timor was split between up to 46 kingdoms. However, there was little influence from the large Islamic Javanese powers to the west.[6]: 41 

The later Timorese were not seafarers, rather they were land focused people who rarely made contact with other islands. Timor was part of a region of small islands with small populations of similarly land-focused people that now make up eastern Indonesia. Contact with the outside world was via networks of foreign seafaring traders from as far as China and India that served the archipelago. Outside products brought to the region included metal goods, rice, fine textiles, and coins exchanged for local spices, sandalwood, deer horn, bees' wax, and slaves.[7]

Several fortifications uncovered in Timor were built between 1000 and 1300. Climatic changes, in particular during the Little Ice Age, and the increased trade in sandalwood, are thought to have increased tensions around the control of resources during that time.[8]

The first known mention of Timor in writing can be found in the 13th-century Chinese Zhu Fan Zhi, which describes various products and civilisations found outside China. In the Zhu Fan Zhi, Timor is called Ti-Wen and is noted for its sandalwood. In 1365, the Nagarakretagama, which contains descriptions of the Majapahit Empire at its peak, identifies Timor as an island within Majapahit's realm. However, as Portuguese chronologist Tomé Pires wrote in the 16th century, all islands east of Java were called "Timor".[9]

Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early 16th century. One of the most significant is the Wehali kingdom in central Timor, to which the Tetum, Bunaq and Kemak ethnic groups were aligned.[10]

The first circumnavigation of the world, the Magellan expedition, visited Timor and they recorded that Lucoes (People from Luzon, Philippines) traded in East Timor in order to gather Sandalwood for export abroad.[11]

Portuguese rule

[edit]
Arms of Portuguese Timor (1935–1975)[12]

The first Europeans to arrive in the area were the Portuguese, who landed near present-day Pante Macassar. These Portuguese were traders that arrived between 1512 and 1515.[citation needed] However, only in 1556 did a group of Dominican friars establish their missionary work in the area, settling just north in Solor.[6]: 42  War with the Netherlands reduced Portuguese control in the Malay archipelago, limiting them mostly to the Lesser Sunda Islands. Later wars further reduced Portuguese influence, with Solor falling in 1613, and Kupang in the west of Timor falling in 1653.[13]

Dutch and Portuguese sources relate that the island was divided into two collections of kingdoms. Sixteen kingdoms were grouped into Servião [de] in the west, while in the east fifty kingdoms were part of Belos.[14]: 246 

By the seventeenth century the village of Lifau – today part of the Oecussi enclave – had become the centre of Portuguese activities. At this time, the Portuguese began to convert the Timorese to Catholicism. Starting in 1642, a military expedition led by the Portuguese Francisco Fernandes took place. The aim of this expedition was to weaken the power of the Timor kings and even as this expedition was made by the Topasses, the 'Black Portuguese', it succeeded to extend the Portuguese influence into the interior of the country.[citation needed] In 1702 a Governor was appointed for Solor and Timor, based in Lifau. Portuguese control over the territory was tenuous, with opposition coming from Dominican friars, the Topasses, restive vassal kingdoms, and the south Sulawesi-based Gowa and Talloq sultanates. A rebellion in 1725 led to a campaign by Portuguese forces and allies from the north coast, which culminated in Portuguese victory at the 1726 Battle of Cailaco.[14]: 246–247  In 1769, seeking to wrest control from the Topasses, the Portuguese governor moved his administration along with 1,200 people from Lifau to what would become Dili.[13] The control of colonial administrators, largely restricted to Dili, had to rely on traditional tribal chieftains for control and influence.[15]

For both Portugal and the Netherlands, Timor remained a low priority with little presence outside of the cities of Dili and Kupang.[13] Nonetheless, continuing disputes over competing spheres of influence with the Dutch led to a number of treaties aimed at formalising borders and eliminating enclaves.[6]: 42  The border between Portuguese Timor and the Dutch East Indies was formally decided in 1859 with the Treaty of Lisbon. Portugal received the eastern half, together with the north coast pocket of Oecussi.[16] There are competing views over whether this border reflected existing cultural differences.[6]: 42–43  This 1859 treaty saw Portugal take control of Maubara, where the Dutch had begun coffee cultivation, in exchange for formally relinquishing claims in Solor and Flores.[13]

In 1844 Timor, along with Macau and Solor, was removed from the jurisdiction of Portuguese India. A few years later in 1850, Portuguese Timor was removed from the jurisdiction of the governor of Macau, before being returned to the jurisdiction of Portuguese India in 1856. In 1863, Dili was declared a city (although the news may not have arrived to the city until the next year), and East Timor became directly subordinate to the Lisbon government. In 1866 the territory was again put under the jurisdiction of Macau. An 1887 mutiny in Dili led to the death of the Governor at the time. The territory was separated from Macau for the last time in 1896, again coming directly under the jurisdiction of Lisbon, and becoming a full province in 1909.[17]: 212–215 

In 1910–12, the East Timorese rebelled against Portugal. Troops from Mozambique and naval gunfire were brought in to suppress the rebels. The definitive border was drawn by The Hague in 1914,[16] and it remains the international boundary between the modern states of East Timor and Indonesia.[18] Maucatar became part of Portuguese Timor during this period.[13] The Portuguese Timorese pataca became the sole official currency in 1915. Difficulties in communication and logistics arising as a result of World War I led to trade disruptions. Economic difficulties and an inability to pay salaries led to a small revolt in 1919.[18]

For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post until the late nineteenth century. Investment in infrastructure, health, and education was minimal. The island was seen as a way to exile those who the government in Lisbon saw as "problems" – these included political prisoners as well as ordinary criminals. Portuguese ruled through a traditional system of liurai (local chiefs). Sandalwood remained the main export crop with coffee exports becoming significant in the mid-nineteenth century. In places where Portuguese rule was asserted, it tended to be brutal and exploitative. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering home economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies.[15] Portuguese authorities created an administrative structure based on the existing kingdoms, while also creating a new level of administration under them, the suco. This new level was created around villages, or groups of villages linked by kinship. These new administrative boundaries thus reflected family ties, and strengthened family power as villages gained administrative power. This created a permanent shift of powers from the level of the kingdom to that of the villages.[19]: 279 

The administration of José Celestino da Silva began in 1893. He aimed to make the territory profitable. To gain more control he reduced the power of local kings, and even eliminated smaller and more disloyal ones. Implementation of the head tax required a census, and depended on the loyalty of the local leaders who would be responsible for collection. He also sought to impose a head tax which collected tax from each household, necessitating a census of the territory to count these households. The head tax was imposed by Silva's successor, Eduardo Augusto Marques, once the census was complete. The needs of the census meant power at this time also flowed to leaders of aldeias, a smaller unit that sucos whose leaders were responsible for some tax collection and were given formal military ranks.[19]: 279 

The remaining power of the kings further diminished after the 5 October 1910 revolution made Portugal a republic, especially as many Timorese kings were monarchist sympathisers. The kings now operated Administrative posts on behalf of the Portuguese.[19]: 280 

Portuguese Timor had been a place of exile for political and social opponents deported from the metropolis since the late nineteenth century. Among them a large proportion were members of the anarchist and anarcho-syndicalist movement, which until the Second World War was the most influential of the left-wing movements in Portugal. The main waves of deportations to Timor were in 1896, 1927, and 1931. Some of the activists continued their resistance even in exile. After World War II, the remaining exiles were pardoned and allowed to return.[20]

Portuguese soldiers in East Timor

Although Portugal was neutral during World War II, in December 1941, Portuguese Timor was occupied by Australian and Dutch forces, which were expecting a Japanese invasion. This Australian military intervention dragged Portuguese Timor into the Pacific War but it also slowed the Japanese expansion. When the Japanese did occupy Timor, in February 1942, a 400-strong Dutch-Australian force and large numbers of Timorese volunteers engaged them in a one-year guerrilla campaign. After the allied evacuation in February 1943 the East Timorese continued fighting the Japanese, with comparatively little collaboration with the enemy taking place. This assistance cost the civilian population dearly: Japanese forces burned many villages and seized food supplies. The Japanese occupation resulted in the deaths of 40,000–70,000 Timorese.

Under Japanese rule, there were changes to the administrative structures that created larger districts (the former kingdoms) and a reduced number of suco.[19]: 280 

Portuguese Timor was handed back to Portugal after the war, but Portugal continued to neglect the colony. Very little investment was made in infrastructure, education and healthcare. The colony was declared an 'Overseas Province' of the Portuguese Republic in 1955. Locally, authority rested with the Portuguese Governor and the Legislative Council, as well as local chiefs or liurai. Only a small minority of Timorese were educated, and even fewer went on to university in Portugal (there were no universities in the territory until 2000).

During this time, Indonesia did not express any interest in Portuguese Timor, despite the anti-colonial rhetoric of President Sukarno. This was partly as Indonesia was preoccupied with gaining control of West Irian, now called Papua, which had been retained by the Netherlands after Indonesian independence. In fact, at the United Nations, Indonesian diplomats stressed that their country did not seek control over any territory outside the former Netherlands East Indies, explicitly mentioning Portuguese Timor.

In 1960 East Timor gained the right to self-determination under international law, as a Non-Self-Governing Territory. It retained this status, with Portugal as the administering power, throughout Indonesian rule.[21]: 656 

The small 1959 Viqueque rebellion saw attempts by the rebels to seek support outside their local area, although it did not overcome local rivalries. Its calls for better services and rights led to some changes in Portuguese policy such as increases in education and civil employment. Basic schooling was increased, and more advanced schools that included secondary education were available to the most Portuguese individuals: those considered mestiço or assimilado. A catholic school in Soibada, the Seminary of Our Lady of Fatima in Dare, and the Liceu Dr. Francisco Machado were important educational establishments during this time. Fatumaca College was established near Baucau in 1969, and an Escola Tecnica was set up in 1973. The politicians who came to prominence at the end of Portuguese rule tended to have studied in these schools, and some cited the Viqueque rebellion as an inspiration.[22]: 42–43  This "Timorisation", which resulted in greater local participation in administration and the military, remained mostly limited to the aforementioned upper class, and did not substantially affect the majority of the population.[23]: 205 

Decolonisation, coup, and independence

[edit]

The decolonisation process instigated by the 1974 Portuguese revolution saw Portugal effectively abandon the colony of Portuguese Timor. A civil war between supporters of Portuguese Timorese political parties, the left-wing Fretilin and the right-wing UDT, broke out in 1975 as UDT attempted a coup which Fretilin resisted with the help of local Portuguese military.[24]

One of the first acts of the new government in Lisbon was to appoint a new governor for the colony on 18 November 1974, in the form of Mário Lemos Pires, who would ultimately be, as events were to prove, the last governor of Portuguese Timor.

One of his first decrees made upon his arrival in Dili was to legalise political parties in preparation for elections to a Constituent Assembly in 1976. Three main political parties were formed:

  • The União Democrática Timorense (UDT, Timorese Democratic Union), was supported by the traditional elites, initially argued for a continued association with Lisbon, or as they put it in Tetum, mate bandera hum — 'in the shadow of the [Portuguese] flag', but later adopted a 'gradualist' approach to independence. One of its leaders, Mário Viegas Carrascalão, one of the few Timorese to have been educated at university in Portugal, later became Indonesian Governor of East Timor during the 1980s and early 1990s, although with the demise of Indonesian rule, he would change to supporting independence.
  • The Associação Social Democrática Timorense (ASDT, Timorese Social Democratic Association) supported a rapid movement to independence. It later changed its name to Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente (Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor or Fretilin). Fretilin was regarded by many in Australia and Indonesia as being Marxist, its name sounding reminiscent of FRELIMO in Mozambique. The party committed itself to "the universal doctrines of socialism".
  • The Associação Popular Democrática Timorense ("Apodeti", Timorese Popular Democratic Association) supported integration with Indonesia, as an autonomous province, but had little grassroots support. One of its leaders, Abílio Osório Soares, later served as the last Indonesian-appointed Governor of East Timor. Apodeti drew support from a few liurai in the border region, some of whom had collaborated with the Japanese during the Second World War. It also had some support in the small Muslim minority, although Marí Alkatiri, a Muslim, was a prominent Fretilin leader, and became prime minister in 2002.

Other smaller parties included Klibur Oan Timur Asuwain (KOTA, Tetum for 'Sons of the Mountain Warriors'), which sought to create a form of monarchy involving the local liurai, and the Partido Trabalhista (Labour Party), but neither had any significant support. They would, however, collaborate with Indonesia. The Associação Democrática para a Integração de Timor-Leste na Austrália (ADITLA) advocated integration with Australia, but folded after the Australian government emphatically ruled out the idea.

This period saw the emergence of a unified national consciousness among the social elites who led the newly established political parties.[6]: 46  The main parties all promoted freedom of expression, association, and religion, although party support was linked to the home regions of each party's leaders. Fretilin explicitly sought to develop an overarching national identity, which was labelled maubere.[14]: 255–256 

Parties compete, foreign powers take interest

[edit]

Developments in Portuguese Timor during 1974 and 1975 were watched closely by Indonesia and Australia. Suharto's "New Order", which had effectively eliminated Indonesia's Communist Party PKI in 1965, was alarmed by what it saw as the increasingly left-leaning Fretilin, and by the prospect of a small independent leftist state in the midst of the archipelago inspiring separatism in parts of the surrounding archipelago.

Australia's Labor prime minister, Gough Whitlam, had developed a close working relationship with the Indonesian leader, and also followed events with concern. At a meeting in the Javanese town of Wonosobo in 1974, he told Suharto that an independent Portuguese Timor would be 'an unviable state, and a potential threat to the stability of the region'.[25] While recognising the need for an act of self-determination, he considered integration with Indonesia to be in Portuguese Timor's best interests.

In local elections on 13 March 1975, Fretilin and UDT emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence.

Indonesian military intelligence, known as BAKIN, began attempting to cause divisions between the pro-independence parties, and promote the support of Apodeti. This was known as Operasi Komodo or 'Operation Komodo' after the giant Komodo lizard found in the eastern Indonesian island of the same name. Many Indonesian military figures held meetings with UDT leaders, who made it plain that Jakarta would not tolerate a Fretilin-led administration in an independent East Timor. The coalition between Fretilin and UDT later broke up.

During the course of 1975, Portugal became increasingly detached from political developments in its colony, becoming embroiled in civil unrest and political crises, and more concerned with decolonisation in its African colonies of Angola and Mozambique than with Portuguese Timor.[26] Many local leaders saw independence as unrealistic, and were open to discussions with Jakarta over Portuguese Timor's incorporation into the Indonesian state.[26]

The coup

[edit]

On 11 August 1975, the UDT mounted a coup, in a bid to halt the increasing popularity of Fretilin. Portuguese Governor Mário Lemos Pires fled to the offshore island of Atauro, north of the capital, Dili, from where he later attempted to broker an agreement between the two sides. He was urged by Fretilin to return and resume the decolonisation process, but he insisted that he was awaiting instructions from the government in Lisbon, now increasingly uninterested.

Indonesia sought to portray the conflict as a civil war, which had plunged Portuguese Timor into chaos, but after only a month, aid and relief agencies from Australia and elsewhere visited the territory, and reported that the situation was stable. Nevertheless, many UDT supporters had fled across the border into Indonesian Timor, where they were coerced into supporting integration with Indonesia. In October 1975, in the border town of Balibo, two Australian television crews (the "Balibo Five") reporting on the conflict were killed by Indonesian forces, after they witnessed Indonesian incursions into Portuguese Timor.

Unilateral declaration of independence

[edit]

While Fretilin had sought the return of the Portuguese governor, pointedly flying the Portuguese flag from government offices, the deteriorating situation meant that it had to make an appeal to the world for international support, independently of Portugal.

On 28 November 1975, Fretilin made a unilateral declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of East Timor (República Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese). This was not recognised by either Portugal, Indonesia, or Australia; however, the UDI state received formal diplomatic recognition from six countries that were led by leftist or Marxist–Leninist parties, namely Albania, Cape Verde, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, and São Tomé and Príncipe. Fretilin's Francisco Xavier do Amaral became the first president, while Fretilin leader Nicolau dos Reis Lobato was prime minister.[27][28][29]

Indonesia's response was to have UDT, Apodeti, KOTA and Trabalhista leaders sign a declaration calling for integration with Indonesia called the Balibo Declaration, although it was drafted by Indonesian intelligence and signed in Bali, Indonesia not Balibo, Portuguese Timor. Xanana Gusmão, now the country's prime minister, described this as the 'Balibohong Declaration', a pun on the Indonesian word for 'lie'.

Fretilin restored the original administrative posts, hoping to shore up local support by more closely reflecting traditional kingdoms.[19]: 280 

East Timor solidarity movement

[edit]

An international East Timor solidarity movement arose in response to the 1975 invasion of East Timor by Indonesia and the occupation that followed. The movement was supported by churches, human rights groups, and peace campaigners, but developed its own organisations and infrastructure in many countries. Many demonstrations and vigils backed legislative actions to cut off military supplies to Indonesia. The movement was most extensive in neighbouring Australia, in Portugal, in the Philippines and the former Portuguese colonies in Africa, but had significant force in the United States, Canada and Europe.

José Ramos-Horta, later president of East Timor, stated in a 2007 interview that the solidarity movement "was instrumental. They were like our peaceful foot soldiers, and fought many battles for us."

Indonesian invasion and annexation

[edit]
Indonesian soldiers pose in November 1975 in Batugade, East Timor with a captured Portuguese flag.

The Indonesian invasion of East Timor began on 7 December 1975. Indonesian forces launched a massive air and sea invasion, known as Operasi Seroja, or 'Operation Komodo', almost entirely using US-supplied equipment even if Kissinger feared this would be revealed to the public.[30] Moreover, according to declassified documents released by the National Security Archive (NSA) in December 2001, the United States gave its agreement to Indonesia for the invasion. In fact, when the Indonesian president Suharto asked the understanding of taking rapid drastic action in East Timor to US president Gerald Ford, he replied, "We will understand and not press you on the issue. We understand the problem and the intentions you have." The Australian government did not react to this invasion. The reason may be the existence of oil found in the waters between Indonesia and Australia. This lack of action resulted in massive protests by Australian citizens remembering the heroic actions of the Timorese during World War II.

Reasons given by Indonesia for the invasion included the potential for a communist government, the need to develop the territory, national and regional security risks. Public statements denied that the invasion was aimed at taking the territory, and noted continued support for self-determination. Nominal elections were held under Indonesian coercion, and on 17 December Indonesia declared that an East Timorese Provisional Government would be formed that included representatives from Apodeti, UDT, KOTA, and the Labour Party.[6]: 46–48 

Attempts by the United Nations Secretary General's Special Representative, Vittorio Winspeare-Guicciardi to visit Fretilin-held areas from Darwin, Australia, were obstructed by the Indonesian military, which blockaded East Timor.[citation needed] On 31 May 1976, the government selected 37 individuals to form a 'People's Assembly' in Dili. This assembly unanimously endorsed integration into Indonesia, cementing an Indonesian narrative of union with Indonesia as an act of self-determination.[6]: 47–48  On 17 July, East Timor officially became the 27th province of the Republic of Indonesia (Timor Timur).[citation needed] The provisional government made appeals to the UN to have this integration recognised as a legitimate act of self-determination.[6]: 48 

Nonetheless, the occupation of East Timor remained a public issue in many nations, Portugal in particular, and the UN never recognised either the regime installed by the Indonesians or the subsequent annexation. We can refer to the resolution approved by the United nations General Assembly on 12 December 1975, saying "having heard the statements of the representatives of Portugal, as the Administering Power, concerning developments in Portuguese Timor...deplores the military intervention of the armed forces of Indonesia in Portuguese Timor and calls upon the Government of Indonesia to withdraw without delay its armed forces from the Territory...and recommends that the Security Council take urgent action to protect the territorial integrity of Portuguese Timor and the inalienable right of its people to self-determination".[citation needed] From 1975 to 1982, the General Assembly asserted each year the right of East Timor to self-determination. Portugal remained the recognised administering authority, and Indonesian forces were called to withdraw. José Ramos-Horta represented FRETILIN at the UN, where he campaigned for independence.[6]: 48 

Despite this international opposition, few actions were taken to support independence. Many states tacitly accepted Indonesian control. Australia went as far as to officially recognise the annexation, and downplay the death of five Australian journalists during the invasion. Such actions were caused by attempts to remain on good terms with Indonesia, especially in the context of the Cold War. Despite an expressed aversion to the use of military force, the Indonesian invasion was not seriously opposed. Indeed, there was to implicit support. The United States held joint military drills with Indonesia prior to the invasion, and at the time of the invasion around 90% of Indonesia's arms originated from the United States. Military support continued, and even increased, after the invasion. There was also little support among other countries in ASEAN for East Timorese independence, with a similar fear of communism, as well as fear of regional instability. Malaysia provided strong support in international forums, despite previous conflicts with Indonesia, as it sought to repress its own independence movement and leave open the option of incorporating Brunei. The Philippines and Thailand also voted with Indonesia in the UN, with the Philippines also fighting separatists at the time. Singapore was less initially supportive, but later sought to have the situation accepted fait accompli. Portugal, while not providing strong opposition leading up to the invasion, later led international support for self-determination.[6]: 60–73 

Resistance shifted to the interior, where FRETILIN continued to hold territory (knows as the zonas libertadas). In 1976 administration of these areas was divided into six sectors, each with civilian and military leadership. These sectors covered the traditional regions (concelhos) of Portuguese rule, and were similarly divided into posts (postos), sucos, and aldeias. The sucos level was removed in 1977. Continuing Indonesian campaigning led to the slow capture of these territories, which this conquest being completed in 1978.[22]: 76  Indonesia adopted the existing suco system to manage its administration, while resistance to Indonesian rules was also organised on suco lines.[19]: 280 

In an effort to stamp greater control over its dissident new province – whose seizure was condemned by the United Nations – Indonesia invested considerable sums in Timor-Leste leading to more rapid economic growth which averaged 6% per year over the period 1983–1997. Unlike the Portuguese, the Indonesians favoured strong, direct rule, which was never accepted by the Timorese people, who were determined to preserve their culture and national identity. By 1976 there were 35,000 Indonesian troops in East Timor. Falintil, the military wing of Fretilin, fought a guerrilla war with marked success in the first few years but weakened considerably thereafter. The cost of the brutal takeover to the East Timorese was huge; it's estimated that at least 100,000 died in the hostilities, and ensuing disease and famine. Other reported death tolls from the 24-year occupation range from 60,000 to 200,000.[31] A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a lower range of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period 1974–1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness.[32] There were also reports of rapes, burning and sacking of buildings. By February 1976, with troops spreading out from the capital to occupy villages to the east and south, East Timor's Indonesian-appointed deputy governor, Lopez la Cruz, admitted that 60,000 East Timorese had been killed. Troop numbers were increased and draconian controls were imposed on the population, isolating the territory from the outside world.

By 1989, Indonesia had things firmly under control and opened East Timor to tourism. Then, on 12 November 1991 Indonesian troops fired on protesters gathered at the Santa Cruz Cemetery in Dili to commemorate the killing of an independence activist. With the event captured on film and aired around the world, the embarrassed Indonesian government admitted to 19 killings, although it's estimated that over 200 died in the massacre.

While Indonesia introduced a civilian administration, the military remained in control. Aided by secret police and civilian Timorese militia to crush dissent, reports of arrest, torture, and murder were numerous.

Towards independence

[edit]
A re-enactment of the Santa Cruz Dili massacre, November 1998

Timorese groups fought a campaign of resistance against Indonesian forces for the independence of East Timor, during which many atrocities and human rights violations by the Indonesian army were reported, which Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono accepted in 2008 that Indonesia had been guilty of.[33] Foreign powers such as the Australian government, concerned to maintain good relations with Indonesia, had been consistently reluctant to assist a push for independence (despite popular sympathy for the East Timorese cause among many in the Australian electorate).[34] However, the departure of President Suharto and a shift in Australian policy by the Howard government in 1998 precipitated a proposal for a referendum on the question of independence.[35] Ongoing lobbying by the Portuguese government also provided impetus.

Effects of the Dili Massacre

[edit]

The Dili Massacre on 12 November 1991 was a turning point for sympathy for pro-independence East Timorese. A burgeoning East Timor solidarity movement grew in Portugal, Australia, and the United States. After the massacre, the US Congress voted to cut off funding for IMET training of Indonesian military personnel. However, arms sales continued from the US to the Indonesian National Armed Forces.[36] President Bill Clinton cut off all US military ties with the Indonesian military in 1999.[37] The Australian government promoted a strong connection with the Indonesian military at the time of the massacre, but also cut off ties in 1999.[38]

Demonstration against Indonesian occupation of East Timor, Perth, Australia, 10 September 1999.

The Massacre had a profound effect on public opinion in Portugal, especially after television footage showing East Timorese praying in Portuguese, and independence leader Xanana Gusmão gained widespread respect, being awarded the Portugal's highest honour in 1993, after he had been captured and imprisoned by the Indonesians.

Australia's troubled relationship with the Suharto regime was brought into focus by the Massacre. In Australia, there was also widespread public outrage, and criticism of Canberra's close relationship with the Suharto regime and recognition of Jakarta's sovereignty over East Timor. This caused the Australian government embarrassment, but Foreign Minister Gareth Evans played down the killings, describing them as "an aberration, not an act of state policy". Prime Minister Paul Keating's (1991–1996) first overseas trip was to Indonesia in April 1992 and sought to improve trade and cultural relations, but repression of the East Timorese continued to mar co-operation between the two nations.[39]

Gareth Evans and Keatings gave maintenance of close relations with the Indonesian government a high priority, as did the subsequent prime minister John Howard and foreign minister Alexander Downer during their first term in office (1996–1998). Australian governments saw good relations and stability in Indonesia (Australia's largest neighbour) as providing an important security buffer to Australia's north.[39] Nevertheless, Australia provided important sanctuary to East Timorese independence advocates like José Ramos-Horta (who based himself in Australia during his exile).

The fall of President Suharto and the arrival of President B. J. Habibie in 1998 and the rise of Indonesian democracy brought a new prospect for a potential change in the dynamic between the Australian and Indonesian governments.[35]

Role of the Catholic Church

[edit]
Bishop Carlos Belo, winner of the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize.

The Catholic Church in East Timor played an important role in society throughout the Indonesian occupation. While just 20% of East Timorese called themselves Catholics in 1975, the figure surged to reach 95% by the end of the first decade after the invasion. During the occupation, Bishop Carlos Ximenes Belo became one of the most prominent advocates for human rights in East Timor and many priests and nuns risked their lives in defending citizens from military abuses. Pope John Paul II's 1989 visit to East Timor exposed the occupied territory's situation to world media and provided a catalyst for independence activists to seek global support. Officially neutral, the Vatican wished to retain good relations with Indonesia, the world's largest Muslim nation. Upon his arrival in East Timor, the Pope symbolically kissed a cross then pressed it to the ground, alluding to his usual practice of kissing the ground on arrival in a nation, and yet avoiding overtly suggesting East Timor was a sovereign country. He spoke fervently against abuses in his sermon, whilst avoiding naming the Indonesian authorities as responsible.[40]

In 1996, Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo and José Ramos-Horta, two leading East Timorese activists for peace and independence, received the Nobel Peace Prize for "their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor".[41]

A number of priests and nuns were murdered in the violence in East Timor that followed the 1999 Independence referendum. The newly independent nation declared three days of national mourning upon the death of Pope John Paul II in 2005.[40]

International lobbying

[edit]

Portugal started to apply international pressure, raising the issue with its fellow European Union members as well as in wider forums such as the United Nations Commission on Human Rights and the International Court of Justice.[6]: 73  However, other EU countries like the UK had close economic relations with Indonesia, including arms sales, and saw no advantage in forcefully raising the issue.

Appeals by those advocating for East Timorese independence were targeted at western citizens as well as governments, emphasising the vision of the new state as a liberal democracy.[6]: 81 

In the mid-1990s, the pro-democracy People's Democratic Party (PRD) in Indonesia called for withdrawal from East Timor. The party's leadership was arrested in July 1996.[42]

In July 1997, visiting South African President Nelson Mandela visited Suharto as well as the imprisoned Xanana Gusmão. He urged the freeing of all East Timorese leaders in a note reading, "We can never normalize the situation in East Timor unless all political leaders, including Mr. Gusmão, are freed. They are the ones who must bring about a solution." Indonesia's government refused but did announce that it would take three months off Gusmão's 20-year sentence.[42]

In 1998, the reformasi movement in Indonesia led to the resignation of Suharto and his replacement by President Habibie, which brought political reform towards a more democratic system. In June 1998, facing increasing domestic and international pressure on the issue, Jakarta offered East Timor autonomy within the Indonesian state,[6]: 81  although it ruled out independence, and stated that Portugal and the UN must recognise Indonesian sovereignty.

Referendum for independence, violence

[edit]
José Ramos-Horta, 1996 Nobel Peace Prize winner, former prime minister and current president of East Timor.

New Indonesian President B. J. Habibie was prepared to consider a change of status for East Timor. Portugal had started to gain some political allies firstly in the EU, and after that in other places of the world to pressure Indonesia. In late 1998, the Australian Prime Minister John Howard with his Foreign Minister Alexander Downer drafted a letter setting out a major change in Australian policy. The letter supported the idea of autonomy but went much further by suggesting that the East Timores be given a chance to vote on independence within a decade. The letter, which compared East Timor to New Caledonia, upset Habibie, who saw it as implying Indonesia was a "colonial power". He decided in response to announce a snap referendum to be conducted within six months.[35][6]: 81–82  Other reasons for this change of attitude include shifting priorities, greater consideration of international image, and a belief that East Timor would vote for autonomy. In his announcement of the referendum, Habibie cited "norms of democracy and justice" as a reason to allow for self-determination.[6]: 82 

News of the proposal provoked a violent reaction in East Timor from pro-Indonesian militia. The Indonesian army did not intervene to restore order. At a summit in Bali John Howard told Habibie that a United Nations Peace Keeping force should oversee the process. Habibie rejected the proposal, believing it would have insulted the Indonesian military.[35]

The United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET) was created to oversee the referendum in June 1999, six months after Habibie's January announcement. Intimidation from pro-Indonesian militia continued during this period, and the referendum was delayed twice. Eventually, the referendum was held on 30 August. It produced a clear majority (78.5%) in favour of independence, rejecting the alternative offer of being an autonomous province within Indonesia,[23]: 207  to be known as the Special Autonomous Region of East Timor (SARET).

Before official results were announced, Indonesian military-supported East Timorese pro-integration militia and Indonesian soldiers began a campaign of violence and terrorism in retaliation, "Operation Clean Sweep". Between 1,500 and 3000 Timorese were killed, and in addition to internal displacement[23]: 207  300,000 were forcibly pushed into West Timor as refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure, including homes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, and nearly 100% of the country's electrical grid were destroyed.

Activists in Portugal, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere pressured their governments to take action. The violence was met with widespread public anger in Australia. The Opposition Spokesman on Foreign Affairs, Labor's Laurie Brereton, was vocal in highlighting evidence of the Indonesian military's involvement in pro-integrationist violence and advocated United Nations peacekeeping to support the East Timor's ballot. The Catholic Church in Australia urged the Australian Government to send an armed peacekeeping force to East Timor to end the violence.[43] Street protesters harried the Indonesian Embassy.

East Timorese independence referendum, 1999

John Howard conferred with United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan and lobbied U. S. President Bill Clinton for an Australian led international peace keeper force to enter East Timor to end the violence. The United States offered crucial logistical and intelligence resources and an "over-horizon" deterrent presence. Finally, on 11 September, Bill Clinton announced:

I have made clear that my willingness to support future economic assistance from the international community will depend upon how Indonesia handles the situation from today.

Indonesia, in dire economic straits relented and on 12 September, Indonesian President Habibie announced:

A couple of minutes ago I called the United Nations Secretary General, Mr Kofi Annan, to inform about our readiness to accept international peacekeeping forces through the United Nations, from friendly nations, to restore peace and security in East Timor.

It was clear that the UN did not have sufficient resources to combat the paramilitary forces directly. Instead, on 15 September the UN authorised the creation of a multinational military force known as INTERFET (International Force for East Timor), with Security Council Resolution 1264.[44] Troops were contributed by 17 nations, about 9,900 in total. 4,400 came from Australia, the remainder mostly from South-East Asia.[45] The force was led by Australian Major-General (now General) Peter Cosgrove.

On 20 September 1999 INTERFET deployed to the country, and Indonesia withdrew both its military and its civilian administration.[23]: 207 

United Nations administration

[edit]
Major General Peter Cosgrove (right) Australian commander of the United Nations backed peace keeping operation (INTERFET) to East Timor.

On 15 October 1999, the Indonesian People's Consultative Assembly repealed the law annexing East Timor.[21]: 654  The administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET), established on 25 October,[46] and all remaining Indonesian forces left the territory in November.[21]: 654  The INTERFET deployment ended on 14 February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN.[47]

The scope of the UNTAET mission exceeded previous UN peacekeeping efforts.[23]: 207  UNTAET exercised effective sovereignty during this period, and engaged in a state-building process to develop institutions and local capacity, in addition to handling immediate humanitarian and security needs.[6]: 2  Tensions existed between the mandate of effective governance, and the mandate to quickly prepare the territory for democratic self-governance. Governance was strongly centralised, with less investment in local capacity. A rapid timetable and insufficient engagement with local authorities, including limited cooperation with the National Council of Maubere Resistance, further limited institutional development.[23]: 208  Reconstruction efforts included rebuilding the education system. For this textbooks were bought in the new official language, Portuguese, despite many teachers and students being unable to speak it.[48]

Elections were held in late 2001 for a constituent assembly to draft a constitution, a task finished in February 2002. East Timor became formally independent on 20 May 2002. Xanana Gusmão was sworn in as the country's president. East Timor became a member of the UN on 27 September 2002.

The independent republic

[edit]
Xanana Gusmão, first president of East Timor.

Destruction and violence not only destroyed the country's infrastructure and economy, but also drained its human capacity, leading to Ramos-Horta stating "we are starting from absolutely ground zero".[49]: 402 

On 4 December 2002, after a student had been arrested the previous day, rioting students set fire to the house of the Prime Minister Marí Alkatiri and advanced on the police station. The police opened fire and one student was killed, whose body the students carried to the National Parliament building. There they fought the police, set a supermarket on fire and plundered shops. The police opened fire again and four more students were killed. Alkatiri called an inquiry and blamed foreign influence for the violence.

Following independence, all land that had been used by both the Portuguese and Indonesian administrations was declared state land.[19]: 283 

The early economy was dependent on foreign funding. In 2004, three-quarters of those earning wages worked for the civil service, the UN, or NGOs. The small private sector was mostly security services.[14]: 261 

Administrative borders in this period reverted again to the original Administrative post system, although much of the direct governance took place on the suco level, where administrative data was obtained and elections were held. 442 sukus and 2228 aldeias were formally designated in 2004, in preparation for the elections of suco chiefs in 2005.[19]: 282 

Relations with Indonesia have been cordial. The two countries have defined most of their borders. In 2005, the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor reported on human rights violations in period of Indonesian rule and the year before and offered the first national history of East Timor driven by Timorese oral histories.[50] In 2008, the Indonesia–Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship confirmed most of the earlier Commission's findings.

Australia–East Timor relations have been strained by disputes over the maritime boundary between the two countries. Canberra claims petroleum and natural gas fields in an area known as the 'Timor Gap', which East Timor regards as lying within its maritime boundaries. Articles relating to this topic include:

2006 crisis

[edit]

Unrest started in the country in April 2006 following riots in Dili. A rally in support of 600 East Timorese soldiers, who were dismissed for deserting their barracks, turned into rioting where five people were killed and over 20,000 fled their homes. Fierce fighting between pro-government troops and disaffected Falintil troops broke out in May 2006.[51] While unclear, the motives behind the fighting appeared to be the distribution of oil funds and the poor organisation of the Timorese army and police, which included former Indonesian-trained police and former Timorese rebels. Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri called the violence a "coup" and welcomed offers of foreign military assistance from several nations.[52][53] As of 25 May 2006, Australia, Portugal, New Zealand, and Malaysia sent troops to Timor, attempting to quell the violence.[53][54] At least 23 deaths occurred as a result of the violence.

On 21 June 2006, President Xanana Gusmão formally requested Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri step down. A majority of Fretilin party members demanded the prime minister's resignation, accusing him of lying about distributing weapons to civilians.[55] On 26 June 2006 Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri resigned stating, "I declare I am ready to resign my position as prime minister of the government... so as to avoid the resignation of His Excellency the President of the Republic". In August, rebel leader Alfredo Reinado escaped from Becora Prison, in Dili. Tensions were later raised after armed clashes between youth gangs forced the closure of Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport in late October.[56]

In April 2007, Gusmão declined another presidential term. In the build-up to the April 2007 presidential elections there were renewed outbreaks of violence in February and March 2007. José Ramos-Horta was inaugurated as president on 20 May 2007, following his election win in the second round.[57] Gusmão was sworn in as prime minister on 8 August 2007. President Ramos-Horta was critically injured in an assassination attempt on 11 February 2008, in a failed coup apparently perpetrated by Alfredo Reinado, a renegade soldier who died in the attack. Prime Minister Gusmão also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed. The Australian government immediately sent reinforcements to East Timor to keep order.[58]

A 2009 law (Law No 3/2009) set out the legal responsibilities of suco administrators, assigning the formal responsibility of relaying government initiatives, and of mediating within their community. This formal power did not override traditional customary practices, with traditional leaders retaining acknowledged informal influence.[19]: 282 

From 2010s

[edit]

New Zealand announced in early November 2012, it would be pulling its troops out of the country, saying the country was now stable and calm.[59] Five New Zealand troops were killed in the 13 years the country had a military presence in East Timor.

Francisco Guterres of centre-left Fretilin party was the president of East Timor since May 2017 until 19 May 2022.[60] The main party of AMP coalition, National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction, led by independence hero Xanana Gusmão, was in power from 2007 to 2017, but leader of Fretilin Mari Alkatiri formed a coalition government after July 2017 parliamentary election. However, the new minority government soon fell, meaning second general election in May 2018.[61] In June 2018, former president and independence fighter Jose Maria de Vasconcelos known as Taur Matan Ruak of three-party coalition, Alliance of Change for Progress (AMP), became the new prime minister.[62]

The Nobel prize winner, former president José Ramos-Horta won the April 2022 presidential election runoff against the incumbent president, Francisco Guterres .[63] In May 2022, Ramos-Horta was sworn in as East Timor president.[64]

United Nations missions

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes and references

[edit]
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Further reading

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