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{{short description|Imprisonment or confinement of groups of people without trial}}
{{Distinguish|interment|internship}}
{{hatnote group|{{For|the TV episode|Internment (The Walking Dead)}}
{{dablink|This article is about the usage and history of the terms concentration camp, internment camp and internment. For a listing of individual camps, see [[List of concentration and internment camps]]. For German concentration camps during World War II, see [[Nazi concentration camps]]. For the period of detention without trial in Northern Ireland in the 1970s, see [[Operation Demetrius]].}}
{{distinguish|text=[[burial|interment]] (burial) or [[extermination camp]]}}
<!-- {{otheruses}}Disambig page exists, but nothing there- if more is added, feel free to uncomment. -->
}}
[[Image:Japanese internment camp in British Columbia.jpg|thumb|[[Japanese Canadian internment|Internment]] camp for [[Japanese-Canadian]]s in [[British Columbia]] during [[World War II]]]]
{{pp|small=yes}}
'''Internment''' is the imprisonment or confinement<ref>per Oxford Universal Dictionary, 1st edition 1933.</ref> of people, commonly in large groups, without trial. The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (1989) gives the meaning as: ''"The action of ‘interning’; confinement within the limits of a country or place"''. Most modern usage is about individuals, and there is a distinction between '''internment''', which is being confined usually for preventive or political reasons, and imprisonment, which is being closely confined as a punishment for crime.
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
[[File:Boercamp1.jpg|thumb|[[Boers|Boer]] women and children in a [[Second Boer War concentration camps|British concentration camp]] in South Africa (1899–1902)|270x270px]]
{{Discrimination sidebar|state=collapsed}}


'''Internment''' is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without [[Criminal charge|charges]]<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=27879033|title=Human Rights Vol. 5, No. 3 "INTERNMENT: {{sic|hide=n|nolink=y|reason=error in source|DENTENTION}} WITHOUT TRIAL IN NORTHERN IRELAND"|journal=Human Rights|volume=5|issue=3|last=Lowry|first=David|publisher=ABA Publishing|year=1976|location=American Bar Association|pages=261–331|quote=The essence of internment lies in incarceration without charge or trial.}}</ref> or [[Indictment|intent to file charges]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kenney |first=Padraic |author-link=Padraic Kenney |title=Dance in Chains: Political Imprisonment in the Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4c0DwAAQBAJ&q=without&pg=PA47 |quote=A formal arrest usually comes with a charge, but many regimes employed internment (that is, detention without intent to file charges |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2017 |page=47 |isbn=978-0-19-937574-5}}</ref> The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in [[war]]time or of [[terrorism]] suspects".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/internment|title=the definition of internment|website=www.dictionary.com}}</ref> Thus, while it can simply mean [[imprisonment]], it tends to refer to preventive confinement rather than confinement ''after'' having been convicted of some crime. Use of these terms is subject to debate and political sensitivities.<ref name=euph>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/ombudsman/2012/02/10/146691773/euphemisms-concentration-camps-and-the-japanese-internment|title=Euphemisms, Concentration Camps And The Japanese Internment|website=npr.org|date=10 February 2012 |last1=Schumacher-Matos |first1=Edward |last2=Grisham |first2=Lori}}</ref> The word ''internment'' is also occasionally used to describe a [[neutral country]]'s practice of detaining [[belligerent]] [[Military|armed forces]] and equipment on its territory during times of war, under the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907#Hague Convention of 1907|Hague Convention of 1907]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Second Hague Convention, 1907 |publisher=Yale.edu |url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/hague05.htm |access-date=1 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019114853/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/lawwar.asp |archive-date=19 October 2012}}</ref>
"Internment" also refers to the practice of [[neutral country|neutral countries]] in time of war in detaining belligerent armed forces and equipment in their territories under the [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)#Hague Convention of 1907|Second Hague Convention]].<ref>[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/lawofwar/hague05.htm The Second Hague Convention, 1907]</ref>


Interned persons may be held in [[prison]]s or in facilities known as '''internment camps''' or '''[[Concentration camp|concentration camps]]'''. The term ''concentration camp'' originates from the Spanish–Cuban [[Ten Years' War]] when Spanish forces detained Cuban civilians in camps in order to more easily combat guerrilla forces. Over the following decades the British during the [[Second Boer War]] and the Americans during the [[Philippine–American War]] also used concentration camps.
Early civilizations such as [[Assyria]] used [[forced resettlement]] of populations as a means of controlling territory,<ref>[http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/hammurabi.htm Laws of Hammurabi]</ref> but it was not until much later in the late 19th and the 20th centuries that records exist of groups of civilian non-combatants being concentrated into large prison camps.


The terms ''concentration camp'' and ''internment camp'' are used to refer to a variety of systems that greatly differ in their severity, mortality rate, and architecture; their defining characteristic is that inmates are held outside the [[rule of law]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Stone |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Stone (historian) |title=Concentration Camps: A Very Short Introduction |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-879070-9 |pages=122–123|quote=Concentration camps throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries are by no means all the same, with respect either to the degree of violence that characterizes them or the extent to which their inmates are abandoned by the authorities... The crucial characteristic of a concentration camp is not whether it has barbed wire, fences, or watchtowers; it is, rather, the gathering of civilians, defined by a regime as de facto ‘enemies’, in order to hold them against their will without charge in a place where the rule of law has been suspended.}}</ref> <!-- He also refers to "internment camps" on page 123. --> [[Extermination camp]]s or death camps, whose primary purpose is killing, are also imprecisely referred to as ''concentration camps''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nazi Camps |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nazi-camps?series=10 |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |access-date=3 October 2020}}</ref>
== Internment camps ==
An internment camp is a large [[Detention (Imprisonment)|detention]] center created for political opponents, [[enemy aliens]], people with [[mental illness]], members of specific ethnic or religious groups, civilian inhabitants of a critical war-zone, or other groups of people, usually during a war. The term is used for facilities where the inmates were selected by some generalized criteria, rather than detained as individuals after [[due process of law]] fairly applied by a [[judiciary]].


The [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] restricts the use of internment, with Article 9 stating, "No one shall be subjected to [[Arbitrary arrest and detention|arbitrary arrest]], [[Detention (imprisonment)|detention]] or [[exile]]."<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml#a9 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 9], United Nations</ref>
As a result of the mistreatment of civilians interned during recent conflicts, the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] was established in 1949 to provide for the protection of civilians during times of war "in the hands" of an enemy and under any occupation by a foreign power.<ref>[http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/380?OpenDocument Full text of 4th Geneva Convention]</ref> It was ratified by 194 nations. [[Prisoner-of-war camp]]s are internment camps intended specifically for holding members of an enemy's armed forces as defined in the [[Third Geneva Convention]], and the treatment of whom is specified in that Convention.


== Defining internment and concentration camp ==
== Concentration camps ==
[[File:Weyler reconcentrados.png|thumb|Cuban victims of [[Reconcentration policy|Spanish reconcentration policies]], 1896]]
[[Image:Boercamp1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Boer]] women and children in a [[United Kingdom|British]]-run concentration camp in South Africa (1900-1902)]]
[[File:Al-Magroon Concentration Camp.jpg|thumb|Ten thousand inmates were kept in [[El Agheila]], one of the [[Italian concentration camps in Libya]] during the [[Italian colonization of Libya]].]]
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]], 2nd ed. defines ''concentration camp'' as: ''a camp where non-combatants of a district are accommodated, such as those instituted by [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]] during the [[Second Boer War|South African war]] of 1899-1902; one for the internment of political prisoners, foreign nationals, etc., esp. as organized by the [[Nazi regime]] in [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] before and during the war of 1939-45''. The [[Random House Dictionary]] defines the term as: "a guarded compound for the detention or imprisonment of aliens, members of ethnic minorities, political opponents, etc.", and, the [[American Heritage Dictionary]] defines it thus: "A camp where civilians, enemy aliens, political prisoners, and sometimes prisoners of war are detained and confined, typically under harsh conditions." Finally, the [[Webster's Dictionary|Merriam-Webster Dictionary]] defines it as: "a camp where persons (as prisoners of war, political prisoners, or refugees) are detained or confined."
[[File:Tampere prison camp women.jpg|thumb|Women at the [[Kalevankangas camp|Kalevankangas concentration camp]] of [[Tampere]] in 1918, several months after the [[Finnish Civil War]]]]
[[File:Buchenwald Slave Laborers Liberation.jpg|thumb|Jewish slave laborers at the [[Buchenwald concentration camp]] near [[Weimar]] photographed after their liberation by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] on 16 April 1945]]


The ''[[American Heritage Dictionary]]'' defines the term ''concentration camp'' as: "A camp where persons are confined, usually without hearings and typically under harsh conditions, often as a result of their membership in a group which the government has identified as dangerous or undesirable."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Concentration camp |url=http://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=concentration+camp&submit.x=-664&submit.y=-210 |access-date=22 July 2014 |publisher=American Heritage Dictionary}}</ref>


Although the first example of civilian internment may date as far back as the 1830s,<ref>{{Cite book |last=James L. Dickerson |title=Inside America's Concentration Camps: Two Centuries of Internment and Torture |publisher=Chicago Review Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-55652-806-4 |page=29}}</ref> the English term ''concentration camp'' was first used in order to refer to the [[Reconcentration policy|reconcentration camps]] (Spanish:''reconcentrados'') which were set up by the [[Spain under the Restoration|Spanish military]] in [[Cuba]] during the [[Ten Years' War]] (1868–1878).<ref name="Columbia">{{Cite book |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia: Concentration Camp |date=2008 |publisher=Columbia University Press |edition=Sixth}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2 November 2017 |title=Concentration Camps Existed Long Before Auschwitz |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/concentration-camps-existed-long-before-Auschwitz-180967049/}}</ref> The label was applied yet again to camps set up by the United States during the [[Philippine–American War]] (1899–1902).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Storey |first1=Moorfield |url=https://archive.org/stream/secretaryrootsr00codmgoog#page/n8/mode/2up |title=Secretary Root's record. "Marked severities" in Philippine warfare. An analysis of the law and facts bearing on the action and utterances of President Roosevelt and Secretary Root |last2=Codman |first2=Julian |publisher=George H. Ellis Company |year=1902 |location=Boston |pages=89–95 |author-link=Moorfield Storey |author-link2=Julian Codman}}</ref> And expanded usage of the ''concentration camp'' label continued, when the [[Second Boer War concentration camps|British set up camps]] during the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902) in South Africa for interning [[Boer]]s during the same time period.<ref name="Columbia" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Documents re camps in Boer War |url=http://www-sul.stanford.edu/africa/boers.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609212833/http://www-sul.stanford.edu/africa/boers.html |archive-date=9 June 2007 |publisher=sul.stanford.edu}}</ref>
Similar camps existed earlier, such as in the [[United States]] (concentration camps for [[Cherokee]] and other [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s in the 1830s); in [[Cuba]] (1868–78) and in the [[Philippines]] (1898–1901) by [[Spain under the Restoration|Spain]] and the U.S., respectively.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/concentr-cmp.html The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07.]</ref> The term originated in the "reconcentration camps" set up in Cuba by General [[Valeriano Weyler]] in 1897, during Spain's campaign to suppress rebellion in Cuba. During the [[Second Boer War]] (1899-1902), the term "concentration camp" was used to describe camps operated by the [[United Kingdom|British]] in South Africa.<ref>[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/africa/boers.html Documents re camps in Boer War]</ref> Ostensibly conceived as a form of humanitarian aid to the families whose farms had been destroyed in the fighting, the camps were used to confine and control large numbers of civilians as part of a [[scorched earth]] tactic.


During the 20th century, the arbitrary internment of civilians by the state reached its most extreme forms in the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[List of Gulag camps|Gulag system of concentration camps]] (1918–1991)<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2004 |title=Gulag: A History, by Anne Applebaum (Doubleday) |url=https://www.pulitzer.org/winners/anne-applebaum |access-date=2019-11-13 |website=The Pulitzer Prizes}}</ref> and the [[Nazi concentration camps]] (1933–1945). The Soviet system was the first applied by a government on its own citizens.<ref name=":0" /> The Gulag consisted in over 30,000 camps for most of its existence (1918–1991) and detained some 18 million from 1929 until 1953,<ref name=":1" /> which is only a third of its 73-year lifespan. The Nazi concentration camp system was extensive, with as many as 15,000 camps<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary1">{{cite web |title=Concentration Camp Listing |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/cclist.html |publisher=Editions Kritak |location=Belgium |quote=Sourced from Van Eck, Ludo ''Le livre des Camps''}} and {{cite book | author = Gilbert, Martin | title = Atlas of the Holocaust | location = New York | publisher= William Morrow| year = 1993| isbn = 0-688-12364-3}}. In this online site are the names of 149 camps and 814 subcamps, organized by country.</ref> and at least 715,000 simultaneous internees.<ref>{{cite book |last=Evans |first=Richard J. |title=The Third Reich in Power |publisher=Penguin Group |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-14-303790-3 |location=New York}}</ref> The total number of casualties in these camps is difficult to determine, but the deliberate policy of [[extermination through labor]] in many of the camps was designed to ensure that the inmates would die of starvation, untreated disease and [[summary execution]]s within set periods of time.<ref name="Marek Przybyszewski">{{cite book |last=Marek Przybyszewski |url=http://www.historia.terramail.pl/opracowania/nowozytna/zamek_centrum_administracji.html |title=IBH Opracowania – Działdowo jako centrum administracyjne ziemi sasińskiej |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101022004220/http://www.historia.terramail.pl/opracowania/nowozytna/zamek_centrum_administracji.html |archive-date=2010-10-22 |language=pl |trans-title=Działdowo as the centre of local administration |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Moreover, Nazi Germany established six [[extermination camp]]s, specifically designed to kill millions of people, primarily by [[Extermination camp#Gassing|gassing]].<ref name="Gellately2001">{{Cite book |last1=Robert Gellately |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1toqgWg8ROUC&q=forced+labor |title=Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany |last2=Nathan Stoltzfus |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-691-08684-2 |page=216}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |author=Anne Applebaum |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2001/oct/18/a-history-of-horror |title=A History of Horror{{!}} Review of ''Le Siècle des camps'' by Joël Kotek and Pierre Rigoulot |date=18 October 2001 |magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]}}</ref>
Polish historian Władysław Konopczyński has suggested the first concentration camps were created in [[Poland]] in the 18th century, during the [[Bar Confederation]] rebellion, when the [[Russian Empire]] established three concentration camps for Polish rebel captives awaiting deportation to [[Siberia]]. <ref>Konopczyński, Władysław. (1991) '' Konfederacja barska, t. II'', pp. 733-734.</ref>


As a result, the term "concentration camp" is sometimes conflated with the concept of an "[[extermination camp]]" and historians debate whether the term "concentration camp" or the term "internment camp" should be used to describe other examples of civilian internment.<ref name=euph/>
Use of the word ''concentration'' comes from the idea of ''concentrating'' a group of people who are in some way undesirable in one place, where they can be watched by those who incarcerated them. For example, in a time of insurgency, potential supporters of the insurgents may be placed where they cannot provide supplies or information.


The "concentration camp" label continues to see expanded use for cases post-[[World War II]], for instance in relation to [[List of British detention camps during the Mau Mau Uprising|British camps in Kenya]] during the [[Mau Mau rebellion]] (1952–1960),<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 August 2019 |title=Museum of British Colonialism releases online 3D models of British concentration camps in Kenya |work=Morning Star |url=https://morningstaronline.co.uk/article/b/museum-british-colonialism-releases-online-3d-models-british}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=31 December 1989 |title=The Mau Mau Rebellion |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1989/12/31/the-mau-mau-rebellion/186d8bdf-1d95-4b63-9147-c67f20d7eb0f/}}</ref> and camps set up in [[Chile]] during the [[military dictatorship]] of [[Augusto Pinochet]] (1973–1990).<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 September 2013 |title=Chilean coup: 40 years ago I watched Pinochet crush a democratic dream |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/07/chile-coup-pinochet-allende}}</ref> According to the [[United States Department of Defense]] as many as 3 million [[Uyghurs]] and members of other [[Islam in China|Muslim]] minority groups are being held in [[China]]'s [[Xinjiang re-education camps|re-education camps]] which are located in the [[Xinjiang]] region and which American news reports often label as ''concentration camps''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 May 2019 |title=As the U.S. Targets China's 'Concentration Camps', Xinjiang's Human Rights Crisis is Only Getting Worse |work=Newsweek |url=https://www.newsweek.com/xinjiang-uyghur-crisis-muslim-china-1398782}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=17 November 2019 |title=Uighurs and their supporters decry Chinese 'concentration camps', 'genocide' after Xinjiang documents leaked |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2019/11/17/uighurs-their-supporters-decry-chinese-concentration-camps-genocide-after-xinjiang-documents-leaked/}}</ref> The camps were established in the late 2010s under [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|Chinese Communist Party general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]]'s [[China under Xi Jinping|administration]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Ramzy |first1=Austin |last2=Buckley |first2=Chris |date=2019-11-16 |title='Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents.html |access-date=2019-11-16 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kate O'Keeffe and Katy Stech Ferek |date=14 November 2019 |title=Stop Calling China's Xi Jinping 'President', U.S. Panel Says |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/stop-calling-chinas-xi-jinping-president-u-s-panel-says-11573740000}}</ref>
=== Nazi and Soviet camps ===
{{main|Nazi concentration camps|Gulag}}


==Impact==
[[Image:Buchenwald Slave Laborers Liberation.jpg|thumb|[[Buchenwald]], a [[Nazi concentration camp]] (1937 to 1945) and then a Soviet [[NKVD special camp]] (1945 to 1950)]]
Scholars have debated the efficacy of internment as a [[counterinsurgency]] tactic. A 2023 study found that internment during the [[Irish War of Independence|Irish war of independence]] led to greater grievances among Irish rebels and led them to fight longer in the war.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huff |first=Connor |date=2023 |title=Counterinsurgency Tactics, Rebel Grievances, and Who Keeps Fighting |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/counterinsurgency-tactics-rebel-grievances-and-who-keeps-fighting/33AE2D679AFED94755E0D6CE5AAAB483 |journal=American Political Science Review |volume=118 |pages=475–480 |language=en |doi=10.1017/S0003055423000059 |issn=0003-0554}}</ref>
In the 20th century the arbitrary internment of civilians by the state became more common and reached a climax with [[Nazi concentration camps]] (1933-1945) and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Labor camp|forced labor camp]]s (the ''[[Gulag]]'', 1929-1960)).<ref>[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/gula.html documents relative to ''Gulag'']</ref> As a result of this trend, the term "concentration camp" carries many of the connotations of "extermination camp" and is sometimes used synonymously. A concentration camp, however, is not necessarily a death-camp. For example, slave labor camps were sources of free labor: the inmates were exploited, not killed (though many were worked to death or killed for refusing to work).


==Examples==
Because of these negative connotations, the term "concentration camp", originally itself a euphemism, has been replaced by newer euphemisms such as ''internment camp'', ''resettlement camp'', ''detention facility'', etc., regardless of the actual circumstances of the camp, which can vary a great deal.

== List of camps ==
{{main|List of concentration and internment camps}}
{{main|List of concentration and internment camps}}


== See also ==
===Active===
*[[Prisons in North Korea#Internment camps for political prisoners|North Korean prison camps]] (1948–present)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/north-korea-forced-labour-survivor-camp-15-hermit-kingdom-kim-jong-un-a7971926.html|title=Life inside a North Korea labour camp: 'We were forced to throw rocks at a man being hanged'|date=28 September 2017|work=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nkdb.org/bbs1/data/publication/Political_Prison_Camp_in_North_Korea_Today.pdf|title=Political Prison Camps in North Korea Today|date=2013-10-19|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019141624/http://nkdb.org/bbs1/data/publication/Political_Prison_Camp_in_North_Korea_Today.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2013|access-date=2019-12-18}}</ref>
*[[Civilian Internee]]
*[[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] (2002–present)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/25/guantanamo-files-qahtani-salahi-torture|title=Guantánamo Bay files: Torture gets results, US military insists|last=Leigh|first=David|date=2011-04-25|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-12-18|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ama.com.au/sites/default/files/Prof_David_Isaacs_Speech.pdf|title=Professor David Isaacs Speech}}</ref>
*[[List of concentration and internment camps]]
*[[Slavery in Libya#Slavery in the post-Gaddafi era|Refugee detention centres]] in Libya (2011–present)<ref>{{citation|title=EXCLUSIVE: Italian doctor laments Libya's 'concentration camps' for migrants| date=15 November 2017 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTgAdth2jmk&list=PLSyY1udCyYqCACdN9kIuTYlcsJhVqf2At&index=29|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/aTgAdth2jmk| archive-date=2021-10-30|access-date=2019-12-18}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/13832/europe-s-apathy-toward-humanitarian-rescue-outrages-ngos|title=Europe's apathy toward humanitarian rescue outrages NGOs|date=2018-12-11|website=InfoMigrants|access-date=2019-12-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2019/11/25/what-the-danish-lawrence-learned-in-libya/|title=What the 'Danish Lawrence' Learned in Libya (5th paragraph from the last one)|last=Wehrey|first=Frederic|date=2019-11-25|website=The New York Review of Books|access-date=2019-12-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-wednesday-edition-1.5198437/detained-migrants-killed-in-libya-airstrike-used-as-human-shields-doctors-without-borders-1.5198498|title=Detained migrants killed in Libya airstrike used as 'human shields'}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mediapart.fr/en/journal/international/021219/france-cancels-speedboats-delivery-libyan-coastguard|title=France cancels speedboats delivery to Libyan coastguard|last=Mediapart|first=La Rédaction De|website=Mediapart|date=2 December 2019 |access-date=2019-12-18}}</ref>
*[[Xinjiang re-education camps|Uyghur re-education camps]] in China (2017–present)<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=China is creating concentration camps in Xinjiang. Here's how we hold it accountable |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/china-is-creating-concentration-camps-in-xinjiang-heres-how-we-hold-it-accountable/2018/11/23/93dd8c34-e9d6-11e8-bbdb-72fdbf9d4fed_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=24 November 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi crown prince defends China's right to put Uighur Muslims in concentration camps |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/02/22/saudi-crown-prince-defends-chinas-right-put-uighur-muslims-concentration/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/02/22/saudi-crown-prince-defends-chinas-right-put-uighur-muslims-concentration/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=22 February 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*[[Anti-gay purges in Chechnya|Anti-gay detention camps]] in Chechnya (2017–present)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news.com.au/world/europe/at-least-100-gay-men-have-been-rounded-up-and-thrown-in-concentration-camps-in-chechnya/news-story/89553c2517a227ff20c57bef35cd78b3|title=The persecution of gay men in Chechnya has chilling similarities to the Third Reich|date=2017-04-19|website=NewsComAu|access-date=2019-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/01/15/russian-lgbt-network-reports-arrests-torture-and-deaths-part-chechnya-gay-purge-accusation|title=Is there a 'gay purge' in Chechnya? Rights group fears the worst|last=Stefanello|first=Viola|date=2019-01-15|website=euronews|access-date=2019-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.snopes.com/news/2017/04/11/chechnya-concentration-camp-homosexuals/|title=Report: Chechnya Opens 'Concentration Camp for Homosexuals'|website=Snopes.com|date=11 April 2017 |language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-8-2017-003094_EN.pdf|title=Question to the EU Commission by Matt Carthy}}</ref>
*[[Trump administration migrant detentions|Migrant detentions]] as part of [[immigration detention in the United States]] (2018–present)<ref>{{Cite news |title=Movement to call migrant detention centers 'concentration camps' swells online |url=https://www.chron.com/news/politics/article/migrant-detention-centers-concentration-camps-tx-12994549.php |last=Ramirez |first=Fernando |date=2018-06-14 |work=[[Houston Chronicle|Chron]] |quote=The practice of separating migrant families began in April when Attorney General Jeff Sessions announced a new "zero-tolerance" policy prosecuting 100 percent of illegal border crossings.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hignett |first1=Katherine |title=Academics rally behind Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez over concentration camp comments: 'She is completely historically accurate' |url=https://www.newsweek.com/alexandria-ocasio-cortez-concentration-camps-immigrants-detention-centers-southern-border-experts-1445483 |website=[[Newsweek]] |access-date=23 August 2019 |date=24 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.esquire.com/news-politics/a27813648/concentration-camps-southern-border-migrant-detention-facilities-trump/|title=An Expert on Concentration Camps Says That's Exactly What the U.S. Is Running at the Border|last=Holmes|first=Jack|date=2019-06-13|website=Esquire|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Beorn |first1=Waitman Wade |title=Yes, you can call the border centers 'concentration camps,' but apply the history with care |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/posteverything/wp/2018/06/20/yes-you-can-call-the-border-detention-centers-concentration-camps-but-apply-the-history-with-care |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=30 August 2019 |date=20 June 2018}}</ref>
*[[Internment camps in Ethiopia]] during the [[Tigray War]] and the [[War in Amhara]] (2020–present).<ref name="Salon_eyewitness_Tigrayan_children">{{cite Q|Q125771844|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="GlobeMail_they_just_vanished">{{cite Q|Q125771289|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Guardian_warning_signs_genocide">{{cite news | last1= Clark | first1= Helen |author1-link=Helen Clark (British politician) | last2= Lapsley | first2= Michael |author2-link=Michael Lapsley|last3=Alton |first3=David |author3-link=David Alton | title= The warning signs are there for genocide in Ethiopia – the world must act to prevent it | date= 2021-11-26 |newspaper= [[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/26/ethiopia-genocide-warning-signs-abiy-ahmed |access-date=2021-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127031651/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/26/ethiopia-genocide-warning-signs-abiy-ahmed |archive-date= 2021-11-27 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ECLJ_silent_suffering_Amhara">{{cite Q|Q125791341|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Russian filtration camps for Ukrainians|Russian filtration camps in Ukraine]] during the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] (2022–present)<ref>https://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/world/thousands-of-mariupol-survivors-being-detained-and-e2-80-98tortured-e2-80-99-in-russia-controlled-prisons-in-occupied-ukraine/ar-AAXrRjm {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-04-25 |title='You can't imagine the conditions' - Accounts emerge of Russian detention camps |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-61208404 |access-date=2024-05-29 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/831791.html {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref>
*[[Sde Teiman detention camp]] in [[Israel]] during the [[Israel–Hamas war]] (2024–present)

===Closed===
*[[Abercorn Barracks]], [[Northern Ireland]] (sometimes referred to as Ballykinlar Barracks) (1919–1921) (1971)
*[[Reconcentration policy]] during Cuba's War of Independence from Spain (1896–1898)
*[[Second Boer War concentration camps|Second Boer War in South Africa]] (1900–1902)
*[[Curragh Camp]] in Ireland (1939–46 & 1957–59). Curragh Camp was by far the largest, at least 30 other prisons and camps were used throughout the country.<ref>{{cite report |author= |author-link= |date=2017 |title=Civil War Internment Collection |url=https://www.militaryarchives.ie/collections/reading-room-collections/civil-war-internment-collection-1922-1925 |publisher=Defense Forces of Ireland |page= |docket= |access-date=22 May 2024 |quote=}}</ref>
*[[Cyprus internment camps]] (1946–1949)
*[[Reconcentrados]] "Zones of Protection" 1901, [[Philippine-American War]]
*[[Herero and Namaqua genocide#Concentration camps|Herero and Namaqua genocide]] (1904–1907)
*[[Deir ez-Zor Camps|Concentration of Armenians during the Armenian Genocide]] (1915–1916)
*[[Finnish Civil War prison camps|Finnish Civil War]] (1918)
*[[Frongoch internment camp]] British camp used for WWI and Irish 1916 [[Easter Rising]] prisoners
*[[Gormanston Camp]] in the [[Irish Free State]] (1922–1923)
*Malayan [[New village]]s as part of the [[Briggs Plan]] during the [[Malayan Emergency]] (1950–1960)
*[[List of Italian concentration camps|Italian concentration camps in Africa and Europe]] (1930–1944)
*[[HM Prison Maze]] in Northern Ireland (1971–75), previously known as Long Kesh Detention Centre, and known colloquially as the Maze or H-Blocks)
*[[Nazi concentration camps|German concentration camps before and during World War II]] (1933–1945)
*[[List of Japanese-run internment camps during World War II|Japanese internment of prisoners of war and civilians]] during [[World War II]] (ended 1945)
*[[Internment of Japanese Americans|Japanese-American internment camps in World War II]] (1942–1946)
*[[Japanese Canadian internment]] (1942–1949)
*[[Deoli internment camp]] [[Internment of Chinese-Indians|in India]] (1962–1967)
*[[Omarska camp]] in Bosnia, 1992
*[[Dretelj camp]] (1992–1995)
*[[Camp Bucca]] in Iraq (2003–2009)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalpolicy.org/images/pdfs/0422detention.pdf|title=Open Letter to Members of the Security Counsel Concerning Detentions in Iraq}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/takeaway/segments/7674-largest-american-internment-camp-iraq-shuts-down|title=Largest American Internment Camp in Iraq Shuts Down {{!}} The Takeaway|website=WNYC Studios|access-date=2019-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ritholtz.com/2014/12/how-u-s-torture-led-to-the-rise-of-isis/|title=How U.S. Torture Led to the Rise of ISIS|date=2014-12-23|website=The Big Picture|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-17}}</ref>
*[[Abu Ghraib prison]] in Iraq (1980–2014)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB108388925325204831|title=Excerpts From Red Cross Report|date=2004-05-07|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|access-date=2019-12-17|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/breaking-out-of-abu-ghraib|title=Breaking Out of Abu Ghraib|last=Anderson|first=Jon Lee|magazine=The New Yorker|date=2013-07-26|access-date=2019-12-17|issn=0028-792X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=26496|title=Defense.gov News Article: Abuse Resulted From Leadership Failure, Taguba Tells Senators|website=archive.defense.gov|access-date=2019-12-17|archive-date=21 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521223835/https://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=26496|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Civilian internee]]
*[[Extermination through labor]]
*[[Extrajudicial detention]]
*[[Gulag]]
*[[New village]]
*[[Bantustan]]
*[[House arrest]]
*[[Labor camp]]
*[[Kwalliso]] (North Korean political penal labour colonies)
*[[Laogai]] (Chinese, "reform through labor")
*[[Military Units to Aid Production]]
*[["Polish death camp" controversy]]
*[[Prison overcrowding]]
*[[Prisoner-of-war camp]]
*[[Prisoner-of-war camp]]
*[[Prisons in North Korea]]
*[[Extermination camp]]
*[[Labor camp]]s
*[[Quasi-criminal]]
*[[Quasi-criminal]]
*{{annotated link|Reductions}}
*[[Re-education camp (Vietnam)]]
*[[Re-education through labor]]
*[[Remand (detention)]]
{{colend}}


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|1}}
{{reflist}}


==Further reading==
[[Category:Internments| ]]
* {{cite book |last=Pitzer |first=Andrea |title=One Long Night: A Global History of Concentration Camps |year=2017 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |isbn=978-0-316-30359-0}}
*{{cite book |last=Stone |first=Dan |title=Concentration Camps: A Very Short Introduction |date=2015 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-879070-9}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Iain R. |last2=Stucki |first2=Andreas |title=The Colonial Development of Concentration Camps (1868–1902) |url=http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/44298/1/WRAP_Smith_Andreas%27s_and_Iain%27s_revised_version_of_JICH_article_%28completed%29.pdf |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |date=September 2011 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=417–437 |s2cid=159576119 |doi=10.1080/03086534.2011.598746}}
*{{cite book|title=Le siècle des camps|last=Kotek|first=Joël|year=2000|isbn=978-2-7096-1884-7|pages=805|publisher=Lattès |language=fr}} Exhaustive history of the internment camps. Also available in German ({{cite book|title=Das Jahrhundert der Lager|isbn=978-3-549-07143-4|last1=Kotek |first1=Joël |last2=Rigoulot |first2=Pierre |year=2001|publisher=Propyläen }})


==External links==
[[af:Konsentrasiekamp]]
*{{Commons category-inline}}
[[ar:معسكر اعتقال]]

[[bs:Koncentracioni logor]]
{{Incarceration}}
[[br:Konzentrationslager]]
{{Segregation by type}}{{Discrimination}}{{Authority control}}
[[bg:Концентрационен лагер]]

[[ca:Camp de concentració]]
[[Category:Internments| ]]
[[cs:Koncentrační tábor]]
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[[da:Koncentrationslejr]]
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[[hr:Sabirni logor]]
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[[pt:Campo de concentração]]
[[ro:Lagăr de concentrare]]
[[ru:Концентрационный лагерь]]
[[simple:Concentration camp]]
[[sk:Koncentračný tábor]]
[[sl:Koncentracijsko taborišče]]
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[[zh:集中营]]

Latest revision as of 01:42, 15 December 2024

For the TV episode, see Internment (The Walking Dead). Not to be confused with interment (burial) or extermination camp.

Boer women and children in a British concentration camp in South Africa (1899–1902)
Part of a series on
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Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges[1] or intent to file charges.[2] The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects".[3] Thus, while it can simply mean imprisonment, it tends to refer to preventive confinement rather than confinement after having been convicted of some crime. Use of these terms is subject to debate and political sensitivities.[4] The word internment is also occasionally used to describe a neutral country's practice of detaining belligerent armed forces and equipment on its territory during times of war, under the Hague Convention of 1907.[5]

Interned persons may be held in prisons or in facilities known as internment camps or concentration camps. The term concentration camp originates from the Spanish–Cuban Ten Years' War when Spanish forces detained Cuban civilians in camps in order to more easily combat guerrilla forces. Over the following decades the British during the Second Boer War and the Americans during the Philippine–American War also used concentration camps.

The terms concentration camp and internment camp are used to refer to a variety of systems that greatly differ in their severity, mortality rate, and architecture; their defining characteristic is that inmates are held outside the rule of law.[6] Extermination camps or death camps, whose primary purpose is killing, are also imprecisely referred to as concentration camps.[7]

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights restricts the use of internment, with Article 9 stating, "No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile."[8]

Defining internment and concentration camp

Cuban victims of Spanish reconcentration policies, 1896
Ten thousand inmates were kept in El Agheila, one of the Italian concentration camps in Libya during the Italian colonization of Libya.
Women at the Kalevankangas concentration camp of Tampere in 1918, several months after the Finnish Civil War
Jewish slave laborers at the Buchenwald concentration camp near Weimar photographed after their liberation by the Allies on 16 April 1945

The American Heritage Dictionary defines the term concentration camp as: "A camp where persons are confined, usually without hearings and typically under harsh conditions, often as a result of their membership in a group which the government has identified as dangerous or undesirable."[9]

Although the first example of civilian internment may date as far back as the 1830s,[10] the English term concentration camp was first used in order to refer to the reconcentration camps (Spanish:reconcentrados) which were set up by the Spanish military in Cuba during the Ten Years' War (1868–1878).[11][12] The label was applied yet again to camps set up by the United States during the Philippine–American War (1899–1902).[13] And expanded usage of the concentration camp label continued, when the British set up camps during the Second Boer War (1899–1902) in South Africa for interning Boers during the same time period.[11][14]

During the 20th century, the arbitrary internment of civilians by the state reached its most extreme forms in the Soviet Gulag system of concentration camps (1918–1991)[15] and the Nazi concentration camps (1933–1945). The Soviet system was the first applied by a government on its own citizens.[12] The Gulag consisted in over 30,000 camps for most of its existence (1918–1991) and detained some 18 million from 1929 until 1953,[15] which is only a third of its 73-year lifespan. The Nazi concentration camp system was extensive, with as many as 15,000 camps[16] and at least 715,000 simultaneous internees.[17] The total number of casualties in these camps is difficult to determine, but the deliberate policy of extermination through labor in many of the camps was designed to ensure that the inmates would die of starvation, untreated disease and summary executions within set periods of time.[18] Moreover, Nazi Germany established six extermination camps, specifically designed to kill millions of people, primarily by gassing.[19][20]

As a result, the term "concentration camp" is sometimes conflated with the concept of an "extermination camp" and historians debate whether the term "concentration camp" or the term "internment camp" should be used to describe other examples of civilian internment.[4]

The "concentration camp" label continues to see expanded use for cases post-World War II, for instance in relation to British camps in Kenya during the Mau Mau rebellion (1952–1960),[21][22] and camps set up in Chile during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990).[23] According to the United States Department of Defense as many as 3 million Uyghurs and members of other Muslim minority groups are being held in China's re-education camps which are located in the Xinjiang region and which American news reports often label as concentration camps.[24][25] The camps were established in the late 2010s under Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping's administration.[26][27]

Impact

Scholars have debated the efficacy of internment as a counterinsurgency tactic. A 2023 study found that internment during the Irish war of independence led to greater grievances among Irish rebels and led them to fight longer in the war.[28]

Examples

Main article: List of concentration and internment camps

Active

Closed

See also

References

  1. ^ Lowry, David (1976). "Human Rights Vol. 5, No. 3 "INTERNMENT: DENTENTION WITHOUT TRIAL IN NORTHERN IRELAND"". Human Rights. 5 (3). American Bar Association: ABA Publishing: 261–331. JSTOR 27879033. The essence of internment lies in incarceration without charge or trial.
  2. ^ Kenney, Padraic (2017). Dance in Chains: Political Imprisonment in the Modern World. Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-19-937574-5. A formal arrest usually comes with a charge, but many regimes employed internment (that is, detention without intent to file charges
  3. ^ "the definition of internment". www.dictionary.com.
  4. ^ a b Schumacher-Matos, Edward; Grisham, Lori (10 February 2012). "Euphemisms, Concentration Camps And The Japanese Internment". npr.org.
  5. ^ "The Second Hague Convention, 1907". Yale.edu. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2013.
  6. ^ Stone, Dan (2015). Concentration Camps: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 122–123. ISBN 978-0-19-879070-9. Concentration camps throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries are by no means all the same, with respect either to the degree of violence that characterizes them or the extent to which their inmates are abandoned by the authorities... The crucial characteristic of a concentration camp is not whether it has barbed wire, fences, or watchtowers; it is, rather, the gathering of civilians, defined by a regime as de facto 'enemies', in order to hold them against their will without charge in a place where the rule of law has been suspended.
  7. ^ "Nazi Camps". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
  8. ^ Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 9, United Nations
  9. ^ "Concentration camp". American Heritage Dictionary. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
  10. ^ James L. Dickerson (2010). Inside America's Concentration Camps: Two Centuries of Internment and Torture. Chicago Review Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-55652-806-4.
  11. ^ a b The Columbia Encyclopedia: Concentration Camp (Sixth ed.). Columbia University Press. 2008.
  12. ^ a b "Concentration Camps Existed Long Before Auschwitz". Smithsonian. 2 November 2017.
  13. ^ Storey, Moorfield; Codman, Julian (1902). Secretary Root's record. "Marked severities" in Philippine warfare. An analysis of the law and facts bearing on the action and utterances of President Roosevelt and Secretary Root. Boston: George H. Ellis Company. pp. 89–95.
  14. ^ "Documents re camps in Boer War". sul.stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 9 June 2007.
  15. ^ a b "Gulag: A History, by Anne Applebaum (Doubleday)". The Pulitzer Prizes. 2004. Retrieved 13 November 2019.
  16. ^ "Concentration Camp Listing". Belgium: Editions Kritak. Sourced from Van Eck, Ludo Le livre des Camps and Gilbert, Martin (1993). Atlas of the Holocaust. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 0-688-12364-3.. In this online site are the names of 149 camps and 814 subcamps, organized by country.
  17. ^ Evans, Richard J. (2005). The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-14-303790-3.
  18. ^ Marek Przybyszewski. IBH Opracowania – Działdowo jako centrum administracyjne ziemi sasińskiej [Działdowo as the centre of local administration] (in Polish). Archived from the original on 22 October 2010 – via Internet Archive.
  19. ^ Robert Gellately; Nathan Stoltzfus (2001). Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-691-08684-2.
  20. ^ Anne Applebaum (18 October 2001). "A History of Horror| Review of Le Siècle des camps by Joël Kotek and Pierre Rigoulot". The New York Review of Books.
  21. ^ "Museum of British Colonialism releases online 3D models of British concentration camps in Kenya". Morning Star. 27 August 2019.
  22. ^ "The Mau Mau Rebellion". The Washington Post. 31 December 1989.
  23. ^ "Chilean coup: 40 years ago I watched Pinochet crush a democratic dream". The Guardian. 7 September 2013.
  24. ^ "As the U.S. Targets China's 'Concentration Camps', Xinjiang's Human Rights Crisis is Only Getting Worse". Newsweek. 22 May 2019.
  25. ^ "Uighurs and their supporters decry Chinese 'concentration camps', 'genocide' after Xinjiang documents leaked". The Washington Post. 17 November 2019.
  26. ^ Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (16 November 2019). "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 16 November 2019.
  27. ^ Kate O'Keeffe and Katy Stech Ferek (14 November 2019). "Stop Calling China's Xi Jinping 'President', U.S. Panel Says". The Wall Street Journal.
  28. ^ Huff, Connor (2023). "Counterinsurgency Tactics, Rebel Grievances, and Who Keeps Fighting". American Political Science Review. 118: 475–480. doi:10.1017/S0003055423000059. ISSN 0003-0554.
  29. ^ "Life inside a North Korea labour camp: 'We were forced to throw rocks at a man being hanged'". The Independent. 28 September 2017.
  30. ^ "Political Prison Camps in North Korea Today" (PDF). 19 October 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  31. ^ Leigh, David (25 April 2011). "Guantánamo Bay files: Torture gets results, US military insists". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  32. ^ "Professor David Isaacs Speech" (PDF).
  33. ^ EXCLUSIVE: Italian doctor laments Libya's 'concentration camps' for migrants, 15 November 2017, archived from the original on 30 October 2021, retrieved 18 December 2019
  34. ^ "Europe's apathy toward humanitarian rescue outrages NGOs". InfoMigrants. 11 December 2018. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  35. ^ Wehrey, Frederic (25 November 2019). "What the 'Danish Lawrence' Learned in Libya (5th paragraph from the last one)". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
  36. ^ "Detained migrants killed in Libya airstrike used as 'human shields'".
  37. ^ Mediapart, La Rédaction De (2 December 2019). "France cancels speedboats delivery to Libyan coastguard". Mediapart. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
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Further reading

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