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{{Short description|11th century ruler of Kerala, India}}
[[Image:Cheraman Juma Masjid.gif|thumb|250px|[[Cheraman Perumal]] Juma Masjid, believed to have been built upon the request of Rama Varma Kulashekhara and probably the first [[Mosque]] in India]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Rama Kulasekhara
| title = Kulasekhara Perumal • Koyil Adhikarikal • Cheraman Perumal • Cheramanar ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]) • Chakravarthikal ("Ma Ko") • Thiruvadi
| image = Perunna inscription of Rama Kulasekhara (1099 AD).jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Perunna temple inscription (1099 AD)
| succession = King of Chera Perumal Kingdom
| reign = 1089/90–c.1122/23 AD<ref name=":435">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRnxDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%27Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|pages=122|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cera State|isbn=9781108857871}}</ref>
| predecessor = Adithya Goda "Ranadithya"<ref name=":435" /> (c. 1036–1089 CE)<ref>As per [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] (1972)</ref>
| successor = Vira Kerala<ref name=":399">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=86|isbn=9788188765072|orig-date=1972}}</ref>
| issue = Vira Kerala<ref name=":399" />
| house = [[Chera Perumal dynasty]]
}}
'''Rama Kulasekhara''' (''fl.'' late 11th century CE<ref>{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWluAAAAMAAJ|title=State and Society in Premodern South India|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2002|editor-last=Champakalakshmi|editor-first=R.|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=111–19|chapter=The State in the Era of the Ceraman Perumals of Kerala|editor-last2=Veluthat|editor-first2=Kesavan|editor-last3=Venugopalan|editor-first3=T. R.}}</ref>) was the last ruler of the [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|Chera Perumal dynasty]] of medieval [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LRnxDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%27Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|pages=121|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cera State|isbn=9781108857871}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=125–130|isbn=9788188765072|orig-date=1972}}</ref> He was a contemporary to Chola kings [[Kulottunga I]] (1070–1120) and [[Vikrama Chola]] (1118–35 AD).<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=125–130|isbn=9788188765072|orig-date=1972}}</ref> Rama Kulaskehara is best known for briefly recovering [[Kollam]]-[[Thiruvananthapuram|Trivandrum]]-[[Nagercoil]] region from the powerful [[Chola dynasty|Chola empire]] around 1100/02 AD.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=125–130|isbn=9788188765072|orig-date=1972}}</ref>


Inscriptions related to Rama Kulasekhara can be found at Panthalayani Kollam near [[Koyilandy|Quilandy]], [[Thiruvaloor Mahadeva Temple|Thiruvaloor]] (on [[Periyar (river)|Periyar]]), [[Perunna]] near [[Changanassery]], Nedumpuram Thali ([[Wadakkanchery]]) and at [[Kollam]].<ref name=":35">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=20, 125 - 130, 467 - 470|orig-date=1972}}</ref> Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions of Rama Kulasekhara. In 1099 AD, the leader of the [[Nair]] warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, a state-sponsored temple.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=exzhDwAAQBAJ&q=The+%E2%80%98Early+Medieval%27+Origins+of+India|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=9781108494571|location=|pages=149|chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State}}</ref> In 1102 AD, Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the [[Brahmin]] community.<ref name=":1" /> An inscription dated to 1122 AD, found at [[Thiruvalanjuli|Thiruvalanchuzhi]], [[Tanjore]] (dated in the regnal year of king [[Vikrama Chola]]), also remembers Rama Kulasekhara.<ref name=":35" />
'''Rama Varma Kulashekhara''' (1090- 1102 A.D) was the last king of the [[Chera Dynasty]] that ruled [[Kerala]] from 800- 1102 A.D. After significant military success over the [[Chola]] dynasty he abdicated the throne and is often said to have converted to Islam.


[[Kollam]] functioned as the second headquarters of the Chera Perumal kingdom towards the final phase of Rama Kulasekhara's rule (c. 1100/02 AD - c. 1122/23). According to scholars, "the strategic advantage of marriage relations with the old ruling clan of Kollam in securing the loyalty of Venad can also be considered in the light of continuous Chola-Pandya attacks in south Kerala".<ref name=":32">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=154|orig-date=1972}}</ref> There is a tradition that Vira Kerala, a ruler of Kollam in early 12th century, was a son of the last Chera king.<ref name=":33">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=171|orig-date=1972}}</ref>
==The end of the Chera dynasty==


== Career ==
Rama Varma Kulashekhara ascended the throne during a period of severe crisis. [[Kulothunga Chola I]] had occupied Nanjanad and south Kerala and was proceeding towards [[Kollam]], the capital of the [[Venad]] kings in 1096 A.D. Rama Varma resolved to beat back the [[Chola]]s and rallied all his patriotic forces. A large body of Chera army transformed into suicide squads (''Chavers''). The capital city of Mahodayapuram (present [[Kodungallur]])and surrounding places were devastated in the long war and the king, without even a palace of his own, is known to have stayed at alternative frugal accommodations.
''Corrections by [[M. G. S. Narayanan]] (1972) on [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]] (1955, revised) point out that Chola ruler [[Kulottunga Chola|Kulottunga I]] oversaw only one expedition to the Chera Perumal kingdom (in c. 1097). Sastri had assumed that Kulottunga led two military thrusts to south Kerala in c. 1077-1081 and in c. 1097.<ref name=":34">{{Cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=125–130|orig-date=1972}}</ref>''


Rama Kulasekhara came to the Chera Perumal throne in ''c.'' 1089/90.<ref name=":435" /><ref name=":5" /> Rama was the personal name and "Kulasekhara" was the coronation title.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1993|editor-last=Tewari|editor-first=S. P.|title=Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYNjAAAAMAAJ|journal=Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India|publisher=The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore|volume=19|pages=24}}</ref> The first record of the king - as "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal" - is found in the courtyard of the [[Koyilandy|Panthalayani Kollam]] Bhagavathi temple in northern Kerala.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|editor-last=Narayanan|editor-first=M. G. S.|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=467–70|chapter=Index to Cera Inscriptions|orig-date=1972}}</ref> Another inscription of "Kulasekhara Perumal" (1092 AD) can be found at the [[Thiruvaloor Mahadeva Temple|Thiruvaloor temple]] in the Periyar valley.<ref name=":9" /> Port [[Vizhinjam]] in the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]] was called "Rajendra Chola Pattinam" by [[Kulottunga Chola|Kulottunga I Chola]] in 1091 AD.''<ref name=":34" />''
Towards the end of the war he shifted the capital from Mahodayapuram to Kollam and led a large army to stem the Cholas in the south. Kulothinga was defeated and withdrew towards Kottar. The [[Cholapuram]] records (1100 A.D) that record the achievements of Kulothunga Chola refer to this. The Cholas could not regain their influence beyond Nanjanad after this defeat. The move from Mahodayapuram to Kollam however marked the end of the Kulashekhara Empire. Venad attained the status of an independent kingdom, of which Rama Varma Kulashekhara is regarded as the founder.


=== Kulottunga Chola's south Kerala campaign ===
==Cheraman legend==
Southern parts of Kerala ([[Venad]] and the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]]), as far north as [[Kollam]], again came under the Chola rule by 1097 AD.''<ref name=":34" />'' This military thrust was probably conducted by "Chola-Pandya" ruler Jatavarman Srivallabha<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1993|editor-last=Tewari|editor-first=S. P.|title=Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYNjAAAAMAAJ|journal=Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India|publisher=The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore|volume=19|pages=21-22 and 25-26}}</ref> or Chola general [[Naralokaviran|Naralokavira Kalinga Rayan]] for the Chola king [[Kulottunga I]] (1070–1120).''<ref name=":34" />'' Records of this campaign mention, among other things, the "chaver" warriors in Kuda Malai Nadu (meaning [[Kerala]] here) ascending the "unique heaven" in battles, "the subduing of the numerous forces of the Keralas", "making the rebel vassal kings obedient", "victory over the bow emblem" and "the Chera king's retreat from the battle field".''<ref name=":34" />'' A new era called "Kollam Azhintha Andu" was inaugurated by the Pandyas in 1097 AD.<ref name=":7" /> Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions from this period. In 1099 AD, the leader of the [[Nair]] warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, an originally state-sponsored temple.<ref name=":1" /> Earlier in 1099, Rama Kulasekhara, with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the [[Thrikkunnappuzha]], is seen residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at [[Kodungallur]].<ref name=":9" />


=== Recovery of Kollam ===
The later life of the last Cheraman is shrouded in mystery. Following his disappearance the chieftains of empire partitioned the land and proclaimed their independence in early 12th century. These fiefdoms would later emerge as the kingdoms of [[Kolathunadu]], [[Kozhikode]] and [[Kochi]].
It seems that the Chera Perumal managed to recover [[Kollam]] c. 1100/02 AD.<ref name=":0" />''<ref name=":34" />'' A possible major battle at [[Poonthura]], near [[Vizhinjam]], involving Mana Vikrama of Eranadu and his Nairs later known as "Poonthura Nairs", was instrumental in this recovery.<ref name=":7" /> Cholas eventually fixed their boundary at Kottar (leaving the [[Venad]] and the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]] to the Cheras).''<ref name=":34" />'' We have a mention of a council attended by king Rama Kulasekhara and Mana Vikrama Punthurakkon (the future Zamorin, "the first among the samanthas") at [[Kollam]] in 1102 AD. Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the [[Brahmin|Brahmins]] at this council.<ref name=":1" /> The record was probably made in the aftermath of the recovery of Kollam.<ref name=":7" />


=== Vikrama Chola's south Kerala campaign ===
A legend tells of the mysterious disappearance and conversion to Islam of the last Cheraman Perumal which, however, is neither corroborated by any contemporary record<ref name="Sreedhara Menon 1967 p.121">Sreedhara Menon.A,A Survey of Kerala History(1967),p.121. D.C.Books Kottayam</ref> nor was mentioned by any of the several Arab and European travellers who visited Kerala including Suleiman, [[Abu Rayhan Biruni|Al Biruni]], [[Benjamin of Tudela]], Al Kazwini, [[Marco Polo]], [[Friar Odoric]], [[Jordanus|Friar Jordanus]], [[Ibn Batuta]], [[Abdur Razzak]], [[Niccolò de' Conti|Nicolo Conti]] etc. But it was after the Portuguese' arrival that middle eastern travellers like Sheikh Zainuddin spoke of the legend;
Later years of Rama Kulasekhara witnessed [[Vikrama Chola]]'s south Kerala campaign (c. 1102–c. 1118 AD) against the Chera Perumals.''<ref name=":34" />'' This expedition was probably conducted by the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] Jatavarman Parakrama.''<ref name=":34" />'' Records mention the defeat of the Chera in a "single campaign" in Malai Nadu, the levying of tribute from the Chera king, and the capture of [[Venad]] and the [[Ay dynasty|Ay country]] by the Chola-Pandyas. The "Kupaka" (meaning Venad here) ruler also seems to have offered his daughter in marriage to Parakrama Pandya (Parakrama also visited the [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple|Anantapuram Temple]] during this period).''<ref name=":34" />''


A Tanjore inscription of Vikrama Chola mentions "the flight of the Chera king".''<ref name=":34" />'' Rama Kulasekhara is also remembered in a [[Thiruvalanchuzhi|Thiruvalanjuli]] inscription (1122 AD) of certain [[Ko Kizhan Adikal|Kizhan Adikal]].<ref name=":6" /> By 1121, an unnamed Kupaka ruler had defeated Pandya king Rajasimha and conquered up to Nanjinadu and Kottar.''<ref name=":34" />'' Vira Kerala, the independent ruler of Venad (possibly the son of Rama Kulasekhara<ref name=":33" />), finds mention in a Cholapuram temple inscription dated to 1126 AD.<ref name=":5" />
<blockquote>
== Epigraphic records ==
On a moon-lit night the king while walking on the rooftop of his palace along with the queen saw the [[moon suddenly splitting]] into two halves. Later he came to know through the Arab traders that a prophet called Muhammad had wrought a miracle on that fateful night, and sundered the moon before a crowd of dazed spectators. Impressed by this new messenger of God in Arabia, the king set out for the holy land after dividing his kingdom and assigning various territories to local chieftains to ensure smooth governance. In Arabia he met the Prophet and embraced Islam in the presence of Abu Bakr Siddique, who later became the first caliph. Cheraman, who took a Muslim name, Tajuddin, died on his way back to India and was buried on the shore of the Arabian Sea at [[Salalah]] in the Sultanate of [[Oman]]. It is said that he had earlier written letters to the local rulers of Malabar and sent it through his ministers along with Malik bin Dinar, a companion of the Prophet. In the letters he had asked them to "receive the bearers of the letters and treat them well and help them to construct mosques at [[Kodungallur]] and elsewhere". The rulers of Kerala honoured the letters and permitted [[Malik Bin Dinar]] and his fellow Arab traders to build mosques in Kerala. The mosque built in the early 7th century at Kodungallur, known as [[Cheraman Malik Masjid]], still exists with its original structure and is said to be the oldest mosque in the sub-continent. It is named after both Cheraman Perumal and Malik bin Dinar.
''Note: Material: granite, script: Vattezhuthu with Grantha, and language: old Malayalam (unless otherwise stated)''
<ref>Interview wih Raja Valiyathampuram of Kodungallur in Central Kerala http://www.iosworld.org/interview_cheramul.htm</ref> Another mosque built during this period was the [[Malik Dinar Mosque]].</blockquote>


{| class="wikitable"
William Logan<ref name ="logan">William Logan, ''Malabar Manual'', Asian Educational Services, 1996 ISBN 8120604466, 9788120604469</ref> accepted the story as authentic but changed the date of conversion from 345 A.D to 825 A.D. The Perumal, however, could not have met The Prophet (570- 632 A.D) either in 825 A.D or in 345 A.D. The mosque at Kodungallur, purportedly built on the instruction of the last Perumal in 629 A.D exhibits the style of middle Chola architecture and a team of historians who studied its foundation safely placed it in the 12th century<ref>Narayanan M.G.S., Calicut:The City of Truth. p.58- 59, Calicut University Press(2006)</ref>. The mosque at Madayi, one of ten believed to have built at the instruction of the last Perumal, had a plaque attributing its foundation to Hegira 518 i.e., 1124 A.D<ref name="logan"/><ref>Narayanan M.G.S., Calicut:The City of Truth, Calicut University Press (2006)</ref>.
|-
! rowspan="2" | Year
! rowspan="2" | Location
! colspan="5" | Contents
|-
! Nature
! Royal Name


! Notes<ref name=":35" />
Some have argued that it is not Rama Varma Kulashekhara but Bhaskara Ravi Varma who is the protagonist of this legend. However, the life of Bhaskara Ravi Varma is well documented and there is no report of his having left his empire. Another school of thought believes that he converted to Buddhism or Jainism and there is yet another version according to which Perumal converted to Christianity, went on a pilgrimage to [[Mylapore]], died there and is buried beside the tomb of [[Thomas the Apostle|St. Thomas]], the Apostle.<ref name="Sreedhara Menon 1967 p.121"/> Prof. A. Sreedhara Menon concluded that the legend of Rama Varama Kulashekhara's conversion originated as a figment of imagination or as a case of mistaken identity and continued to be reproduced without critical examination<ref>Sreedhara Menon.A,A Survey of Kerala History(1967),p.121. D.C.Books Kottayam</ref><ref>Menon K.P.Padhmanabha, History of Kerala, New Delhi (1993)</ref>.
|-
| c. 1089 (no regnal year)
| [[Quilandy|Panthalayani Kollam]] Bhagavathi temple inscription - courtyard of Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple<ref name=":9" />
| Royal order
| "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal"


| Koyil Adhikarikal orders that out of the Annual Dues (the Attaikoil) from [[Quilandy|Panthalayani Kollam]], the Village Assembly (the Ur) was granted five nazhi out of every six nazhi and the melpadi of Thathamangalam
[[Image:Cheraman Juma Masjid.gif|thumb|250px|[[Cheraman Perumal]] Juma Masjid, believed to have been built upon the request of Rama Varma Kulashekhara and probably the first [[Mosque]] in India]]
|-
|1092 AD (3rd regnal year)


Jupiter - Makaram<ref name=":9" />
Cheraman Perumal (Islamic convert) or Rama Varma Kulashekhara (1090- 1102 A.D) was the last king of the [[Chera Dynasty]] that ruled [[Kerala]] from 800- 1102 A.D. After significant military success over the [[Chola]] dynasty he abdicated the throne to convert to Islam.
|[[Thiruvaloor Mahadeva Temple|Thiruvaloor temple]] inscription (built into the entrance of the temple) - on [[Periyar (river)|Periyar]]<ref name=":9" />


| Temple committee resolution
==The end of the Chera dynasty==
| "Kulasekhara Perumal"


|
Rama Varma Kulashekhara ascended the throne during a period of severe crisis. [[Kulothunga Chola I]] had occupied Nanjanad and south Kerala and was proceeding towards [[Kollam]], the capital of the [[Venad]] kings in 1096 A.D. Rama Varma resolved to beat back the [[Chola]]s and rallied all his patriotic forces. A large body of Chera army transformed into suicide squads (''Chavers''). The capital city of Mahodayapuram (present [[Kodungallur]])and surrounding places were devastated in the long war and the king, without even a palace of his own, is known to have stayed at alternative frugal accommodations.
* A council of the Village Assembly (the Ur) and the Village Assembly Secretary (the Pothuval) in the presence of certain Kadaingothu Narayanan Ravi Koyil at the Aralur temple.
* The council unanimously appoint the priests of the temple, fix remuneration and terms of service.
|-
| 1099 AD (10th regnal year)
Jupiter - Karkadakam (month -Vrishchikam)<ref name=":9" />
|[[Perunna]] temple inscription (west side of the central shrine in temple)<ref name=":9" />
| Royal order
| "Kulasekhara"


|King residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at [[Kodungallur]].
Towards the end of the war he shifted the capital from Mahodayapuram to Kollam and led a large army to stem the Cholas in the south. Kulothinga was defeated and withdrew towards Kottar. The [[Cholapuram]] records (1100 A.D) that record the achievements of Kulothunga Chola refer to this. The Cholas could not regain their influence beyond Nanjanad after this defeat. The move from Mahodayapuram to Kollam however marked the end of the Kulashekhara Empire. Venad attained the status of an independent kingdom, of which Rama Varma Kulashekhara is regarded as the founder.


* King sitting in council with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the [[Thrikkunnappuzha]] at the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at [[Kodungallur]].
==Cheraman legend==
*The king ordered the cancellation of Annual Dues (the Attaikkol) and War Tax (the Aranthai) from Perunneyathal.
*The institution of ''Namaskaram'' and ''[[Mahabharata|Maparatham]]'' with the above amount and handed it over to the Perunneyathal Village Assembly (the Ur) and Village Assembly Secretary (the Pothuval).
* Royal orders to this effect were sent to the ''Kudippadis'' through messengers.
*The record specifically mentions that the assembly caused a stone marking the cancellation of the War Tax to be erected there.
|-
| 1099 (10th regnal year)
Jupiter - Karkadakam (month - Minam)<ref name=":9" />
| rowspan="2" |Nedumpuram Thali ([[Wadakkanchery]]) inscriptions (right side of half-wall of the entrance corridor through the v''athilmadam'' of the temple)<ref name=":9" />


|Temple inscription (10th year)
The later life of the last Cheraman is shrouded in mystery. Following his disappearance the chieftains of empire partitioned the land and proclaimed their independence in early 12th century. These fiefdoms would later emerge as the kingdoms of [[Kolathunadu]], [[Kozhikode]] and [[Kochi]].
|"Ma[ha] Ko Rama" (10th year)


|
A legend tells of the mysterious disappearance and conversion to Islam of the last Cheraman Perumal which, however, is neither corroborated by any contemporary record<ref name="Sreedhara Menon 1967 p.121">Sreedhara Menon.A,A Survey of Kerala History(1967),p.121. D.C.Books Kottayam</ref> nor was mentioned by any of the several Arab and European travellers who visited Kerala including Suleiman, [[Abu Rayhan Biruni|Al Biruni]], [[Benjamin of Tudela]], Al Kazwini, [[Marco Polo]], [[Friar Odoric]], [[Jordanus|Friar Jordanus]], [[Ibn Batuta]], [[Abdur Razzak]], [[Niccolò de' Conti|Nicolo Conti]] etc. But it was after the Portuguese' arrival that middle eastern travellers like Sheikh Zainuddin spoke of the legend;
* Period of Manangattu Kumaran Ravi as the chief of Nedumpurayur Nadu ([[Wadakkanchery]]).
*Pulloor Kumaran Kumarathichan, the leader of the [[Nair]] warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu, supervises the Nedumpuram temple, making some arrangements in the temple.
*Kumarathichan was perhaps not entitled to supervise the Nedumpuram temple..<ref name=":1" />
|-
|1100 AD (11th regnal year)
Jupiter - Chingam<ref name=":9" />
|Temple committee resolution (11th year)
|King's name or regnal year not mentioned (11th year)
|
* A resolution revoking the arrangements made by Kumarathichan.<ref name=":1" />
* Period of Thalappulathu Kandan Kumaran as the chief of Nedumpurayur Nadu.


* Kanjirappalli Ravi Kannapiran, the leader of the [[Nair]] warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu, sitting in council in the temple decided to cancel the decision taken by Pulloor Kumaran Kumarithichan, the former leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu.
<blockquote>
*Kannapiran gave orders to this effect to the officials of Nithyaviyareswaram temple. Fine is prescribed for the violation of the rules.
On a moon-lit night the king while walking on the rooftop of his palace along with the queen saw the [[moon suddenly splitting]] into two halves. Later he came to know through the Arab traders that a prophet called Muhammad had wrought a miracle on that fateful night, and sundered the moon before a crowd of dazed spectators. Impressed by this new messenger of God in Arabia, the king set out for the holy land after dividing his kingdom and assigning various territories to local chieftains to ensure smooth governance. In Arabia he met the Prophet and embraced Islam in the presence of Abu Bakr Siddique, who later became the first caliph. Cheraman, who took a Muslim name, Tajuddin, died on his way back to India and was buried on the shore of the Arabian Sea at [[Salalah]] in the Sultanate of [[Oman]]. It is said that he had earlier written letters to the local rulers of Malabar and sent it through his ministers along with Malik bin Dinar, a companion of the Prophet. In the letters he had asked them to "receive the bearers of the letters and treat them well and help them to construct mosques at [[Kodungallur]] and elsewhere". The rulers of Kerala honoured the letters and permitted [[Malik Bin Dinar]] and his fellow Arab traders to build mosques in Kerala. The mosque built in the early 7th century at Kodungallur, known as [[Cheraman Malik Masjid]], still exists with its original structure and is said to be the oldest mosque in the sub-continent. It is named after both Cheraman Perumal and Malik bin Dinar.
|-
<ref>Interview wih Raja Valiyathampuram of Kodungallur in Central Kerala http://www.iosworld.org/interview_cheramul.htm</ref> Another mosque built during this period was the [[Malik Dinar Mosque]].</blockquote>
|
* Dated in 278 [[Kollam era|Kollam Era]]
* 1102 AD (2+11 =13th regnal year)<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1993|editor-last=Tewari|editor-first=S. P.|title=Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYNjAAAAMAAJ|journal=Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India|publisher=The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore|volume=19|pages=19}}</ref>
*Jupiter - Kanni (month - [Chingam])<ref name=":9" />
| Rameswaram temple inscription ([[Kollam]]) (pillar set up in the courtyard of Rameswaram temple) or 'Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278'
| Royal order
| "Rama Thiruvadi Koyil Adhikarikal ''alias'' Sri Kulasekhara Chakravarthikal"


|
William Logan<ref name ="logan">William Logan, ''Malabar Manual'', Asian Educational Services, 1996 ISBN 8120604466, 9788120604469</ref> accepted the story as authentic. The mosque at Kodungallur, purportedly built on the instruction of the last Perumal in 629 A.D exhibits the style of middle Chola architecture and a team of historians who studied its foundation safely placed it in the 12th century<ref>Narayanan M.G.S., Calicut:The City of Truth. p.58- 59, Calicut University Press(2006)</ref>. The mosque at Madayi, one of ten believed to have built at the instruction of the last Perumal, had a plaque attributing its foundation to Hegira 518 i.e., 1124 A.D<ref name="logan"/><ref>Narayanan M.G.S., Calicut:The City of Truth, Calicut University Press (2006)</ref>.
* Rama Varma calls himself "Chakravarthikal" - i.e., independent ruler. Residing and issuing orders from Panankavil Palace, [[Kollam|"Kurakkeni" Kollam]].<ref name=":2" />
* King sitting in council with the Arya Brahmins, the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali), the Leader of the Thousand Nairs (the Ayiram), the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venad (the Arunutruvar), and Mana Vikrama Punthurakkon, the chief of Eranadu (the first among the samanthas).<ref name=":2" />
* King made amends for some offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating paddy for the daily feeding of Brahmins and leasing out a Crown Land for that purpose to Kumara Udaya Varma, the chief of [[Venad]].<ref name=":2" />
* The king makes provision for Koothu (the Dance) and offering at Thirukkunavaya (Jain?) temple.<ref name=":2" />
* Witnesses are mentioned
|-
| 1122 AD - 4th regnal year of king Vikrama Chola (coronation 1118 AD)<ref name=":6" /><br />


Material: granite blocks, script: Tamil, and language: Tamil.
==See also==
| [[Thiruvalanchuzhi|Thiruvanchuli/Thiruvalanjuli temple]] inscription ([[Thanjavur|Tanjore]]) - south wall of the mandapa in front of the central shrine in Kapardiswara temple
*[[Cheraman Perumal]]
| Temple inscription
*[[Chera Dynasty]]
|"Cheramanar Rama Varma"
*[[Kulashekhara]]


|
==References==
* Dated in the regnal years of king [[Vikrama Chola]].
* Mentions a gift of money for the daily offering of a garland to the deity of the temple for the benefit of the Chera king Rama Varma.<ref name=":6" />
* Certain [[Ko Kizhan Adikal|Kizhan Adikal]] - the Chera Perumal princess - is mentioned in another line.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1993|editor-last=Tewari|editor-first=S. P.|title=Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYNjAAAAMAAJ|journal=Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India|publisher=The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore|volume=19|pages=20}}</ref>
|}


== Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278 ==
{{reflist}}
* Sources: Travancore Archaeological Series (Volume V)<ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=Travancore Archaeological Series|publisher=Government of Travancore|year=1924|editor-last=Ayyar|editor-first=A. S. Ramanatha|volume=V|location=Trivandrum|pages=44–46|chapter=Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278}}</ref> & 'Index to Cera Inscriptions' (1972)<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=Perumāḷs of Kerala|publisher=CosmoBooks|year=2013|editor-last=Narayanan|editor-first=M. G. S.|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|pages=469–70|chapter=Index to Cera Inscriptions|orig-date=1972}}</ref>
{{Quote box|fontsize=100%
|quote =
swasti śṛi '''I'''<br>


[[Kollam Era|kollantoṉṛi]]-yirunūṛṛeḻupatteṭṭām-āṇṭai-kkaṉṉiyil viyāḻam pukka [ciṅṅa ñā]yiṛu oṉpatu ceṉṛa nāḷ iraṇṭām-āṇṭaikketir pati[norā]m āṇṭai[y <br>
==Sources==


i]rāmar tiruvaṭi koyilatikārikaḷ-āyiṉa śṛi kulacekara-ccakkiravarttikaḷ [[Kollam|kurakkēṇi-kkollattu]] paṉaiṅkāviṉ koyilakattirunnaruḷa <br>
* Roman Karur, Dr. Nagaswamy R.,(1995), Brahadish Publications, Chennai
http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/roman%20karur/cover.html
* Tamil Coins, Dr. Nagaswamy R.,(1981), State Department of Archaeology, Tamil Nadu http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.xml
*[http://www.bahraintribune.com/ArticleDetail.asp?CategoryId=4&ArticleId=49332 History of Mosque and tradition on Bahrain Tribune]
* [http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/23/stories/2005072306490500.htm India's President makes a visit to the mosque]
* The Land of the Permauls. Cochin, Its Past and Its Present 1863. Chapter 2. Page 44, The Last "Permaul." Dr. Francis Day.
* Interview with Raja Valiyathampuram of Kodungallur in Central Kerala http://www.iosworld.org/interview_cheramul.htm


[[Brahmin|āriyaroṭu]] vanna virotattiṉu vrāyaccit-ttattiṉu putten paṛaiyāl patiṉāḻi-kkoḷḷum paṛaiyāl niyatam oro-parai-cceytu nel [[Kollam Rameswaram Mahadeva Temple|irāmeccuvarattu]]...āriya brāhmaṇaruṅkūṭi-yirunnaṭattu...pakkal....yakkaṅkaiyil-ttirukkai naṉaicaruḷa <br>
[[Category:History of Kerala]]
[[Category:Chera kingdom]]
[[Category:Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Tamil history]]


nāṉku taḷiyum āyi[ram a]ṛunūṛṛuvarum [[Eranad|eṛāṉaṭu]] vāḻkkai [[zamorin|māṉavikkiramaṉ-āṉa pūntuṛaikkōṉ]] mutalāyuḷḷa cāmantarun tirukkaikkiḻ-kkūṭiyirukka-ttirukkai naṉaicc-a[ru]ḷiyāvitu
==References==
'''I'''<br>


accerikkal kārāṇmai ceta [[Venad|veṇāṭṭu]] kumāraṉ-utaiya vāmmaṉ...i...<br>
{{reflist}}


ainnāḻikoḷḷum-iṭaṅkaḻiyāl muppattaru kala nelli rāmecurattu maṇṭapattil [kūttaṅ]kūṭi-yirunnatil i[vvāṇṭu] mutal tiru...vaikkum tirukkūttuṅkūṭi-cce[lvatu]
==Sources==
'''I'''<br>


kiṛṛaṭiccuvarattu meloṭitti...lu cennel muppattaṛu-kalam...lippaṭi-patiṉeṇkalam nellāl celaviṭuvitu
* Roman Karur, Dr. Nagaswamy R.,(1995), Brahadish Publications, Chennai
'''I'''<br>
http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/roman%20karur/cover.html

* Tamil Coins, Dr. Nagaswamy R.,(1981), State Department of Archaeology, Tamil Nadu http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.xml
vaiccanel patiṉaiṅkalattāl toḷḷāyira-nāḻi palākkāṭṭu kaṇṇan tevaṉ celaviṭuvitu
*[http://www.bahraintribune.com/ArticleDetail.asp?CategoryId=4&ArticleId=49332 History of Mosque and tradition on Bahrain Tribune]
'''I'''<br>
* [http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/23/stories/2005072306490500.htm India's President makes a visit to the mosque]

* The Land of the Permauls. Cochin, Its Past and Its Present 1863. Chapter 2. Page 44, The Last "Permaul." Dr. Francis Day.
toḷḷāyira-nāḻi mel ivvur cattipiramañ celaviṭuvitu
* Interview with Raja Valiyathampuram of Kodungallur in Central Kerala http://www.iosworld.org/interview_cheramul.htm
'''I'''<br>

celavu muṭṭikiṉṛe...mayālaññāḻi ari taṇṭapattu celaviṭuvitu
'''I'''<br>

kārāḷar mūvaruṅkūṭi cerikkal...kārāḷarum tirukkuṇavāttevar tirunaṭaiyil koṇṭu munnāḻikku‐okkum-iṭa[ṅ]kaḻi nānūṛṛu nāḻi nelāṭṭai kārāḷaru cerikkal koṭuppatu
'''I'''<br>

yivaṇṇ-a[m]maiccamaikku...kuṇavāyiraṉum yikkaṭai-kaṭamaiyāl...tiṉṛumaticcu okku...ṉṛunāḻi-uriyāl... <br>

yirunāḻi akkiram patiṉāḻi ipperumāḷ naṭai cilaviṛku avaṛṛiṛku nāḻuri kiṛṛaṭiccurattu moloṭikku nāḻuri...koṭuktu...<br>

ka...ṉṛa maṅṅalatt-iraviyirāyāṉ kaiyeḻuttu
'''I'''<br>

...ṉa...lakkaluṅyum...<br>

micā-naṅkai-yāṭiyār āṛikku...ccṉeḻuttu
'''I'''<br>

araicūr ācāri kaiyeḻuttu
'''I'''<br>

tirupperūr maṛaikka...kaṇṭāccaaṉ kaiyeḻuttu <br>

śṛi
'''II'''
|width = 75%
|align = center
}}

== Literary evidences ==
A medieval Malayalam ''sloka'' names the last "Cheraman" as "Rama Varma".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kunjan Pillai|first=Elamkulam, P. N.|title=Kerala Charithrathile Iruladanja Edukal|year=1963|location=Kottayam|pages=147–8|orig-date=1953}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ayyar|first=Ulloor S. Parameswara|title=Vijnana Deepika|volume=IV}}</ref>

{{Quote box
|quote = ''"Arum nerittu nillar ariya netuvirippoteto vanmelallo<br>Nireki pantotukkattakhila gunanidhe Ceraman Rama Varma".''
|author = Medieval Malayalam sloka
|source = Ulloor S. Parameswara Ayyar, ''Vijnanadeepika'', IV
|width = 50%
|align = center
}}

=== Patron of Vasubhatta ===
Vasubhatta, a famous Yamaka poet of medieval Kerala, names his patron king as "Rama". A later commentary on a poem by Vasubhatta says that "Kulasekhara" was the regnal title of king Rama.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Veluthat|first=Kesavan|date=1982|title=The Status of the Monarch|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141225|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=43|pages=147–157|jstor=44141225|issn=2249-1937|via=}}</ref> Scholars generally consider this a result of confusion on the part of the commentators (between [[Sthanu Ravi Varma|Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara]] and [[Rama Rajasekhara]]) who were separated in time from Vasubhatta.<ref name=":8" /> Some scholars identify king Rama Kulasekhara as the patron of poet Vasubhatta (and with royal dramatist Kulasekhara Varma).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vielle|first=Christophe|date=2012|title=Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala|url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/ROSA/article/view/11188|journal=Religions of South Asia|volume=5|issue=1|pages=365–387|doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365|via=}}</ref> This view is generally found unacceptable on several counts.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last=Devadevan|first=Manu V.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/in/academic/subjects/history/south-asian-history/early-medieval-origins-india?format=PB&isbn=9781108748513|title=The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|isbn=|location=|pages=229–30|chapter=The Semantic Universe of the Kudiyattam Theatre}}</ref>
==Accounts of disappearance==
It is popularly believed in the Kerala tradition that the last Chera ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) disappeared from the Kerala "mysteriously" (after having partitioned the Chera kingdom among his kinsmen).<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Karashima |first=Noburu |title=A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |pages=146-47 |chapter=States in the Deccan and Kerala}}</ref> In a popular version of the legend, the last Chera ruler or the Cheraman Perumal, before his departure from Kerala, converted to [[Islam]] (and then travelled to [[Mecca]] for the hajj pilgrimage).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devadevan |first=Manu V. |title=The ‘Early Medieval’: Origins of India |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2020 |pages=149-50 |chapter=Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State}}</ref> The legends are not clear about the religion the king seems to have converted.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Frenz |first=Margret |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003242062/routledge-handbook-state-premodern-india-hermann-kulke-bhairabi-prasad-sahu?refId=bbc1485b-2ea5-4d9e-92e7-8f2ae57e7d10&context=ubx |title=The Routledge Handbook of the State in Premodern India |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |editor-last=Kulke |editor-first=Hermann |pages=528 and 532 |chapter=Virtual Relations: Little kings in Malabar |editor-last2=Sahu |editor-first2=Bhairabi Prasad}}</ref> However, the legend of Cheraman Perumal was used by the later kings in Kerala for the legitimation of their rule.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":4" />

Identification of the Cheraman Perumal from the legend with Rama Kulasekhara remains an ambiguous hypothesis.<ref name=":4" />

{{Blockquote|text=Understandably enough, the mythical last ruler of Kerala, Cēramān Perumāḷ, wondered, ‘What will become of me?’ What, after all, was left for him to do other than what his historical predecessors, Sthāṇu Ravi and Rāma Rājaśēkhara, had done in the ninth century when the state was still in an incipient stage of development? Like the two ninth-century kings, he abdicated throne, embraced religion, and went on a pilgrimage!|author=Manu V. Devadevan (historian)|title="Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State"|source=''The ‘Early Medieval’ Origins of India'' (2020)}}

== See also ==
* [[Chera Dynasty|Chera dynasty]]
* [[Kulothunga Chola I]]
* [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]]

==References==
{{reflist}}


{{Kollam|state=collapsed}}
[[Category:History of Kerala]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kulashekhara, Rama}}
[[Category:Chera kingdom]]
[[Category:Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Rulers of Quilon]]
[[Category:People from the Kodungallur Chera kingdom]]
[[Category:11th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Tamil history]]
[[Category:Tamil history]]
[[Category:Kodungallur Chera kings]]

Latest revision as of 15:23, 1 January 2025

Rama Kulasekhara
Kulasekhara Perumal • Koyil Adhikarikal • Cheraman Perumal • Cheramanar (Tamil) • Chakravarthikal ("Ma Ko") • Thiruvadi
Perunna temple inscription (1099 AD)
King of Chera Perumal Kingdom
Reign1089/90–c.1122/23 AD[1]
PredecessorAdithya Goda "Ranadithya"[1] (c. 1036–1089 CE)[2]
SuccessorVira Kerala[3]
IssueVira Kerala[3]
HouseChera Perumal dynasty

Rama Kulasekhara (fl. late 11th century CE[4]) was the last ruler of the Chera Perumal dynasty of medieval Kerala.[5][6] He was a contemporary to Chola kings Kulottunga I (1070–1120) and Vikrama Chola (1118–35 AD).[6] Rama Kulaskehara is best known for briefly recovering Kollam-Trivandrum-Nagercoil region from the powerful Chola empire around 1100/02 AD.[6]

Inscriptions related to Rama Kulasekhara can be found at Panthalayani Kollam near Quilandy, Thiruvaloor (on Periyar), Perunna near Changanassery, Nedumpuram Thali (Wadakkanchery) and at Kollam.[7] Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions of Rama Kulasekhara. In 1099 AD, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, a state-sponsored temple.[8] In 1102 AD, Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the Brahmin community.[8] An inscription dated to 1122 AD, found at Thiruvalanchuzhi, Tanjore (dated in the regnal year of king Vikrama Chola), also remembers Rama Kulasekhara.[7]

Kollam functioned as the second headquarters of the Chera Perumal kingdom towards the final phase of Rama Kulasekhara's rule (c. 1100/02 AD - c. 1122/23). According to scholars, "the strategic advantage of marriage relations with the old ruling clan of Kollam in securing the loyalty of Venad can also be considered in the light of continuous Chola-Pandya attacks in south Kerala".[9] There is a tradition that Vira Kerala, a ruler of Kollam in early 12th century, was a son of the last Chera king.[10]

Career

[edit]

Corrections by M. G. S. Narayanan (1972) on K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (1955, revised) point out that Chola ruler Kulottunga I oversaw only one expedition to the Chera Perumal kingdom (in c. 1097). Sastri had assumed that Kulottunga led two military thrusts to south Kerala in c. 1077-1081 and in c. 1097.[11]

Rama Kulasekhara came to the Chera Perumal throne in c. 1089/90.[1][12] Rama was the personal name and "Kulasekhara" was the coronation title.[13] The first record of the king - as "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal" - is found in the courtyard of the Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple in northern Kerala.[14] Another inscription of "Kulasekhara Perumal" (1092 AD) can be found at the Thiruvaloor temple in the Periyar valley.[14] Port Vizhinjam in the Ay country was called "Rajendra Chola Pattinam" by Kulottunga I Chola in 1091 AD.[11]

Kulottunga Chola's south Kerala campaign

[edit]

Southern parts of Kerala (Venad and the Ay country), as far north as Kollam, again came under the Chola rule by 1097 AD.[11] This military thrust was probably conducted by "Chola-Pandya" ruler Jatavarman Srivallabha[15] or Chola general Naralokavira Kalinga Rayan for the Chola king Kulottunga I (1070–1120).[11] Records of this campaign mention, among other things, the "chaver" warriors in Kuda Malai Nadu (meaning Kerala here) ascending the "unique heaven" in battles, "the subduing of the numerous forces of the Keralas", "making the rebel vassal kings obedient", "victory over the bow emblem" and "the Chera king's retreat from the battle field".[11] A new era called "Kollam Azhintha Andu" was inaugurated by the Pandyas in 1097 AD.[15] Weakened authority of the Chera Perumal is evident in some of the inscriptions from this period. In 1099 AD, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu is seen handling the affairs of the Nedumpuram Thali, an originally state-sponsored temple.[8] Earlier in 1099, Rama Kulasekhara, with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the Thrikkunnappuzha, is seen residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at Kodungallur.[14]

Recovery of Kollam

[edit]

It seems that the Chera Perumal managed to recover Kollam c. 1100/02 AD.[13][11] A possible major battle at Poonthura, near Vizhinjam, involving Mana Vikrama of Eranadu and his Nairs later known as "Poonthura Nairs", was instrumental in this recovery.[15] Cholas eventually fixed their boundary at Kottar (leaving the Venad and the Ay country to the Cheras).[11] We have a mention of a council attended by king Rama Kulasekhara and Mana Vikrama Punthurakkon (the future Zamorin, "the first among the samanthas") at Kollam in 1102 AD. Rama Kulasekhara publicly atoned for the wrongs committed by him against the Brahmins at this council.[8] The record was probably made in the aftermath of the recovery of Kollam.[15]

Vikrama Chola's south Kerala campaign

[edit]

Later years of Rama Kulasekhara witnessed Vikrama Chola's south Kerala campaign (c. 1102–c. 1118 AD) against the Chera Perumals.[11] This expedition was probably conducted by the Pandya Jatavarman Parakrama.[11] Records mention the defeat of the Chera in a "single campaign" in Malai Nadu, the levying of tribute from the Chera king, and the capture of Venad and the Ay country by the Chola-Pandyas. The "Kupaka" (meaning Venad here) ruler also seems to have offered his daughter in marriage to Parakrama Pandya (Parakrama also visited the Anantapuram Temple during this period).[11]

A Tanjore inscription of Vikrama Chola mentions "the flight of the Chera king".[11] Rama Kulasekhara is also remembered in a Thiruvalanjuli inscription (1122 AD) of certain Kizhan Adikal.[16] By 1121, an unnamed Kupaka ruler had defeated Pandya king Rajasimha and conquered up to Nanjinadu and Kottar.[11] Vira Kerala, the independent ruler of Venad (possibly the son of Rama Kulasekhara[10]), finds mention in a Cholapuram temple inscription dated to 1126 AD.[12]

Epigraphic records

[edit]

Note: Material: granite, script: Vattezhuthu with Grantha, and language: old Malayalam (unless otherwise stated)

Year Location Contents
Nature Royal Name Notes[7]
c. 1089 (no regnal year) Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple inscription - courtyard of Panthalayani Kollam Bhagavathi temple[14] Royal order "Kulasekhara - Koyil Adhikarikal" Koyil Adhikarikal orders that out of the Annual Dues (the Attaikoil) from Panthalayani Kollam, the Village Assembly (the Ur) was granted five nazhi out of every six nazhi and the melpadi of Thathamangalam
1092 AD (3rd regnal year)

Jupiter - Makaram[14]

Thiruvaloor temple inscription (built into the entrance of the temple) - on Periyar[14] Temple committee resolution "Kulasekhara Perumal"
  • A council of the Village Assembly (the Ur) and the Village Assembly Secretary (the Pothuval) in the presence of certain Kadaingothu Narayanan Ravi Koyil at the Aralur temple.
  • The council unanimously appoint the priests of the temple, fix remuneration and terms of service.
1099 AD (10th regnal year)

Jupiter - Karkadakam (month -Vrishchikam)[14]

Perunna temple inscription (west side of the central shrine in temple)[14] Royal order "Kulasekhara" King residing and issuing orders from the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at Kodungallur.
  • King sitting in council with the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali) and the Thrikkunnappuzha at the Great Temple (the Nediya Thali) at Kodungallur.
  • The king ordered the cancellation of Annual Dues (the Attaikkol) and War Tax (the Aranthai) from Perunneyathal.
  • The institution of Namaskaram and Maparatham with the above amount and handed it over to the Perunneyathal Village Assembly (the Ur) and Village Assembly Secretary (the Pothuval).
  • Royal orders to this effect were sent to the Kudippadis through messengers.
  • The record specifically mentions that the assembly caused a stone marking the cancellation of the War Tax to be erected there.
1099 (10th regnal year)

Jupiter - Karkadakam (month - Minam)[14]

Nedumpuram Thali (Wadakkanchery) inscriptions (right side of half-wall of the entrance corridor through the vathilmadam of the temple)[14] Temple inscription (10th year) "Ma[ha] Ko Rama" (10th year)
  • Period of Manangattu Kumaran Ravi as the chief of Nedumpurayur Nadu (Wadakkanchery).
  • Pulloor Kumaran Kumarathichan, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu, supervises the Nedumpuram temple, making some arrangements in the temple.
  • Kumarathichan was perhaps not entitled to supervise the Nedumpuram temple..[8]
1100 AD (11th regnal year)

Jupiter - Chingam[14]

Temple committee resolution (11th year) King's name or regnal year not mentioned (11th year)
  • A resolution revoking the arrangements made by Kumarathichan.[8]
  • Period of Thalappulathu Kandan Kumaran as the chief of Nedumpurayur Nadu.
  • Kanjirappalli Ravi Kannapiran, the leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu, sitting in council in the temple decided to cancel the decision taken by Pulloor Kumaran Kumarithichan, the former leader of the Nair warriors of Nedumpurayur Nadu.
  • Kannapiran gave orders to this effect to the officials of Nithyaviyareswaram temple. Fine is prescribed for the violation of the rules.
  • Dated in 278 Kollam Era
  • 1102 AD (2+11 =13th regnal year)[12]
  • Jupiter - Kanni (month - [Chingam])[14]
 Rameswaram temple inscription (Kollam) (pillar set up in the courtyard of Rameswaram temple) or 'Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278' Royal order "Rama Thiruvadi Koyil Adhikarikal alias Sri Kulasekhara Chakravarthikal"
  • Rama Varma calls himself "Chakravarthikal" - i.e., independent ruler. Residing and issuing orders from Panankavil Palace, "Kurakkeni" Kollam.[17]
  • King sitting in council with the Arya Brahmins, the Four Brahmin Ministers (the Nalu Thali), the Leader of the Thousand Nairs (the Ayiram), the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venad (the Arunutruvar), and Mana Vikrama Punthurakkon, the chief of Eranadu (the first among the samanthas).[17]
  • King made amends for some offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating paddy for the daily feeding of Brahmins and leasing out a Crown Land for that purpose to Kumara Udaya Varma, the chief of Venad.[17]
  • The king makes provision for Koothu (the Dance) and offering at Thirukkunavaya (Jain?) temple.[17]
  • Witnesses are mentioned
1122 AD - 4th regnal year of king Vikrama Chola (coronation 1118 AD)[16]

Material: granite blocks, script: Tamil, and language: Tamil.

Thiruvanchuli/Thiruvalanjuli temple inscription (Tanjore) - south wall of the mandapa in front of the central shrine in Kapardiswara temple Temple inscription "Cheramanar Rama Varma"
  • Dated in the regnal years of king Vikrama Chola.
  • Mentions a gift of money for the daily offering of a garland to the deity of the temple for the benefit of the Chera king Rama Varma.[16]
  • Certain Kizhan Adikal - the Chera Perumal princess - is mentioned in another line.[16]

Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278

[edit]
  • Sources: Travancore Archaeological Series (Volume V)[18] & 'Index to Cera Inscriptions' (1972)[17]

swasti śṛi I

kollantoṉṛi-yirunūṛṛeḻupatteṭṭām-āṇṭai-kkaṉṉiyil viyāḻam pukka [ciṅṅa ñā]yiṛu oṉpatu ceṉṛa nāḷ iraṇṭām-āṇṭaikketir pati[norā]m āṇṭai[y

i]rāmar tiruvaṭi koyilatikārikaḷ-āyiṉa śṛi kulacekara-ccakkiravarttikaḷ kurakkēṇi-kkollattu paṉaiṅkāviṉ koyilakattirunnaruḷa

āriyaroṭu vanna virotattiṉu vrāyaccit-ttattiṉu putten paṛaiyāl patiṉāḻi-kkoḷḷum paṛaiyāl niyatam oro-parai-cceytu nel irāmeccuvarattu...āriya brāhmaṇaruṅkūṭi-yirunnaṭattu...pakkal....yakkaṅkaiyil-ttirukkai naṉaicaruḷa

nāṉku taḷiyum āyi[ram a]ṛunūṛṛuvarum eṛāṉaṭu vāḻkkai māṉavikkiramaṉ-āṉa pūntuṛaikkōṉ mutalāyuḷḷa cāmantarun tirukkaikkiḻ-kkūṭiyirukka-ttirukkai naṉaicc-a[ru]ḷiyāvitu I

accerikkal kārāṇmai ceta veṇāṭṭu kumāraṉ-utaiya vāmmaṉ...i...

ainnāḻikoḷḷum-iṭaṅkaḻiyāl muppattaru kala nelli rāmecurattu maṇṭapattil [kūttaṅ]kūṭi-yirunnatil i[vvāṇṭu] mutal tiru...vaikkum tirukkūttuṅkūṭi-cce[lvatu] I

kiṛṛaṭiccuvarattu meloṭitti...lu cennel muppattaṛu-kalam...lippaṭi-patiṉeṇkalam nellāl celaviṭuvitu I

vaiccanel patiṉaiṅkalattāl toḷḷāyira-nāḻi palākkāṭṭu kaṇṇan tevaṉ celaviṭuvitu I

toḷḷāyira-nāḻi mel ivvur cattipiramañ celaviṭuvitu I

celavu muṭṭikiṉṛe...mayālaññāḻi ari taṇṭapattu celaviṭuvitu I

kārāḷar mūvaruṅkūṭi cerikkal...kārāḷarum tirukkuṇavāttevar tirunaṭaiyil koṇṭu munnāḻikku‐okkum-iṭa[ṅ]kaḻi nānūṛṛu nāḻi nelāṭṭai kārāḷaru cerikkal koṭuppatu I

yivaṇṇ-a[m]maiccamaikku...kuṇavāyiraṉum yikkaṭai-kaṭamaiyāl...tiṉṛumaticcu okku...ṉṛunāḻi-uriyāl...

yirunāḻi akkiram patiṉāḻi ipperumāḷ naṭai cilaviṛku avaṛṛiṛku nāḻuri kiṛṛaṭiccurattu moloṭikku nāḻuri...koṭuktu...

ka...ṉṛa maṅṅalatt-iraviyirāyāṉ kaiyeḻuttu I

...ṉa...lakkaluṅyum...

micā-naṅkai-yāṭiyār āṛikku...ccṉeḻuttu I

araicūr ācāri kaiyeḻuttu I

tirupperūr maṛaikka...kaṇṭāccaaṉ kaiyeḻuttu

śṛi II

Literary evidences

[edit]

A medieval Malayalam sloka names the last "Cheraman" as "Rama Varma".[19][20]

"Arum nerittu nillar ariya netuvirippoteto vanmelallo
Nireki pantotukkattakhila gunanidhe Ceraman Rama Varma".

Medieval Malayalam sloka, Ulloor S. Parameswara Ayyar, Vijnanadeepika, IV

Patron of Vasubhatta

[edit]

Vasubhatta, a famous Yamaka poet of medieval Kerala, names his patron king as "Rama". A later commentary on a poem by Vasubhatta says that "Kulasekhara" was the regnal title of king Rama.[21] Scholars generally consider this a result of confusion on the part of the commentators (between Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara and Rama Rajasekhara) who were separated in time from Vasubhatta.[21] Some scholars identify king Rama Kulasekhara as the patron of poet Vasubhatta (and with royal dramatist Kulasekhara Varma).[22] This view is generally found unacceptable on several counts.[23]

Accounts of disappearance

[edit]

It is popularly believed in the Kerala tradition that the last Chera ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) disappeared from the Kerala "mysteriously" (after having partitioned the Chera kingdom among his kinsmen).[24] In a popular version of the legend, the last Chera ruler or the Cheraman Perumal, before his departure from Kerala, converted to Islam (and then travelled to Mecca for the hajj pilgrimage).[25] The legends are not clear about the religion the king seems to have converted.[26] However, the legend of Cheraman Perumal was used by the later kings in Kerala for the legitimation of their rule.[26][24]

Identification of the Cheraman Perumal from the legend with Rama Kulasekhara remains an ambiguous hypothesis.[24]

Understandably enough, the mythical last ruler of Kerala, Cēramān Perumāḷ, wondered, ‘What will become of me?’ What, after all, was left for him to do other than what his historical predecessors, Sthāṇu Ravi and Rāma Rājaśēkhara, had done in the ninth century when the state was still in an incipient stage of development? Like the two ninth-century kings, he abdicated throne, embraced religion, and went on a pilgrimage!

— Manu V. Devadevan (historian), "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State", The ‘Early Medieval’ Origins of India (2020)

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cera State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 9781108857871.
  2. ^ As per M. G. S. Narayanan (1972)
  3. ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. p. 86. ISBN 9788188765072.
  4. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2002). "The State in the Era of the Ceraman Perumals of Kerala". In Champakalakshmi, R.; Veluthat, Kesavan; Venugopalan, T. R. (eds.). State and Society in Premodern South India. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 111–19.
  5. ^ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cera State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 121. ISBN 9781108857871.
  6. ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 125–130. ISBN 9788188765072.
  7. ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 20, 125–130, 467–470. ISBN 9788188765072.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ISBN 9781108494571.
  9. ^ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. p. 154. ISBN 9788188765072.
  10. ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. p. 171. ISBN 9788188765072.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013) [1972]. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 125–130. ISBN 9788188765072.
  12. ^ a b c Narayanan, M. G. S. (1993). Tewari, S. P. (ed.). "Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala". Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. 19. The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore: 19.
  13. ^ a b Narayanan, M. G. S. (1993). Tewari, S. P. (ed.). "Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala". Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. 19. The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore: 24.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Narayanan, M. G. S., ed. (2013) [1972]. "Index to Cera Inscriptions". Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 467–70.
  15. ^ a b c d Narayanan, M. G. S. (1993). Tewari, S. P. (ed.). "Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala". Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. 19. The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore: 21-22 and 25-26.
  16. ^ a b c d Narayanan, M. G. S. (1993). Tewari, S. P. (ed.). "Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad - A New Name in the Twilight of the Chera Kingdom in Kerala". Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. 19. The Epigraphical Society of India, Mysore: 20.
  17. ^ a b c d e Narayanan, M. G. S., ed. (2013) [1972]. "Index to Cera Inscriptions". Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks. pp. 469–70.
  18. ^ Ayyar, A. S. Ramanatha, ed. (1924). "Quilon Inscription of Kollam 278". Travancore Archaeological Series. Vol. V. Trivandrum: Government of Travancore. pp. 44–46.
  19. ^ Kunjan Pillai, Elamkulam, P. N. (1963) [1953]. Kerala Charithrathile Iruladanja Edukal. Kottayam. pp. 147–8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Ayyar, Ulloor S. Parameswara. Vijnana Deepika. Vol. IV.
  21. ^ a b Veluthat, Kesavan (1982). "The Status of the Monarch". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 43: 147–157. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44141225.
  22. ^ Vielle, Christophe (2012). "Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala". Religions of South Asia. 5 (1): 365–387. doi:10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365.
  23. ^ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "The Semantic Universe of the Kudiyattam Theatre". The 'Early Medieval' Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 229–30.
  24. ^ a b c Karashima, Noburu (2014). "States in the Deccan and Kerala". A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. Oxford University Press. pp. 146–47.
  25. ^ Devadevan, Manu V. (2020). "Changes in Land Relations and the Changing Fortunes of the Cēra State". The ‘Early Medieval’: Origins of India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 149–50.
  26. ^ a b Frenz, Margret (2022). "Virtual Relations: Little kings in Malabar". In Kulke, Hermann; Sahu, Bhairabi Prasad (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of the State in Premodern India. Routledge. pp. 528 and 532.
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