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{{Short description|Turkish astronomer}}
{{Infobox Person
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
|name = Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed

|image = Ali Kuşçu Portre.jpg
{{Infobox religious biography
|caption = [[Islamic astronomy|astronomer]], [[Islamic mathematics|mathematician]], [[Islamic physics|physicist]], [[Islamic science|scientist]] and [[mutakallim]] (Muslim theologian)
| image = Ali Kuşçu Portre.jpg
|ethnicity = [[Persian people|Persian]] or [[Turkic peoples|Turk]] (Central Asian)
| caption =
|birth_date = 1403
| region =
|birth_place = [[Samarkand]]
| era = [[Ottoman era]]
|death_date = 16 December 1474
| name = Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed
|death_place = [[Istanbul]]
| title =
|other_names = Ali Qushji
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 1403 CE
| birth_place = [[Samarkand]], [[Timurid Empire]] (now [[Uzbekistan]])
| death_date = 1474 CE
| death_place = [[Constantinople]], [[Ottoman Empire]] (now [[Turkey]])
| religion = [[Islam]]
| denomination = [[Sunni]]
| jurisprudence = [[Hanafi]]
| creed = [[Maturidi]]
| main_interests = [[Kalam]] (Islamic [[theology]]), [[Fiqh]] (Islamic [[jurisprudence]]), [[Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world|Falkiat]], [[Mathematics]]
| notable_works = ''Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy''
| influences = [[Al-Ghazali]], [[Adud al-Din al-Iji]], [[Al-Sharif al-Jurjani|Al-Jurjani]]
| influenced = [[Mirim Çelebi]], [[Muhammad al-Qunawi]]
}}
}}
'''Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed''' (1403 &ndash; 18 December 1474<ref name='Saliba'>{{cite book |last=Saliba |first=George |date=2012 |editor-last=Iqbal |editor-first=Muzaffar |title=Studies in the Making of Islamic Science: Knowledge in Motion |volume=4 |series=Islam and Science: Historic and Contemporary Perspectives |publisher=Routledge |pages=177–219 |chapter=Chapter 9: Al-Qushjī’s Reform of the Ptolemaic Model for Mercury |isbn=9780754629160}}</ref>), known as '''Ali Qushji''' ([[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] : علی قوشچی, ''kuşçu'' – [[falconry|falconer]] in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]; [[Latin]]: ''Ali Kushgii'') was a [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]] [[Schools of Islamic theology|theologian]], [[Mufti|jurist]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomer]], [[Islamic mathematics|mathematician]] and [[Islamic physics|physicist]], who settled in the [[Ottoman Empire]] some time before 1472.<ref>{{Citation |title=Ebu's-suůd: the Islamic legal tradition |last=Imber |first=Colin |year=1997 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-0767-9 |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CR-ZbjDAM0EC&pg=PA9 }}</ref> As a disciple of [[Ulugh Beg]], he is best known for the development of [[Astrophysics|astronomical physics]] independent from [[natural philosophy]], and for providing [[empirical evidence]] for the [[Earth's rotation]] in his treatise, ''Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy''. In addition to his contributions to [[Ulugh Beg]]'s famous work [[Zij-i-Sultani]] and to the founding of [[Sahn-ı Seman Medrese]], one of the first centers for the study of various traditional Islamic sciences in the Ottoman Empire, Ali Kuşçu was also the author of several scientific works and textbooks on astronomy.<ref name="gabor">{{Citation |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |author2=Masters, Bruce Alan |year=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA35 }}</ref>


[[File:Ali Kuşçunun Mezar taşı-2.jpg|thumb|Ali Qushji's 15th-century tombstone located in the Eyüpsultan Mosque cemetery in Istanbul]]
'''Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed''' (1403 &ndash; 16 December 1474), known as '''Ali Qushji''' ([Latin]]: '''Ali Kushgii'''), was [[Islamic astronomy|an astronomer]], [[Islamic mathematics|mathematician]], [[Islamic physics|physicist]] and [[Islamic science|scientist]] from [[Central Asia]]. He is best known for his development of an [[Astrophysics|astronomical physics]] independent from [[natural philosophy]] and for providing empirical evidence for the [[Earth's rotation|Earth's motion]] in his treatise, ''Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy'', in addition to his contributions to [[Ulugh Beg]]'s famous work ''[[Zij-i-Sultani]]'' and his efforts in founding Sahn-ı Seman University, one of the first [[Madrasah#Madrasahs in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman universities]]. Sources variously tell that he was [[Persian people|Persian]]<ref>G. A. Russell, The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-century England, BRILL, 1994, ISBN 9004098887, p. 162</ref>or Central Asian [[Turkic people|Turk]]{{fact}}.


==Biography==
==Biography==
{{Refimprove|section|date=January 2008}}


===Early life and works===
===Early life and works===
Ali Kuşçu was born in 1403 in the city of [[Samarkand]], in present-day [[Uzbekistan]]. His full name at birth was '''Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed al-Qushji'''. The last name ''Qushji'' derived from the Turkish term ''kuşçu''—"falconer"<ref name="vlahakis">{{Citation |title=Imperialism and science: social impact and interaction |last=Vlahakis |first=George |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-673-2 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYbbZHvtJi8C&pg=PA75 }}</ref>—due to the fact that Ali's father Muhammad was the royal [[falconry|falconer]] of [[Ulugh Beg]].<ref name="gabor" /> Sources consider him [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]<ref name="peacock">"During the fifteenth century this method of representing decimal fractions came to be known outside the Islamic world as the Turkish method, after a Turkish colleague of al-Kashi, known as Ali Qushji, who provided an explanation." Joseph, George Gheverghese (2010) ''The crest of the peacock: non-European roots of mathematics'' Princeton University Press, [https://books.google.com/books?id=c-xT0KNJp0cC&dq=%22a+Turkish+colleague+of+al-Kashi%2C+known+as+Ali+Qushji%22&pg=PA469 p. 469.] {{ISBN|0-691-13526-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-691-13526-7}}</ref> or [[Persians|Persian]].<ref name="A. Russell, The 1994, p. 162">G. A. Russell, The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-century England, BRILL, 1994, {{ISBN|90-04-09888-7}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4H2fESItCVIC&dq=%22This+Persian+author+was+the+son+of+an+official+of+Ulugh+Beg%22&pg=PA162 p. 162]; <br>"Greaves quotes from Risala dar 'ilm al-Hay’a of 'Ali b. Muh. 'Ala al-Din Qushji. This Persian author was the son of an official of Ulugh Beg, and also a student of Qadi Zadeh".</ref>
He was born in 1403 on an unknown date in [[Samarkand]] which is today in [[Uzbekistan]]. His full name was '''Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed al-Qushji'''. His family gained this last name after the official title of his father Muhammed who was the royal falcon trainer (Qushji) of [[Ulug Beg]] at that time.


[[Image:Ulugh Beg observatory.JPG|thumb|right|225px|Ulugh Beg Observatory - Landmark of Ali Qushji's career]]
[[File:Ulugh Beg observatory.JPG|thumb|right|225px|Ulugh Beg Observatory – Landmark of Ali Qushji's career]]


He attended the courses of [[Qadi Zada al-Rumi|Qazi zadeh Rumi]], [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī|Ghiyāth al-Dīn Jamshīd Kāshānī]] and [[Muin al-Dīn Kashi]]. He moved to [[Kerman, Iran]] ([[Persia]]) and there he conducted some researches on the storms of Oman sea. He completed [[Hall-e Eshkal-i Ghammar]] (Explanations of the Periods of the Moon) and [[Sharh-e Tajrid]] in Kirman. He moved to Herat and taught [[Molla Cami]] about astronomy (1423). After professing in Herat for a while he went back to Samarkand and herald his works about moon to Ulugh Beg. Ulugh Beg was fascinated with the works and read the entire work while standing up.Ulugh Beg assigned him to [[Ulugh Beg Observatory]] which was called "Samarkand Observatory" at that time. He worked there till Ulugh Beg was assassinated.<ref>Osmanlı imparatorluğunun doruğu 16. yüzyıl teknolojisi, Editor Prof. Dr. Kazım Çeçen, Istanbul 1999, Omaş ofset A.Ş.</ref>
He attended the courses of [[Qadi Zada al-Rumi|Qazi zadeh Rumi]], [[Jamshīd al-Kāshī|Ghiyāth al-Dīn Jamshīd Kāshānī]] and [[Muin al-Dīn Kashi]]. He moved to [[Kerman, Iran]] ([[Persia]]), where he conducted some research on storms in the [[Oman sea]]. He completed ''[[Hall-e Eshkal-i Ghammar]]'' (''Explanations of the Periods of the Moon'') and ''[[Sharh-e Tajrid]]'' in Kirman. He moved to Herat and taught [[Molla Cami]] about astronomy (1423). After professing in Herat for a while, he returned to Samarkand. There he presented his work on the Moon to Ulugh Beg, who found it so fascinating that he read the entire work while standing up. Ulugh Beg assigned him to [[Ulugh Beg Observatory]], which was called Samarkand Observatory at that time. Qushji worked there until Ulugh Beg was assassinated.<ref>Osmanlı imparatorluğunun doruğu 16. yüzyıl teknolojisi, Editor Prof. Dr. Kazım Çeçen, Istanbul 1999, Omaş ofset A.Ş.</ref>


After Ulugh Beg's death, he went to Herat, [[Tashkent]] and finally [[Tabriz, Iran]]. While he was in Tabriz, [[Uzun Hasan]] the Khan of [[Ak Koyunlu]] sent him as a delegate to [[Fatih Sultan Mehmed]] (about 1470). At that time [[Husayn Bayqarah]] had come to reign in Herat but Qushji preferred Istanbul rather than Herat because of Sultan Mehmed's attitude toward scientists and intellectuals.
After Ulugh Beg's death, Ali Kuşçu went to Herat, [[Tashkent]], and finally [[Tabriz]] where, around 1470, the [[Ak Koyunlu]] ruler [[Uzun Hasan]] sent him as a delegate to the Ottoman Sultan [[Mehmed II]]. At that time [[Husayn Bayqarah]] had come to reign in Herat but Qushji preferred Constantinople over Herat because of Sultan Mehmed's attitude toward scientists and intellectuals.


===Istanbul era===
===Constantinople era===
When he came to Constantinople (present-day [[Istanbul]]), his grandson Ghutb al-Dīn Muhammed had a son [[Mirim Çelebi]] who would be a great mathematician and astronomer in the future.<ref>G. Akovalı, Z. A. Mansūrov, ''The role of government and research institutes in the planning of research and development in some Central Asian and Caucasian republics'', IOS Press, 2000,{{ISBN|1-58603-022-1}}, {{ISBN|978-1-58603-022-3}}, p.230,[https://books.google.com/books?id=1hoG8O7yuQ0C&dq=%22ali%22+%22mirim+chelebi%22&pg=PA230]</ref> Ali Kuşçu composed "risalah dar hay’at" in [[Persian language|Persian]] for [[Mehmed II]] at Constantinople in 1470.<ref>Mahārājā Mānasiṃha Pustaka Prakāśa, David Edwin Pingree, ”A descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit astronomical manuscripts preserved at the Maharaja Man Singh II Museum in Jaipur, India", American Philosophical Society, 2003, p.138;</ref> Also he wrote "Sharh e resalye Fathiyeh",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mahaja.com/library/manuscripts/manuscript/741on |title=مكتبة المحجة - الرسالة الفتحية في الهيئة البسيطة |access-date=21 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714021126/http://www.mahaja.com/library/manuscripts/manuscript/741on |archive-date=14 July 2011 }}</ref> "resalye Mohammadiye" in Constantinople, which are in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] on the topic of mathematics. He then finished "Sharh e tejrid" on [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]]'s "Tejrid al-kalam". That work is called "Sharh e Jadid" in scientific community.

When he came to [[Istanbul]], his grandson Ghutb al-Dīn Muhammed had a son [[Mirim Chalabi]] who would be a great mathematician and astronomer in the future<ref>G. Akovalı, Z. A. Mansūrov, ''The role of government and research institutes in the planning of research and development in some Central Asian and Caucasian republics'', IOS Press, 2000,ISBN 1586030221, 9781586030223, p.230,[http://books.google.com/books?id=1hoG8O7yuQ0C&pg=PA230&dq=%22ali%22+%22mirim+chelebi%22&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html]</ref>. Qushji extended his studies in Istanbul. He wrote "Sharh e resalye Fathiyeh" <ref>[http://www.mahaja.com/library/manuscripts/manuscript/741on]</ref>, "resalye Mohammadiye" in Istanbul, which are in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] on the topic of mathematics. Qushji's work made a great impact on the scientific community.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}<!-- unsubstantiated opinion --> The work has thousands of copies in handwriting libraries all around the world.

He then finished "Sharh e tejrid" on [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]]'s "Tejrid al-kalam". That work is called "Sharh e Jadid" in scientific community. It is considered as the most important philosophical work on metaphysics, physics, optics and mathematics done within Islamic civilization.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}<!-- unsubstantiated opinion -->


==Contributions to astronomy==
==Contributions to astronomy==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ali Kuscu 03.JPG|thumb|right|A paper from one of Ali Qushji's scientific works.]] -->
[[File:Ali al-Qushji.JPG|thumb|right|350px|Papers from Ali Qushji's scientific works.]]


Qushji improved on [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]]'s planetary model and presented an alternative planetary model for [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]].<ref>[[George Saliba]], "Arabic planetary theories after the eleventh century AD", in Rushdī Rāshid and Régis Morelon (1996), ''Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science'', pp. 58&ndash;127 [123&ndash;124], [[Routledge]], ISBN 0415124107.</ref> He was also one of the astronomers that were part of [[Ulugh Beg]]'s team of researchers working at the [[Samarqand]] [[observatory]] and contributed towards the ''[[Zij-i-Sultani]]'' compiled there. A [[Latin]] translation of two of Qushji's works, the ''Tract on Arithmetic'' and ''Tract on Astronomy'', was published by [[John Greaves]] in 1650.<ref name=Russell>G. A. Russell, The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-century England, BRILL, 1994, ISBN 9004098887, p. 162</ref>
Qushji improved on [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]]'s planetary model and presented an alternative planetary model for [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]].<ref>[[George Saliba]], "Arabic planetary theories after the eleventh century AD", in Rushdī Rāshid and Régis Morelon (1996), ''Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science'', pp. 58&ndash;127 [123&ndash;124], [[Routledge]], {{ISBN|0-415-12410-7}}.</ref> He was also one of the astronomers that were part of [[Ulugh Beg]]'s team of researchers working at the [[Samarqand]] [[observatory]] and contributed towards the ''[[Zij-i-Sultani]]'' compiled there. In addition to his contributions to Zij, Ali Kuşçu wrote nine works in astronomy, two of them in [[Persian language|Persian]] and seven in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].<ref name="gabor" /> A [[Latin]] translation of two of Qushji's works, the ''Tract on Arithmetic'' and ''Tract on Astronomy'', was published by [[John Greaves]] in 1650.


===''Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy''===
===''Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy''===
[[File:Ali Qushji map travels.png|thumbnail|His travel to the Ottoman Empire.]]
Qushji's most important astronomical work is ''Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy''. Under the influence of [[Islamic theology|Islamic theologians]] who opposed the interference of [[Aristotelianism]] in astronomy, Qushji rejected [[Aristotelian physics]] and completely separated [[natural philosophy]] from [[Islamic astronomy]], allowing astronomy to become a purely [[empirical]] and mathematical [[science]]. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth instead. He found [[Empirical research|empirical evidence]] for the [[Earth's rotation]] through his observation on [[comet]]s and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory.<ref name=Ragep>{{Harv|Ragep|2001a}}</ref><ref>F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science", ''Osiris'', 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions, pp. 49&ndash;64, 66&ndash;71.</ref><ref>{{Citation

Qushji's most important astronomical work is ''Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy''. Under the influence of [[Islamic theology|Islamic theologians]] who opposed the interference of [[Aristotelianism]] in astronomy, Qushji rejected [[Aristotelian physics]] and completely separated [[natural philosophy]] from [[Islamic astronomy]], allowing astronomy to become a purely [[empirical]] and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth instead (though [[Emilie Savage-Smith]] asserts that no Islamic astronomers proposed a heliocentric universe<ref name="Savage-Smith-2008" />). He found [[Empirical research|empirical evidence]] for the [[Earth's rotation]] through his observation on [[comet]]s and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory.<ref name=Ragep>{{Harv|Ragep|2001a}}</ref><ref>F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science", ''Osiris'', 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions, pp. 49&ndash;64, 66&ndash;71.</ref><ref>{{Citation
| author = Edith Dudley Sylla
| author = Edith Dudley Sylla
| chapter = Creation and nature
| chapter = Creation and nature
Line 48: Line 60:
| isbn = 978-0-521-00063-5}}</ref>
| isbn = 978-0-521-00063-5}}</ref>


His predecessor al-Tusi had previously realized that "the monoformity of falling bodies, and the uniformity of celestial motions," both moved “in a single way,” though he still relied on Aristotelian physics to provide "certain principles that only the natural philosophers could provide the astronomer." Qushji took this concept further and proposed that "the astronomer had no need for Aristotelian physics and in fact should establish his own physical principles independently of the natural philosophers." Alongside his rejection of Aristotle's concept of a stationary Earth,<ref>{{citation|first=F. Jamil|last=Ragep|title=Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks|journal=Filozofski vestnik|volume=XXV|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–142 [138–9]}}</ref> Qushji also rejected the Aristotelian notion of the heavenly bodies moving in [[uniform circular motion]].<ref name=Savage-Smith-2008>{{citation|title=Islamic Influence on Copernicus|author=Emilie Savage-Smith|journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy|volume=39|issue=4|date=November 2008|pages=538–541 [541]|url=http://www.shpltd.co.uk/Journal%20for%20the%20History%20of%20Astronomy%20November.pdf|accessdate=2010-03-25}}</ref>
His predecessor al-Tusi had previously realized that "the monoformity of falling bodies, and the uniformity of celestial motions," both moved "in a single way", though he still relied on Aristotelian physics to provide "certain principles that only the natural philosophers could provide the astronomer." Qushji took this concept further and proposed that "the astronomer had no need for Aristotelian physics and in fact should establish his own physical principles independently of the natural philosophers." Alongside his rejection of Aristotle's concept of a stationary Earth,<ref>{{citation|first=F. Jamil|last=Ragep|title=Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks|journal=[[Filozofski vestnik]]|volume=XXV|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–142 [138–9]}}</ref> Qushji suggested that there was no need for astronomers to follow the Aristotelian notion of the heavenly bodies moving in [[uniform circular motion]].<ref name="Savage-Smith-2008">{{citation|title=Islamic Influence on Copernicus|author=Emilie Savage-Smith|journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy|volume=39|issue=4|date=November 2008|pages=538–541 [541]|url=http://www.shpltd.co.uk/Journal%20for%20the%20History%20of%20Astronomy%20November.pdf|access-date=25 March 2010|bibcode = 2008JHA....39..538S |doi=10.1177/002182860803900414|s2cid=125819122}}</ref>


Qushji's work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent [[Astrophysics|astronomical physics]].<ref name=Ragep-139>{{citation|first=F. Jamil|last=Ragep|title=Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks|journal=Filozofski vestnik|volume=XXV|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–142 [139]}}</ref> This is considered to be a "conceptual revolution"<ref name=Ragep-139/><ref name=Savage-Smith-2008/> that had no precedent in European astronomy prior to the [[Copernican Revolution]] in the 16th century.<ref>{{citation|title=Copernicus and His Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks|author=F. Jamil Ragep|journal=Filozofski vestnik|volume=XXV|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–142 [139]|quote=Clearly there is more to the Copernican revolution than some clever astronomical models that arose in the context of a criticism of Ptolemy. There also needed to be a new conceptualization of astronomy that could allow for an astronomically-based physics. But there is hardly anything like this in the European tradition before Copernicus. The fact that we can find a long, vigorous discussion in Islam of this issue intricately-tied to the question of the Earth’s movement should indicate that such a conceptual foundation was there for the borrowing.}}</ref> Qushji's view on the Earth's motion was similar to the later views of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] on this issue, though it is uncertain whether the former had any influence on the latter. However, it is likely that they both may have arrived at similar conclusions due to using the earlier work of [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] as a basis. This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in ''De revolutionibus'' (I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s ''Tadhkira'' (II.1[6]) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s “proofs” of the Earth’s immobility."<ref>{{citation|first=F. Jamil|last=Ragep|title=Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks|journal=Filozofski vestnik|volume=XXV|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–142 [137–9]}}</ref>
Qushji's work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent [[Astrophysics|astronomical physics]].<ref name="Ragep-139">{{citation|first=F. Jamil|last=Ragep|title=Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks|journal=Filozofski Vestnik|volume=XXV|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–142 [139]}}</ref> This is considered to be a "conceptual revolution"<ref name="Savage-Smith-2008"/><ref name="Ragep-139"/> that had no precedent in European astronomy prior to the [[Copernican Revolution]] in the 16th century.<ref>{{citation|title=Copernicus and His Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks|author=F. Jamil Ragep|journal=Filozofski Vestnik|volume=XXV|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–142 [139]|quote=Clearly there is more to the Copernican revolution than some clever astronomical models that arose in the context of a criticism of Ptolemy. There also needed to be a new conceptualization of astronomy that could allow for an astronomically-based physics. But there is hardly anything like this in the European tradition before Copernicus. The fact that we can find a long, vigorous discussion in Islam of this issue intricately-tied to the question of the Earth’s movement should indicate that such a conceptual foundation was there for the borrowing.}}</ref> Qushji's view on the Earth's motion was similar to the later views of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] on this issue, though it is uncertain whether the former had any influence on the latter. However, it is likely that they both may have arrived at similar conclusions due to using the earlier work of [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] as a basis. This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in ''De revolutionibus'' (I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s ''Tadhkira'' (II.1[6]) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s "proofs" of the Earth's immobility."<ref>{{citation|first=F. Jamil|last=Ragep|title=Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks|journal=Filozofski Vestnik|volume=XXV|issue=2|year=2004|pages=125–142 [137–9]}}</ref>


== His works ==
==His works==
=== Astronomy<ref>Osmanlı Astronomi Literatürü Tarihi (Ed. Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu), İstanbul 1997, I, 27&ndash;38</ref><ref>[http://213.176.111.7:8080/iranology/Persian/Farhikhtegan_F/details.aspx?id=1336]</ref>===
* Sharh e Zîj e Ulugh Beg (In Persian)
* Resale fi Halle Eshkale Moadeleye Ghamar lil-Masir (Faide fi Eshkâli Utared)
* Resale fi Asli'l-HâricYumkin fi's-Sufliyyeyn
* Sharh ‘ale't-Tuhfeti'sh-Shâhiyye fi al-Heyat
* Resale dar elm-i Heyat (In Persian)
* el-Fathiyye fî elm al-Heyat (In Arabic)
* Resale fi Hall-e Eshkal-i Ghammar (In Persian)
* ''Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy''


=== Astronomy===
=== Mathematics<ref>Seyyid Ali Paşa, Mir’âtu’l-Âlem (Haz. Yavuz Unat), Kültür Bakanlığı, Ankara 2001.</ref> ===
* Resaletu'l-Muhammediyye fi-Hesab (In Persian)
* Sharḥ e Zîj e Ulugh Beg (In Persian)
* Risāla fī Halle Eshkale Moadeleye Ghamar lil-Masir (Arabic)
* Resale dar elm-e Hesab: Suleymaniye
* Risāla fī aṣl al-Hâric yumkin fī al-sufliyyeyn (Arabic)
* Sharḥ ʿalā al-tuḥfat al-shāhiyya fī al-hayāt (Arabic)
* Risāla dar elm-i ḥeyāt (In Persian)
* ''Al-Fatḥīya fī ʿilm al-hayʾa'' (in Arabic)
* Risāla fi Hall-e Eshkal-i Ghammar (in Persian)
* ''Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy'' (Arabic)
<ref>Osmanlı Astronomi Literatürü Tarihi (Ed. Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu), İstanbul 1997, I, 27&ndash;38</ref><ref>http://213.176.111.7:8080/iranology/Persian/Farhikhtegan_F/details.aspx?id=1336{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>


=== Kalam and Fiqh ===
===Mathematics===
* Risāla al-muḥhammadiyya fi-ḥisāb (In Arabic)
* Sharh e Jadid ale't-Tejrîd
* Risāla dār ʿilm al-ḥisāb: Suleymaniye (Arabic)
<ref>Seyyid Ali Paşa, Mir’âtu’l-Âlem (Haz. Yavuz Unat), Kültür Bakanlığı, Ankara 2001.</ref>

===[[Kalam]] and Fiqh===
{{Maturidism}}
* Sharh [[Tajrid al-I'tiqad]]
* Hashiye ale't-Telvîh
* Hashiye ale't-Telvîh
* Unkud-üz-Zevahir fi Nazm-al-Javaher
* Unkud-üz-Zevahir fi Nazm-al-Javaher


===Mechanics===
=== Mechanics<ref>Sevim Tekeli, 16’ıncı Asırda Osmanlılarda Saat ve Takiyyuddîn’in “Mekanik Saat Konstrüksüyonuna Dair En Parlak Yıldızlar” Adlı Eseri, Ankara 1966.</ref> ===
* Tazkare fi Âlâti'r-Ruhâniyye
* Tazkare fi Âlâti'r-Ruhâniyye
<ref>Sevim Tekeli, 16’ıncı Asırda Osmanlılarda Saat ve Takiyyuddîn’in "Mekanik Saat Konstrüksüyonuna Dair En Parlak Yıldızlar" Adlı Eseri, Ankara 1966.</ref>


===Linguistics===
=== Linguistics<ref>Musa Yıldız, Bir Dilci Olarak Ali Kuşçu ve Risâle fî’l-İsti‘âre’si, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara 2002, s.&nbsp;10&ndash;14.</ref> ===
* Sharh Risâleti'l-Vadiyye
* Sharh Risâleti'l-Vadiyye
* El-Ifsâh
* El-Ifsâh
Line 91: Line 108:
* Mahbub-al-Hamail fi kashf-al-mesail
* Mahbub-al-Hamail fi kashf-al-mesail
* Tajrid-al-Kalam
* Tajrid-al-Kalam
<ref>Musa Yıldız, Bir Dilci Olarak Ali Kuşçu ve Risâle fî’l-İsti‘âre’si, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara 2002, s.&nbsp;10&ndash;14.</ref>


==Notes==
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist}}
<!-- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for guidance on adding references using <ref> tags -->
<!-- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for guidance on adding references using <ref> tags -->
* Yavuz Unat, ''Ali Kuşçu'', Kaynak Yayınları, 2010.


==References==
==References==
Line 107: Line 126:
|pages=145–163
|pages=145–163
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|doi=10.1017/s0269889701000060
|s2cid=145372613
}}
}}


== External links ==
==External links==
{{commons category|Ali Qushji}}
* [http://www.kimkimdir.gen.tr/kimkimdir.php?id=226 Biyografisi]
*{{Citation | editor = Thomas Hockey | last = Fazlıoğlu | first = İhsan | title=Qūshjī: Abū al-Qāsim ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad Qushči-zāde | encyclopedia = The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers | publisher = Springer | year = 2007 | location = New York | pages = 946–8 | url=http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Qushji_BEA.htm | isbn=978-0-387-31022-0 | postscript = .|display-editors=etal}} ([http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Qushji_BEA.pdf PDF version])
* [http://www.akat.org/ Istanbul Ali Kuşçu Amatör Astronomi Topluluğu; AKAT]


{{Islamic astronomy}}
{{Islamic astronomy}}
{{Maturidi}}
{{Scholars of Khorasan}}
{{People of Khorasan}}
{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Kuscu, Ali}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Qushji, Ali}}
[[Category:1403 births]]
[[Category:1403 births]]
[[Category:1474 deaths]]
[[Category:1474 deaths]]
[[Category:Iranian scientists]]
[[Category:Asharis]]
[[Category:Persian astronomers]]
[[Category:Hanafi fiqh scholars]]
[[Category:Persian mathematicians]]
[[Category:Maturidis]]
[[Category:Turkish scientists]]
[[Category:Turkish astronomers]]
[[Category:Turkish astronomers]]
[[Category:Turkish mathematicians]]
[[Category:Turkish mathematicians]]
[[Category:Turkish physicists]]
[[Category:Turkish physicists]]
[[Category:Islamic mathematics]]
[[Category:Astronomers from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Mathematicians from the Ottoman Empire]]

[[Category:Date of birth unknown]]
[[az:Əli Quşçu]]
[[Category:15th-century Iranian astronomers]]
[[de:Ali al-Kuşçı]]
[[Category:15th-century Iranian mathematicians]]
[[fa:علی بن محمد سمرقندی]]
[[Category:People from Samarkand]]
[[fr:Ali Qushji]]
[[Category:Medieval physicists]]
[[ru:Ал-Кушчи]]
[[Category:15th-century Muslims]]
[[tr:Ali Kuşçu]]
[[Category:15th-century writers from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:15th-century Persian-language writers]]
[[Category:Arabic-language writers from the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Scholars from the Timurid Empire]]
[[Category:Turkish Persian-language writers]]

Latest revision as of 13:00, 30 September 2024

Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed
Personal
Born1403 CE
Samarkand, Timurid Empire (now Uzbekistan)
Died1474 CE
Constantinople, Ottoman Empire (now Turkey)
ReligionIslam
EraOttoman era
DenominationSunni
JurisprudenceHanafi
CreedMaturidi
Main interest(s)Kalam (Islamic theology), Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), Falkiat, Mathematics
Notable work(s)Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy
Muslim leader
Influenced by
Influenced

Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed (1403 – 18 December 1474[1]), known as Ali Qushji (Ottoman Turkish : علی قوشچی, kuşçu – falconer in Turkish; Latin: Ali Kushgii) was a Timurid theologian, jurist, astronomer, mathematician and physicist, who settled in the Ottoman Empire some time before 1472.[2] As a disciple of Ulugh Beg, he is best known for the development of astronomical physics independent from natural philosophy, and for providing empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation in his treatise, Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy. In addition to his contributions to Ulugh Beg's famous work Zij-i-Sultani and to the founding of Sahn-ı Seman Medrese, one of the first centers for the study of various traditional Islamic sciences in the Ottoman Empire, Ali Kuşçu was also the author of several scientific works and textbooks on astronomy.[3]

Ali Qushji's 15th-century tombstone located in the Eyüpsultan Mosque cemetery in Istanbul

Biography

[edit]

Early life and works

[edit]

Ali Kuşçu was born in 1403 in the city of Samarkand, in present-day Uzbekistan. His full name at birth was Ala al-Dīn Ali ibn Muhammed al-Qushji. The last name Qushji derived from the Turkish term kuşçu—"falconer"[4]—due to the fact that Ali's father Muhammad was the royal falconer of Ulugh Beg.[3] Sources consider him Turkic[5] or Persian.[6]

Ulugh Beg Observatory – Landmark of Ali Qushji's career

He attended the courses of Qazi zadeh Rumi, Ghiyāth al-Dīn Jamshīd Kāshānī and Muin al-Dīn Kashi. He moved to Kerman, Iran (Persia), where he conducted some research on storms in the Oman sea. He completed Hall-e Eshkal-i Ghammar (Explanations of the Periods of the Moon) and Sharh-e Tajrid in Kirman. He moved to Herat and taught Molla Cami about astronomy (1423). After professing in Herat for a while, he returned to Samarkand. There he presented his work on the Moon to Ulugh Beg, who found it so fascinating that he read the entire work while standing up. Ulugh Beg assigned him to Ulugh Beg Observatory, which was called Samarkand Observatory at that time. Qushji worked there until Ulugh Beg was assassinated.[7]

After Ulugh Beg's death, Ali Kuşçu went to Herat, Tashkent, and finally Tabriz where, around 1470, the Ak Koyunlu ruler Uzun Hasan sent him as a delegate to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. At that time Husayn Bayqarah had come to reign in Herat but Qushji preferred Constantinople over Herat because of Sultan Mehmed's attitude toward scientists and intellectuals.

Constantinople era

[edit]

When he came to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), his grandson Ghutb al-Dīn Muhammed had a son Mirim Çelebi who would be a great mathematician and astronomer in the future.[8] Ali Kuşçu composed "risalah dar hay’at" in Persian for Mehmed II at Constantinople in 1470.[9] Also he wrote "Sharh e resalye Fathiyeh",[10] "resalye Mohammadiye" in Constantinople, which are in Arabic on the topic of mathematics. He then finished "Sharh e tejrid" on Nasir al-Din al-Tusi's "Tejrid al-kalam". That work is called "Sharh e Jadid" in scientific community.

Contributions to astronomy

[edit]
Papers from Ali Qushji's scientific works.

Qushji improved on Nasir al-Din al-Tusi's planetary model and presented an alternative planetary model for Mercury.[11] He was also one of the astronomers that were part of Ulugh Beg's team of researchers working at the Samarqand observatory and contributed towards the Zij-i-Sultani compiled there. In addition to his contributions to Zij, Ali Kuşçu wrote nine works in astronomy, two of them in Persian and seven in Arabic.[3] A Latin translation of two of Qushji's works, the Tract on Arithmetic and Tract on Astronomy, was published by John Greaves in 1650.

Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy

[edit]
His travel to the Ottoman Empire.

Qushji's most important astronomical work is Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy. Under the influence of Islamic theologians who opposed the interference of Aristotelianism in astronomy, Qushji rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from Islamic astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely empirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationary Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth instead (though Emilie Savage-Smith asserts that no Islamic astronomers proposed a heliocentric universe[12]). He found empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation through his observation on comets and concluded, on the basis of empirical evidence rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory.[13][14][15]

His predecessor al-Tusi had previously realized that "the monoformity of falling bodies, and the uniformity of celestial motions," both moved "in a single way", though he still relied on Aristotelian physics to provide "certain principles that only the natural philosophers could provide the astronomer." Qushji took this concept further and proposed that "the astronomer had no need for Aristotelian physics and in fact should establish his own physical principles independently of the natural philosophers." Alongside his rejection of Aristotle's concept of a stationary Earth,[16] Qushji suggested that there was no need for astronomers to follow the Aristotelian notion of the heavenly bodies moving in uniform circular motion.[12]

Qushji's work was an important step away from Aristotelian physics and towards an independent astronomical physics.[17] This is considered to be a "conceptual revolution"[12][17] that had no precedent in European astronomy prior to the Copernican Revolution in the 16th century.[18] Qushji's view on the Earth's motion was similar to the later views of Nicolaus Copernicus on this issue, though it is uncertain whether the former had any influence on the latter. However, it is likely that they both may have arrived at similar conclusions due to using the earlier work of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi as a basis. This is more of a possibility considering "the remarkable coincidence between a passage in De revolutionibus (I.8) and one in Ṭūsī’s Tadhkira (II.1[6]) in which Copernicus follows Ṭūsī’s objection to Ptolemy’s "proofs" of the Earth's immobility."[19]

His works

[edit]

Astronomy

[edit]
  • Sharḥ e Zîj e Ulugh Beg (In Persian)
  • Risāla fī Halle Eshkale Moadeleye Ghamar lil-Masir (Arabic)
  • Risāla fī aṣl al-Hâric yumkin fī al-sufliyyeyn (Arabic)
  • Sharḥ ʿalā al-tuḥfat al-shāhiyya fī al-hayāt (Arabic)
  • Risāla dar elm-i ḥeyāt (In Persian)
  • Al-Fatḥīya fī ʿilm al-hayʾa (in Arabic)
  • Risāla fi Hall-e Eshkal-i Ghammar (in Persian)
  • Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy (Arabic)

[20][21]

Mathematics

[edit]
  • Risāla al-muḥhammadiyya fi-ḥisāb (In Arabic)
  • Risāla dār ʿilm al-ḥisāb: Suleymaniye (Arabic)

[22]

Kalam and Fiqh

[edit]
Part of a series on
Maturidism
Mausoleum of Imam al-Maturidi in Samarkand
Background
Eminent scholars
Theological works
Institutions
Events
Related groups
Classic
Modern
  • Sharh Tajrid al-I'tiqad
  • Hashiye ale't-Telvîh
  • Unkud-üz-Zevahir fi Nazm-al-Javaher

    • Mechanics

    [edit]
    • Tazkare fi Âlâti'r-Ruhâniyye

    [23]

    Linguistics

    [edit]
    • Sharh Risâleti'l-Vadiyye
    • El-Ifsâh
    • El-Unkûdu'z-Zevâhir fî Nazmi'l-Javâher
    • Sharh e'Sh-Shâfiye
    • Resale fî Beyâni Vadi'l-Mufredât
    • Fâ'ide li-Tahkîki Lâmi't-Ta'rîf
    • Resale mâ Ene Kultu
    • Resale fî'l-Hamd
    • Resale fî Ilmi'l-Me'ânî
    • Resale fî Bahsi'l-Mufred
    • Resale fî'l-Fenni's-Sânî min Ilmihal-Beyân
    • Tafsir e-Bakara ve Âli Imrân
    • Risâle fî'l-İstişâre
    • Mahbub-al-Hamail fi kashf-al-mesail
    • Tajrid-al-Kalam

    [24]

    Notes

    [edit]
    1. ^ Saliba, George (2012). "Chapter 9: Al-Qushjī's Reform of the Ptolemaic Model for Mercury". In Iqbal, Muzaffar (ed.). Studies in the Making of Islamic Science: Knowledge in Motion. Islam and Science: Historic and Contemporary Perspectives. Vol. 4. Routledge. pp. 177–219. ISBN 9780754629160.
    2. ^ Imber, Colin (1997), Ebu's-suůd: the Islamic legal tradition, Edinburgh University Press, p. 9, ISBN 978-0-7486-0767-9
    3. ^ a b c Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce Alan (2009), Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Infobase Publishing, p. 35, ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1
    4. ^ Vlahakis, George (2006), Imperialism and science: social impact and interaction, ABC-CLIO, p. 75, ISBN 978-1-85109-673-2
    5. ^ "During the fifteenth century this method of representing decimal fractions came to be known outside the Islamic world as the Turkish method, after a Turkish colleague of al-Kashi, known as Ali Qushji, who provided an explanation." Joseph, George Gheverghese (2010) The crest of the peacock: non-European roots of mathematics Princeton University Press, p. 469. ISBN 0-691-13526-6, ISBN 978-0-691-13526-7
    6. ^ G. A. Russell, The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-century England, BRILL, 1994, ISBN 90-04-09888-7, p. 162;
      "Greaves quotes from Risala dar 'ilm al-Hay’a of 'Ali b. Muh. 'Ala al-Din Qushji. This Persian author was the son of an official of Ulugh Beg, and also a student of Qadi Zadeh".
    7. ^ Osmanlı imparatorluğunun doruğu 16. yüzyıl teknolojisi, Editor Prof. Dr. Kazım Çeçen, Istanbul 1999, Omaş ofset A.Ş.
    8. ^ G. Akovalı, Z. A. Mansūrov, The role of government and research institutes in the planning of research and development in some Central Asian and Caucasian republics, IOS Press, 2000,ISBN 1-58603-022-1, ISBN 978-1-58603-022-3, p.230,[1]
    9. ^ Mahārājā Mānasiṃha Pustaka Prakāśa, David Edwin Pingree, ”A descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit astronomical manuscripts preserved at the Maharaja Man Singh II Museum in Jaipur, India", American Philosophical Society, 2003, p.138;
    10. ^ "مكتبة المحجة - الرسالة الفتحية في الهيئة البسيطة". Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2009.
    11. ^ George Saliba, "Arabic planetary theories after the eleventh century AD", in Rushdī Rāshid and Régis Morelon (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, pp. 58–127 [123–124], Routledge, ISBN 0-415-12410-7.
    12. ^ a b c Emilie Savage-Smith (November 2008), "Islamic Influence on Copernicus" (PDF), Journal for the History of Astronomy, 39 (4): 538–541 [541], Bibcode:2008JHA....39..538S, doi:10.1177/002182860803900414, S2CID 125819122, retrieved 25 March 2010
    13. ^ (Ragep 2001a)
    14. ^ F. Jamil Ragep (2001), "Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science", Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 16, Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions, pp. 49–64, 66–71.
    15. ^ Edith Dudley Sylla (2003), "Creation and nature", in Arthur Stephen McGrade (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 178–179, ISBN 978-0-521-00063-5
    16. ^ Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks", Filozofski vestnik, XXV (2): 125–142 [138–9]
    17. ^ a b Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks", Filozofski Vestnik, XXV (2): 125–142 [139]
    18. ^ F. Jamil Ragep (2004), "Copernicus and His Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks", Filozofski Vestnik, XXV (2): 125–142 [139], Clearly there is more to the Copernican revolution than some clever astronomical models that arose in the context of a criticism of Ptolemy. There also needed to be a new conceptualization of astronomy that could allow for an astronomically-based physics. But there is hardly anything like this in the European tradition before Copernicus. The fact that we can find a long, vigorous discussion in Islam of this issue intricately-tied to the question of the Earth's movement should indicate that such a conceptual foundation was there for the borrowing.
    19. ^ Ragep, F. Jamil (2004), "Copernicus and his Islamic Predecessors: Some Historical Remarks", Filozofski Vestnik, XXV (2): 125–142 [137–9]
    20. ^ Osmanlı Astronomi Literatürü Tarihi (Ed. Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu), İstanbul 1997, I, 27–38
    21. ^ http://213.176.111.7:8080/iranology/Persian/Farhikhtegan_F/details.aspx?id=1336[permanent dead link‍]
    22. ^ Seyyid Ali Paşa, Mir’âtu’l-Âlem (Haz. Yavuz Unat), Kültür Bakanlığı, Ankara 2001.
    23. ^ Sevim Tekeli, 16’ıncı Asırda Osmanlılarda Saat ve Takiyyuddîn’in "Mekanik Saat Konstrüksüyonuna Dair En Parlak Yıldızlar" Adlı Eseri, Ankara 1966.
    24. ^ Musa Yıldız, Bir Dilci Olarak Ali Kuşçu ve Risâle fî’l-İsti‘âre’si, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara 2002, s. 10–14.
    • Yavuz Unat, Ali Kuşçu, Kaynak Yayınları, 2010.

    References

    [edit]
    [edit]
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