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{{Dablink|For other Roman women named Julia Caesaris, see [[Julia Caesaris]].}}
{{redirect|Julia Major|her great-grandaunt, also known as Julia the Elder|Julia Major (sister of Caesar)}}
{{Short description|Daughter of Emperor Augustus (39 BC – AD 14)}}
{{Infobox royalty
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Julia the Elder
| name = Julia the Elder
| image = (Toulouse) Portrait de Julie Musée Saint-Raymond Ra 338.jpg
| imgw = 250px
| caption = Julia the Elder
| caption = [[Bust (sculpture)|Bust]] of Julia the Elder ({{lang|fr|[[Musée Saint-Raymond]]}})
| birth_date = 30 October 39 BC
|spouse=[[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcus Claudius Marcellus]]<br>[[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]]<br>[[Tiberius]]
| birth_place = [[Rome]], [[Roman Italy|Italy]], [[Roman Republic]]
|issue= [[Gaius Caesar]]<br>[[Julia the Younger]]<br>[[Lucius Caesar]]<br>[[Agrippina the Elder]]<br>[[Agrippa Postumus]]<br>Tiberillus
| death_date = AD 14 (aged 52)
|house= [[Julio-Claudian dynasty|Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]
| death_place = [[Rhegium]], Italy, [[Roman Empire]]
|father = [[Augustus]]
| burial_place =
|mother= [[Scribonia]]
| spouses = [[Marcellus (nephew of Augustus)|Marcellus]] (25 BC–September 23 BC; his death)<br />[[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] (21 BC–12 BC; his death{{fact|date=June 2023}}<br />[[Tiberius]] (11 BC–2 BC; divorced)
|date of birth =30 October 39 BC
| issue = [[Gaius Caesar]] (Agrippa)<br />[[Julia the Younger]] (Agrippa)<br />[[Lucius Caesar]] (Agrippa)<br />[[Agrippina the Elder]] (Agrippa)<br />[[Agrippa Postumus]] (Agrippa)<br />Tiberillus (Tiberius)
|place of birth =[[Rome]]
| dynasty = [[Julio-Claudian dynasty|Julio-Claudian]]
|date of death =AD 14 (aged 53)
|place of death =[[Rhegium]]
| father = [[Augustus]]
| mother = [[Scribonia (wife of Augustus)|Scribonia]]
}}
}}
'''Julia the Elder''' (30 October 39 BC – AD 14), known to her contemporaries as '''Julia Caesaris filia''' or '''Julia Augusti filia''' ([[Classical Latin]]: <small>IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA</small> or <small>IVLIA•AVGVSTI•FILIA</small>),<ref>{{Aut|E. Groag, A. Stein, L. Petersen - e.a.}} (edd.), ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani saeculi I, II et III'' ('''PIR'''), Berlin, 1933, I 634</ref> was the daughter and only biological child of [[Augustus]], the first Roman emperor, and his second wife, [[Scribonia (wife of Augustus)|Scribonia]]. Julia was also stepsister and second wife of the Emperor [[Tiberius]]; maternal grandmother of the Emperor [[Caligula]] and the Empress [[Agrippina the Younger]]; grandmother-in-law of the Emperor [[Claudius]]; and maternal great-grandmother of the Emperor [[Nero]]. Her epithet "the Elder" distinguishes her from her daughter, [[Julia the Younger]].


==Life==
{{Julio-Claudian dynasty
|image=
|caption= [[Bust (sculpture)|Bust]] of Julia the Elder
}}
'''Julia the Elder''' (30 October 39 BC - AD 14), known to her contemporaries as '''Julia Caesaris filia''' or '''Julia Augusti filia''' ([[Classical Latin]]: <small>IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA</small> or <small>IVLIA•AVGVSTI•FILIA</small><ref>{{Aut|E. Groag, A. Stein, L. Petersen - e.a.}} (edd.), ''Prosopographia Imperii Romani saeculi I, II et III'' ('''[[PIR]]'''), Berlin, 1933 - I 634</ref>) was the daughter and only natural child of [[Augustus]], the first emperor of the Roman Empire. Augustus subsequently adopted several male members of his close family as sons. Julia resulted from Augustus' second marriage with [[Scribonia]], her birth occurring on the same day as Scribonia's divorce from Augustus, who wished to marry [[Livia Drusilla]].


She was the daughter of the Emperor [[Augustus]], stepsister and second wife of the Emperor [[Tiberius]], maternal grandmother of the Emperor [[Caligula]] and the Empress [[Agrippina the Younger]], mother-in-law of the Emperor [[Claudius]], and maternal great-grandmother of the Emperor [[Nero]].

==Life==
===Early life===
===Early life===
[[File:Inscribed dedication to Julia, daughter of Augustus, Roman, set up about 15-12 BCE. From the sanctuary of Athena at Priene, western Asia Minor. British Museum.jpg|thumb|Inscribed dedication to Julia, daughter of Augustus, Roman, set up about 15–12 BC. From the sanctuary of Athena at Priene, western Asia Minor. British Museum]]
At the time of Julia's birth, Augustus had not yet received the title "Augustus" and was known as Octavian until 27 BC, when Julia was 12. Octavian divorced Julia's mother the day of her birth and took Julia from her soon thereafter.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]], 48.34.3.</ref> Octavian, in accordance with Roman custom, claimed complete parental control over her. Once she became old enough, she was sent to live with her stepmother [[Livia]] and began her education as an aristocratic Roman girl. Her education appears to have been strict and somewhat old-fashioned. Thus, in addition to her studies, [[Suetonius]] informs us, she was taught spinning and weaving.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Vita Augusti'' 64</ref> [[Macrobius]] mentions "her love of literature and considerable culture, a thing easy to come by in that household".<ref>[[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia: Julia's Wit'', 2.5.1-10</ref>
At the time of Julia's birth, 39 BC, Augustus had not yet received the title "Augustus" and was known as "Gaius Julius Caesar Divi Filius", though historians refer to him as "Octavian" until 27 BC, when Julia was 11. Octavian divorced Julia's mother on the day of her birth and took Julia from her soon thereafter.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]], 48.34.3.</ref> Octavian, in accordance with Roman custom, claimed complete parental control over her. She was sent to live with her stepmother [[Livia]] and when she was old enough learned how to be an aristocrat. Her education appears to have been strict and somewhat old-fashioned. Thus, in addition to her studies, [[Suetonius]] informs us, she was taught spinning and weaving.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Vita Augusti'' 64</ref> [[Macrobius]] mentions "her love of literature and considerable culture, a thing easy to come by in that household".<ref>[[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia: Julia's Wit'', 2.5.1-10</ref>


Julia's social life was severely controlled, and she was allowed to talk only to people whom her father had vetted.<ref>Suetonius ''Vita Augusti'' 64</ref> However, Octavian had a great affection for his daughter and made sure she had the best teachers available. [[Macrobius]] preserves a remark of Augustus: "There are two wayward daughters that I have to put up with: the Roman commonwealth and Julia."<ref>''Inter amicos [Augustus] dixit duas habere se filias delicatas, quas necesse haberet ferre, rem publicam et Iuliam.'' [[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia'' 2.5</ref>
Julia's social life was severely controlled, and she was allowed to talk only to people whom her father had vetted.<ref>Suetonius ''Vita Augusti'' 64</ref> However, Octavian had a great affection for his daughter and made sure she had the best teachers available. Macrobius preserves a remark of Augustus: "There are two wayward daughters that I have to put up with: the Roman commonwealth and Julia."<ref>''Inter amicos [Augustus] dixit duas habere se filias delicatas, quas necesse haberet ferre, rem publicam et Iuliam.'' Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'' 2.5</ref>


In 37 BC, during Julia's early childhood, Octavian's friends [[Gaius Maecenas]] and [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] concluded an agreement with Octavian's great rival [[Mark Antony]]. It was sealed with an engagement: Antony's ten-year-old son [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus]] was to marry Julia, then two years old.
In 37 BC, during Julia's early childhood, Octavian's friends [[Gaius Maecenas]] and [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] concluded an agreement with Octavian's great rival [[Mark Antony]]. It was sealed with an engagement: Antony's ten-year-old son [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus]] was to marry Julia, then two years old.


The engagement never led to a marriage because civil war broke out. In 31 BC, at the [[Battle of Actium]], Octavian and Agrippa defeated Antony and his mistress, [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt]]. In [[Alexandria]], they both committed suicide, and Octavian became sole ruler of the [[Roman Empire]].
The engagement never led to marriage because civil war broke out. In 31 BC, at the [[Battle of Actium]], Octavian and Agrippa defeated Antony and [[Cleopatra]]. In [[Alexandria]], the defeated couple both committed suicide, and Octavian became sole ruler of the [[Roman Empire]].


====First marriage====
===First marriage===
As with most aristocratic Roman women of the period, expectations of Julia focused on marriage and on the resulting family [[Political alliance|alliances]]. Moreover, Augustus desired a male issue; as his only living child, Julia's duty would be to provide her father with grandsons whom he could adopt as his heirs.<ref>Suetonius, ''Life of Augustus'', 63-4.</ref>
As was the case with most aristocratic Roman women of the period, Julia's life was focused on her successive marriages and family [[alliances]]. Like many Roman girls, she was first married off in her early teens. In 25 BC, at the age of fourteen, Julia married her cousin [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcus Claudius Marcellus]], who was some three years older than she. There were rumors that Marcellus had been chosen as Augustus' successor, but Julia's father was not present: he was fighting a war in Spain and had fallen ill. Agrippa presided over the ceremony. Marcellus died in September 23 BC, when Julia was sixteen. The union produced no children.


In 25 BC, at the age of fourteen, Julia married her first cousin [[Marcellus (nephew of Augustus)|Marcellus]], the son of her father's sister [[Octavia the Younger|Octavia]], who was some three years older than she. Augustus himself was not present for the wedding as he was fighting a war in Spain and had fallen ill. Instead, he commissioned Agrippa to preside over the ceremony and hold the festival in his absence.<ref>Dio Cassius, ''Roman History'', Book LIII 27.5.</ref>
====Marriage to Agrippa====
[[File:Julia Augusti filia.jpg|thumb|200px|Julia from "Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum "]]
In 21 BC, having now reached the age of 18, Julia married [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]], a man from a modest family who had risen to become Augustus' most trusted general and friend. This step is said to have been taken partly on the advice of Maecenas, who in counseling him remarked: "You have made him so great that he must either become your son-in-law or be slain".<ref>Dio Cassius, 54.6</ref> Since Agrippa was nearly 25 years her elder, it was a typical arranged marriage, with Julia functioning as a pawn in her father's dynastic plans. There is from this period the report of an infidelity with one Sempronius Gracchus, with whom Julia allegedly had a lasting ''liaison'' ([[Tacitus]] describes him as "a persistent paramour"<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' 1.53</ref>). This was the first of a series of alleged adulteries. According to Suetonius, Julia's marital status did not prevent her from conceiving a passion for Augustus' stepson, and thus her stepbrother, [[Tiberius]], so it was widely rumoured.<ref>"''vulgo existimabatur"'', Suetonius, ''Vita Tiberii'' 7</ref>


The decision to marry Marcellus to Julia, and then Augustus's choice to raise Marcellus to the [[College of Pontiffs|pontificate]] and curule aedileship,<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'', I.3.1.</ref> was perceived to be an indication that he would be Augustus's successor in power, despite his youth.<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'', II.93.</ref> This put him at odds with Agrippa, who, people believed, would oppose Marcellus' accession to power; the apparent preference for Marcellus is allegedly the catalyst that led Agrippa to withdraw to [[Mytilene]], Greece.<ref>Suetonius, ''Life of Augustus'', 66.</ref>
The newly-weds lived in a villa in Rome that has since been excavated near the modern [[Farnesina]] in [[Trastevere]]. Agrippa and Julia's marriage resulted in five children: [[Gaius Julius Caesar Vipsanianus|Gaius Caesar]], Vipsania Julia (also known as [[Julia the Younger]]), [[Lucius Caesar]], Vipsania Agrippina or [[Agrippina the Elder]] (mother of Emperor [[Caligula]]), and [[Agrippa Postumus]] (a posthumous son). From June 20 BC to the spring of 18 BC, Agrippa was governor of [[Gaul]], and it is likely that Julia followed him to the country on the other side of the Alps. Shortly after their arrival, their first child Gaius was born, and in 19 BC, Julia gave birth to Vipsania Julia. After their return to Italy, a third child followed: a son named Lucius.


However, Marcellus died in September 23 BC, when Julia was sixteen. The union produced no children.
[[Nicolaus of Damascus|Nicolaus]] and [[Josephus]] mentions that during Julia's marriage to Agrippa, she was travelling to meet Agrippa where he was campaigning, was caught up in a flash flood in [[Troy|Ilium]] (Troy), and almost drowned.<ref>Nicolaus of Damascus|Nicolaus, ([''Fragmenta der Griechischein Historiker''] 2 A: 421-2</ref><ref>[[Josephus]], ''Antiquities'' 16.2.2</ref> Agrippa was furious, and in his anger he fined the locals 100,000 drachmae. The fine was a heavy blow but no one would face Agrippa for an appeal. It was only once [[Herod the Great|Herod]], king of Judaea, went to Agrippa to receive pardon that he withdrew the fine. In the spring of 16 BC, Agrippa and Julia started a tour through the eastern provinces, where they visited [[Herod the Great|Herod]]. In October 14 BC, the couple travelled to [[Athens]], where Julia gave birth to her fourth child, Agrippina. Augustus, who took care of their education personally, adopted the boys Lucius and Gaius Caesar after their father's death in 12 BC. Augustus adopted both the newborn Lucius and the three-year-old Gaius in 17 BC.<ref>Dio 54.18</ref><ref>Suet. Div. Aug. 64</ref>


===Marriage to Agrippa===
After the winter, the family returned to [[Italy]]. Julia quickly became pregnant again, but her husband died suddenly in March 12 BC in [[Campania]] at the age of 51. He was buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Julia named the [[Wiktionary:posthumous|posthumous]] son Marcus in his honor. He was to be known as [[Agrippa Postumus]]. Immediately after the boy was born, and while Julia was still in mourning, Augustus had her betrothed<ref>Dio Cassius 54.31</ref> and then remarried to [[Tiberius]], her stepbrother.
[[File:Julia Augusti filia.jpg|thumb|200px|Julia, from [[Guillaume Rouillé]]'s ''[[Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum|Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum]]'']]
In 21 BC, having now reached the age of 18, Julia married Agrippa, a man from a modest family who had risen to become Augustus's most trusted general and friend. This step is said to have been taken partly on the advice of Maecenas, who in counseling Augustus remarked: "You have made him so great that he must either become your son-in-law or be slain."<ref>Dio Cassius, 54.6</ref> Agrippa was nearly 25 years her elder; it was a typical arranged marriage, with Julia functioning as a pawn in her father's dynastic plans. There is from this period the report of an infidelity with one [[Sempronius Gracchus]], with whom Julia allegedly had a lasting ''liaison'' ([[Tacitus]] describes him as "a persistent paramour").<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''Annals'' 1.53</ref> This was the first of a series of alleged adulteries. According to Suetonius, Julia's marital status did not prevent her from conceiving a passion for Augustus's stepson, and thus her stepbrother, [[Tiberius]], so it was widely rumoured.<ref>"''vulgo existimabatur"'', Suetonius, ''Vita Tiberii'' 7</ref>


The newlyweds lived in a villa in Rome that has since been excavated near the modern [[Farnesina (district of Rome)|Farnesina]] in [[Trastevere]]. Agrippa and Julia's marriage resulted in five children: [[Gaius Caesar]], [[Julia the Younger]], [[Lucius Caesar]], [[Agrippina the Elder]] (mother of [[Caligula]]), and [[Agrippa Postumus]] (a posthumous son). From June 20 BC to the spring of 18 BC, Agrippa was governor of [[Gaul]], and it is likely that Julia followed him across the Alps. Shortly after their arrival, their first child Gaius was born, and in 19 BC, Julia gave birth to Vipsania Julia. After their return to Italy, a third child followed: a son named Lucius. In 17 BC, Augustus adopted the newborn Lucius and the three-year-old Gaius.<ref>Dio 54.18; Suet. ''Div. Aug''. 64</ref> He took care of their education personally. Although Agrippa died in 12 BC, Augustus did not adopt the third brother, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Posthumus, until AD 4, after the exile of Julia - and after the deaths of both Gaius and Lucius.
====Marriage to Tiberius====
After the death of Agrippa, Augustus sought to promote his stepson [[Tiberius]], believing that this would best serve his own dynastic interests. Tiberius married Julia (11 BC), but to do so he had to divorce [[Vipsania Agrippina]] (daughter of a previous marriage of Agrippa), the woman he dearly loved. The marriage was thus blighted almost from the start, and the son that Julia bore him died in infancy.<ref>Suetonius, ''Vita Tiberii'' 7.3</ref> Suetonius alleges that Tiberius had a low opinion of Julia's character,<ref>"''Iuliae mores improbaret''", ''loc.cit''. Suetonius</ref> while Tacitus claims that she disdained Tiberius as an unequal match and even sent her father a letter, written by Sempronius Gracchus, denouncing him.<ref name="Tacitus, Annals 1.53">Tacitus, ''Annals'' 1.53</ref> By 6 BC, when Tiberius departed for [[Rhodes]], if not earlier, the couple had separated.


[[Nicolaus of Damascus|Nicolaus]] and [[Josephus]] mention that during Julia's marriage to Agrippa, she travelled to meet Agrippa where he was campaigning. She was caught up in a flash flood in [[Troy|Ilium]] (Troy), and almost drowned.<ref>Nicolaus of Damascus|Nicolaus, ([''Fragmenta der Griechischein Historiker''] 2 A: 421-2; [[Josephus]], ''Antiquities'' 16.2.2</ref> Agrippa was furious, and in his anger he fined the locals 100,000 drachmae. The fine was a heavy blow but no one would face Agrippa to request an appeal. Only after [[Herod the Great|Herod]], king of Judaea, went to Agrippa to request a pardon did he withdraw the fine. In the spring of 16 BC, Agrippa and Julia started a tour through the eastern provinces, where they visited Herod. In October 14 BC, the couple traveled to [[Athens]], where Julia gave birth to her fourth child, Agrippina.{{Efn|According to Suetonius, [[Caligula]] – the son of Julia's daughter [[Agrippina the Elder|Agrippina]] and [[Tiberius]]'s nephew [[Germanicus]] – would claim after his own ascension that his mother Agrippina was the product of an incestuous union between Julia and Augustus. The reason for this is allegedly because he did not wish to be thought of as the grandson of [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]] due to his humble origins.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Vita Caligulae'' 23</ref> However, the existence of coins and inscriptions dating from Caligula's reign that clearly identify Agrippina as Agrippa's daughter suggests this account is apocryphal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Susan |title=Imperial Women: A Study in Public Images, 40 BC–AD 68 |publisher=BRILL |location=Netherlands |year=2000 |pages=36 |isbn=9789004119505}}</ref> Barrett considered it to be a joke made in poor taste, rather than outright dismiss it as false.<ref>Barrett, Anthony A (1989). Caligula: the corruption of power. London: Batsford. pp. 217-218</ref>}}
====Scandal====
Because Augustus was her legitimate father, having married her mother with conubium, Augustus had [[Patria Potestas]] over her. Patria Potestas lasted until either the Pater Familias, Augustus, died, or emancipated his child. Marriage had no effect on Patria Potestas, unless it was [[Manus Marriage]] which was rare at this point in time.


After the winter, the family returned to Italy. Julia quickly became pregnant again, but her husband died suddenly in March 12 BC in [[Campania]] at the age of 51. He was buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Julia named the [[Wiktionary:posthumous|posthumous]] son Marcus in his honor. He was to be known as Agrippa Postumus. Immediately after the boy was born, and while Julia was still in mourning, Augustus had her betrothed<ref>Dio Cassius 54.31</ref> and then remarried to Tiberius, her stepbrother.
As the daughter of Augustus, mother of two of his heirs, Lucius and Gaius, and wife of another, Tiberius, it must have seemed to Julia that her future was assured. Yet in 2 BC she was arrested for adultery and treason; Augustus sent her a letter in Tiberius' name declaring the marriage null and void. He also asserted in public that she had been plotting against his own life.<ref>Pliny ''NH'' 7.149 ''adulterium filiae et consilia parricidae''</ref> Though at the time Augustus had been passing legislation to promote family values, he likely knew of her intrigues with other men but hesitated for some time to accuse her. Several of Julia's supposed lovers were exiled, most notably Sempronius Gracchus, while [[Iullus Antonius]] (son of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Fulvia]]) was forced to commit suicide. Others have suggested that Julia's alleged paramours were members of her city clique, who wished to remove Tiberius from favour and replace him with Antonius. This would explain the letter, written by Gracchus, asking Augustus to allow Julia to divorce Tiberius.<ref>Levick, Barbara, ''Tiberius the Politician'', p26-29. ISBN 0415217539</ref>


===Marriage to Tiberius===
It is hard to reconstruct what actually happened, but historians agree that she had taken part in nightly drinking parties on the Roman Forum and that Antonius was her lover as he is the only lover mentioned by more than two contemporary historians. Several men were also reported to have enjoyed her favors, but this may have been mere [[gossip]].
After the death of Agrippa, Augustus sought to promote his step-son Tiberius, believing that this would best serve his own dynastic interests. Tiberius married Julia (11 BC), but first had to divorce [[Vipsania Agrippina]] (daughter from a previous marriage of Agrippa), the woman he dearly loved. Suetonius alleges that Tiberius had a low opinion of Julia's character,<ref>"''Iuliae mores improbaret''", ''loc.cit''. Suetonius</ref> while Tacitus claims that she disdained Tiberius as an unequal match and even sent his father a letter, written by Sempronius Gracchus, denouncing him.<ref name="Tacitus, Annals 1.53">Tacitus, ''Annals'' 1.53</ref> The marriage was thus blighted almost from the start, and the son that Julia bore him died in infancy.<ref>Suetonius, ''Vita Tiberii'' 7.3</ref> By 6 BC, when Tiberius departed for [[Rhodes]], if not earlier, the couple had separated.


====Exile====
===Scandal===
Because Augustus was her legitimate father, having married her mother with ''conubium'', Augustus had [[Patria Potestas]] over her. ''Patria Potestas'' lasted until the pater familias, Augustus, either died or emancipated his child. Marriage had no effect on ''Patria Potestas'', unless it was [[manus marriage]], which was rare at this point in time.
Reluctant to execute her, Augustus decided on Julia's exile, in harsh conditions. She was confined on an island called [[Pandateria]] (modern [[Ventotene]]), with no men in sight, forbidden even to drink wine.<ref>Dio Cassius 55.10, Suetonius, ''Vita Augusti'' 65</ref> The island itself measures less than {{convert|1.75|km²}}. She was allowed no visitor unless her father had given permission and had been informed of the stature, complexion, and even of any marks or scars upon his body.<ref>Suetonius. ''ibid''.</ref> [[Scribonia]], Julia's biological mother, accompanied her into exile.<ref>[[Velleius Paterculus]], 2.100</ref><ref>Dio Cassius 55.10</ref> Upon any mention of her and Julia, he would say: ''aith ophelon agamos t'emeni agonos t'apolesthai'' meaning "Would I were wifeless, or had childless died!" [from the ''Iliad''].<ref>Suetonius, LXV, ''Life of Augustus''</ref> He rarely called her by any other name than that of his three [[Wiktionary:Imposthume|imposthumes]], or cancers. The exile of his daughter left Augustus both regretful and rancorous for the rest of his life.


As the daughter of Augustus, mother (now legally the sister) of two of his heirs, Lucius and Gaius, and wife of another, Tiberius, Julia's future seemed assured to all. Yet in 2 BC she was arrested for adultery and treason; Augustus sent her a letter in Tiberius's name declaring the marriage null and void (Tiberius was at this time on the island of Rhodes and unable to respond quickly). He also asserted in public that she had been plotting against his own life.<ref>Pliny ''NH'' 7.149 ''adulterium filiae et consilia parricidae''</ref> Though at the time Augustus had been passing legislation to promote family values, collectively known as the [[Leges Iuliae]], he likely knew of her intrigues with other men but hesitated for some time to accuse her. Several of Julia's supposed lovers were exiled, most notably [[Sempronius Gracchus]], while [[Iullus Antonius]] (son of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Fulvia]]) was forced to commit suicide. Others have suggested that Julia's alleged paramours were members of her city clique, who wished to remove Tiberius from favour and replace him with Antonius. This would explain the letter, written by Gracchus, asking Augustus to allow Julia to divorce Tiberius.<ref>Levick, Barbara, ''Tiberius the Politician'', p26-29. {{ISBN|0-415-21753-9}}</ref>
Five years later, Julia was allowed to return to the mainland, though Augustus never forgave her and ordered her to remain in [[Rhegium]] ([[Reggio di Calabria]]). He explicitly gave instructions that she should not be buried in his [[Mausoleum of Augustus]]. When Tiberius became emperor, he cut off Julia's allowance, ordered that she be confined to the one room in her house, and that she should be deprived of all human company.


==Death==
===Exile===
Reluctant to execute her, Augustus decided instead to confine Julia on [[Pandateria]], an island that measures less than {{convert|1.75|km2}}, with no men in sight and forbidden even to drink wine.<ref>Dio Cassius 55.10, Suetonius, ''Vita Augusti'' 65</ref> Her mother, [[Scribonia (wife of Augustus)|Scribonia]], accompanied her into exile.<ref>[[Velleius Paterculus]], 2.100</ref><ref>Dio Cassius 55.10</ref> She was allowed no visitor unless her father had given permission and had been informed of the stature, complexion, and even of any marks or scars upon his body.<ref>Suetonius, ''ibid''.</ref>
Julia died from [[malnutrition]] some time after Augustus' death in 14, but before 15.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' 1.53, "That same year Julia ended her days..."; cf. ''Ann''.1.55, which commences the narration of events of 15</ref> With her father dead and no sons to take the throne, Julia was left completely at the mercy of the new emperor, Tiberius, who was free to exact his vengeance. The circumstances of her death are obscure. One theory is that [[Tiberius]], who loathed her for dishonouring their marriage, had her starved to death. Another theory is that upon learning her last surviving son [[Agrippa Postumus]] had been murdered, she succumbed to despair. Simultaneously, her alleged ''paramour'' Sempronius [[Gracchus]], who had endured 14 years of exile on Cercina ([[Kerkenna]]) off the African coast, was executed at Tiberius' instigation,<ref name="Tacitus, Annals 1.53"/> or on the independent initiative of Nonius Asprenas, proconsul of Africa. Augustus in his will had forbidden Julia to be buried in his own [[Mausoleum of Augustus]].


Five years after her initial exile, around AD 4, Julia was moved to [[Rhegium]] on the mainland and Augustus appears to have granted her a ''peculium'' (property), a yearly income and permitted her to walk about the town.<ref name="ReferenceA">Suetonius, ''Life of Tiberius'', 50.</ref> Despite these concessions, Augustus never forgave her nor ever allowed her to return to Rome. This choice appears to have been unpopular with the Roman people, who petitioned several times for her to be recalled.<ref>Suetonius, ''Life of Augustus'', 65.</ref> Julia's exile cast a long shadow over Augustus's remaining years. In AD 6, Julia's youngest son, [[Agrippa Postumus]], was exiled for his growing unruliness. Then, in AD 8, her elder daughter [[Julia the Younger]] was exiled to [[Tremiti Islands|Tremirus]], likewise charged with adultery; it may also have been related to the attempted revolt by her husband [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (consul 1)|Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] and one Plautius Rufus.<ref name="Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 19">Suetonius, ''Life of Augustus'', 19.</ref> It is said that at any mention of Julia or her two disgraced children, Augustus would remark of them: "If only I had never married, or had died childless", slightly misquoting [[Hector]], in the [[Iliad]].<ref>Suetonius, LXV, ''Life of Augustus''</ref> There is mention of at least one suppressed plot to take her from captivity; one Lucius Audasius and one Asinius Epicadus had planned to forcibly take her and her son Agrippa Postumus from where they were held and to the armies, presumably to stage a coup against Augustus.<ref name="Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 19"/>
===After her death===
Suetonius claims that [[Caligula]], the son of Julia's daughter [[Agrippina the elder|Agrippina]] and [[Tiberius]]'s nephew [[Germanicus]], loathed the idea of being grandson of [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]], who came from comparatively humble origins. Hence, Caligula invented the idea that his mother Agrippina was the product of an incestuous union between Julia and Augustus.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Vita Caligulae'' 23</ref>


Upon Augustus's death in AD 14, Tiberius ascended to the Principate. Despite having shown some sympathy towards Julia when she was initially exiled,<ref>Suetonius, ''Life of Tiberius'', 11.</ref> he instead enforced harsher conditions upon her. He removed her dowry and yearly income, citing that Augustus had failed to make provisions for them in his will, and thus left her destitute.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'', Book 1:53.</ref> Furthermore, he denied her permission to leave her house or receive visitors.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
==Personality==
Among ancient writers Julia is almost universally remembered for her flagrant and promiscuous conduct. Thus [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus]] (2.100) describes her as "tainted by luxury or lust", listing among her lovers Iullus Antonius, Quintius Crispinus, Appius Claudius, Sempronius Gracchus, and [[Publius Cornelius Scipio (consul 16 BC)|Cornelius Scipio]]. [[Seneca the Younger]] refers to "adulterers admitted in droves";<ref>[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], ''admissos gregatim adulteros'', ''De Beneficiis'' 6.32</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] calls her an “''exemplum licentiae''” (''NH'' 21.9). [[Dio Cassius]] mentions "revels and drinking parties by night in the Forum and even upon the [[Rostra]]" (''Roman History'' 55.10). Seneca (''De Beneficiis'' 6.32) tells us that the Rostra was the place where "her father had proposed a law against adultery", and yet now she had chosen the place for her "debaucheries". Seneca specifically mentions prostitution: "laying aside the role of adulteress, she there [''in the Forum''] sold her favours, and sought the right to every indulgence with even an unknown paramour." Modern historians discredit these representations as exaggerating Julia's behaviour.<ref>Fantham, Elaine. (2006) ''Julia Augusti''. p. 82/157. "Routledge". ISBN 0-415-33146-3.</ref>


===Death and aftermath===
[[Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius|Macrobius]]<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'' 2.5</ref> provides invaluable details of her personality. Julia was well known for her gentle quick wit and sharp tongue. She was deeply loved by her father who admired her wit. Once, when asked her secret for having affairs while bearing children resembling her husband, she stated that she took on new passengers only when the boat was already full.<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'', II, 5, 9-10: ''"Numquam enim nisi navi plena tollo vectorem"''</ref> Julia was equally celebrated for her beauty, intelligence and her shameless profligacy but mentions that "she abused the indulgence of fortune no less than that of her father."<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia: Julia's Wit'' 2.5.</ref> Despite Julia's reputation, the people who knew her described her as a good-hearted and kind woman who was very popular with the Roman people not least because of "her kindness and gentleness and utter freedom from vindictiveness."<ref>[[Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia'' 2.5: ''Mitis humanitas minimeque saevus animus.''</ref>
Julia died in AD 14, some time after Augustus's death.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' 1.53, "That same year Julia ended her days..."; cf. ''Ann''.1.55, which commences the narration of events of 15</ref> While it is generally agreed by contemporary historians that it was as a result of Tiberius's actions against her, the circumstances of her death are obscure.<ref>J. Linderski ([https://www.jstor.org/stable/20186814 "Julia in Regium"], ''[[Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik]]'', 72 (1988), pp. 181-200) discusses the evidence, including two overlooked inscriptions from Regium.</ref> Dio Cassius indicates Tiberius had a direct hand in her death by imprisoning her until she died either from debility or starvation.<ref>Dio Cassius, ''Roman History'', Book LVII.18.</ref> Tacitus remarks that upon learning Postumus had been murdered, she succumbed to despair and her health slowly declined.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'', Book 1.53. ''"Inopia ac tabe".''</ref> Augustus had explicitly given instructions in his will that she should not be buried in his [[Mausoleum of Augustus]].
==Role in Anno Domini chronology==
In 1605, the Polish historian [[Laurentius suslyga|Laurentius Suslyga]], published a tract (later quoted by [[Kepler]]) which for the first time suggested that Jesus Christ was in fact born around 4 BC, not AD 1, as the Christian era would have it. Julia's expulsion from Rome in 2 BC was featured in Suslyga's chronological argument.


Simultaneously, her alleged ''paramour'' [[Sempronius Gracchus]], who had endured 14 years of exile on Cercina ([[Kerkennah Islands|Kerkenna]]) off the African coast, was executed either at Tiberius' instigation<ref name="Tacitus, Annals 1.53" /> or on the independent initiative of [[Lucius Nonius Asprenas (consul 6)|L. Nonius Asprenas]], proconsul of Africa.
==Julia in popular culture==
===Literature===
*In ''[[I, Claudius]]'', a novel by [[Robert Graves]], the description of Julia's life and personality is generally accurate. She is a sympathetic person who never intended any harm to others. Julia is described as a child who was instantly snatched away from her mother and taken by her father's new wife, Livia. As a child, her stepmother enforced strict discipline and an austere life of labor. She was not allowed to have any friends, and if she was caught talking to people not approved by Livia, she was punished. (Graves describes an occasion, which is probably fiction, when a commoner introduces himself to Julia, and Julia has her hair cut off by Livia as punishment.) Livia's cruelty is due to her desire for her line to rule (Tiberius and his descendants), not Julia's, as Julia was from Augustus's previous marriage. Julia's behaviour resulted from Livia and her son (Julia's 3rd husband) [[Tiberius]]' mistreatment of her. In the end, Livia manages to turn even Augustus against Julia and, as historical fact proves, she was sent into exile. Augustus initially allows Livia to select the island, and Julia was sent to tiny [[Ventotene|Pandataria]]. He later relents and asks where she is; upon discovering that she is stuck on that desolate, tiny isle, he selects the pleasant town of [[Reggio Calabria|Reggio]] off the strait of Messina instead.
*In ''[[Caesar's Daughter]]'', a novel by [[Edward Burton]], Julia is a three-dimensional character. Julia is described as a rebellious little girl who is willful and passionate but with a gentleness and compassion for the people of Rome. She is dearly beloved by nearly everyone she meets except her stepmother, [[Livia]]. Loyal to her father, but not afraid to criticize his decisions she is (after Livia) his favourite consort. Julia grows up among intrigue and ultimately becomes its victim. Despite her tragic fate, Julia remains very cheerful and kind nonetheless.
*In ''Augustus'' a novel by [[Allan Massie]], Julia is a [[Beauty|beautiful]], desirable and [[optimistic|happy-go-lucky]] character who is spoilt by her father. They still both love each other deeply. She is jealous of her father's relationship with her first husband [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcellus]], disgusted with her marriage to [[Agrippa]] (who is thrilled with his younger and beautiful wife) and furious by her marriage to [[Tiberius]]. Her adulteries are justified by Augustus' bad treatment of her and she decides finally to rebel, which he denies as true though he is distraught by her banishment.
*Julia is the heroine of ''[[I Loved Tiberius]]'' by [[Elisabeth Dored]].
*Julia is portrayed in the novel ''Cleopatra's Daughter'', by [[Michelle Moran]]. In the novel she is a young girl. It shown how her stepmother, Livia, did not give her much freedom, and how she was surrounded by all of the plots and people in Rome while she was grownig up.
*Julia appears in ''[[Poetaster|The Poetaster]]'', a play by [[Ben Jonson]] about the poet [[Ovid]].
**The character of Corinna in Ovid's poems have widely been thought to be Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus.
*[[William Auld]] wrote a short poem called ''[[Julia on Pandataria]]'' which takes a brief look on Julia's tragedies.
*Julia is mentioned in ''Antony and Cleopatra'' by [[Colleen McCullough]]. She is described as very pretty from a young age and intelligent. Augustus is not discouraged by the fact she is a girl and demands that she be educated in the manner of a man rather than a woman, describing her as ''a queen in waiting''.
*Julia appears in [[Taylor Caldwell]]'s novel ''Dear and Glorious Physician'', as the unhappy wife of [[Tiberius]] and a seductress of Lucanus, the young evangelist St. Luke.


Her daughter Julia died in AD 28, after 20 years of exile; like her mother, the younger Julia was forbidden by Augustus's will to be buried in his tomb.
===Film/Television===
*In the [[BBC]] [[Television]] adaptation of ''I, Claudius'' (1976), Julia was portrayed by [[Frances White]] as the overly optimistic, witty and beloved daughter of Augustus. Julia is one of the few major female characters that doesn't plot to kill or actually murder someone.


==Cultural depictions==
*In the [[Italy|Italian]] [[mini series]], ''[[Imperium: Augustus]]'', Julia was portrayed by [[Vittoria Belvedere]] as a very tragic character, a victim of [[domestic abuse]] and [[rape]]. For a majority of the story, Julia and her father, [[Augustus]], are at the centre of the story as Augustus recalls his life to her just before she is about to marry [[Tiberius]]. The character in question has lost her husband and both of her two boys to illness. She is at first innocent, loving, and beloved deeply by her father, but she gets mixed up in an affair with her father's enemy as the result of [[depression (mood)|depression]] brought on by Tiberius' cruelty towards her. The series took a more modern view of her affairs, that among her lovers, she had only one true love: [[Iullus Antonius]].


=== In ancient literature ===
*In the film, ''[[The Robe (film)|The Robe]]'', she is played by [[Rosalind Ivan]], making an inaccurate appearance as Tiberius' wife.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0046247/goofs Mistakes in ''The Robe (1953)'']</ref>
Among contemporary writers, Julia is almost universally remembered for her flagrant and promiscuous conduct. Thus [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus]] (2.100) describes her as "tainted by luxury or lust", listing among her lovers Iullus Antonius, Quintius Crispinus, Appius Claudius, Sempronius Gracchus, and [[Publius Cornelius Scipio (consul 16 BC)|Cornelius Scipio]]. [[Seneca the Younger]] refers to "adulterers admitted in droves";<ref>[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], ''admissos gregatim adulteros'', ''De Beneficiis'' 6.32</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] calls her an “''exemplum licentiae''” (''NH'' 21.9). [[Dio Cassius]] mentions "revels and drinking parties by night in the Forum and even upon the [[Rostra]]" (''Roman History'' 55.10). Seneca (''De Beneficiis'' 6.32) tells us that the Rostra was the place where "her father had proposed a law against adultery", and yet now she had chosen the place for her "debaucheries". Seneca specifically mentions prostitution: "laying aside the role of adulteress, she there [''in the Forum''] sold her favours, and sought the right to every indulgence with even an unknown paramour."


[[Macrobius]] provides invaluable details of her witticisms and personality.<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'', ''Book II,'' 5:2, translations from ''Macrobius:'' ''Saturnalia, Volume I: Books 1-2''. Edited and translated by Robert A. Kaster. Loeb Classical Library 510. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011. pp. 361-2. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL510/2011/volume.xml]</ref> Among the sassy ripostes he attributes to her is a retort to people's surprise that her children all resembled Agrippa - “I take on a passenger only when the ship’s hold is full.”<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'', ''Book II,'' 5:9.</ref> On her character, he writes that Julia was extensively celebrated for her amiable, empathetic nature and studiousness despite her profligacy: "[S]he was abusing her standing as fortune’s darling, and her father’s, though in other respects she gained a great deal of credit for her love of literature and extensive learning... and her kindness, fellow-feeling, and lack of cruelty."<ref>Macrobius, ''Saturnalia'', ''Book II,'' 5:2.</ref>
==Marriages and Births==

*25 BC, Julia marries her cousin Marcus Claudius [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcellus]]. Marcellus died in September 23 BC. They have no children.
[[Sidonius Apollinaris]], writing in the 5th century, was the first person to identify Julia as the figure Corinna in Ovid's ''[[Amores (Ovid)|Amores]]''.<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', 23.158-61.</ref>
*21 BC, Julia marries [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]]. They have the following children:

**[[Gaius Caesar]] in 20 B.C.
=== In popular culture ===
**Vipsania Julia Agrippina (also known as [[Julia the Younger]]) in 19 B.C.
{{In popular culture|date=October 2017}}
**[[Lucius Caesar]] in 17 B.C.

** Julia Vipsania Agrippina or [[Agrippina the Elder|Agrippina Major]] (mother of Emperor [[Caligula]]) in 14 B.C.
====Literature====
**[[Agrippa Postumus]] (born after Agrippa's death).

*11 BC, Julia marries her stepbrother [[Tiberius]]. Their union produces the following:
*In [[Ben Jonson|Ben Jonson's]] comedy play ''[[Poetaster (play)|Poetaster]]'' (1601), Julia is the romantic interest of Ovid.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Corrigan |first1=Brian |title=Benjamin Jonson |url=https://cord.ung.edu/jonspoe.html |website=The Compendium of Renaissance Drama |access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref> The play itself is commonly thought to be a parody on the literary scene at the time with Julia and Ovid performing a balcony scene similar to ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Joan |title=Jonson and the Classics: The Ovid-Plot in "Poetaster" |journal=The University of Chicago Press |date=Autumn 1978 |volume=8 |issue=3 |page=304 |jstor=43446926 }}</ref>
**Infant son, not named in contemporary sources (by some later historians dubbed [[Tiberillus]]), died before adulthood.
*[[Aphra Behn|Aphra Behn's]] satirical, heroic epistle poem, ''Ovid to Julia. A Letter'' (1685). The poem itself is a satire of [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby]], who allegedly courted the future [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] and was exiled from court in 1682.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Oroonoko and Other Writings|last=Behn |first=Aphra |editor-first= Paul |editor-last=Salzman|publisher=OUP|year=2009|isbn=978-0199538768|location=Oxford|pages=274}}</ref>
*Charlotte-Antoinette de Bressay's epistolary novel, ''Lettres De Julie À Ovide Et D'ovide À Julie'' ("Letters from Julia, the Daughter of Augustus, to Ovid", 1753).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moormann |first1=Eric |title=Pompeii's Ashes: The Reception of the Cities Buried by Vesuvius in Literature, Music, and Drama |date=March 10, 2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |location=Boston |isbn=9781614518853 |page=347 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_NeCAAAQBAJ&q=Charlotte-Antoinette+de+Bressay%27s+epistolary+novel,+%27%27Lettres+De+Julie+À+Ovide+Et+D%27ovide+À+Julie&pg=PA347 |access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref>
*[[Robert Graves]]' novel, ''[[I, Claudius]]'' (1934). The titular character, Claudius, recounts that Julia was tricked by Livia into taking aphrodisiacs that increase her sexual appetite, leading to her affairs and ultimately her exile. Graves appears to have been largely influenced by Macrobius' account of Julia, with Claudius referring to her as "a decent, good hearted woman, though fond of pleasures and excitement, and the only one of my female relations who had a kindly word for me."
*[[Taylor Caldwell]]'s novel ''Dear and Glorious Physician'' (1958) portrays Julia as the unhappy wife of [[Tiberius]] and a seductress of Lucanus, the young evangelist [[Luke the Evangelist|Saint Luke]].
*In [[Elisabeth Dored]]'s novel, ''[[I Loved Tiberius|Jeg elsket Tiberius]]'' ("I Loved Tiberius", 1959), Julia serves as the main character; it portrays Julia as innocent of all charges against her, both her affairs and modern historians' speculation of a plot.<ref>{{cite journal |last=G |first=K |title=Review: [Untitled] |journal=The Classical Outlook |date=December 1963 |volume=41 |issue=4 |page=45 |jstor=43929824}}</ref>
*Julia is one of the narrators of [[John Edward Williams]]' epistolary novel ''[[Augustus (Williams novel)|Augustus]]'' (1972). There are a number of contributions in her name, written as part of a diary she wrote while in exile in Pandateria reflecting on her father, her marriages, her relationships with her lovers and the restrictions on her as a prominent Roman matron.<ref>{{cite web |last=Preziosi |first=Dominic |title=Staff Pick: 'Augustus' |url=https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/staff-pick-augustus |website=Commonweal |date=30 December 2016 |publisher=Commonweal Magazine |access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref>
*[[Allan Massie|Allan Massie's]] novel, ''[[Augustus (Massie novel)|Augustus]]'' (1986), depicts Julia very closely to the contemporary histories, with her engaging in affairs as a slight against her father's laws. Its follow-up, ''[[Tiberius (Massie novel)|Tiberius]]'' (1991), invents an affair between Julia and Tiberius during her marriage to Marcellus.
*In Edward Burton's novel ''[[Caesar's Daughter]]'' (1999), Julia is the titular character; it downplays her affairs with Iullus Antonius being her only lover and instead attributes Julia's exile to a failed coup to kill Tiberius.
*Julia appears in the final novel in [[Colleen McCullough]]'s ''[[Masters of Rome|Master of Rome]]'' series, ''[[Antony and Cleopatra (novel)|Antony and Cleopatra]]'' (2007), as a child. Emphasising her as a highly intelligent child, the focus is chiefly on her education, which Octavian purposefully ensures is "like a man's".
*[[Michelle Moran|Michelle Moran's]] novel, ''Cleopatra's Daughter'' (2009), which focuses on Cleopatra Selene, Queen Cleopatra VII's daughter, depicts a teenage Julia as one of the main characters.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moran |first1=Michelle |title=Cleopatra's Daughter |date=September 15, 2009 |publisher=Broadway Books |location=New York |isbn=9780307409133 |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHx_2ZMagFkC |access-date=30 March 2020}}</ref>
*In [[Tana Rebellis]]'s ''The Longest Exile'' (2024), which primarily focuses on the life and exile of [[Julia the Younger]] from 8 to 14 CE, Julia is a secondary POV character with her own chapters, written about her exile and ongoing plotting while in Rhegium.

====Film and television====
*In the 1976 BBC Television adaptation of ''[[I, Claudius (TV series)|I, Claudius]]'', Julia was portrayed by [[Frances White (actress)|Frances White]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Charlotte |last=Higgins |title=TV Club: I, Claudius |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/tvandradioblog/2010/feb/24/tv-club-i-claudius |work=theguardian.com |date=2010-02-24}}</ref>
*In the [[Italy|Italian]] [[mini series]] ''[[Imperium: Augustus]]'', Julia was portrayed by [[Vittoria Belvedere]]. The series focused on the relationship between Augustus and Julia as he recounts how he came to power to her.<ref>{{cite web |title=Imperium: Augustus |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0340529/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0 |website=IMDb |access-date=30 March 2020}}</ref> After being forced into an abusive marriage with Tiberius by her father and Livia, she begins an affair with Iullus Antonius. He subsequently attempts to murder Augustus in order to free Julia from his dynastic plans, leading to her exile.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cooney |first=Patrick |title=Imperium: Augustus (2003) |url=http://www.vernonjohns.org/snuffy1186/imperium%20augustus%202003.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512094153/http://www.vernonjohns.org/snuffy1186/imperium%20augustus%202003.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=May 12, 2008 |website=Vernon Johns Society |access-date=30 March 2020}}</ref>
*In the film, ''[[The Robe (film)|The Robe]]'', she was played by [[Rosalind Ivan]], making an anachronistic appearance as Tiberius' wife.<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0046247/goofs Mistakes in ''The Robe (1953)'']</ref>
*In the 2021 TV series ''[[Domina (TV series)|Domina]]'', she was portrayed by [[Liah O'Prey]].

==Role in Anno Domini chronology==
In 1605, the Polish historian [[Laurentius Suslyga]] published a tract (later quoted by [[Kepler]]), which for the first time suggested that [[Jesus]] was born sometime during the years 6-4 BC, not on 25 December 1 BC as [[Dionysius Exiguus]] implied, but never stated. According to Dionysius' dating scheme, the Christian era supposedly began on 1 January AD 1, about one week after Jesus' birth at the end of December. Julia's expulsion from Rome in 2 BC was featured in Suslyga's chronological argument which sought to establish [[Herod the Great|Herod]]'s death in 4 BC. Suslyga's chronological ideas concerning the dating of Herod's death based on Julia the Elder's exile have since been challenged by archaeologists.<ref>Frederick M. Strickert, Philip’s City: From Bethsaida to Julias, (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 2011), pp. 163-188.</ref>

==Marriages and births==
*25 BC, [[Marcellus (nephew of Augustus)|Marcellus]], until his death in September 23 BC. No children.
*21 BC, [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]], until his death in 12 BC. Their children:
**[[Gaius Caesar]] in 20 BC
**Vipsania Julia (known as [[Julia the Younger]]) in c. 19 BC.
**[[Lucius Caesar]] in 17 BC
** Vipsania Julia Agrippina (known as [[Agrippina the Elder]]) in 14 BC (mother of Emperor [[Caligula]])
**[[Agrippa Postumus]] in 12 BC (posthumously after Agrippa's death).
*11 BC, Julia marries her stepbrother [[Tiberius]]. Their child:
**Infant son, (dubbed "Tiberillus" by modern historians), died in infancy.


==Ancestry==
==Ancestry==
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|4= 4. [[Gaius Octavius]]
|4= 4. [[Gaius Octavius (praetor 61 BC)|Gaius Octavius]]
|5= 5. [[Atia Balba Caesonia]]
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|6= 6. [[Lucius Scribonius Libo]]
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|7= 7. Sentia
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|8= 8. Gaius Octavius
|8= 8. Gaius Octavius
|9= 9.
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|10= 10. [[Marcus Atius]]
|10= 10. [[Marcus Atius Balbus]]
|11= 11. [[Julia Caesaris (sister of Julius Caesar)|Julia Caesaris]]
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|22= 22. [[Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia, 90s BC)|Gaius Julius Caesar]]
|22= 22. [[Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul)|Gaius Julius Caesar]]
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==See also==
==See also==
*[[Julio-Claudian family tree]]
*[[Julio-Claudian family tree]]
*[[I, Claudius]]
*[[Lex Julia]]
*[[Lex Julia]]
*[[Lex Papia Poppaea]]
*[[Lex Papia Poppaea]]
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==Notes==
==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
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==References==
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{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}


==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/wlgr-privatelife266.shtml Julia's wit - Macrobius, Saturnalia 2.5.1-10]
*[http://www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/wlgr-privatelife266.shtml Julia's wit - Macrobius, Saturnalia 2.5.1-10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808193853/http://www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/wlgr-privatelife266.shtml |date=2018-08-08 }}
*[http://www.livius.org/jo-jz/julia/julia03.html LIVIUS: Articles on ancient history (Julia)]
*[https://www.livius.org/jo-jz/julia/julia03.html LIVIUS: Articles on ancient history (Julia)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728163602/http://www.livius.org/jo-jz/julia/julia03.html |date=2014-07-28 }}
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/ BBC Ancient Roman]
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/ BBC Ancient Roman]

{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Elder, Julia The}}
[[Category:Iulii]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman women]]
[[Category:1st-century BC Romans]]
[[Category:1st-century Romans]]
[[Category:39 BC births]]
[[Category:39 BC births]]
[[Category:14 deaths]]
[[Category:14 deaths]]
[[Category:1st-century BC Roman women]]
[[Category:1st-century BC Romans]]
[[Category:1st-century Roman women]]
[[Category:1st-century Romans]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman exiles]]
[[Category:Augustus]]
[[Category:Augustus]]
[[Category:Children of Augustus]]

[[Category:Daughters of Roman emperors]]
[[bg:Юлия Стара]]
[[Category:Deaths by starvation]]
[[ca:Júlia (filla d'August)]]
[[cs:Julie starší]]
[[Category:Julii Caesares]]
[[Category:Wives of Roman emperors]]
[[de:Iulia (Tochter des Augustus)]]
[[es:Julia la Mayor]]
[[Category:Family of Tiberius]]
[[fr:Julia Caesaris filia]]
[[ko:율리아 아우구스투스]]
[[it:Giulia maggiore (figlia di Augusto)]]
[[he:יוליה אוגוסטי פיליאה]]
[[la:Iulia Maior]]
[[nl:Julia Caesaris maior]]
[[ja:ユリア (アウグストゥスの娘)]]
[[no:Julia den eldre]]
[[pl:Julia (córka Augusta)]]
[[pt:Júlia (filha de Augusto)]]
[[ru:Юлия Старшая]]
[[sh:Julija Starija]]
[[fi:Julia (Augustuksen tytär)]]
[[tr:Yaşlı Julia]]

Latest revision as of 15:38, 22 December 2024

"Julia Major" redirects here. For her great-grandaunt, also known as Julia the Elder, see Julia Major (sister of Caesar).
Julia the Elder
Bust of Julia the Elder (Musée Saint-Raymond)
Born30 October 39 BC
Rome, Italy, Roman Republic
DiedAD 14 (aged 52)
Rhegium, Italy, Roman Empire
SpousesMarcellus (25 BC–September 23 BC; his death)
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (21 BC–12 BC; his death[citation needed]
Tiberius (11 BC–2 BC; divorced)
IssueGaius Caesar (Agrippa)
Julia the Younger (Agrippa)
Lucius Caesar (Agrippa)
Agrippina the Elder (Agrippa)
Agrippa Postumus (Agrippa)
Tiberillus (Tiberius)
DynastyJulio-Claudian
FatherAugustus
MotherScribonia

Julia the Elder (30 October 39 BC – AD 14), known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia (Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA or IVLIA•AVGVSTI•FILIA),[1] was the daughter and only biological child of Augustus, the first Roman emperor, and his second wife, Scribonia. Julia was also stepsister and second wife of the Emperor Tiberius; maternal grandmother of the Emperor Caligula and the Empress Agrippina the Younger; grandmother-in-law of the Emperor Claudius; and maternal great-grandmother of the Emperor Nero. Her epithet "the Elder" distinguishes her from her daughter, Julia the Younger.

Life

[edit]

Early life

[edit]
Inscribed dedication to Julia, daughter of Augustus, Roman, set up about 15–12 BC. From the sanctuary of Athena at Priene, western Asia Minor. British Museum

At the time of Julia's birth, 39 BC, Augustus had not yet received the title "Augustus" and was known as "Gaius Julius Caesar Divi Filius", though historians refer to him as "Octavian" until 27 BC, when Julia was 11. Octavian divorced Julia's mother on the day of her birth and took Julia from her soon thereafter.[2] Octavian, in accordance with Roman custom, claimed complete parental control over her. She was sent to live with her stepmother Livia and when she was old enough learned how to be an aristocrat. Her education appears to have been strict and somewhat old-fashioned. Thus, in addition to her studies, Suetonius informs us, she was taught spinning and weaving.[3] Macrobius mentions "her love of literature and considerable culture, a thing easy to come by in that household".[4]

Julia's social life was severely controlled, and she was allowed to talk only to people whom her father had vetted.[5] However, Octavian had a great affection for his daughter and made sure she had the best teachers available. Macrobius preserves a remark of Augustus: "There are two wayward daughters that I have to put up with: the Roman commonwealth and Julia."[6]

In 37 BC, during Julia's early childhood, Octavian's friends Gaius Maecenas and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa concluded an agreement with Octavian's great rival Mark Antony. It was sealed with an engagement: Antony's ten-year-old son Marcus Antonius Antyllus was to marry Julia, then two years old.

The engagement never led to marriage because civil war broke out. In 31 BC, at the Battle of Actium, Octavian and Agrippa defeated Antony and Cleopatra. In Alexandria, the defeated couple both committed suicide, and Octavian became sole ruler of the Roman Empire.

First marriage

[edit]

As with most aristocratic Roman women of the period, expectations of Julia focused on marriage and on the resulting family alliances. Moreover, Augustus desired a male issue; as his only living child, Julia's duty would be to provide her father with grandsons whom he could adopt as his heirs.[7]

In 25 BC, at the age of fourteen, Julia married her first cousin Marcellus, the son of her father's sister Octavia, who was some three years older than she. Augustus himself was not present for the wedding as he was fighting a war in Spain and had fallen ill. Instead, he commissioned Agrippa to preside over the ceremony and hold the festival in his absence.[8]

The decision to marry Marcellus to Julia, and then Augustus's choice to raise Marcellus to the pontificate and curule aedileship,[9] was perceived to be an indication that he would be Augustus's successor in power, despite his youth.[10] This put him at odds with Agrippa, who, people believed, would oppose Marcellus' accession to power; the apparent preference for Marcellus is allegedly the catalyst that led Agrippa to withdraw to Mytilene, Greece.[11]

However, Marcellus died in September 23 BC, when Julia was sixteen. The union produced no children.

Marriage to Agrippa

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Julia, from Guillaume Rouillé's Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum

In 21 BC, having now reached the age of 18, Julia married Agrippa, a man from a modest family who had risen to become Augustus's most trusted general and friend. This step is said to have been taken partly on the advice of Maecenas, who in counseling Augustus remarked: "You have made him so great that he must either become your son-in-law or be slain."[12] Agrippa was nearly 25 years her elder; it was a typical arranged marriage, with Julia functioning as a pawn in her father's dynastic plans. There is from this period the report of an infidelity with one Sempronius Gracchus, with whom Julia allegedly had a lasting liaison (Tacitus describes him as "a persistent paramour").[13] This was the first of a series of alleged adulteries. According to Suetonius, Julia's marital status did not prevent her from conceiving a passion for Augustus's stepson, and thus her stepbrother, Tiberius, so it was widely rumoured.[14]

The newlyweds lived in a villa in Rome that has since been excavated near the modern Farnesina in Trastevere. Agrippa and Julia's marriage resulted in five children: Gaius Caesar, Julia the Younger, Lucius Caesar, Agrippina the Elder (mother of Caligula), and Agrippa Postumus (a posthumous son). From June 20 BC to the spring of 18 BC, Agrippa was governor of Gaul, and it is likely that Julia followed him across the Alps. Shortly after their arrival, their first child Gaius was born, and in 19 BC, Julia gave birth to Vipsania Julia. After their return to Italy, a third child followed: a son named Lucius. In 17 BC, Augustus adopted the newborn Lucius and the three-year-old Gaius.[15] He took care of their education personally. Although Agrippa died in 12 BC, Augustus did not adopt the third brother, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Posthumus, until AD 4, after the exile of Julia - and after the deaths of both Gaius and Lucius.

Nicolaus and Josephus mention that during Julia's marriage to Agrippa, she travelled to meet Agrippa where he was campaigning. She was caught up in a flash flood in Ilium (Troy), and almost drowned.[16] Agrippa was furious, and in his anger he fined the locals 100,000 drachmae. The fine was a heavy blow but no one would face Agrippa to request an appeal. Only after Herod, king of Judaea, went to Agrippa to request a pardon did he withdraw the fine. In the spring of 16 BC, Agrippa and Julia started a tour through the eastern provinces, where they visited Herod. In October 14 BC, the couple traveled to Athens, where Julia gave birth to her fourth child, Agrippina.[a]

After the winter, the family returned to Italy. Julia quickly became pregnant again, but her husband died suddenly in March 12 BC in Campania at the age of 51. He was buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Julia named the posthumous son Marcus in his honor. He was to be known as Agrippa Postumus. Immediately after the boy was born, and while Julia was still in mourning, Augustus had her betrothed[20] and then remarried to Tiberius, her stepbrother.

Marriage to Tiberius

[edit]

After the death of Agrippa, Augustus sought to promote his step-son Tiberius, believing that this would best serve his own dynastic interests. Tiberius married Julia (11 BC), but first had to divorce Vipsania Agrippina (daughter from a previous marriage of Agrippa), the woman he dearly loved. Suetonius alleges that Tiberius had a low opinion of Julia's character,[21] while Tacitus claims that she disdained Tiberius as an unequal match and even sent his father a letter, written by Sempronius Gracchus, denouncing him.[22] The marriage was thus blighted almost from the start, and the son that Julia bore him died in infancy.[23] By 6 BC, when Tiberius departed for Rhodes, if not earlier, the couple had separated.

Scandal

[edit]

Because Augustus was her legitimate father, having married her mother with conubium, Augustus had Patria Potestas over her. Patria Potestas lasted until the pater familias, Augustus, either died or emancipated his child. Marriage had no effect on Patria Potestas, unless it was manus marriage, which was rare at this point in time.

As the daughter of Augustus, mother (now legally the sister) of two of his heirs, Lucius and Gaius, and wife of another, Tiberius, Julia's future seemed assured to all. Yet in 2 BC she was arrested for adultery and treason; Augustus sent her a letter in Tiberius's name declaring the marriage null and void (Tiberius was at this time on the island of Rhodes and unable to respond quickly). He also asserted in public that she had been plotting against his own life.[24] Though at the time Augustus had been passing legislation to promote family values, collectively known as the Leges Iuliae, he likely knew of her intrigues with other men but hesitated for some time to accuse her. Several of Julia's supposed lovers were exiled, most notably Sempronius Gracchus, while Iullus Antonius (son of Mark Antony and Fulvia) was forced to commit suicide. Others have suggested that Julia's alleged paramours were members of her city clique, who wished to remove Tiberius from favour and replace him with Antonius. This would explain the letter, written by Gracchus, asking Augustus to allow Julia to divorce Tiberius.[25]

Exile

[edit]

Reluctant to execute her, Augustus decided instead to confine Julia on Pandateria, an island that measures less than 1.75 square kilometres (0.68 sq mi), with no men in sight and forbidden even to drink wine.[26] Her mother, Scribonia, accompanied her into exile.[27][28] She was allowed no visitor unless her father had given permission and had been informed of the stature, complexion, and even of any marks or scars upon his body.[29]

Five years after her initial exile, around AD 4, Julia was moved to Rhegium on the mainland and Augustus appears to have granted her a peculium (property), a yearly income and permitted her to walk about the town.[30] Despite these concessions, Augustus never forgave her nor ever allowed her to return to Rome. This choice appears to have been unpopular with the Roman people, who petitioned several times for her to be recalled.[31] Julia's exile cast a long shadow over Augustus's remaining years. In AD 6, Julia's youngest son, Agrippa Postumus, was exiled for his growing unruliness. Then, in AD 8, her elder daughter Julia the Younger was exiled to Tremirus, likewise charged with adultery; it may also have been related to the attempted revolt by her husband Lucius Aemilius Paullus and one Plautius Rufus.[32] It is said that at any mention of Julia or her two disgraced children, Augustus would remark of them: "If only I had never married, or had died childless", slightly misquoting Hector, in the Iliad.[33] There is mention of at least one suppressed plot to take her from captivity; one Lucius Audasius and one Asinius Epicadus had planned to forcibly take her and her son Agrippa Postumus from where they were held and to the armies, presumably to stage a coup against Augustus.[32]

Upon Augustus's death in AD 14, Tiberius ascended to the Principate. Despite having shown some sympathy towards Julia when she was initially exiled,[34] he instead enforced harsher conditions upon her. He removed her dowry and yearly income, citing that Augustus had failed to make provisions for them in his will, and thus left her destitute.[35] Furthermore, he denied her permission to leave her house or receive visitors.[30]

Death and aftermath

[edit]

Julia died in AD 14, some time after Augustus's death.[36] While it is generally agreed by contemporary historians that it was as a result of Tiberius's actions against her, the circumstances of her death are obscure.[37] Dio Cassius indicates Tiberius had a direct hand in her death by imprisoning her until she died either from debility or starvation.[38] Tacitus remarks that upon learning Postumus had been murdered, she succumbed to despair and her health slowly declined.[39] Augustus had explicitly given instructions in his will that she should not be buried in his Mausoleum of Augustus.

Simultaneously, her alleged paramour Sempronius Gracchus, who had endured 14 years of exile on Cercina (Kerkenna) off the African coast, was executed either at Tiberius' instigation[22] or on the independent initiative of L. Nonius Asprenas, proconsul of Africa.

Her daughter Julia died in AD 28, after 20 years of exile; like her mother, the younger Julia was forbidden by Augustus's will to be buried in his tomb.

Cultural depictions

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In ancient literature

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Among contemporary writers, Julia is almost universally remembered for her flagrant and promiscuous conduct. Thus Marcus Velleius Paterculus (2.100) describes her as "tainted by luxury or lust", listing among her lovers Iullus Antonius, Quintius Crispinus, Appius Claudius, Sempronius Gracchus, and Cornelius Scipio. Seneca the Younger refers to "adulterers admitted in droves";[40] Pliny the Elder calls her an “exemplum licentiae” (NH 21.9). Dio Cassius mentions "revels and drinking parties by night in the Forum and even upon the Rostra" (Roman History 55.10). Seneca (De Beneficiis 6.32) tells us that the Rostra was the place where "her father had proposed a law against adultery", and yet now she had chosen the place for her "debaucheries". Seneca specifically mentions prostitution: "laying aside the role of adulteress, she there [in the Forum] sold her favours, and sought the right to every indulgence with even an unknown paramour."

Macrobius provides invaluable details of her witticisms and personality.[41] Among the sassy ripostes he attributes to her is a retort to people's surprise that her children all resembled Agrippa - “I take on a passenger only when the ship’s hold is full.”[42] On her character, he writes that Julia was extensively celebrated for her amiable, empathetic nature and studiousness despite her profligacy: "[S]he was abusing her standing as fortune’s darling, and her father’s, though in other respects she gained a great deal of credit for her love of literature and extensive learning... and her kindness, fellow-feeling, and lack of cruelty."[43]

Sidonius Apollinaris, writing in the 5th century, was the first person to identify Julia as the figure Corinna in Ovid's Amores.[44]

[edit]

Literature

[edit]
  • In Ben Jonson's comedy play Poetaster (1601), Julia is the romantic interest of Ovid.[45] The play itself is commonly thought to be a parody on the literary scene at the time with Julia and Ovid performing a balcony scene similar to Romeo and Juliet.[46]
  • Aphra Behn's satirical, heroic epistle poem, Ovid to Julia. A Letter (1685). The poem itself is a satire of John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, who allegedly courted the future Queen Anne and was exiled from court in 1682.[47]
  • Charlotte-Antoinette de Bressay's epistolary novel, Lettres De Julie À Ovide Et D'ovide À Julie ("Letters from Julia, the Daughter of Augustus, to Ovid", 1753).[48]
  • Robert Graves' novel, I, Claudius (1934). The titular character, Claudius, recounts that Julia was tricked by Livia into taking aphrodisiacs that increase her sexual appetite, leading to her affairs and ultimately her exile. Graves appears to have been largely influenced by Macrobius' account of Julia, with Claudius referring to her as "a decent, good hearted woman, though fond of pleasures and excitement, and the only one of my female relations who had a kindly word for me."
  • Taylor Caldwell's novel Dear and Glorious Physician (1958) portrays Julia as the unhappy wife of Tiberius and a seductress of Lucanus, the young evangelist Saint Luke.
  • In Elisabeth Dored's novel, Jeg elsket Tiberius ("I Loved Tiberius", 1959), Julia serves as the main character; it portrays Julia as innocent of all charges against her, both her affairs and modern historians' speculation of a plot.[49]
  • Julia is one of the narrators of John Edward Williams' epistolary novel Augustus (1972). There are a number of contributions in her name, written as part of a diary she wrote while in exile in Pandateria reflecting on her father, her marriages, her relationships with her lovers and the restrictions on her as a prominent Roman matron.[50]
  • Allan Massie's novel, Augustus (1986), depicts Julia very closely to the contemporary histories, with her engaging in affairs as a slight against her father's laws. Its follow-up, Tiberius (1991), invents an affair between Julia and Tiberius during her marriage to Marcellus.
  • In Edward Burton's novel Caesar's Daughter (1999), Julia is the titular character; it downplays her affairs with Iullus Antonius being her only lover and instead attributes Julia's exile to a failed coup to kill Tiberius.
  • Julia appears in the final novel in Colleen McCullough's Master of Rome series, Antony and Cleopatra (2007), as a child. Emphasising her as a highly intelligent child, the focus is chiefly on her education, which Octavian purposefully ensures is "like a man's".
  • Michelle Moran's novel, Cleopatra's Daughter (2009), which focuses on Cleopatra Selene, Queen Cleopatra VII's daughter, depicts a teenage Julia as one of the main characters.[51]
  • In Tana Rebellis's The Longest Exile (2024), which primarily focuses on the life and exile of Julia the Younger from 8 to 14 CE, Julia is a secondary POV character with her own chapters, written about her exile and ongoing plotting while in Rhegium.

Film and television

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  • In the 1976 BBC Television adaptation of I, Claudius, Julia was portrayed by Frances White.[52]
  • In the Italian mini series Imperium: Augustus, Julia was portrayed by Vittoria Belvedere. The series focused on the relationship between Augustus and Julia as he recounts how he came to power to her.[53] After being forced into an abusive marriage with Tiberius by her father and Livia, she begins an affair with Iullus Antonius. He subsequently attempts to murder Augustus in order to free Julia from his dynastic plans, leading to her exile.[54]
  • In the film, The Robe, she was played by Rosalind Ivan, making an anachronistic appearance as Tiberius' wife.[55]
  • In the 2021 TV series Domina, she was portrayed by Liah O'Prey.

Role in Anno Domini chronology

[edit]

In 1605, the Polish historian Laurentius Suslyga published a tract (later quoted by Kepler), which for the first time suggested that Jesus was born sometime during the years 6-4 BC, not on 25 December 1 BC as Dionysius Exiguus implied, but never stated. According to Dionysius' dating scheme, the Christian era supposedly began on 1 January AD 1, about one week after Jesus' birth at the end of December. Julia's expulsion from Rome in 2 BC was featured in Suslyga's chronological argument which sought to establish Herod's death in 4 BC. Suslyga's chronological ideas concerning the dating of Herod's death based on Julia the Elder's exile have since been challenged by archaeologists.[56]

Marriages and births

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Ancestry

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See also

[edit]

Notes

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  1. ^ According to Suetonius, Caligula – the son of Julia's daughter Agrippina and Tiberius's nephew Germanicus – would claim after his own ascension that his mother Agrippina was the product of an incestuous union between Julia and Augustus. The reason for this is allegedly because he did not wish to be thought of as the grandson of Agrippa due to his humble origins.[17] However, the existence of coins and inscriptions dating from Caligula's reign that clearly identify Agrippina as Agrippa's daughter suggests this account is apocryphal.[18] Barrett considered it to be a joke made in poor taste, rather than outright dismiss it as false.[19]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ E. Groag, A. Stein, L. Petersen - e.a. (edd.), Prosopographia Imperii Romani saeculi I, II et III (PIR), Berlin, 1933, I 634
  2. ^ Dio Cassius, 48.34.3.
  3. ^ Suetonius, Vita Augusti 64
  4. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia: Julia's Wit, 2.5.1-10
  5. ^ Suetonius Vita Augusti 64
  6. ^ Inter amicos [Augustus] dixit duas habere se filias delicatas, quas necesse haberet ferre, rem publicam et Iuliam. Macrobius, Saturnalia 2.5
  7. ^ Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 63-4.
  8. ^ Dio Cassius, Roman History, Book LIII 27.5.
  9. ^ Tacitus, Annals, I.3.1.
  10. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Roman History, II.93.
  11. ^ Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 66.
  12. ^ Dio Cassius, 54.6
  13. ^ Tacitus, Annals 1.53
  14. ^ "vulgo existimabatur", Suetonius, Vita Tiberii 7
  15. ^ Dio 54.18; Suet. Div. Aug. 64
  16. ^ Nicolaus of Damascus|Nicolaus, ([Fragmenta der Griechischein Historiker] 2 A: 421-2; Josephus, Antiquities 16.2.2
  17. ^ Suetonius, Vita Caligulae 23
  18. ^ Wood, Susan (2000). Imperial Women: A Study in Public Images, 40 BC–AD 68. Netherlands: BRILL. p. 36. ISBN 9789004119505.
  19. ^ Barrett, Anthony A (1989). Caligula: the corruption of power. London: Batsford. pp. 217-218
  20. ^ Dio Cassius 54.31
  21. ^ "Iuliae mores improbaret", loc.cit. Suetonius
  22. ^ a b Tacitus, Annals 1.53
  23. ^ Suetonius, Vita Tiberii 7.3
  24. ^ Pliny NH 7.149 adulterium filiae et consilia parricidae
  25. ^ Levick, Barbara, Tiberius the Politician, p26-29. ISBN 0-415-21753-9
  26. ^ Dio Cassius 55.10, Suetonius, Vita Augusti 65
  27. ^ Velleius Paterculus, 2.100
  28. ^ Dio Cassius 55.10
  29. ^ Suetonius, ibid.
  30. ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Tiberius, 50.
  31. ^ Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 65.
  32. ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Augustus, 19.
  33. ^ Suetonius, LXV, Life of Augustus
  34. ^ Suetonius, Life of Tiberius, 11.
  35. ^ Tacitus, Annals, Book 1:53.
  36. ^ Tacitus, Annals 1.53, "That same year Julia ended her days..."; cf. Ann.1.55, which commences the narration of events of 15
  37. ^ J. Linderski ("Julia in Regium", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 72 (1988), pp. 181-200) discusses the evidence, including two overlooked inscriptions from Regium.
  38. ^ Dio Cassius, Roman History, Book LVII.18.
  39. ^ Tacitus, Annals, Book 1.53. "Inopia ac tabe".
  40. ^ Seneca, admissos gregatim adulteros, De Beneficiis 6.32
  41. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia, Book II, 5:2, translations from Macrobius: Saturnalia, Volume I: Books 1-2. Edited and translated by Robert A. Kaster. Loeb Classical Library 510. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011. pp. 361-2. [1]
  42. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia, Book II, 5:9.
  43. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia, Book II, 5:2.
  44. ^ Sidonius Apollinaris, Carmina, 23.158-61.
  45. ^ Corrigan, Brian. "Benjamin Jonson". The Compendium of Renaissance Drama. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
  46. ^ Carr, Joan (Autumn 1978). "Jonson and the Classics: The Ovid-Plot in "Poetaster"". The University of Chicago Press. 8 (3): 304. JSTOR 43446926.
  47. ^ Behn, Aphra (2009). Salzman, Paul (ed.). Oroonoko and Other Writings. Oxford: OUP. p. 274. ISBN 978-0199538768.
  48. ^ Moormann, Eric (March 10, 2015). Pompeii's Ashes: The Reception of the Cities Buried by Vesuvius in Literature, Music, and Drama. Boston: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 347. ISBN 9781614518853. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
  49. ^ G, K (December 1963). "Review: [Untitled]". The Classical Outlook. 41 (4): 45. JSTOR 43929824.
  50. ^ Preziosi, Dominic (30 December 2016). "Staff Pick: 'Augustus'". Commonweal. Commonweal Magazine. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
  51. ^ Moran, Michelle (September 15, 2009). Cleopatra's Daughter. New York: Broadway Books. p. 5. ISBN 9780307409133. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  52. ^ Higgins, Charlotte (2010-02-24). "TV Club: I, Claudius". theguardian.com.
  53. ^ "Imperium: Augustus". IMDb. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  54. ^ Cooney, Patrick. "Imperium: Augustus (2003)". Vernon Johns Society. Archived from the original on May 12, 2008. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  55. ^ Mistakes in The Robe (1953)
  56. ^ Frederick M. Strickert, Philip’s City: From Bethsaida to Julias, (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 2011), pp. 163-188.
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