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{{Short description|English sailor and privateer (c. 1540 – 1596)}}
{{About|the Elizabethan naval commander}}
{{About|the Elizabethan naval commander}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox Pirate
{{Use British English|date=March 2020}}
|name=Sir Francis Drake
{{Infobox pirate
|lived=February–March 1540 – 27 January 1596 (aged 55)
| honorific_prefix = [[Vice Admiral]]
|image=[[Image:1590 or later Marcus Gheeraerts, Sir Francis Drake Buckland Abbey, Devon.jpg|180px]]<br />[[File:Francis Drake Signature.svg|180px]]|caption=A 16t century oil on canvas portrait of Sir Francis Drake in [[Buckland Abbey]], painting by [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger]].
| name = Sir Francis Drake
|nickname=El Draque (spanish), Draco (latin, "The Dragon")
| image = Gheeraerts Francis Drake 1591.jpg
|type=[[Privateer]]
| caption = Portrait by [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger|Marcus Gheeraerts]], 1591
|placeofbirth= [[Tavistock, Devon|Tavistock]], [[Devon]], [[England]]
| birth_date = {{c.}} 1540
|placeofdeath= [[Portobelo, Colón]], [[Panama]]
| birth_place = [[Tavistock]], [[Devon]], England
|allegiance= [[England]]
| death_date = {{Death-date and age|28 January 1596|1 January 1540}}
|serviceyears=1563&nbsp;– 1596
| death_place = off the coast of [[Portobelo, Colón|Portobelo]] (today [[Panama]])
|base of operations=[[Piracy in the Caribbean|Caribbean Sea]]
| awards = [[Knight Bachelor]] (1581)
|rank=[[Vice Admiral]]
| nickname = El Draque (the Dragon)<ref name="Edmundson2009"/>
|commands=''[[Golden Hind]]'' (previously known as ''Pelican'')
| type = [[Privateer]]
|battles=[[Anglo–Spanish War (1585)]]<br />[[Battle of Gravelines]]
| allegiance = [[Kingdom of England]]
|wealth=
| serviceyears = 1563–1596
|latework}}
| rank = [[Vice admiral]]
| base of operations = [[Piracy in the Caribbean|Caribbean Sea]]
| commands = {{ubl|''[[Golden Hind]]'' (previously known as ''Pelican'')|''[[English ship Bonaventure (1567)|Bonaventure]]''|''[[English ship Revenge (1577)|Revenge]]''}}
| battles = {{hidden
|See list
|{{tree list}}
* [[Tudor conquest of Ireland|Anglo-Irish War]]
** [[Rathlin Island massacre]]
* [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)#Causes|Anglo-Spanish trade war]]
** [[Battle of San Juan de Ulúa (1568)|Expedition of 1568]]
** [[Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573|Expedition of 1572–1573]]
** [[Francis Drake's circumnavigation|Expedition of 1577–1580]]
* [[Anglo–Spanish War (1585)|Anglo–Spanish War]]
** [[Capture of Santiago (1585)|Battle of Santiago]]
** [[Battle of Santo Domingo (1586)|Battle of Santo Domingo]]
** [[Battle of Cartagena de Indias (1586)|Battle of Cartagena de Indias]]
** [[Raid on St. Augustine]]
** [[Singeing the King of Spain's Beard|Expedition of 1587]]
** [[Spanish Armada]]
*** [[Naval battle of Gravelines|Battle of Gravelines]]
** [[English Armada|Drake-Norris Expedition]]
*** [[Siege of Coruña]]
*** [[English Armada#Landing at Peniche|Siege of Peniche]]
*** [[English Armada#Attack on Lisbon|Siege of Lisbon]]
*** [[English Armada#Raid on Vigo|Raid on Vigo]]
** [[Battle of Las Palmas]]
** [[Battle of San Juan (1595)|Battle of San Juan]]
** [[Drake's Assault on Panama|Assault on Panama]]
{{tree list/end}}
|-
|headerstyle=background:#dbdbdb
|style=text-align:center;
}}
| wealth = <!-- Est. --> {{Pirate wealth|115|2}}
| spouse = {{ubl|{{marriage|Mary Newman|July 1569|1581|end=died}}|{{marriage|Elizabeth Sydenham|1585}}}}
| laterwork =
| signature = Francis Drake Signature.svg
}}

'''Sir Francis Drake''' ({{c.}} 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English [[Exploration|explorer]] and [[privateer]] best known for [[Francis Drake's circumnavigation|his circumnavigation of the world]] in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580. This was the first English circumnavigation, and second circumnavigation overall. He is also known for participating in the early [[Slavery in Britain#Enslaved Africans|English slaving voyages]] of his cousin, Sir [[John Hawkins (naval commander)|John Hawkins]], and [[John Lovell (slave trader)|John Lovell]]. Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the [[Spanish Armada]] as a [[vice-admiral]].


At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, [[William Hawkins (died c. 1554)|William Hawkins]], a prominent sea captain in [[Plymouth]]. In 1572, he set sail on his [[Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573|first independent mission]], privateering along the [[Spanish Main]]. Drake's circumnavigation began on 15 December 1577. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to [[New Albion]], plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went. He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580. [[Elizabeth I]] awarded Drake a [[Knight Bachelor|knighthood]] in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the ''[[Golden Hind]]''.
'''Sir Francis Drake''', [[Vice Admiral]] (1540&nbsp;– 27 January 1596) was an [[England|English]] [[sea captain]], [[privateer]], [[navigator]], [[slaver]], a renowned [[pirate]], and a [[politician]] of the [[Elizabethan era]]. [[Elizabeth I of England]] awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the [[Spanish Armada]] in 1588, subordinate only to [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Charles Howard]] and the Queen herself. He died of [[dysentery]] in January 1596<ref>According to the English calendar then in use, Drake's date of death was 27 January 1595, as the new year began on 25 March.</ref> after unsuccessfully attacking [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]].


Drake's circumnavigation inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War]] began. Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports. When [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet. A year later he led the [[English Armada]] in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.
His exploits were legendary, making him a hero to the [[English people|English]] but a [[pirate]] to the [[Spaniard]]s to whom he was known as ''El Draque'', 'Draque' being the Spanish pronunciation of 'Drake'. His name in Latin was ''Franciscus Draco'' ('Francis the Dragon').<ref>In 1590 his name was published in Latin as ''Franciscvs Draco'': [http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/Exhibits/nativeamericans/13.html [[Theodor de Bry]] ]</ref> King [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] was claimed to have offered a reward of 20,000&nbsp;[[ducat]]s,<ref name=Cummins>Cummins, John, ''Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero'', 1996,
Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312163657</ref> about [[Pound sterling|£]]4,000,000 ([[United States dollar|US$]]6.5M) by modern standards, for his life.


Drake was a [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|member of parliament]] (MP) for three constituencies: [[Camelford (UK Parliament constituency)|Camelford]] in 1581, [[Bossiney (UK Parliament constituency)|Bossiney]] in 1584, and [[Plymouth (UK Parliament constituency)|Plymouth]] in 1593. Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a [[pirate]], known to them as El Draque ("The Dragon" in old Spanish).<ref name="Edmundson2009">{{cite book |last1=Edmundson |first1=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVjCAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |title=A History of the British Presence in Chile: From Bloody Mary to Charles Darwin and the Decline of British Influence |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |isbn=978-0230101210 |page=9 |quote=The fame of his exploits spread to the extent that by the mid-1570s, Philip began to refer to him as ''Draque'', ''Francisco Draque'', ''El Draque'', and even more intimately as ''El Capitán Francisco''. Educated Spaniards called him ''Francisco Draguez'', and Spanish mothers warned their children that if they did not behave, El Draco would come and take them away – a play on words, since ''el drake'' in old Spanish means "the dragon", derived from the Latin ''Draco''.}}</ref> He died of [[dysentery]] after his [[Drake's Assault on Panama|failed assault on Panama]] in January 1596.
He is famous for (among other things) leading the first English [[circumnavigation]] of the world, from 1577 to 1580.


==Birth and early years==
==Birth and early years==
[[Image:sfdrake42.jpg|thumb|left|[[Portrait miniature]] of Drake, age 37 by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in 1581]]
[[File:sfdrake42.jpg|thumb|[[Portrait miniature]] by [[Nicholas Hilliard]], 1581, inscribed ''Aetatis suae 42, An(n)o D(omi)ni 1581'' ("42 years of his age, 1581 AD")]]
[[File:1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake.jpg | thumb | 1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake by Jodocus Hondius I]]
Francis Drake was born at Crowndale Farm in [[Tavistock, Devon]], England.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=3}} His birth date is not formally recorded – such writers as [[E. F. Benson]] have claimed that he was born while the [[Thirty-nine Articles#Six Articles (1539)|Six Articles of 1539]] were in force,<ref name="Benson1927">{{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Edward Frederic |title=Sir Francis Drake |date=1927 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |page=6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zc4gAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA6}}</ref> but British naval historian [[Julian Corbett]], writing of [[William Camden]]'s account, on which this information is based, writes that "As a slip of memory, too, we must put down his difficult assertion that Edmund Drake was driven from [[Devonshire]] during a persecution under the [[Statute of the Six Articles|Six Articles Act of 1539]]."{{sfn|Corbett|1898|p=393}} His birth date is estimated from the wording of texts in contemporary sources such as: "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the ''Judith''"<ref name="Campbell1841">{{cite book |title=Lives of the British Admirals and Naval History of Great Britain from the Time of Caesar to the Chinese War of 1841 Chiefly Abridged from the work of Dr. John Campbell |last=Campbell |first=John |author-link=John Campbell (author) |year=1841 |publisher=Richard Griffin & Co |location=Glasgow |isbn=978-0665347566 |oclc=12129656 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SD3M-bWc6a8C&pg=PA104 |access-date=30 August 2012 |archive-date=25 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125061454/https://books.google.com/books?id=SD3M-bWc6a8C&pg=PA104 |url-status=live }} Direct quote is followed by "this carries back his birth to 1544, at which time the six articles were in force, and Francis Russell was seventeen years of age."</ref> (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of {{c.}} 1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a [[Portrait miniature|miniature]], painted by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in 1581, when he was allegedly 42, which would place his birth {{circa}} 1539, while the other, painted in 1594 when he was said to be 52,<ref name="DNB1921">1921/22 edition of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', which quotes [[John Barrow (English statesman)|Barrow]]'s ''Life of Drake'' (1843) p. 5.</ref> would give a birth year of c. 1541.


He was the eldest of the twelve sons<ref name="ODNB04">[[George Malcolm Thomson (1899–1996)|Thomson, George Malcolm]] (1972), 'Sir Francis Drake', William Morrow & Company Inc. {{ISBN|978-0436520495}}</ref> of Edmund Drake (1518–1585), a [[Protestant]] farmer, and his wife, Mary Mylwaye. The first son was said to have been named after his [[Godparent|godfather]], [[Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford]].<ref name="Froude1896">{{cite book|last=Froude|first=James Anthony|author-link=James Anthony Froude|title=English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century|place=New York|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|year=1896|url=https://archive.org/details/englishseamenins00frou/page/n8}} Quote: "He told [[William Camden|Camden]] that he was of mean extraction. He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth. His father was a tenant of the [[John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford|Earl of Bedford]], and must have stood well with him, for Francis Russell, the heir of the earldom, was the boy's godfather."</ref>


Due to religious persecution during the [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] in 1549, the Drake family fled from [[Devon]] to [[Kent]]. There Drake's father obtained an appointment to minister to the men in the King's Navy. He was ordained [[deacon]] and was made vicar of [[Upchurch]] Church on the [[Medway]].{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=12}}
Sir Francis Drake was born in [[Tavistock, Devon|Tavistock]], [[Devon]], in February or March of 1544 at the earliest, when his namesake [[Godparent|godfather]] [[Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford]] was but age 17.<ref name=Southey>Southey, Robert. (1897). ''English Seamen&nbsp;— Howard Clifford Hawkins Drake Cavendish'', Methuen and Co. 36 Essex Street WC London</ref> Drake's family immediately removed to Kent where he was raised.
Although Drake's birth is not formally recorded, it is known that he was born while the
[[Thirty-Nine_Articles#Six_Articles_.281539.29|six articles]] were in force and that 'Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the Judith'(1566) this carries back his birth to 1544 (at which time the six articles were in force).
He was the eldest of the twelve sons<ref name="ODNB04">Thomson,George Malcolm(1972), ‘Sir Francis Drake’, William Morrow & Company Inc. ISBN 978-0436520495</ref> of Edmund Drake (1518–1585), a [[Protestant]] farmer called in question for his religion by the six articles, who became a minister
among the seamen in the king's navy to read prayers to them, and his wife Mary Mylwaye.
In the days of religious persecution, the Drake family fled from Devonshire into Kent, where the
father obtained an appointment to minister to men in the King's navy, and soon afterwards was ordained deacon and made vicar of [[Upnor Church]] upon the Medway.<ref name="Southey"/> Drake's father put his son to the master of a [[barque]], his neighbour, who carried on coasting trade transporting merchandise to France.<ref name="Southey"/>
The ship master was so satisfied with Drake's conduct, and pleased with him, that, being unmarried
and childless at his death he bequeathed the barque to Drake as his inheritor.<ref name="Southey"/>


==Early career at sea==
The elder Drake is sometimes confused with his nephew John Drake (1573–1634), who was the son of Edmund's older brother, Richard Drake. (cf. [[John White (surveyor)#endnote Drake|John White, note 2]]). Francis Drake's maternal grandfather was Richard Mylwaye.
At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, sea-captain [[William Hawkins (died 1589)|William Hawkins]] of Plymouth, and began his seagoing training as an apprentice on Hawkins' boats.{{sfn|Loades|2007}} By 18, he was a [[purser]], according to the English chronicler [[Edmund Howes]],{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=11}} and in the 1550s, Drake's father found the young man a position with the owner and master of a small [[barque]], one of the small traders plying between the Medway River and the Dutch coast. Drake likely engaged in commerce along the coast of England, the Low Countries and France.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pages=8–9}} The ship's master was so satisfied with the young Drake's conduct that, being unmarried and childless at his death, he bequeathed the barque to Drake.<ref name="Best2021">{{cite book |last1=Best |first1=Brian |title=Elizabeth's Sea Dogs and their War Against Spain |date=2021 |publisher=Frontline Books |isbn=978-1526782885 |page=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qv0hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45}}</ref>


===Slave trade===
Francis Drake was married to his first wife, Mary Newman, from 1569 until her death 12 years later. In 1585, Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham—born circa 1562, the only child of Sir George Sydenham, sheriff of Somerset. After Drake's death, Elizabeth eventually married Sir William Courtenay of Powderham.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Bios/FrancisDrake.htm|title=Captain Sir Francis DRAKE|work=tudorplace.com.ar|accessdate=2008-05-28}}</ref> Sir Francis Drake did not have any children, and his estate and titles passed on to his nephew (also named Francis).
[[File:Thomas Cavendish (1560-92), Sir Francis Drake (1540?-96) and Sir John Hawkins (1532-95) RMG BHC2603.tiff|thumb|[[John Hawkins (naval commander)|Sir John Hawkins]] (left) with Sir Francis Drake (centre) and Sir [[Thomas Cavendish]]]]


In 1562, the West African slave trade was a duopoly dominated by the Portuguese and the Spanish. [[John Hawkins (naval commander)|Sir John Hawkins]] devised a plan to break into that trade, and enlisted the aid of colleagues and family to finance his first slave voyage. Drake was not part of that group of financiers,{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=20}} though his presence as one of hundreds of seamen on Hawkins's first two slaving voyages has been assumed.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=21}} There is some anecdotal evidence to support Drake serving as a common seaman on the first two voyages, and good evidence of his presence for the last two of four slaving voyages made by Hawkins' ships between 1562 and 1569.{{sfn|Loades|2007}}{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=17}}<ref name="RoyalMuseumsGreenwich2023">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated-->|title=John Hawkins {{!}} Admiral, Privateer, Slave Trader |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/john-hawkins-admiral-privateer-slave-trader |website=www.rmg.co.uk |publisher=Royal Museums Greenwich |access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>
{{rquote|right|The people of quality dislike him for having risen so high from such a lowely family; the rest say he is the main cause of wars.|Gonzalo González del Castillo in a letter to [[Philip II of Spain|King Philip II]] in 1592.<ref name=Cummins/>}}


[[File:AnthonyRoll-6 Jesus of Lübeck.jpg|thumb|''[[Jesus of Lübeck]]'', flagship of Sir John Hawkins]]
Francis Drake was reportedly named after his [[Godparent|godfather]] [[Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford]],<ref name=tudorplace>{{cite web|url=http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Bios/FrancisDrake.htm |title=Francis Drake bio |publisher=Tudor Place |date= |accessdate=2010-02-25}}</ref> and throughout his cousins' lineages are direct connections to [[The Crown|royalty]] and famous personages, such as [[Richard Grenville|Sir Richard Grenville]], Ivor Callely, Amy Grenville and [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. However, James Froud states, "He told [[William Camden|Camden]] that he was of mean extraction. He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth. His father was a tenant of the [[John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford|Earl of Bedford]], and must have stood well with him, for Francis Russell, the heir of the earldom, was the boy's godfather."<ref name=Froude>Froude, James Anthony, ''English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century'', London 1896</ref>


In 1562, Hawkins sailed to the coast of the Sierra Leone, seized Portuguese slave ships, and sold the Africans in the Spanish Indies.<ref name="Sauer1975">{{cite book|first=Carl Ortwin |last=Sauer|title=Sixteenth Century North America: The Land and the People as Seen by the Europeans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWXU6sjN9ZUC&pg=PA235|year=1975|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520027770|page=235}}</ref> It was highly profitable, so for his second slave voyage in 1564, Hawkins gained Queen Elizabeth I's support. She lent him one of her ships, ''[[Jesus of Lübeck]]'', which served as his flagship.<ref name="Bradford2014">{{cite book |last1=Bradford |first1=Ernle |title=Drake: England's Greatest Seafarer |year=2014 |publisher=Open Road Media |isbn=978-1497617155 |page=22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bbAfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT22}}</ref> Hawkins attacked an African native town and sold many of its inhabitants in Spanish ports on the Caribbean mainland, making another large profit for himself, the Queen and the consortium of investors from her court.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=21}}<ref name="Sauer1975"/> Sources vary on the dates and the age of Drake at the time;{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=13}} Harry Kelsey says he was twenty years old, "[a]ccording to Howes" (in reference to the English chronicler Edmund Howes writing in 1615).{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|pp=11–13}} Drake was not a member of that consortium, but the crew would have received a small share of the profits.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006 |page=9}}{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=43}} Based on this association, scholar [[Kris Lane]] lists Drake as one of the first English slave traders.{{sfn|Lane|2015 |p=29}}
As with many of Drake's contemporaries, the exact date of his birth is unknown and could be as early as 1535, the 1540 date being extrapolated from two portraits: one a [[Portrait miniature|miniature]] painted by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in 1581 when he was allegedly 42, the other painted in 1594 when he was said to be 53.<ref name=DNB>1921/22 edition of the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', which quotes [[John Barrow (English statesman)|Barrow]]'s ''Life of Drake'' (1843) p. 5.</ref>


The Spanish and Portuguese were aggrieved that the English had entered into the slave trade and were selling slaves to their colonies despite being forbidden from doing so. Queen Elizabeth I, under pressure to avoid an armed conflict, forbade Hawkins from going to sea for a third slave voyage. In response, he set up a slave voyage with a relative, [[John Lovell (slave trader)|John Lovell]], in command in 1566.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004 |p=21}} Drake accompanied Lovell on this voyage.{{sfn|Whitfield |2004 |p=21}} The voyage was unsuccessful, as more than 90 enslaved Africans were released without payment.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pages=19–22}}
During the [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] of 1549, the family was forced to flee to [[Kent]]. Before he turned thirteen, Drake started his sea career when he became an apprentice member of the crew of a [[barque]] trading between the [[Thames]] and the cross-Channel ports. He became owner-master of the ship at the age of twenty after the death of its previous captain, who bequeathed it to him. At age twenty-three, Drake made his first voyage to the [[New World]], sailing, in company with his second cousin, Sir [[John Hawkins]], on one of a fleet of ships owned by his relatives, the Hawkins family of [[Plymouth]]. In 1568 he was again with the Hawkins fleet when it was trapped by the Spaniards in the Mexican port of [[Battle of San Juan de Ulúa (1568)|San Juan de Ulua]]. He escaped along with Hawkins but the experience is said to have led him to his lifelong revenge against the Spanish.


In 1567, Drake accompanied Hawkins on their next and last joint voyage.<ref>{{cite book|first=Anthony|last=Benezet|author-link = Anthony Benezet|title=Some historical account of Guinea, : its situation, produce, and the general disposition of its inhabitants, with an inquiry into the rise and progress of the slave trade, its nature and lamentable effects|year=1788|page=49|place=London|publisher=J. Phillips|url=https://archive.org/details/somehistoricalac1788bene/page/n6}}</ref> The crew attempted to capture slaves around [[Cape Verde]], but failed. Hawkins allied himself with two local kings in [[Sierra Leone]] who asked for help against their enemies in exchange for half of any captives they took. Attacking from both sides, they took several hundred prisoners, though Kelsey says the kings kept "the larger share of slaves and dared Hawkins to do anything about it".{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=32}}
==First victory==
Following the defeat at San Juan de Ulua, Drake vowed to get revenge and thus made two minor voyages to the West Indies, in 1570 and 1571, of which little is known. It was in 1572 that he embarked on his first major independent enterprise. He planned an attack on the Panama isthmus, known to the Spanish as Tierra Firme and the English as the Spanish Main. This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be landed and sent overland to the Caribbean Sea, where galleons from Spain would pick it up at the town of Nombre de Dios. He left Plymouth on May 24, 1572, with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels, the ''Pascha'' (70 tons) and the ''Swan'' (25 tons), to capture Nombre de Dios.


Events worsened for the fleet as it faced storms, Spanish hostility, armed conflict, and finally a hurricane that separated one ship from the rest, and it had to find its own way home.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=22}} The remaining ships were forced into the port of [[San Juan de Ulúa]] near [[Veracruz (city)|Vera Cruz]] so they could make repairs. Soon afterward the newly appointed viceroy of New Spain, [[Martín Enríquez de Almanza]], arrived with a fleet of ships. While still negotiating to resupply and repair, Hawkins' ships were attacked by the Spanish ships in what became known as the [[Battle of San Juan de Ulúa (1568)|Battle of San Juan de Ulúa]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Strickrodt |first1=Silke |title=The British Transatlantic Slave Trade (4 vols.) |journal=The English Historical Review |date=1 February 2006 |volume=CXXI |issue=490 |pages=226–230 |doi=10.1093/ehr/cej026 }}</ref> The battle ended in an English defeat with all but two of the English ships lost. The Spanish launched a fireship against Hawkins' flagship ''Jesus of Lübeck'', and the crew of ''Minion'' in panic and fear cut the lines securing them to ''Jesus''. Hawkins was among those who jumped from the flagship's bulwarks to ''Minion'''s decks.<ref name="Childs2009">{{cite book |last1=Childs |first1=David |title=Tudor Sea Power: The Foundation of Greatness |year=2009 |publisher=Seaforth Publishing |isbn=978-1848320314 |page=83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe_RAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83}}</ref> Drake, by this time the captain of ''Judith'', fled leaving Hawkins behind. Hawkins escaped on ''Minion'' and limped back to England with dozens of his men dying along the way,{{sfn|Sugden|2012|p=37}} and arriving with a crew of just 15.<ref name="RobertsRobertsBisson2016">{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Clayton |last2=Roberts |first2=F. David |last3=Bisson |first3=Douglas |title=A History of England, Volume 1: Prehistory to 1714 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1315510002 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4uTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 |language=en}}</ref> Hundreds of English seamen were abandoned.{{sfn|Sugden|2012|p=36}}
His first raid there came late in July, 1572. Drake and his men captured the town and its treasure. However his men noticed that Drake was bleeding profusely from a wound and they insisted on withdrawing to save his life, leaving the treasure. He remained in the vicinity of the isthmus for almost a year, raiding Spanish shipping and attempting to capture a treasure shipment.


After arriving back in England, Hawkins accused Drake of desertion and of stealing the treasure they had accumulated. Drake denied both accusations asserting he had distributed all profits among the crew and that he had believed Hawkins was lost when he left.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=43}}{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=24}} The bitter end of the fourth voyage turned Drake's life in a different direction: thereafter he would not pursue trading and slaving but would, instead, dedicate himself to attacking Spanish possessions wherever he found them.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=25}} Drake's hostility towards the Spanish is said to have started with the battle and its aftermath.<ref name="Sims2022">{{cite book |last1=Sims |first1=Jennifer E. |title=Decision Advantage: Intelligence in International Politics from the Spanish Armada to Cyberwar |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/44620/chapter-abstract/378612109 |year=2022 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197508046.003.0003 |chapter=Gaining Decision Advantage in the Anglo-Spanish War |pages=51–C3.P124 |isbn= 978-0197508077 |quote=Hawkins's motives, like Drake's, went back to that Spanish deceit in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa.}}</ref>
In 1573, he joined up with a French buccaneer, [[Guillaume Le Testu]], in an attack on a richly laden mule train. This raid succeeded beyond any of their wildest dreams and Drake and his companions found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. It was far too much for the few men to carry off and so much of the treasure was buried (which may have given rise to all subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure). Le Testu was wounded, captured and later beheaded.


The voyage of 1567–1569 was Drake's last association with slaving. In total, approximately 1,200 Africans were enslaved on these four voyages,<ref name="Morgan2007">{{cite ODNB |last1=Morgan |first1=Basil |title=Hawkins, Sir John (1532–1595), merchant and naval commander |date=4 October 2007 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/12672 |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-12672}}</ref> and an estimated three times as many Africans were killed (based on the contemporaneous accounts of slavers).<ref name="RoyalMuseumsGreenwich2023" /> On the issue of slaving, scholar John Sugden writes that "Drake was in his twenties and did not question what his elders accepted", but must share some culpability for his participation.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=26}}
The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some 18 miles of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left their small raiding boats. However, when they got there, their boats had vanished. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, now had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind.


===Expedition of 1572–1573===
At this point Drake showed exceptional leadership. He rallied his men, buried the treasure on the beach and built a raft to sail himself and two volunteers ten miles along the fearsome surf-lashed coast to where he had left his flagship. The raft was continually awash up to their chests and the salt water and the burning sun caused them much suffering. However, they pushed onwards until they reached their ship. When Drake finally stood on her deck, his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance. Fearing the worst they asked him how the raid had gone. Drake, in spite of everything, could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted. Then he laughed, pulled a necklace of Spanish gold from around his neck and said "Our voyage is made, lads!" By August 9, 1573, he was back in Plymouth.


{{main article|Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573}}
==Circumnavigation of the earth==
===Entering the Pacific===
With the success of the Panama isthmus raid, in 1577 [[Elizabeth I of England]] sent Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of the Americas. He set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet, who were forced to take refuge in [[Falmouth, Cornwall]], from where they returned to Plymouth for repair. After this major setback, he set sail once again on the 13th of December, aboard ''Pelican'', with four other ships and 164 men. He soon added a sixth ship, ''Mary'' (formerly ''Santa Maria'') a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the [[Cape Verde|Cape Verde Islands]]. More importantly, he added its captain, Nuno da Silva, a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters.


In 1572, Drake embarked on his first major independent enterprise. He planned an attack on the [[Isthmus of Panama]], known to the Spanish as part of [[Tierra Firma|Tierra Firme]] and to the English as part of the [[Spanish Main]].<ref name="Sauer1966">{{cite book |last1=Sauer |first1=Carl Ortwin |title=The Early Spanish Main |year=1966 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=2–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H6IimGc3OqIC&pg=PA2 |quote=Tierra Firme continued to be the common name for the south side of the Caribbean. It was translated into English as the Spanish Main, the ports of which were raided by English ships.}}</ref> This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be brought ashore and transported overland to the [[Caribbean Sea]], where galleons from Spain would take it aboard at the town of [[Nombre de Dios, Colón|Nombre de Dios]]. Drake left Plymouth on 24 May 1572, with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels, ''Pascha'' (70 tons) and ''Swan'' (25 tons), to capture Nombre de Dios.<ref name="Dean2014">{{cite book |last1=Dean |first1=James Seay |title=Sea Dogs: Life Aboard an English Galleon |year=2014 |publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-0750957380 |page=89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MUMTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT89}}</ref>{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=29}}
[[File:Sfec goldenhind02crop.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A modern replica of Drake's ''[[Golden Hind]]'']]


Drake's first raid was late in July 1572. Drake captured Nombre de Dios, but he was badly wounded when the Spanish arrived from Panama, and his forces had to retreat without the gold, silver, pearls and jewels stored in the royal treasury. Rather than sacking Nombre de Dios again, Drake raided Spanish galleons along the coast<ref name="Lindsay2014">{{cite book |last1=Lindsay |first1=Ivan |title=The History of Loot and Stolen Art: from Antiquity until the Present Day |year=2014 |publisher=Andrews UK Limited |isbn=978-1906509576 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TsG7BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17-IA44}}</ref> and with his [[Cimarron people (Panama)|Cimarrón]] (African slaves who had escaped from their Spanish owners)<ref name="Laviña2020">{{cite book |last1=Laviña |first1=Javier |editor1-last=Tomich |editor1-first=Dale W. |title=Atlantic Transformations: Empire, Politics, and Slavery during the Nineteenth Century |date=2020 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1438477862 |pages=183–184 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BO_cDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA183 |chapter=Atlantization and the First Failed Slavery: Panama from the Sixteenth to the Seventeenth Century}}</ref> allies looted the mule trains that transported gold, silver and trade goods from Panama City.<ref name="Schwaller2021">{{cite book |last1=Schwaller |first1=Robert C. |editor1-last=Schwaller |editor1-first=Robert C. |title=African Maroons in Sixteenth-Century Panama: A History in Documents |year=2021 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0806176765 |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlkmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103}}</ref> One of these men was Diego, who later became a [[Free people of color|free man]] after years of service under Drake.<ref name="Kaufman2017">{{cite book |last1=Kaufmann |first1=Miranda |author-link=Miranda Kaufmann|title=Black Tudors: The Untold Story |year=2017 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1786071859 |pages=74–75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7D-9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT74}}</ref>
Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both ''Christopher'' and the [[flyboat]] ''Swan'' due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He then made landfall at the gloomy bay of [[Puerto San Julián|San Julian]], in what is now [[Argentina]]. Ferdinand Magellan had called here half a century earlier and here he had put to death some mutineers. Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the grim Spanish gibbets. Here ''Mary'' was found to be rotten and was burned. Drake, following Magellan's example, tried and executed his own 'mutineer' [[Thomas Doughty (explorer)|Thomas Doughty]]. Drake then decided to remain the winter in [[San Julian]] before attempting the [[Strait of Magellan]].


Among Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main, his capture of the Spanish silver train at Nombre de Dios on 1 April 1573{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}} made him rich and famous.<ref name="Rodger2004">{{cite book |last1=Rodger |first1=N. A. M. |title=The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0141912578 |page=lxxxiii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FNKKupCv4VwC&pg=PR73}}</ref> Near Cabo de Cativas he encountered a French privateer, [[Guillaume Le Testu]], who was in command of the 80-ton warship ''Havre'', and joined forces with him in a combined fleet. Drake had determined to intercept the mule train at the Campos River, two leagues from Nombre de Dios, and instructed the captains of his pinnaces to meet them at the Francisca River on 3 April to carry them off after the raid. The combined English and French raiding parties marched through the forest towards the trail, to within a mile of the city while the Cimarróns performed reconnaissance. The next morning, 1 April, they surprised the mule convoy and seized more than 200,000 pesos' worth of treasure.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=72–73}}
The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait, at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later (September 1578) Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships in the strait and caused another to return to England, leaving only the ''Golden Hind''. After this passage the "Golden Hind" was pushed south and discovered an island which Drake called [[Elizabeth Island (Cape Horn)|Elizabeth Island]]. Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in [[Richard Hakluyt|Hakluyt]]'s ''The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation'' of 1589) along the Chilean coast.<ref name=Wagner>Wagner, Henry R., ''Sir Francis Drake's Voyage Around the World: Its Aims and Achievements'', Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006, ISBN 1-428-62255-1.</ref> Despite popular lore, it seems unlikely that he reached [[Cape Horn]] or the eponymous [[Drake Passage]],<ref name=Wagner/> because his descriptions do not fit the first and his shipmates denied having seen an open sea, while the first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of [[Willem Schouten]] and [[Jacob le Maire]] around Cape Horn in 1616.<ref name=Kelsey>Kelsey, Harry, ''Sir Francis Drake; The Queen's Pirate'', Yale University Press, New Haven, 1998, ISBN 0-300-07182-5.</ref>


After their attack on the richly laden [[mule]] train, Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry, and made off with a fortune in gold.<ref name="Marley2008">{{cite book|first=David |last=Marley|title=Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the Western Hemisphere, 1492 to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DkgGVTOr2EsC&pg=PA103|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1598841008|pages=103–104}}</ref><ref name="Konstam2011">{{cite book|first=Angus |last=Konstam|title=The Great Expedition: Sir Francis Drake on the Spanish Main 1585–86|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UKyHCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29|date=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1780962337|page=29}}</ref> (An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure).<ref name="Little2010">{{cite book |last1=Little |first1=Benerson |title=How History's Greatest Pirates Pillaged, Plundered, and Got Away With It: The Stories, Techniques, and Tactics of the Most Feared Sea Rovers from 1500–1800 |date=2010 |publisher=Quarto Publishing Group USA |isbn=978-1610595001 |pages=59–60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dD-HBxNLkdsC&pg=PA59}}</ref> Badly wounded, Le Testu was captured and beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some {{Convert|18|mi}} of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats. When they got to the coast, the boats were gone. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind.<ref name="Best202152">{{cite book |last1=Best |first1=Brian |title=Elizabeth's Sea Dogs and their War Against Spain |year=2021 |publisher=Frontline Books |isbn=978-1526782885 |page=52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qv0hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52}}</ref>
He pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed the ''[[Golden Hind]]'' in honour of Sir [[Christopher Hatton]] (after his [[coat of arms]]). The ''Golden Hind'' sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and rifling towns. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts. Before reaching the coast of Peru, Drake visited [[Mocha Island]] where he was seriously injured by hostile [[Mapuche]]s. Later he sacked the port of [[Valparaíso]] further north in Chile.


At this point, Drake rallied his men, buried the treasure on the beach, and built a raft to sail in a heavy swell with four men twelve miles along the coast to where they had left two [[pinnace (ship's boat)|pinnace]]s.<ref name="Best202152" /> When Drake finally reached them, his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance. Fearing the worst, they asked him how the raid had gone. Drake could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted.<ref name="Herman2005">{{cite book |last1=Herman |first1=Arthur |title=To Rule the Waves: How the British Navy Shaped the Modern World |date=2005 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0060534257 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dF2W7BAo4x0C&pg=PA59}}</ref> Then he laughed, pulled a quoit of Spanish gold from his clothes and said, "Our voyage is made."{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|p=75}} By the second week of August 1573, he had returned to Plymouth.<ref name="Bradford201448">{{cite book |last1=Bradford |first1=Ernle |title=Drake: England's Greatest Seafarer |year=2014 |publisher=Open Road Media |isbn=978-1497617155 |pages=48–49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bbAfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48}}</ref>
===A most consequential action===
Near [[Lima]], Drake captured a Spanish ship laden with 25,000&nbsp;[[peso]]s of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000&nbsp;[[ducat]]s of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'', which was sailing west towards [[Manila]]. It would come to be called the ''[[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora de la Concepción (1570)|Cacafuego]]''. Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship which proved their most profitable capture. Aboard ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'', Drake found {{convert|80|lb|abbr=on}} of [[gold]], a golden [[crucifix]], [[gemstone|jewels]], 13&nbsp;chests full of royals of plate and 26&nbsp;tons of [[silver]].


It was during this expedition that on 11 February Drake and his lieutenant [[John Oxenham]] climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the [[Isthmus of Panama]] and thus became the first Englishmen to see the [[Pacific Ocean]], mirroring the achievement of the Spaniard [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]] in 1513. The Cimarróns had cut steps into its trunk, on which Drake and the Cimarrón leader Pedro ascended to a platform at the top of the giant tree, where they were joined by Oxenham.<ref name="Bradford201444">{{cite book |last1=Bradford |first1=Ernle |title=Drake: England's Greatest Seafarer |date=2014 |publisher=Open Road Media |isbn=978-1497617155 |pages=44–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bbAfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44}}</ref> The Englishmen vowed when they saw the Pacific Ocean that one day they would sail its waters<ref name="Morison1986">{{cite book |last1=Morison |first1=Samuel Eliot |title=The Great Explorers: The European Discovery of America |year=1986 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195042221 |page=675 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JnotvLHX80gC&pg=PA675}}</ref> – which Drake would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world.{{sfn|Cummins|1997|p=287}}
===Nova Albion===
{{Main|Nova Albion}}
[[File:Drake CA 1590.jpg|thumb|Drake's landing in California, engraving published 1590 by [[Theodor De Bry]]]]
On 17 June 1579, Drake landed somewhere north of Spain's northern-most claim at [[Point Loma]]. He found a good port, landed, repaired and restocked his vessels, then stayed for a time, keeping friendly relations with the natives. He claimed the land in the name of the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] for the English Crown as called ''[[Nova Albion]]''—[[Latin]] for "New Britain". Assertions that he left some of his men behind as an embryo "colony" are founded merely on the reduced number who were with him in the [[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]].<ref>Dismissed by John Cummins, ''Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero'' 1997:118: "In view of the prominence given in different versions to the crowning of Drake it would be odd if the establishment of a colony had gone unrecorded."</ref>


When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially. Drake was considered a hero in England and a pirate in Spain for his raids.{{sfn|Cummins|1997|p=273}}
The precise location of the port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may even have been altered to this end. All first-hand records from the voyage, including logs, paintings and charts were lost when [[Whitehall Palace]] burned in 1698. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake's claim to the new lands -[[Drake's Plate of Brass]]- fitting the description in Drake's own account was discovered in [[Marin County]], [[California]], but was later declared a hoax. Another location often claimed to be Nova Albion is [[Whale Cove (Oregon)|Whale Cove]], [[Oregon]], although to date there is no evidence to suggest this, other than a general resemblance to a single map penned a decade after the landing.


===Rathlin Island massacre===
Samuel Bawlf<ref>R. Samuel Bawlf, ''The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake: 1577–1580'' (Walker Publishing) 2003.</ref> marshaled indications that "Nova Albion" was established at [[Comox, British Columbia|Comox]] on [[Vancouver Island]], during an undocumented "secret voyage" north. It is known that Drake and his men sailed north from Nova Albion in search of a western opening to the [[Northwest Passage]], a potentially valuable asset to the English at the time. During this venture the sailors accurately mapped the westward trend of the north-western corner of the North American continent, present-day and his men befriended a sultan king of the Moluccas and involved themselves in some intrigues with the Portuguese there. He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]], and reached [[Sierra Leone]] by 22 July 1580.
Drake was present at the 1575 [[Rathlin Island massacre]] in Ireland. [[John Norris (soldier)|Sir John Norris]] (or ''Norreys'') and Drake, acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], Robert Devereux, laid siege to [[Rathlin Castle]]. Despite its surrender, Norris' troops killed all the 200 defenders and several hundred more men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=85}} Meanwhile, Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island. Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defence against English power, [[Sorley Boy MacDonnell]], was forced to stay on the mainland. Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary that following the attack Sorley Boy "was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had."<ref>{{cite book|first=Hugh|last=Forde|title=Sketches Of Olden Days in Northern Ireland: Including Portrush, Dunluce Castle, Dunseverick Castle, Ballycastle, Giant's Causeway, Rathlin Island, Coleraine, Derry, Inishowen, Tory Island|publisher=MC'aw, Stevenson and Orr Ltd|place=Belfast|year=1923|url=https://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/toc.php|access-date=16 June 2019|archive-date=16 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616133647/https://www.libraryireland.com/sketches/toc.php|url-status=live}}</ref>


==Circumnavigation (1577–1580)==
===Home and knighting===
{{further|Francis Drake's circumnavigation}}
On 26 September, ''Golden Hind'' sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59&nbsp;remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The Queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth (and the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after [[Juan Sebastián Elcano|Elcano]]'s in 1520). Drake was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth aboard ''Golden Hind'' in Deptford on 4 April 1581; the actual [[Accolade|dubbing]] being performed by a French diplomat, Monsieur de Marchaumont, who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France's brother, [[Francis, Duke of Anjou]].<ref>John Cummins, {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=FcTPHp5eh1UC&pg=PA127&dq=Monsieur+de+Marchaumont+drake#v=onepage&q=Monsieur%20de%20Marchaumont%20drake&f=false |title=''Francis Drake: Lives of a Hero'', page 127 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan, 1997, ISBN 0312163657 |accessdate=2009-11-14 |isbn=9780312163655 |date=1997-03-23 }}</ref><ref name="plydat">{{cite web|url=http://www.plymouthdata.info/PP-Drake.htm |title=The Encyclopaedia of Plymouth History: Sir Francis Drake |publisher=Plymouthdata.info |date=2004-03-11 |accessdate=2010-02-25}}</ref> By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting, Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake's actions.<ref>Mary E. Hazard, {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=wtFtcD-u6YoC&pg=PA251&dq=Monsieur+de+Marchaumont+drake#v=onepage&q=Monsieur%20de%20Marchaumont%20drake&f=false |title=''Elizabethan silent language'', page 251 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press, 2000, ISBN 0803223978 |accessdate=2009-11-14 |isbn=9780803223974 |date=2000-08 }}</ref><ref>Maria Perry, {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=ifnFBjfo1UIC&pg=PA182&dq=Monsieur+de+Marchaumont+drake#v=onepage&q=Monsieur%20de%20Marchaumont%20drake&f=false |title=''The Word of a Prince: A Life of Elizabeth I from Contemporary Documents'', page 182|publisher=Boydell Press, 1996, ISBN 0851156339 |accessdate=2009-11-14 |isbn=9780851156330 |date=1999-08-05 }}</ref>
Following the success of the Panama isthmus raid, Drake's so-called "Famous Voyage" – an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas – was organized and financed by a private syndicate that included [[Francis Walsingham]], [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester]], John Hawkins, [[Christopher Hatton]], and Drake himself.<ref name="Bradley1999">{{cite book |last1=Bradley |first1=Peter T. |title=British Maritime Enterprise in the New World: From the Late Fifteenth to the Mid-eighteenth Century |year=1999 |publisher=Edwin Mellen |isbn=978-0773478664 |page=348 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hfL2AMHsJXEC&pg=PA348}}</ref> Drake acted on the plan authored by Sir [[Richard Grenville]], who in 1574 had received a royal patent for that purpose; just a year later this patent had been rescinded after [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] learned of Grenville's intentions against the Spanish.<ref name="KinneySwainHillLong2000">{{cite book |last1=Appleby |first1=John C. |editor1-last=Kinney |editor1-first=Arthur F. |editor2-last=Swain |editor2-first=David W. |editor3-last=Hill |editor3-first=Eugene D. |editor4-last=Long |editor4-first=William A. |title=Tudor England: An Encyclopedia |date=2000 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1136745300 |page=307 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHasAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA307}}</ref> Elizabeth likely invested in Drake's voyage to South America in 1577, but never issued him a formal commission.<ref name="Parry1984">{{cite book |last1=Parry |first1=John H. |editor1-last=Thrower |editor1-first=Norman J.W. |title=Sir Francis Drake and the Famous Voyage, 1577–1580: Essays Commemorating the Quadricentennial of Drake's Circumnavigation of the Earth |year=1984 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520048768 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPJVxZu8btoC&pg=PA3 |chapter=Drake and the World Encompassed |pages=3–4}}</ref><ref name="Black2019">{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy |title=England in the Age of Shakespeare |year=2019 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0253042323 |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lx7UDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT145}}</ref> This would be the [[List of circumnavigations|first circumnavigation in 58 years]].{{sfn|Kraus|1970}}
[[Image:Sirfrancisdrake.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Drake in Plymouth, England, where he returned on September 26, 1580 after circumnavigating the world]]
In September 1581, he became the Mayor of Plymouth,<ref name="ODNB04"/> and was a Member of Parliament in 1581, for an unknown constituency, and again in 1584 for [[Bossiney (UK Parliament constituency)|Bossiney]].<ref name="ODNB04"/> In 1580 Drake purchased [[Buckland Abbey]], a large manor near Yelverton in Devon. He lived there for fifteen years, until his final voyage, and it remained in his family for several generations. Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there.


Diego was once again employed under Drake; his fluency in Spanish and English would make him a useful interpreter when Spaniards or Spanish-speaking Portuguese were captured. He was employed as Drake's servant and was paid wages like the rest of the crew.<ref name="Kaufman2017" /> Drake and the fleet set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet. They were forced to take refuge in [[Falmouth, Cornwall]], from where they returned to Plymouth for repair.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|p=102}}
The Queen ordered all written accounts of Drake's voyage to be considered [[classified information]],<!--first publication date is needed here--> and its participants sworn to silence on pain of death; her aim was to keep Drake's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain. Also considering the friction with Spain, on the occasion of the knighting, Elizabeth I handed the sword to the Marquis de Marchaumont, ambassador from France, and asked him to dub Drake as the knight. During the Victorian era, in a spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the actual knighting.<ref name="plydat"/><ref name=Coote>Coote, Stephen, ''Drake: The Life and Legend of an Elizabethan Hero'', Saint Martin's Press, New York, 2003. ISBN 0-312-34165-2.</ref>


After this major setback, Drake set sail again on 13 December aboard ''[[Golden Hind|Pelican]]'' with four other ships and 164 men. He soon added a sixth ship, ''Mary'' (formerly ''Santa María''), a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the [[Portuguese Cape Verde|Cape Verde Islands]].<ref name="Best202157">{{cite book |last1=Best |first1=Brian |title=Elizabeth's Sea Dogs and their War Against Spain |year=2021 |publisher=Frontline Books |isbn=978-1526782885 |page=57 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qv0hEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57}}</ref> He also kidnapped its captain, [[:pt:Nuno da Silva|Nuno da Silva]], a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters.<ref name="Moreno-Madrid&Salomoni2022">{{cite journal |last1=Moreno Madrid |first1=José María |last2=Salomoni |first2=David |title=Nuno Da Silva's Third Relation : An Unknown Report on Francis Drake's Voyage (1577–1580) |journal=Terrae Incognitae |date=2 January 2022 |volume=54 |issue=1 |page=68 |doi=10.1080/00822884.2022.2048246 |s2cid=247908624 |language=English, Spanish|doi-access=free }}</ref>
On his return Drake presented the Queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. It was made of enameled gold, taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull. For her part, the Queen gave Drake a jewel with her portrait, an uncommon gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake sported proudly in his portrait by [[Marcus Gheeraerts]], 1591. On one side is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist [[Nicholas Hilliard]], on the other a [[sardonyx]] cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The "Drake Jewel", as it is known today, is a rare documented survivor among sixteen-century jewels; it is conserved at the [[National Maritime Museum]], Greenwich.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oieahc.wm.edu/uncommon/118/drake.cfm |title=The Drake Jewel |publisher=Oieahc.wm.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-02-25}}</ref>


Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both ''Christopher'' and the [[flyboat]] ''Swan'' due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He made landfall at the gloomy bay of [[Puerto San Julián]], in what is now [[Argentina]]. [[Ferdinand Magellan]] had called there half a century earlier, where he put to death some mutineers. Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the Spanish [[gibbet]]s. Following Magellan's example, Drake tried and executed his own "mutineer" [[Thomas Doughty (explorer)|Thomas Doughty]]. The crew discovered that ''Mary'' had rotting timbers, so they put the vessel ashore, stripped it, and abandoned it. Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julián before attempting the [[Strait of Magellan]].{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|pp=104–106}}
==Spanish Armada==
{{Main|Spanish Armada}}


===Execution of Thomas Doughty===
War broke out between Spain and England in 1585. Drake sailed to the New World and sacked the ports of [[Santo Domingo]] and [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]]. On the return leg of the voyage, he captured the Spanish fort of [[St. Augustine, Florida|San Augustín]] in [[Spanish Florida]]. These acts of [[piracy]] encouraged [[Philip II of Spain]] to order the planning for an invasion of England.
{{Main|Thomas Doughty (explorer)}}
On his voyage to interfere with Spanish treasure fleets, Drake had several quarrels with his co-commander Thomas Doughty and on 3 June 1578, accused him of witchcraft and charged him with [[mutiny]] and [[treason]] in a shipboard trial.{{sfn|Coote|2005|p=133}} Drake claimed to have a (never presented) commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and denied Doughty a trial in England. The main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright, who after the trial was promoted to master of the ship ''Marigold'', and Doughty's admission of telling [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|Lord Burghley]], a vocal opponent of agitating the Spanish, of the intent of the voyage. Drake consented to his request of [[Eucharist|Communion]] and dined with him,{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=109}} of which [[Francis Fletcher (priest)|Francis Fletcher]] had this account:

{{blockquote|And after this holy repast, they dined also at the same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand.{{sfnp|Barrow|1843|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zo0xAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA102 102]}}<ref name="Hampden1972">{{cite book |last1=Hampden |first1=John |title=Francis Drake, Privateer: Contemporary Narratives and Documents |year=1972 |publisher=Eyre Methuen Limited |isbn=978-0413284303 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmNnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22holy%20repast%22}}</ref>}}

Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. In January 1580, when Drake became stranded upon a reef off the Celebes Sea, the ship's chaplain, Francis Fletcher, in a sermon suggested that the woes of the voyage were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|page=143}}

===Entering the Pacific (1578)===
[[File:Golden Hinde, Londres, Inglaterra, 2014-08-11, DD 107.JPG|thumb|A replica of the ''[[Golden Hind]]'' at [[Bankside]] in London]]
The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later in September 1578 Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships, ''Marigold'' (captained by John Thomas) in the strait and caused another, ''Elizabeth'', captained by [[John Wynter]], to return to England,<ref name="MontanezUrbina2019">{{cite book |last1=Montanez-Sanabria |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Urbina Carasco |first2=María Ximena |editor1-last=Rojo |editor1-first=Danna A. Levin |editor2-last=Radding |editor2-first=Cynthia |title=The Oxford Handbook of Borderlands of the Iberian World |year=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0197507704 |page=727 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vCy7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA727 |chapter=The Spanish Empire's Southernmost Frontiers: From Arauco to the Strait of Magellan}}</ref> leaving only ''Pelican''. After this passage, ''Pelican'' was pushed south and discovered an island that Drake called [[Elizabeth Island (Cape Horn)|Elizabeth Island]]. Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in [[Richard Hakluyt]]'s ''The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation'' of 1589) along the Chilean coast.<ref name="Wagner2006">Wagner, Henry R., ''Sir Francis Drake's Voyage Around the World: Its Aims and Achievements'', Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006, {{ISBN|1428622551}}.</ref> In the Magellan Strait Francis and his men engaged in skirmishes with local indigenous people, becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia. During their stay in the strait, crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of ''[[Drimys winteri]]'' could be used as remedy against [[scurvy]]. Captain Wynter ordered the collection of great amounts of bark – hence the scientific name.<ref name="Martinic1977">{{cite book |last=Martinic |first=Mateo |author-link=Mateo Martinic |year=1977 |title=Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes |language=es |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-10441.html |location=Santiago |publisher=Andrés Bello |pages=67–68 |access-date=28 January 2016 |archive-date=15 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315073421/http://www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-10441.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Historian [[Mateo Martinic]], who examined records of Drake's travels, credits him with the discovery of the "southern end of the Americas and the oceanic space south of it".<ref name="Martinic2019">{{cite journal |last1=Martinic B. |first1=Mateo |author-link1=Mateo Martinic |title=Entre el mito y la realidad. La situación de la misteriosa Isla Elizabeth de Francis Drake |trans-title=Between myth and reality. The situation of the mysterious Elizabeth Island of Francis Drake |language=es |journal=Magallania |date=2019 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=5–14 |doi=10.4067/S0718-22442019000100005 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The first report of his discovery of an open channel south of [[Tierra del Fuego]] was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of [[Willem Schouten]] and [[Jacob le Maire]] around Cape Horn in 1616.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=135}}

=== Raids on Spanish American west coast ===
Drake pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed ''[[Golden Hind]]'' in honour of Sir [[Christopher Hatton]] (after his [[coat of arms]]). ''Golden Hind'' sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and pillaging towns. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts to inform his navigation. Before reaching the coast of [[Peru]], Drake visited [[Mocha Island]] off the coast of what is now Chile, where he and his manservant Diego were seriously injured by hostile [[Mapuche]] who shot them with arrows.<ref name="Kaufman201767">{{cite book |last1=Kaufmann |first1=Miranda |title=Black Tudors: The Untold Story |date=2017 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1786071859 |page=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7D-9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT67}}</ref> Later he sacked the port of [[Valparaíso]] further north in Chile, where he also captured a ship full of [[Chilean wine]].<ref name="Orich2005">{{cite journal |last1=Cortés Olivares |first1=Hernán F |title=El origen, producción y comercio del pisco chileno, 1546–1931 |trans-title=The origin, production and trade of Chilean pisco, 1546–1931 |language=es |journal=Universum |date=2005 |volume=20 |issue=2 |doi=10.4067/S0718-23762005000200005 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Lévi Alvarès1849">{{cite book |last1=Lévi Alvarès |first1=David Eugène |title=Manual de la historia de los pueblos antiguos i modernos; obra elemental para el estudio de la historia ... Traducida por D. F. Sarmiento |year=1849 |page=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uNprdVMuHQoC&pg=PA76 |language=es |quote=Sir Francis Drake tomó en Valparaiso un navío cargado con vino i 60,000 pesos; los habitantes que eran solo nueve familias abandonaron la poblacion i los. Ingleses saquearon a Valparaiso. English: "Sir Francis Drake took in Valparaiso a ship loaded with wine and 60,000 pesos; the English sacked Valparaiso, whose inhabitants, only nine families, had abandoned the town.}}</ref>

Near [[Lima]], Drake captured a Spanish ship with 25,000&nbsp;[[Spanish dollar|pesos]] of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000&nbsp;[[ducat]]s of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, ''[[Nuestra Señora de la Concepción]]'', which was sailing west towards [[Manila]]. It would come to be called ''Cacafuego''. Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship, which proved his most profitable capture.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006}}

Aboard ''Nuestra Señora de la Concepción'', Drake found {{convert|80|lb|order=flip}} of gold, a golden [[crucifix]], [[gemstone|jewels]], 13&nbsp;chests of [[Spanish real|silver reals]] and {{convert|26|LT|kg|order=flip}} of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of [[safe conduct]].{{sfnp|Sugden|2006}}

Drake continued north, raiding more Spanish settlements and ships as he went. His last stop in this phase of the voyage was in the town of Guatulco, where he and his crew stayed from 13 to 16 April, looting provisions and other materials. From here, Drake began to consider how best to return to England.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=130}} One possibility was to sail back south, along the Spanish coast, and return to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Magellan (or possibly Cape Horn); this route was ruled out, however, to avoid the dangerous weather near the strait and presumed Spanish resistance all along the coast. This left two possible routes – continue north up the American coast, and return to the Atlantic by the rumored [[Strait of Anián]]; or, sail across the Pacific, making for the [[East Indies]], and from there return to England by completing a circumnavigation of the world.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=132}}

===Coast of California: Nova Albion (1579)===
{{Main|New Albion|Drake in California}}
[[File:Drake CA 1590.jpg|thumb|250px|Drake's landing in California, engraving published 1590 by [[Theodor de Bry]]]]
In May, Drake's two ships passed the [[Baja California peninsula]] and continued north. Prior to Drake's voyage, the western coast of North America had only been partially explored in 1542 by [[Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo]] who sailed for Spain.<ref>{{Citation| last = Davis | first = Loren |display-authors=etal | title = Inventory and Analysis of Coastal and Submerged Archaeological Site Occurrence on the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf | journal = U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management| page = 188|date = November 2013}}</ref> So, intending to avoid further conflict with Spain, Drake navigated north-west of Spanish presence and sought a discreet site at which the crew could prepare for the journey back to England.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|page=188}}<ref name="Gough1980">{{cite book |last1=Gough |first1=Barry M. |title=Distant Dominion : Britain and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1579–1809 |year=1980 |publisher=Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0774801133 |page=15 |url=https://archive.org/details/distantdominionb0000goug}}</ref> The northernmost extent of this leg of the expedition has been the subject of much scholarly debate,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Keddie |first=Grant |date=20 June 2017 |title=Francis Drake on the Northwest Coast of America. Introductory Notes. Part 1. |url=https://staff.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/2017/06/20/francis-drake-on-the-northwest-coast-of-america-introductory-notes-part-1/ |access-date=27 March 2023 |website=Royal BC Museum |language=en |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327172658/https://staff.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/2017/06/20/francis-drake-on-the-northwest-coast-of-america-introductory-notes-part-1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sir Francis Drake, 1540?–1596 |url=https://lib-dbserver.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/drake/drake.html |website=Princeton Library |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=20 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220204553/https://lib-dbserver.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/drake/drake.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Kelsey1990">{{cite journal |last1=Kelsey |first1=Harry |title=Did Francis Drake Really Visit California? |journal=The Western Historical Quarterly |date=1990 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=445–462 |doi=10.2307/969250 |jstor=969250 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/969250 |issn=0043-3810}}</ref> but most sources agree that Drake reached a latitude of at least 48° north before turning back and heading south.{{Sfn|Sugden|2006|p=133}}{{Sfn|Bawlf|2003|p=270}}

On 5 June 1579, the ship briefly made first landfall at what is now South Cove, Cape Arago, just south of [[Coos Bay, Oregon]], and then sailed southward.<ref name="Gough1980" /><ref name="Morison1986700">{{cite book |last1=Morison |first1=Samuel Eliot |title=The Great Explorers: The European Discovery of America |year=1986 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195042221 |page=700 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JnotvLHX80gC&pg=PA700}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cassels |first1=Simon |title=Where Did Drake Careen The Golden Hind in June/July 1579? A Mariner's Assessment |journal=The Mariner's Mirror |date=January 2003 |volume=89 |issue=3 |page=263 |doi=10.1080/00253359.2003.10659292 |s2cid=161710358 }}</ref> On 17 June, Drake and his crew found a protected cove when they landed on the Pacific coast of what is now Northern California.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cassels |first1=Sir Simon |title=Where Did Drake Careen the Golden Hind in June/July 1579? A Mariner's Assessment |journal=The Mariner's Mirror |date=1 January 2003 |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=260–271 |doi=10.1080/00253359.2003.10659292 |s2cid=161710358 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Gough | first = Barry | year = 1980 | title = Distant Dominion: Britain and the Northwest Coast of North America, 1579–1809 | url = https://archive.org/details/distantdominionb0000goug | url-access = registration | publisher =Univ. of British Columbia Press | location = Vancouver | isbn = 0774801131 | page = 15}}</ref> While ashore, he claimed the area for Queen Elizabeth I as Nova Albion or [[New Albion]]. To document and assert his claim, Drake posted an engraved [[Drake's Plate of Brass|plate of brass]] to claim sovereignty for Elizabeth and every successive English monarch. After erecting a fort and tents ashore, the crew laboured for several weeks as they prepared for the circumnavigating voyage ahead by [[careening]] their ship, ''Golden Hind'', to effectively clean and repair the hull.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=135–137}} Drake had friendly interactions with the [[Coast Miwok]] and explored the surrounding land by foot. When his ship was ready for the return voyage, Drake and the crew left New Albion on 23 July and paused the journey the next day when anchoring the ship at the [[Farallon Islands]] where they hunted sea lions<ref name="Morison1986702">{{cite book |last1=Morison |first1=Samuel Eliot |title=The Great Explorers: The European Discovery of America |year=1986 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195042221 |page=716 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JnotvLHX80gC&pg=PA716}}</ref> or seals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rick |first1=Torben |last2=Braje |first2=Todd |last3=Wake |first3=Thomas |last4=Sanchez |first4=Gabriel |last5=DeLong |first5=Robert |last6=Lightfoot |first6=Kent |title=Seventy Years of Archaeological Research on California's Farallon Islands |journal=California Archaeology |date=3 July 2019 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=183–203 |doi=10.1080/1947461X.2019.1652043 |s2cid=210268051 }}</ref>

===Across the Pacific and around Africa===
Drake left the Pacific coast, heading south-west to catch the winds that would carry his ship across the Pacific, and a few months later reached the [[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]], a group of islands in the western Pacific, in eastern modern-day [[Indonesia]]. Harry Kelsey maintains, against scholarly consensus, that because of the contrary prevailing winds and currents, it is much more probable that Drake careened his ship on the shore of [[Magdalena Bay]] in [[Baja California peninsula|Lower California]], and sailed to the Moluccas and Spice Islands from there.<ref name="Kelsey2016">{{cite book |last1=Kelsey |first1=Harry |title=The First Circumnavigators: Unsung Heroes of the Age of Discovery |year=2016 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300217780 |pages=131–132 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3tJDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA131}}</ref> At this time Diego died from wounds he had sustained earlier in the voyage; ''Golden Hind'' later became caught on a reef and was almost lost. Afterwards, the sailors waited three days for convenient tides and had dumped cargo. Befriending Sultan [[Babullah of Ternate]] in the Moluccas, Drake and his men became involved in some intrigues with the Portuguese there.<ref name="Lessa1984">{{cite book |last1=Lessa |title=Sir Francis Drake and the Famous Voyage, 1577–1580: Essays Commemorating the Quadricentennial of Drake's Circumnavigation of the Earth |editor1-last=Thrower |editor1-first=Norman J. W. |year=1984 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520048768 |pages=70–74 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPJVxZu8btoC&pg=PA70 |chapter=Drake in the South Seas}}</ref> He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]], and reached [[Sierra Leone]] by 22 July 1580.

===Return to Plymouth (1580)===
[[File:Francis Drake by Henry Bone.jpg|thumb|1829 portrait of Drake wearing the [[Drake Jewel]]]]
[[File:Sir Francis Drake, 1540-96 RMG BHC26622.jpg|thumb|upright=1.02|The Drake Jewel as painted by [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger]] in a 1591 portrait of Drake]]
On 26 September 1580, ''Golden Hind'' sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59&nbsp;remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth, and his was the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after [[Elcano]]'s in 1520.<ref name="Shields2010">{{cite web |url=http://oieahc.wm.edu/uncommon/118/drake.cfm |title=The Drake Jewel |last1=Shields |first1=David S. |publisher=Oieahc.wm.edu |access-date=25 February 2010 |archive-date=11 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611163003/http://oieahc.wm.edu/uncommon/118/drake.cfm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Queen Elizabeth declared that all written accounts of Drake's voyages were to become the queen's secrets of the Realm,<!--first publication date is needed here--> and Drake and the other participants of his voyages on the pain of death sworn to their secrecy; she intended to keep Drake's activities hidden from the eyes of rival Spain.<ref name="Shields2010"/>

Drake presented the queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull.<ref name="Shields2010"/>

To show her gratitude the queen gave him the [[Drake Jewel]], a valuable pendant surrounded by diamonds, rubies and pearls. It was an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake wore in a 1591 portrait by [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger|Marcus Gheeraerts]]. On one side of the pendant is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist [[Nicholas Hilliard]], on the other a [[sardonyx]] cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The Drake Jewel is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London.<ref name="Shields2010"/>

===Knighthood and arms===
Queen [[Elizabeth I|Elizabeth]] awarded Drake a knighthood aboard ''Golden Hind'' in Deptford on 4 April 1581; the [[Accolade|dubbing]] being performed by a French diplomat, Monsieur de Marchaumont, who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France's brother, [[Francis, Duke of Anjou]].{{sfn|Cummins|1997|p=127}}<ref name="Moseley2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.plymouthdata.info/PP-Drake.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401142540/http://www.plymouthdata.info/PP-Drake.htm|archive-date=1 April 2012|website=The Encyclopaedia of Plymouth History|title=Sir Francis Drake (c. 1541–1596)|publisher=Plymouthdata.info|orig-year=2004|date=26 February 2011|last=Moseley|first=Brian|access-date=12 February 2015}}</ref> By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting, Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake's actions.<ref>{{cite book |first=Mary E. |last=Hazard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtFtcD-u6YoC&pg=PA251 |title=Elizabethan silent language |page=251 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0803223974 |date=August 2000 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-date=30 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130092216/https://books.google.com/books?id=wtFtcD-u6YoC&pg=PA251 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Maria |last=Perry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifnFBjfo1UIC&pg=PA182 |title=The Word of a Prince: A Life of Elizabeth I from Contemporary Documents |page=182 |publisher=Boydell Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0851156330 |access-date=23 September 2020 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112061723/https://books.google.com/books?id=ifnFBjfo1UIC&pg=PA182 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hakluyt|first=Richard|title=The Tudor Venturers|publisher=The Folio Society Ltd.|year=1970|isbn=1443704709|location=London|page=166}}</ref> During the Victorian era, in a spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the knighting.<ref name="Moseley2011"/>
[[File:Coat of arms of Francis Drake.svg|thumb|left|Sir Francis Drake's new heraldic [[Achievement (heraldry)|achievement]], with motto: ''Sic Parvis Magna''<ref name="von Einsiedel2012"/>]]
After receiving his knighthood Drake unilaterally adopted the [[coat of arms]] of the ancient Devon family of Drake of Ash, to whom he claimed a distant but unspecified kinship. The right to use the arms was disputed in court<ref name="Prince1701">{{cite book|first=John |last=Prince|title=Danmonii orientales illustres: or, The worthies of Devon|year= 1810|orig-year=1701|page=[https://archive.org/details/danmoniioriental00prin/page/329 329]|url=https://archive.org/details/danmoniioriental00prin}}</ref> so Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake his own coat of arms.

Drake's [[Achievement (heraldry)|heraldic achievement]] and coat of arms contains the motto, ''Sic Parvis Magna'', which means: "Great achievements from small beginnings".<ref name="von Einsiedel2012">{{cite web |url=http://www.nationaltrustimages.org.uk/image/169478 |title=Image details |last1=von Einsiedel |first1=Andreas |publisher=National Trust Images |access-date=25 October 2012 |archive-date=3 September 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120903192626/http://www.nationaltrustimages.org.uk/image/169478 |url-status=live }}</ref> A hand coming out of the clouds is labelled ''Auxilio Divino'', which means "By divine aid".<ref name="Casellas2017">{{cite journal |last1=Casellas |first1=Jesus Lopez-Pelaez |title=Meaning and trade in some early modern Spanish and English emblems |journal=Nordic Journal of English Studies |date=1 September 2017 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=1–37 |doi=10.35360/njes.410 |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA528075191&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=16546970&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon%7E1116187b |language=English |quote=Furthermore, soon after that she granted him a coat of arms which showed a ship on a globe guided by the Divine Hand of Providence above an open visor, resting on a shield bearing the two pole stars divided by the sea: over, the motto auxilio divino, underneath: sic parvis magna (Great achievements from small beginnings). More explicit than previous emblems in its endorsement of protocapitalistic ventures, Whitney's "Auxilio divino" (By divine aid, see fig. 8), emblem 203 in his Choice of Emblems, was composed "in praise of Francis Drake.|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Political career==
Drake first became a member of parliament for the last session of the 4th Parliament of [[Elizabeth I]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/parliament/1572|title=1572|website=History of Parliament.|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-date=29 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729050636/http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/parliament/1572|url-status=live}}</ref> on 16 January 1581, for the constituency of [[Camelford (UK Parliament constituency)|Camelford]]. He did not actively participate at this point, and on 17 February 1581 he was granted leave of absence "for certain his necessary business in the service of Her Majesty".<ref name="fd_history_parl"/>

Drake became the Mayor of [[Plymouth]] in September 1581.<ref name="ODNB04"/> During his tenure, he installed a compass in the town's [[Plymouth Hoe|Hoe]], and passed a law regulating the local [[pilchard]] trade.{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=163}} During his term as lord mayor, Drake contracted to construct a [[Plymouth Leat|leat]], or canal, to bring water from the [[River Meavy]], and to build six new gristmills on it from which he derived a substantial profit.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|pp=229–230}}

Drake became a member of parliament again in 1584 for [[Bossiney (UK Parliament constituency)|Bossiney]],<ref name="ODNB04"/> on the forming of the 5th Parliament of Elizabeth I.<ref name="HistoryofParliament2017">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/parliament/1584|title=1584|website=History of Parliament|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-date=29 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729050840/http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/parliament/1584|url-status=live}}</ref> He served the duration of the parliament and was active in issues regarding the navy, fishing, early American colonisation, and issues related chiefly to [[Devon]]. He spent the time covered by the next two parliamentary terms engaged in other duties and an expedition to [[Portugal]].<ref name="fd_history_parl"/>

He became a member of parliament for [[Plymouth (UK Parliament constituency)|Plymouth]] in 1593.<ref name="fd_history_parl"/> He was active in issues of interest to Plymouth as a whole, but also to emphasise defence against the Spanish.<ref name="fd_history_parl">{{cite web|last1=Hasler|first1=P W|title=Drake, Francis|url=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/drake-francis-1540-96|website=History of Parliament|publisher=The History of Parliament Trust|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-date=29 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729003854/http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/drake-francis-1540-96|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-francis-drake| access-date= 28 July 2017| title= 10 Things You May Not Know About Francis Drake| last= Andrews| first= Evan| date= 4 April 2016| website= [[History (U.S. TV network)|History]]| archive-date= 29 July 2017| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170729015226/http://www.history.com/news/10-things-you-may-not-know-about-francis-drake| url-status= live}}</ref>

==Great Expedition to America==
[[File:Boazio-Sir Francis Drakes West Indian Voyage.jpg|thumb|Map of Drake's Great Expedition in 1585 by [[Giovanni Battista Boazio]]]]
War broke out between [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|England and Spain]] in 1585, after the signing of the [[Treaty of Nonsuch]]. Queen Elizabeth I, through her principal secretary [[Francis Walsingham]], ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish colonies in a kind of [[pre-emptive strike]]. An expedition left Plymouth in September 1585 with Drake in command of twenty-one ships with 1,800 soldiers under [[Christopher Carleill]]. He first attacked [[Vigo]] in Spain and held the place for two weeks ransoming supplies.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|pp=247–249}} He then [[Capture of Santiago (1585)|plundered Santiago]] in the Cape Verde islands after which the fleet then sailed across the Atlantic, [[Battle of Santo Domingo (1586)|sacked the port]] of [[Santo Domingo]], and [[Battle of Cartagena de Indias (1586)|captured the city]] of [[Cartagena de Indias]] in present-day Colombia. At Cartagena, Drake released one hundred Turkish slaves.<ref name="Kaufman2017138">{{cite book |last1=Kaufmann |first1=Miranda |title=Black Tudors: The Untold Story |year=2017 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1786071859 |page=138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7D-9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT138}}</ref> On 6 June 1586, during the return leg of the voyage, [[Raid on St. Augustine|he attacked]] the wooden Spanish fort at [[St. Augustine, Florida|San Agustín]] in [[Spanish Florida]] and burnt the town to the ground.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pages=189–190}}

After the raids he then went on to find Sir [[Walter Raleigh]]'s settlement much further north at [[Roanoke Colony|Roanoke]] which he replenished and also took back with him all of the original colonists before Sir [[Richard Grenville]] arrived with supplies and more colonists. He finally reached England on 22 July, when he sailed into [[Portsmouth]], England to a hero's welcome.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pages=189–190}}

==Conflict with the Spanish Armada==
[[File:English Ships and the Spanish Armada, August 1588 RMG BHC0262.jpg|thumb|Painting depicting 'English Ships and the Spanish Armada']]
{{main|Spanish Armada}}
In part to prevent future such attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas, Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England.

===Cádiz raid===
{{Main|Singeing the King of Spain's Beard}}
[[File:P522 Sir Francis Drake. From the original Portrait.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Drake around 1587, in ''Cassell's illustrated history of England'']]
On 15 March 1587, Drake accepted a new commission with several purposes: to disrupt the shipping routes in order to slow supplies from Italy and [[Andalucia]] to [[Lisbon]], to trouble enemy fleets that were in their home ports, and to capture Spanish ships laden with treasure. Drake was also to confront and attack the [[Spanish Armada]] had it already sailed for England. When arriving at [[Cádiz]] on 19 April, Drake found the harbour packed with ships and supplies as the Armada was readying and waiting for a fair wind to launch the fleet to attack. In the early hours of the next day, Drake pressed his attack into the inner harbour and inflicted heavy damage. Claims of the exact Spanish ship losses vary: Drake claimed he had sunk 39 ships, while the Spanish admitted the loss of only 24.{{sfnp|Sugden|2006|pp=205–210}}{{sfn|Whiting|1988|pp=36–38}} The attack became known as the "singeing of the King's beard" and delayed the Spanish invasion by a year.<ref name="Thompson1873">{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Edith|editor1-last=Freeman|editor1-first=Edward Augustus|editor1-link=Edward Augustus Freeman |title=History of England|year=1873|publisher=Henry Holt and Company|place=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofengland01thom/page/136 136]|series=Freeman's Historical Course for Schools|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofengland01thom}}</ref>

Over the next month, Drake patrolled the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian coasts]] between [[Lisbon]] and [[Cape St. Vincent]], intercepting and destroying ships on the Spanish supply lines. Drake estimated that he had captured around 1,600 to 1,700 tons of barrel staves, enough to make {{convert|25000|to|30000|oilbbl|m3}} for containing provisions.{{sfn|Kraus|1970}} The expedition resulted in a total profit for England of around £140,000, £18,235 of which went to Drake.{{Sfn|Whiting|1988|p=37}}


===Defeat of the Spanish Armada===
===Defeat of the Spanish Armada===
[[File:DrakeMonumentTavistock.jpg|thumb|Drake was reportedly playing bowls when first informed about the approach of the Armada.]]
[[Image:Loutherbourg-Spanish Armada.jpg|thumb|The [[Spanish Armada]]]]
Drake was [[vice admiral]] in command of the English fleet (under [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]]) when it overcame the [[Spanish Armada]] that was attempting to invade England in 1588. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the Spanish galleon ''Rosario'', along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and all his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries. Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern. By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the fleet into disarray overnight.


[[File:Loutherbourg-Spanish Armada.jpg|thumb|Eighteenth-century painting of the Spanish Armada, showing fire ships]]
On the night of 29 July, along with Howard, Drake organised fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of [[Calais]] into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the [[Spanish Armada#Battle of Gravelines|Battle of Gravelines]].


[[File:Valdés surrenders to Francis Drake aboard Revenge.jpg|thumb|Admiral Pedro de Valdés surrendering his sword to Francis Drake aboard ''Revenge'' during the attack of the Spanish Armada, 1588. Oil on canvas by [[John Seymour Lucas]] (1889)]]
{{rquote|right|Coming up to them, there has passed some common shot between some of our fleet and some of them; and as far as we perceive, they are determined to sell their lives with blows.| Letter to Admiral Henry Seymour, after coming upon part of the Spanish Armada, written aboard ''Revenge'' on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 [[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]])<ref name=Turner-Sharon>Turner, Sharon. ''The History of England from the Earliest Period to the Death of Elizabeth'', 1835.</ref>}}


The Spanish Armada set sail for England in May 1588, and arrived on the English coast on 29 July, near [[Cornwall]]. An English fleet consisting of 55 ships set out from Plymouth to confront the Armada, under the command of [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]], with Sir Francis Drake serving as vice admiral, commanding from the galleon [[English ship Revenge (1577)|''Revenge'']]. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the disabled Spanish galleon ''[[Spanish ship Nuestra Señora del Rosario (1587)|Nuestra Señora del Rosario]]'', along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and most of his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Armada.<ref name="Kendall2022" /> Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern.<ref name="Hughes-Hallett2010">{{cite book |last1=Hughes-Hallett |first1=Lucy |title=Heroes: A History of Hero Worship |date=2010 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0307485908 |pages=352–353 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qsDm5hjMcBsC&pg=PT352}}</ref> By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the English fleet into disarray overnight.<ref name="Fernández-Armesto1988">{{cite book |last1=Fernández-Armesto |first1=Felipe |title=The Spanish Armada: The Experience of War in 1588 |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198229261 |page=177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWZnAAAAMAAJ&q=%22show%20a%20lantern%22%20%22guide%20the%20rest%22}}</ref> The [[Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia|Duke of Medina Sidonia]], whom Philip had appointed to command the Armada despite his complete lack of military experience on land or at sea, made his way up the Channel towards the French shore in his flagship ''San Martín'' with the English in pursuit, thinking that if he anchored in the [[roadstead]] of [[Calais]] they would not dare molest the Spanish ships in French waters.<ref name="Callender1912">{{cite book |last1=Callender |first1=Geoffrey |title=Sea Kings of Britain: Hawkins. Drake. Howard. Grenville. Blake |date=1912 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Company |pages=79–81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tigyAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA79}}</ref>
The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of [[bowls]] on [[Plymouth Hoe]]. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards. There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later.<ref name=Kelsey/> Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer<ref name=Kelsey /> so it is easy to see how a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat may have originated.


A council of war was held aboard Howard's flagship [[English ship Ark Royal (1587)|''Ark'']], where Howard, Drake, Seymour, Hawkins, [[Martin Frobisher]], and two or three others, decided to launch [[fire ships]]. That night the English launched eight fire ships into the midst of the Armada at its moorings, forcing its captains to cut their anchors and sail out of Calais into the open sea.<ref name="Perrett2012146">{{cite book|author=Bryan Perrett|title=The Changing Face Of Battle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cew3AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT146|date=2012|publisher=Orion Publishing Group|isbn=978-1780225258|page=146}}</ref> The [[Naval battle of Gravelines|decisive action]] was fought the next day on the shoals off [[Gravelines]], where Frobisher, Drake, and Hawkins pounded the Spanish ships with their guns. Drake's squadron gave Medina Sidonia's flagship ''San Martin'' a single [[Broadside (naval)|broadside]] and moved on; Frobisher, directly behind him in the English line, stayed with the ''San Martin'' at close range and poured cannon shot into her oaken flanks, but failed to take her.<ref name="McDermott2001">{{cite book |last1=McDermott |first1=James |title=Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer |date=2001 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300083804 |page=363 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YeMcPYIKNYUC&pg=PA363}}</ref> Five Spanish ships were lost.
===Drake-Norris Expedition===

Drake wrote as follows to Admiral Henry Seymour after coming upon part of the Spanish Armada, whilst aboard ''[[English ship Revenge (1577)|Revenge]]'' on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 [[Old Style and New Style dates|OS]]):

{{blockquote|The 21st we had them in chase, and so coming up unto them, there hath passed some cannon shot between some of our fleet and some of them, and as far as we perceive they are determined to sell their lives with blows.<ref name="Newbolt1925">{{cite book |last1=Newbolt |first1=Sir Henry John |title=Sea-life in English Literature from the Fourteenth to the Nineteenth Century |year=1925 |publisher=T. Nelson & Sons, Limited |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KzfPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA70}}</ref>}}

The Armada, having failed in their aim, were unable to sail back via the English channel. The English ships, including ''Revenge'', pursued them to prevent any landing on English soil, although by this time most of Howard's ships were almost out of shot. Nevertheless, the battered Spanish fleet were forced to sail instead around the British isles and encountered heavy storms off the coast of Ireland. The fleet eventually limped back to Spanish ports having lost overall some 63 ships and vessels.{{sfn|Whiting|1988|pp=230–232}}

The most famous (but probably [[apocrypha]]l) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of [[bowls]] on [[Plymouth Hoe]]. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards, perhaps because he was waiting for [[high tide]].<ref name="Waters1984">{{cite book |last1=Waters |first1=David W. |editor1-last=Thrower |editor1-first=Norman J.W. |title=Sir Francis Drake and the Famous Voyage, 1577–1580: Essays Commemorating the Quadricentennial of Drake's Circumnavigation of the Earth |year=1984 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520048768 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPJVxZu8btoC&pg=PA17 |chapter=Elizabethan Navigation |page=17}}</ref> There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later. Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer,{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=104}} perhaps prompting a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat.

===English Armada===
{{Main|English Armada}}
{{Main|English Armada}}
{{quote box
| width = 320px
| border = 1px
| align = right
| bgcolor = #ffe4b5
| fontsize = 100%
| halign = center
| quote = The people of quality dislike him for having risen so high from such a lowly family; the rest say he is the main cause of wars.
| source = <small> – Gonzalo González del Castillo, letter to King [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], 1592</small>{{sfn|Cummins|1997|p=5}}
}}
In 1589, the year after the failure of the Spanish Armada, the English sent their own armada to attack Spain. Drake and Norris were given three tasks. First, to destroy the battered Spanish Atlantic fleet, which was being repaired in ports of northern Spain. Second, to make a landing at [[Lisbon]], Portugal and raise a revolt there against King Philip II (Philip I of Portugal) installing the pretender Dom [[António, Prior of Crato]] to the Portuguese throne. And, third, to take the [[Azores]] if possible so as to establish a permanent base.<ref name="Meyer2011">{{cite book |last1=Meyer |first1=G. J. |title=The Tudors: The Complete Story of England's Most Notorious Dynasty |date=2011 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=978-0385340779 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXwMQpRkn3UC&pg=PA527}}</ref>


In 1589, the year after defeating the Armada, Drake and [[John Norreys|Sir John Norreys]] were given three tasks. They were ordered to first seek out and destroy the remaining ships, second they were to support the rebels in [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]] against King Philip II (then king of Spain and Portugal), and third they were to take the [[Azores]] if possible. Drake and Norreys destroyed a few ships in the harbour of [[La Coruña]] in Spain but lost more than 12,000 lives and 20 ships.{{citation needed|date=March 2008}} This delayed Drake, and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon.<ref name=Kraus />
In the [[siege of Coruña]], Drake and Norris destroyed a few ships in the harbour of [[A Coruña]] in Spain but were repelled. This defeat in all fronts delayed Drake for two weeks, and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon.{{sfn|Kraus|1970}}


Norris led his army on a difficult march over the rocky coast to Lisbon, while Drake sailed around the peninsula to join Essex with his heavy artillery. Norris's troops were sick and exhausted by the time they reached the western limits of the city, consequently he demanded that Dom António raise provisions and men to fight for his cause from amongst the local populace, or the army would retreat. Drake, against their agreed plans, had anchored his fleet in the mouth of the Tagus estuary, rather than running the risk of sailing past the well-defended stretches of the Tagus to bring the desperately needed heavy cannon and ordnance.<ref name="Guy2016">{{cite book |last1=Guy |first1=John |title=Elizabeth: The Later Years |year=2016 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1101609019 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VGdYCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 |pages=132–133}}</ref> The anticipated rebellion never materialised and the ground campaign was a total failure, so Norris, with his army and António, re-embarked to make an attempt at capturing the treasure fleet. The weather was not in their favour so they eventually sailed for home.
==Final years==
Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties. In 1595 he [[Battle of Las Palmas|failed to conquer]] the port of Las Palmas, and following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered a number of defeats, he unsuccessfully attacked [[Battle of Puerto Rico|San Juan]], [[Puerto Rico]]. The Spanish gunners from [[El Morro Castle]] shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship, but he survived. In 1596, he died of [[dysentery]] when he was about 55, while anchored off the coast of [[Portobelo]], [[Panama]] where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter. Before dying he asked to be dressed in his full armour. He was buried at sea in a lead coffin, near Portobelo. Divers continue to search for the coffin.


However, Drake wanted to atone for such a bitter setback and, in order not to return empty-handed and with the morale of his troops sunk, he made a fleeting stop in the Galician ''[[Rías Baixas|rías]]'', or coastal inlets, pillaging the defenceless town of Vigo for two days and razing it to the ground. This abusive demonstration did not leave the corsair unharmed, as he lost hundreds more men on land, in addition to as many as two hundred wounded.<ref name="Santos2018">{{cite book |last1=Santos |first1=Luis Gorrochategui |title=The English Armada: The Greatest Naval Disaster in English History |year=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1350016996 |pages=231–233 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w-JDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA231}}</ref> The growing defences of the inhabitants, and the arrivals of militias from Portugal, put the ships in retreat again. Two of the vessels sailing back to Plymouth were captured in the [[Bay of Biscay]] by a squadron of [[zabra]]s led by Captain Diego de Aramburu.<ref name="González-Rodríguez2002">{{Cite journal |last1=González-Rodríguez |first1=Agustín Ramón |date=19 September 2002 |title=Una derrota de Drake ante Lisboa. |url=https://repositorioinstitucional.ceu.es/handle/10637/1416 |journal=Circulo Naval Español |page=252|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gonzalez-Arnao Conde-Luque |first=Mariano |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oN5cIltA3IoC |title=Derrota y muerte de Sir Francis Drake, a Coruña 1589 – Portobelo 1596 |publisher=Xunta de Galicia, Servicio Central de Publicacións |year=1995 |isbn=978-8445314630 |page=94 |language=es}}</ref>
==Cultural impact==
[[Image:NPG Drake.jpg|thumb|upright|Sir Francis Drake, circa 1581. This portrait may have been copied from [[Nicholas Hilliard|Hilliard's]] [[:Image:Sfdrake42.jpg|miniature]]—note that the shirt is the same—and the somewhat oddly proportioned body added by an artist who did not have access to Drake. National Portrait Gallery, London.<!--Source: Sugden's biography-->]]


The failure cost the lives of 11,000 English soldiers and sailors, according to Bucholz and Key;<ref name="BucholzKey2008">{{cite book |last1=Bucholz |first1=Robert |last2=Key |first2=Newton |title=Early Modern England 1485–1714: A Narrative History |year=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1405162753 |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0WVvxIGRi-kC&pg=PA145}}</ref> [[Robert Hutchinson (historian)|Robert Hutchinson]] says between 8,000 and 11,000 died;<ref name="Hutchinson2014">{{cite book |last1=Hutchinson |first1=Robert |title=The Spanish Armada: A History |year=2014 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-1466847484 |page=239 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRzSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA239}}</ref> while Gorrochategui Santos calculates the number at over 20,000.<ref name="Santos2018245">{{cite book |last1=Santos |first1=Luis Gorrochategui |title=The English Armada: The Greatest Naval Disaster in English History |year=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1350016996 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w-JDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA245}}</ref> Upon his return, Drake's behaviour in the expedition was increasingly called into question, culminating in his being charged by [[Privy Council of England|England's Privy Council]] of deliberate failings and a mishandling of his command. Despite never being publicly admonished on these charges,{{sfn|Sugden|2006|p=283}} he nevertheless fell out of favour, and was not given command of another naval expedition until 1595.<ref name="Wernham2020">{{cite book |last1=Wernham |first1=R. B. |title=Expedition of Sir John Norris and Sir Francis Drake to Spain and Portugal, 1589 |year=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1000341652 |page=xxxv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOcJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35}}</ref>
[[Drakes Bay]] and [[Sir Francis Drake Boulevard]] of [[Marin County, California]] are both named after him, as well as the [[high school]] in [[San Anselmo, California]]. The boulevard runs between Drakes Bay at [[Point Reyes]] to [[Point San Quentin]] on [[San Francisco Bay]]. Each end is near a site considered by some to be Drake's landing place in Central California.<ref>[[Olompali State Historic Park|Olompoli]] contends with Drakes Bay as Drake's Bay Area landing place. Thomas, Robert C., ''Drake at Olompali'' Apala Press: 1979. ISBN 0-9602546-0-9</ref> A large hotel in [[Union Square, San Francisco]] also bears his name. In Devon, England there are various places named after him, especially in Plymouth, where a [[roundabout]] has been named Drake Circus.


==Defeats and death==
Drake's will was the focus of a vast [[confidence scheme]] which [[Oscar Hartzell]] perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s. He convinced thousands of people, mostly in the American Midwest, that Drake's fortune was being held by the British government, and had compounded to a huge amount. If their last name was Drake they might be eligible for a share if they paid Hartzell to be their agent. The swindle continued until a copy of Drake's will was brought to Hartzell's mail fraud trial and he was convicted and imprisoned.<ref name=Rayner-Richard>Rayner, Richard. ''The Admiral and the Con Man'' ''The New Yorker'', April 22, 2002, p. 150</ref>
{{further|Drake's Assault on Panama}}
[[File:BurialOfDrakeTavistockMonument.jpg|thumb|Drake's burial at sea off [[Portobelo, Colón|Portobello]] (artistic licence - he was in fact buried in a coffin). Bronze plaque by [[Joseph Boehm]], 1883, base of Drake statue, Tavistock]]
Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties. In 1595, he [[Battle of Las Palmas|failed to conquer]] the port of [[Las Palmas]], and following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered a number of defeats, he unsuccessfully attacked San Juan de Puerto Rico, and lost the [[Battle of San Juan (1595)|Battle of San Juan]]. The Spanish gunners from [[El Morro Castle]] shot a cannonball through his stateroom on the expedition's flagship, but he survived.<ref name="Zarzeczny2018">{{cite book |last1=Zarzeczny |first1=Matthew D. |editor1-last=Seelye |editor1-first=James E. |editor2-last=Selby |editor2-first=Shawn |title=Shaping North America: From Exploration to the American Revolution [3 volumes] |volume=1 |year=2018 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1440836695 |page=323 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgVnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA323}}</ref>


He and his second-in-command, [[Thomas Baskerville (general)|Thomas Baskerville]], captured and burned Nombre de Dios, and started an overland crossing of the isthmus to [[Drake's Assault on Panama|attack]] the city of [[Panama City|Panama]], but were repulsed by the well-entrenched Spaniards who had barricaded the road;<ref name="Andrews1972">{{cite book |last1=Andrews |first1=Kenneth R. |editor1-last=Andrews |editor1-first=Kenneth R. |title=The Last Voyage of Drake and Hawkins |year=1972 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521010399 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TuIsmjb8WZMC&pg=PA183 |pages=183–187}}</ref> suffering heavy casualties, they gave up the attempt.<ref name="Marley1998">{{cite book |last1=Marley |first1=David |title=Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World, 1492 to the Present |year=1998 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0874368376 |page=89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdvp3cGJUZoC&pg=PA89}}</ref> A few weeks later, on 28 January 1596, Drake died (aged about 56) of [[dysentery]], a common disease at the time, while anchored off the coast of [[Portobelo, Colón|Portobelo]] where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter.{{Sfn|Maynarde|1849}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbdk&fileName=d0302/rbdkd0302.db&recNum=607 |title=The Last Voyage of Sir Francis Drake |page=588 |website=loc.gov |access-date=7 July 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707110508/https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbdk&fileName=d0302%2Frbdkd0302.db&recNum=607 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=149}} Following his death, the English fleet withdrew defeated.<ref name="Kluge2021">{{cite book |last1=Kluge |first1=Sofie |title=Literature and Historiography in the Spanish Golden Age: The Poetics of History |year=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1000450866 |page=138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_0-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT138}}</ref>
Modern workings of stories involving Drake include the 1961 British [[television program|television series]] ''[[Sir Francis Drake (TV series)|Sir Francis Drake]]'',<ref>{{imdb title|id=0055656|title=Sir Francis Drake}}</ref> and the 2009 US [[television movie]] ''[[The Immortal Voyage of Captain Drake]]''.<ref>{{imdb title|1129410|The Immortal Voyage of Captain Drake}}</ref>


Before dying, he asked to be dressed in his full armour. He was buried at sea in a sealed lead-lined coffin, near [[Portobelo, Colón|Portobelo]], a few miles off the coastline. It is supposed that his final resting place is near the wrecks of two British ships, ''Elizabeth'' and ''Delight'', scuttled in Portobelo Bay.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friar |first1=Willie K. |title=In the Wake of Drake |journal=Panama Canal Review |date=Spring 1975 |page=8 |url=https://original-ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00097366/00009 |language=en}}</ref> Efforts by researchers and treasure hunters to discover the location of his remains are ongoing,<ref name="Zarzeczny2018" /> while divers continue to search the seabed for the coffin.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sir Francis Drake's body 'close to being found off Panama'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-15447632|work=BBC News|date=25 October 2011|access-date=9 October 2013|archive-date=14 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314071737/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-15447632|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/panama/8847105/Sir-Francis-Drakes-final-fleet-discovered-off-the-coast-of-Panama.html|website=The Daily Telegraph|title=Sir Francis Drake's final fleet 'discovered off the coast of Panama'|last1=Henderson|first1=Barney|last2=Swaine|first2=Jon|date=24 October 2011|access-date=28 July 2017|archive-date=31 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731185545/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/panama/8847105/Sir-Francis-Drakes-final-fleet-discovered-off-the-coast-of-Panama.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Nathan Drake (character)|Nathan Drake]], a fictional descendant of Sir Francis Drake, searches for lost treasure in the video game ''[[Uncharted: Drake's Fortune]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.us.playstation.com/uncharted/ |title=Uncharted The Game |publisher=Us.playstation.com |date= |accessdate=2010-02-25}}</ref>


==Family and heritage==
==Controversies==
[[File:Elizabeth Sydenham Lady Drake.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Elizabeth Sydenham Lady Drake]]
===Slave trading===
Drake accompanied his second cousin Sir [[John Hawkins]] in making the third English [[Atlantic slave trade|slave-trading]] expeditions, making fortunes through the abduction and transportation of West African people, and then exchanging them for high-value goods.<ref>{{Google books|3ukDAAAAMAAJ|Some historical account of Guinea: With an inquiry into the rise and progress of the slave trade|page=48}}</ref> The first Englishman recorded to have taken slaves from Africa was John Lok, a London trader who, in 1555, brought to England five slaves from Guinea.<ref>{{Google books|LkM9AAAAYAAJ|A general history and collection of voyages and travels, arranged in systematic order: forming a complete history of the origin and progress of navigation, discovery, and commerce, by sea and land, from the earliest ages to the present time, Volume 7|page=229}}</ref> A second London trader taking slaves at that time was William Towerson whose fleet sailed into Plymouth following his 1556 voyage to Africa and from Plymouth on his 1557 voyage. Despite the exploits of Lok and Towerson, John Hawkins of Plymouth is widely acknowledged to be an early pioneer of the English slave trade. While Hawkins made only three such trips, ultimately the English were to dominate the trade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pdf_extract/CXXI/490/226 |title=History of English Slave Trade |doi=10.1093/ehr/cej026 |publisher=Ehr.oxfordjournals.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-25}}</ref>


[[File:2018 gb-plymouth-ggd-buckland abbey 140718 08.jpg|thumb|right|400px|[[Buckland Abbey]] in Devon]]
Around 1563 Drake first sailed west to the [[Spanish Main]], on a ship owned and commanded by [[John Hawkins]], with a cargo of people forcibly removed from the coast of West Africa. The Englishmen sold their African captives into slavery in Spanish [[plantations]]. These activities undermine the tendency to view Drake as simply an untarnished English hero. Although slavery was legal throughout the world at the time, its expansion by Hawkins (and Drake) is now widely seen as a great blot upon their records. In general, the kidnapping and forced transportation of people was considered to be a criminal offence under English law at the time, although legal protection did not extend to slaves, non-Protestants or criminals. Hawkins' own account of his actions (in which Drake took part) cites two sources for their victims. One was military attacks on African towns and villages (with the assistance of rival African warlords), the other was attacking Portuguese slave ships{{citation needed|date=July 2010}}.


Francis Drake married Mary Newman at [[St Budeaux]] church near [[Plymouth]], on 4 July 1569.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=44}} She died about 24 January 1583.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=236}} In 1585, Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham, born around 1562, the only child of Sir George Sydenham, of [[Combe Sydenham]],{{sfn|Sugden|2006|page=174}} who was the [[High Sheriff of Somerset]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Documents/sheriffs_of_somerset.htm | title=The Occupants of the ancient office of High Sheriff of Somerset | publisher=Tudor Court | access-date=30 March 2011 | archive-date=13 May 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513235542/http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Documents/sheriffs_of_somerset.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>
===Conflict in the Caribbean===
During his early days as a slave-trader, Drake took an immediate dislike to the Spanish, at least in part due to their Catholicism and inherent mistrust of non-Spanish. His hostility is said to have increased over an incident at San Juan de Ulua in 1568, when Drake was sailing with the fleet of his second cousin [[John Hawkins]]. While negotiating to resupply and repair at the Spanish port, the fleet were attacked by Spanish warships, with all but two of the English ships lost. Drake survived the attack by swimming.{{citation needed|date=March 2009}} The most celebrated of Drake's adventures along the [[Spanish Main]] was his capture of the Spanish Silver Train at [[Nombre de Dios]] in March 1573. With a crew including many [[France|French]] privateers and [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]]—African slaves who had escaped the Spanish—Drake raided the waters around [[Darién, Panama|Darien]] (in modern [[Panama]]) and tracked the Silver Train to the nearby port of Nombre de Dios. He made off with a fortune in gold, but had to leave behind another fortune in silver, because it was too heavy to carry back to England. It was during this expedition that he climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the [[Isthmus of Panama]] and thus became the first Englishman to see the Pacific Ocean. He remarked as he saw it that he hoped one day an Englishman would be able to sail it—which he would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world.


In 1580, Drake purchased [[Buckland Abbey]], a large manor house near [[Yelverton, Devon]], via intermediaries from Sir Richard Grenville. He lived there for fifteen years, until his final voyage, and it remained in his family until 1946.<ref name="Gill1984">{{cite book |last1=Gill |first1=Crispin |editor1-last=Thrower |editor1-first=Norman J.W. |title=Sir Francis Drake and the Famous Voyage, 1577–1580: Essays Commemorating the Quadricentennial of Drake's Circumnavigation of the Earth |year=1984 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520048768 |page=85 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPJVxZu8btoC&pg=85 |chapter=Drake and Plymouth}}</ref> Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there. His coat of arms and full achievement is depicted in the form of a large, coloured plaster overmantel in the Lifetimes Gallery at Buckland Abbey.<ref name="von Einsiedel2012"/>
When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially.


Drake was one of twelve children. His brother Thomas accompanied him on voyages, and named his son after him. That nephew eventually became [[Sir Francis Drake, 1st Baronet]].<ref name=FullerEliottDrake1911>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/familyheirsofsir01fulluoft|title=The family and heirs of Sir Francis Drake|first=Elizabeth (Douglas)|last=Fuller-Eliott-Drake|date=19 March 1911|publisher=London : Smith, Elder|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
Drake was considered a hero in England and a pirate in Spain for his raids.<ref>See especially Drake's Spanish nickname and its mythic power to frighten naughty children. John Cummins, ''Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero'', page 273. ISBN 0312163657.</ref>


==Legacy and honours==
===Ireland===
Historical sources on Drake's early life are scarce, and tend to be obscure.{{sfn|Kelsey|2000|p=11}}{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=13}} Two common scholarly traditions concerning his life and contributions have resulted.{{sfn|Sugden|2012|p=xiii}} The older tradition can be found in Julian Corbett's biography, ''Drake and the Tudor Navy'' (1898) which identifies Drake as the single most important figure in the founding and triumph of the [[British navy]].{{sfn|Corbett|1898|p=440}} The alternative approach locates Drake squarely within privateering. The first has tended to laud only his successes, while Sugden writes that the second approach, which emphasises his flaws and failures, has sometimes been less than just.{{sfn|Sugden|2012|p=xiv}} Drake left behind no words of his own, only his actions and their interpretation which, as Peter Whitfield says, "is open to deep disagreement". According to Whitfield, scholarship on Drake has moved "from the hero worship of the Victorians to the cold iconoclasm" of the twenty-first century.{{sfn|Whitfield|2004|pp=8–9}}
In 1575, Drake was present at [[Rathlin Island]], part of the English plantation effort in [[Ulster]] when 600&nbsp;men, women, and children [[Rathlin Island Massacre|were massacred after surrendering]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.standingstones.com/fdrake.html |title=Brief mention of the massacre |publisher=Standingstones.com |date=1997-07-10 |accessdate=2010-02-25}}</ref>


Drake's will was the focus of an extensive confidence scam which [[Oscar Hartzell]] perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s.<ref name="Rayner2002">Rayner, Richard (22 April 2002). "The Admiral and the Con Man". ''The New Yorker''. p. 150.</ref>
Francis Drake was in charge of the ships which transported [[John Norreys]]' troops to Rathlin Island, commanding a small frigate called ''Falcon'', with a total complement of 25. At the time of the massacre, he was charged with the task of keeping Scottish vessels from bringing reinforcements to Rathlin Island. The people who were massacred were, in fact, the families of [[Sorley Boy MacDonnell]]'s followers.<ref>John Sugden, ..Sir Francis Drake'', Simon Schuster New York, ISBN 0671758632</ref>


[[Drake's Drum]] has become an icon of [[English folklore]] with its variation of the classic [[king asleep in mountain]] story motif.
===Execution of Thomas Doughty===
{{rquote|right|And after this holy repast, they dined also at the same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand.|Francis Fletcher in his account of the Communion}}
{{Main|Thomas Doughty (explorer)}}


Drake was a major focus in the video game series ''[[Uncharted]]'', specifically its first and third instalments, ''[[Uncharted: Drake's Fortune]]'' and ''[[Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception]]'', respectively. The series follows [[Nathan Drake (Uncharted)|Nathan Drake]], a self-proclaimed descendant of Drake who retraces his ancestor's voyages.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Husein |first1=Baker |date=20 February 2022 |title=Uncharted: Nate's Francis Drake Link Explained (& How It Sets Up A Sequel) |url=https://screenrant.com/uncharted-nathan-drake-francis-history-sequel-setup/ |website=Screen Rant}}</ref>
In 1578 Drake accused his co-commander Thomas Doughty of witchcraft in a shipboard trial.<ref name= Coote /> Doughty was charged with [[mutiny]] and [[treason]]. Drake then denied his requests to see Drake's commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and was denied a trial in England. The two main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright, and also that Doughty admitted to telling [[William Burghley|Lord William Burghley]] of the voyage. Drake consented to his request of [[Eucharist|Communion]] and dined with him. Thomas Doughty was beheaded on 2 July 1578.

Drake was the subject of a TV series, ''[[Sir Francis Drake (TV series)|Sir Francis Drake]]'' (1961–1962). [[Terence Morgan]] played Drake in the 26-episode adventure drama.

In [[Valparaíso]], Chile, folklore associates a cave known as [[Cueva del Pirata]] (lit. "Cave of the Pirate") with Francis Drake. A legend says that when Drake ransacked the port, he was disappointed with the scant plunder, and proceeded to enter the churches in fury to sack them and [[Desecration|urinate on]] the [[chalice]]s. Supposedly he still found the plunder to be not worth enough to take on board his galleon, and hid it in the cave.<ref name="Montecino-Aguirre2015">{{Cite book |last=Montecino Aguirre |first=Sonia |title=Mitos de Chile: Enciclopedia de seres, apariciones y encantos |publisher=[[Catalonia (publisher)|Catalonia]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-9563243758 |page=279 |language=es |quote=In the same port is the Pirate's Cave. It is said that when the pirate Francis Drake attacked Valparaíso all its inhabitants were forewarned and had fled to the hills, taking with them the most valuable things, so the pirate found only trinkets in the city. Furious, he went through the houses taking trinkets and entered the churches taking the chalices, in which he spat and urinated. Gathering all the loot, he decided that it was not worth using the space in his galleons to carry it and looked for a place to hide it. Others point out, on the contrary, that the treasure was so great that he decided to hide it in a cave. Whatever the nature of the booty, it is said that Drake decided to hide it in one of the hidden caverns on the coast of Valparaíso, which was difficult to access.}}</ref>

=== Geographical names ===
[[Drake Passage]], a [[strait]] connecting the southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]], is named after him.

There are various places in the United Kingdom named after him, especially in Plymouth, Devon. Places there carrying his name include [[Drake's Island]], [[Drake Circus Shopping Centre]], and the [[Royal Navy]] base [[HMNB Devonport]] (also known as "HMS Drake").<ref name="RoyalNavy2023">{{cite web |title=HMNB Devonport |url=https://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/our-organisation/bases-and-stations/naval-base/devonport |publisher=Royal Navy |access-date=14 March 2023}}</ref> [[Plymouth Hoe]] is also home to a statue of Drake.<ref name="Kendall2022">{{cite book |last1=Kendall |first1=Paul |title=Queen Elizabeth I: Life and Legacy of the Virgin Queen |year=2022 |publisher=Frontline Books |isbn=978-1399018388 |pages=204–205 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-yKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA204}}</ref> The [[Sir Francis Drake Channel]] is located in the [[British Virgin Islands]].<ref name="DMAHC1976">{{cite book |title=Sailing Directions (enroute) for the Caribbean Sea |date=1976 |publisher=United States Department of Defense, Defense Mapping Agency, Hydrographic/Topographic Center |page=158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sOPgS6jBpsIC&pg=PA158}}</ref>

Various mountains in [[British Columbia]] were named in the 1930s for Drake, or in connection with Elizabeth I or other figures of that era, including [[Mount Sir Francis Drake]], [[Mount Queen Bess]], and the [[Golden Hinde (mountain)|Golden Hinde]], the highest mountain on [[Vancouver Island]]. [[Fringe theories on the location of New Albion|Fringe theorists]] suggest he may also have landed to the north of the usual site considered to be [[Nova Albion]] – among them Canadian Samuel Bawlf, who claims that its true location was on [[Vancouver Island]] at latitude 50 degrees north.{{Sfn|Bawlf|2003|p=228}}

Several landmarks in northern California were named after Drake, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing into the 20th century. American historian [[Richard White (historian)|Richard White]] posits that these commemorations have origins in [[Anglo-Saxonism in the 19th century|19th-century Anglo-Saxonism]].{{Sfn|White|2020}} Public scrutiny of these memorials intensified in 2020 after the [[George Floyd protests]] drew critical attention to [[List of name changes due to the George Floyd protests|place names]] and [[List of monuments and memorials removed during the George Floyd protests|monuments]] perceived to be connected to white supremacy, colonialism, or racial injustice. Several California landmarks that commemorated Drake were removed or renamed. Citing Drake's associations with the transatlantic slave trade, colonialism and piracy,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brenner |first1=Keri |date=9 May 2021 |title=Marin panel taps Olympic gold medallist, Tuskegee Airman Archie Williams for new high school name |work=The Mercury News |url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2021/05/09/drake-panel-taps-archie-williams-for-new-high-school-name |access-date=29 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Communication to Community |url=https://docs.google.com/document/d/1UA5SePs-8axEYJC89FugJb8z7XUZGXMeXChQpI0Or1g |access-date=9 May 2021 |website=Google Docs}}</ref> Sir Francis Drake High School, in [[San Anselmo, California]], changed its name to [[Archie Williams High School]], after former teacher and Olympic athlete [[Archie Williams]]. A statue of Drake in [[Larkspur, California]] was also removed by the city authorities.<ref>{{cite news |last=Morotti |first=Lorenzo |title=Drake sculpture, school signs removed ahead of protest |work=Marin Independent Journal |location=San Rafael, CA |url=https://www.marinij.com/2020/07/29/sir-francis-drake-sculpture-removed-amid-safety-concerns/ |access-date=10 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Freedman |first=Wayne |date=11 June 2020 |title=Movement underway to erase Sir Francis Drake namesake, sculpture from Marin County |publisher=[[KABC-TV|ABC 7 News]] |url=https://abc7news.com/society/movement-underway-to-erase-sir-francis-drake-from-marin-county/6241631/ |access-date=11 May 2021}}</ref> Multiple jurisdictions in [[Marin County, California|Marin County]] considered renaming [[Sir Francis Drake Boulevard]], one of its major thoroughfares, but left the name intact when they failed to reach a consensus.<ref name="Anna Guth2021">{{Cite news |last1=Guth |first1=Anna |date=10 March 2021 |title=Supes to keep Francis Drake road name |website=Point Reyes Light |url=https://www.ptreyeslight.com/news/supes-keep-francis-drake-road-name// |access-date=21 February 2022}}</ref> In San Francisco, the Sir Francis Drake Hotel was renamed the Beacon Grand Hotel.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dowd |first1=Katie |date=21 February 2022 |title=San Francisco's iconic Sir Francis Drake Hotel permanently changes name |work=SFGate |url=https://www.sfgate.com/travel/article/SF-Sir-Francis-Drake-Hotel-changes-name-16935743.php |access-date=21 February 2022}}</ref>

<gallery widths="160px" heights="250px">
File:Francis Drake, por un artista anónimo.jpg|This portrait, {{c.}} 1581, is at the [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]], London<!--Source: Sugden's biography-->
File:DrakeStatueTavistock.jpg|Bronze statue in Tavistock, the parish in which he was born, by [[Joseph Boehm]], 1883
</gallery>


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Francis William Drake]] – relative of Sir Francis Drake
*[[Drake in California]]
*[[Drake's Leat]], a water supply for Plymouth, promoted by Drake
* [[Drake's Leat]] a water supply for Plymouth, promoted by Drake
*[[Francis William Drake]], descendant of Sir Francis Drake.
*[[Giovanni Battista Boazio]] Drake's mapmaker
*[[Iceman (comics)#1602 - Roberto Trefusis|Roberto Trefusis]] is a [[List_of_Marvel_1602_characters#Heroes|fictional nephew]] in [[Marvel 1602]] comic series
*[[Survivor: Pearl Islands]] one of the tribes was named after Drake
*[[Uncharted: Drake's Fortune]] and [[Uncharted 2: Among Thieves]] - video games featuring Drake


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Reflist}}


==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Barrow |first=John | author-link = Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet |title=The life, voyages, and exploits of Sir Francis Drake : with numerous original letters from him and the Lord High Admiral to the Queen and great officers of state |publisher=John Murray, Albemarle Street |publication-place=London |year=1843 |isbn=978-1-78987-509-6 |oclc=26727420 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zo0xAQAAMAAJ}}
*Bawlf, Samuel (2003) ''The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577–1580'' Walker & Company ISBN 0802714056
* {{cite book |last1=Bawlf |first1=Samuel |title=The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake: 1577–1580 |year=2003 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0802718082 |url=https://archive.org/details/secretvoyageofsi0000bawl}}
*Corbett, Julian Stafford 1890. [http://www.archive.org/details/sirfrancisdrake00corbiala ''Sir Francis Drake'']
* {{cite book |last1= Bergreen |first1= Laurence | author-link = Laurence Bergreen |title= In Search of a Kingdom: Francis Drake, Elizabeth I, and the Perilous Birth of the British Empire |year= 2021 |publisher= Custom House |location= New York |edition= 1st |hdl= |isbn= 9780062875389 |oclc=1193560224 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-JHrDwAAQBAJ|ref=none}}
*Hughes-Hallett, Lucy (2004) ''Heroes: A History of Hero Worship'' Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York. ISBN 1-4000-4399-9
* {{cite book|last=Bevan |first=Bryan |year=1971 |title=The Great Seamen of Elizabeth I |location=London |publisher=Robert Hale|ref=none}}
*Kelsey, Harry (1998) ''Sir Francis Drake, the Queen's Pirate'' New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300071825
* {{cite book|last=Coote |first=Stephen |year=2005 |title=Drake: The Life and Legend of an Elizabethan Hero |location=New York |publisher=Thomas Dunne Books |isbn=978-0743468701}}
*[[Garett Mattingly|Mattingly, Garett]] (1959) ''[[The Defeat of the Spanish Armada]]'' ISBN 0-395-08366-4—a detailed account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada, it received a special citation from the Pulitzer Prize committee in 1960
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/draketudornavy02corb/page/n5/mode/2up |title=Drake and the Tudor navy |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co. |last=Corbett |first=Julian |author-link=Julian Corbett |year=1898 }}
*Merideth, Mrs Charles, ''Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844; Bound With: "Life of Drake" by [[Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet|John Barrow]]'' (1st ed, 1844) [xi, 164; and xii, 187 pp. respectfully]
* {{cite book |first=John |last=Cummins|title=Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAcU-WA0X3QC&pg=PA126|year=1997 |publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0312163655|page=126}}
*[[N. A. M. Rodger|Rodger, N.A.M.]] ''The Safeguard of the Sea; A Naval History of Britain 660-1649'' (London, 1997)
* {{cite book |first=Richard |last=Hakluyt |author-link=Richard Hakluyt |editor1-first=Edward John |editor1-last=Payne |editor1-link=Edward John Payne |title=Voyages of the Elizabethan seamen to America. Thirteen original narratives from the collection of Hakluyt |year=1880 |publisher=Thos. de la Rue & Co. |place=London |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesofelizabe00haklrich/page/n4|ref=none}}
*Wilson, Derek (1977) ''The World Encompassed: Drake’s Great Voyage, 1577–80''. Harper & Row. ISBN 0060146796
* {{cite book|last=Kelsey|first=Harry|title=Sir Francis Drake: The Queen's Pirate|url=https://archive.org/details/sirfrancisdrakeq0000kels |url-access=registration |year=2000|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300084634}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kraus |first1=Hans |title=Sir Francis Drake: A Pictorial Biography |year=1970 |publisher=N. Israel, Amsterdam |edition=|url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/sir-francis-drake/articles-and-essays/drake-biography/}}
* {{cite book | title=Sir Francis Drake | last= Lace |first= William| year=2009 |publisher=Chelsea House Publishers| isbn=978-1604134179|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lane |first1=Kris |title=Pillaging the Empire: Piracy in the Americas 1500–1750 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTU-CgAAQBAJ |year=2015 |orig-year=1990|publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=978-0765602565}}
* {{cite book |last1= Loades|first1= David|author-link1= David Loades|year= 2007|chapter= Drake, Francis (1540–1595) English seaman and circumnavigator|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195130751.001.0001/acref-9780195130751-e-0245|editor1-last= Hattendorf|editor1-first= John J.|editor1-link= John B. Hattendorf|title= The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History|chapter-url-access= subscription|language= en-GB|location= Oxford|publisher= Oxford University Press|publication-date= 2007|isbn= 978-0195307405}}
* {{cite book |title=[[The Defeat of the Spanish Armada]] |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |first=Garett |last=Mattingly |author-link=Garett Mattingly |year=1959|ref=none}}. Received a special citation from the [[Pulitzer Prize]] committee in 1960.
* {{cite book |title=Sir Francis Drake his voyage, 1595 |last=Maynarde |first=Thomas |via=Internet Archive |year=1849 |url=https://archive.org/details/sirfrancisdrakeh04mayn}}
* {{cite book|last=Sugden|first=John|title=Sir Francis Drake|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEgmN-3VcMC |year=2006 |orig-year=1990 |publisher=Pimlico |location=United Kingdom |isbn=978-1844137626}}
* {{cite book|last=Sugden|first=John|title=Sir Francis Drake|publisher=Random House|year=2012|isbn=978-1448129508}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=The Cartography of Drake's voyages|encyclopedia=Sir Francis Drake and the famous voyage, 1577–1580|year=1984|last=Wallis |first=Helen |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkley|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/worldencompassed00wils |title=The World Encompassed: Drake's Great Voyage, 1577–80 |publisher=Harper & Row |last=Wilson |first=Derek |year=1977 |isbn=978-0060146795|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=White|first=Richard|author-link=Richard White (historian)|year=2020|title=California Exposures: Envisioning Myth and History|url=http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1102467481|location=New York|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|pages=1–31|isbn=978-0393243062|oclc=1102467481}}
* {{cite book| last = Whitfield|first= Peter |title=Sir Francis Drake|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcpswxkiKcEC |year=2004|publisher=NYU Press| isbn=978-0814794036}}
* {{cite book |last1=Whiting |first1=J. R. S. |year=1988 |title=The Enterprise of England: The Spanish Armada |url=https://archive.org/details/enterpriseofengl00whit |location=Gloucester |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=0312024010}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{Americana Poster|Drake, Francis|Francis Drake}}
{{commonscat}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Francis Drake}}
*The Circumnavigation
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
**[http://www.activehistory.co.uk/Miscellaneous/free_stuff/google_earth/drake/index.htm Google Earth Tour of Drake's Circumnavigation]

**[http://tre.ngfl.gov.uk/server.php?request=cmVzb3VyY2UuZnVsbHZpZXc%3D&resourceId=10330 Lesson plans for classroom use]
{{Francis Drake}}
*General sites
**[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUDdrakeF.htm Francis Drake]
**[http://www.floridamemory.com/FloridaHighlights/mapstaug.cfm Hand-colored map depicting Sir Francis Drake's attack on Saint Augustine] from the State Archives of Florida
**[http://www.indrakeswake.co.uk In Drake's Wake] - "The world's best Drake resource"
**[http://international.loc.gov/intldl/drakehtml/rbdkhome.html Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake at the Library of Congress]
**[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/england/1650689.stm Mission to rescue Drake's body]
**[http://www.mcn.org/2/oseeler/drake.htm Oliver Seeler's website "Sir Francis Drake"]
**[http://www.longcamp.com/nav.html Drake's methods of Navigation]
{{Pirates}}
{{Pirates}}
{{Authority control}}


<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME = Drake, Francis
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = El Draque
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = Privateer; circumnavigator of the world
|DATE OF BIRTH = c. 1540
|PLACE OF BIRTH = Crowndale, [[Devon]], [[England]]
|DATE OF DEATH = 27 January 1596
|PLACE OF DEATH = Off the coast of [[Puerto Bello]], [[Panama]]
}}
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[[Category:Anglo-Spanish War (1585)]]
[[Category:16th-century Royal Navy personnel]]
[[Category:British slave traders and slave holders]]
[[Category:Burials at sea]]
[[Category:Burials at sea]]
[[Category:Circumnavigators of the globe]]
[[Category:Circumnavigators of the globe]]
[[Category:English explorers]]
[[Category:Deaths from dysentery]]
[[Category:English admirals]]
[[Category:English explorers of North America]]
[[Category:English explorers of the Pacific]]
[[Category:English knights]]
[[Category:English knights]]
[[Category:English sailors]]
[[Category:English male bowls players]]
[[Category:California explorers]]
[[Category:English MPs 1572–1583]]
[[Category:English MPs 1584–1585]]
[[Category:English MPs 1593]]
[[Category:English people of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)]]
[[Category:English privateers]]
[[Category:Explorers of California]]
[[Category:Explorers of Oregon]]
[[Category:Explorers of Oregon]]
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]
[[Category:Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall]]
[[Category:People connected with Plymouth]]
[[Category:Massacres in Ireland]]
[[Category:People from Tavistock]]
[[Category:Mayors of Plymouth]]
[[Category:Members of the Inner Temple]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England for Bossiney]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England for Camelford]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of England for Plymouth]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Tavistock]]
[[Category:People who died at sea]]
[[Category:People who died at sea]]
[[Category:Privateers]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:English bowls players]]

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Latest revision as of 18:30, 9 December 2024

Sir Francis Drake
Portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts, 1591
Bornc. 1540
Tavistock, Devon, England
Died28 January 1596 (1596-01-29) (aged 56)
off the coast of Portobelo (today Panama)
Spouses
  • Mary Newman
    (m. 1569; died 1581)
  • Elizabeth Sydenham
    (m. 1585)
AwardsKnight Bachelor (1581)
Piratical career
NicknameEl Draque (the Dragon)[1]
TypePrivateer
AllegianceKingdom of England
Years active1563–1596
RankVice admiral
Base of operationsCaribbean Sea
Commands
Battles/wars
See list
WealthEquiv. US$162.7 million in 2023;[2] #2 Forbes top-earning pirates[3]
Signature

Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540 – 28 January 1596) was an English explorer and privateer best known for his circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition between 1577 and 1580. This was the first English circumnavigation, and second circumnavigation overall. He is also known for participating in the early English slaving voyages of his cousin, Sir John Hawkins, and John Lovell. Having started as a simple seaman, in 1588 he was part of the fight against the Spanish Armada as a vice-admiral.

At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, William Hawkins, a prominent sea captain in Plymouth. In 1572, he set sail on his first independent mission, privateering along the Spanish Main. Drake's circumnavigation began on 15 December 1577. He crossed the Pacific Ocean, until then an area of exclusive Spanish interest, and laid claim to New Albion, plundering coastal towns and ships for treasure and supplies as he went. He arrived back in England on 26 September 1580. Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581 which he received aboard his galleon the Golden Hind.

Drake's circumnavigation inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish and in 1585, the Anglo-Spanish War began. Drake was in command of an expedition to the Americas that attacked Spanish shipping and ports. When Philip II sent the Spanish Armada to England in 1588 as a precursor to its invasion, Drake was second-in-command of the English fleet that fought against and repulsed the Spanish fleet. A year later he led the English Armada in a failed attempt to destroy the remaining Spanish fleet.

Drake was a member of parliament (MP) for three constituencies: Camelford in 1581, Bossiney in 1584, and Plymouth in 1593. Drake's exploits made him a hero to the English, but his privateering led the Spanish to brand him a pirate, known to them as El Draque ("The Dragon" in old Spanish).[1] He died of dysentery after his failed assault on Panama in January 1596.

Birth and early years

[edit]
Portrait miniature by Nicholas Hilliard, 1581, inscribed Aetatis suae 42, An(n)o D(omi)ni 1581 ("42 years of his age, 1581 AD")
1583 portrait of Sir Francis Drake by Jodocus Hondius I

Francis Drake was born at Crowndale Farm in Tavistock, Devon, England.[4] His birth date is not formally recorded – such writers as E. F. Benson have claimed that he was born while the Six Articles of 1539 were in force,[5] but British naval historian Julian Corbett, writing of William Camden's account, on which this information is based, writes that "As a slip of memory, too, we must put down his difficult assertion that Edmund Drake was driven from Devonshire during a persecution under the Six Articles Act of 1539."[6] His birth date is estimated from the wording of texts in contemporary sources such as: "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the Judith"[7] (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of c. 1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a miniature, painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581, when he was allegedly 42, which would place his birth c. 1539, while the other, painted in 1594 when he was said to be 52,[8] would give a birth year of c. 1541.

He was the eldest of the twelve sons[9] of Edmund Drake (1518–1585), a Protestant farmer, and his wife, Mary Mylwaye. The first son was said to have been named after his godfather, Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford.[10]

Due to religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549, the Drake family fled from Devon to Kent. There Drake's father obtained an appointment to minister to the men in the King's Navy. He was ordained deacon and was made vicar of Upchurch Church on the Medway.[11]

Early career at sea

[edit]

At an early age, Drake was placed into the household of a relative, sea-captain William Hawkins of Plymouth, and began his seagoing training as an apprentice on Hawkins' boats.[12] By 18, he was a purser, according to the English chronicler Edmund Howes,[13] and in the 1550s, Drake's father found the young man a position with the owner and master of a small barque, one of the small traders plying between the Medway River and the Dutch coast. Drake likely engaged in commerce along the coast of England, the Low Countries and France.[14] The ship's master was so satisfied with the young Drake's conduct that, being unmarried and childless at his death, he bequeathed the barque to Drake.[15]

Slave trade

[edit]
Sir John Hawkins (left) with Sir Francis Drake (centre) and Sir Thomas Cavendish

In 1562, the West African slave trade was a duopoly dominated by the Portuguese and the Spanish. Sir John Hawkins devised a plan to break into that trade, and enlisted the aid of colleagues and family to finance his first slave voyage. Drake was not part of that group of financiers,[16] though his presence as one of hundreds of seamen on Hawkins's first two slaving voyages has been assumed.[17] There is some anecdotal evidence to support Drake serving as a common seaman on the first two voyages, and good evidence of his presence for the last two of four slaving voyages made by Hawkins' ships between 1562 and 1569.[12][18][19]

Jesus of Lübeck, flagship of Sir John Hawkins

In 1562, Hawkins sailed to the coast of the Sierra Leone, seized Portuguese slave ships, and sold the Africans in the Spanish Indies.[20] It was highly profitable, so for his second slave voyage in 1564, Hawkins gained Queen Elizabeth I's support. She lent him one of her ships, Jesus of Lübeck, which served as his flagship.[21] Hawkins attacked an African native town and sold many of its inhabitants in Spanish ports on the Caribbean mainland, making another large profit for himself, the Queen and the consortium of investors from her court.[17][20] Sources vary on the dates and the age of Drake at the time;[22] Harry Kelsey says he was twenty years old, "[a]ccording to Howes" (in reference to the English chronicler Edmund Howes writing in 1615).[23] Drake was not a member of that consortium, but the crew would have received a small share of the profits.[24][25] Based on this association, scholar Kris Lane lists Drake as one of the first English slave traders.[26]

The Spanish and Portuguese were aggrieved that the English had entered into the slave trade and were selling slaves to their colonies despite being forbidden from doing so. Queen Elizabeth I, under pressure to avoid an armed conflict, forbade Hawkins from going to sea for a third slave voyage. In response, he set up a slave voyage with a relative, John Lovell, in command in 1566.[17] Drake accompanied Lovell on this voyage.[17] The voyage was unsuccessful, as more than 90 enslaved Africans were released without payment.[27]

In 1567, Drake accompanied Hawkins on their next and last joint voyage.[28] The crew attempted to capture slaves around Cape Verde, but failed. Hawkins allied himself with two local kings in Sierra Leone who asked for help against their enemies in exchange for half of any captives they took. Attacking from both sides, they took several hundred prisoners, though Kelsey says the kings kept "the larger share of slaves and dared Hawkins to do anything about it".[29]

Events worsened for the fleet as it faced storms, Spanish hostility, armed conflict, and finally a hurricane that separated one ship from the rest, and it had to find its own way home.[30] The remaining ships were forced into the port of San Juan de Ulúa near Vera Cruz so they could make repairs. Soon afterward the newly appointed viceroy of New Spain, Martín Enríquez de Almanza, arrived with a fleet of ships. While still negotiating to resupply and repair, Hawkins' ships were attacked by the Spanish ships in what became known as the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa.[31] The battle ended in an English defeat with all but two of the English ships lost. The Spanish launched a fireship against Hawkins' flagship Jesus of Lübeck, and the crew of Minion in panic and fear cut the lines securing them to Jesus. Hawkins was among those who jumped from the flagship's bulwarks to Minion's decks.[32] Drake, by this time the captain of Judith, fled leaving Hawkins behind. Hawkins escaped on Minion and limped back to England with dozens of his men dying along the way,[33] and arriving with a crew of just 15.[34] Hundreds of English seamen were abandoned.[35]

After arriving back in England, Hawkins accused Drake of desertion and of stealing the treasure they had accumulated. Drake denied both accusations asserting he had distributed all profits among the crew and that he had believed Hawkins was lost when he left.[25][36] The bitter end of the fourth voyage turned Drake's life in a different direction: thereafter he would not pursue trading and slaving but would, instead, dedicate himself to attacking Spanish possessions wherever he found them.[37] Drake's hostility towards the Spanish is said to have started with the battle and its aftermath.[38]

The voyage of 1567–1569 was Drake's last association with slaving. In total, approximately 1,200 Africans were enslaved on these four voyages,[39] and an estimated three times as many Africans were killed (based on the contemporaneous accounts of slavers).[19] On the issue of slaving, scholar John Sugden writes that "Drake was in his twenties and did not question what his elders accepted", but must share some culpability for his participation.[40]

Expedition of 1572–1573

[edit]

In 1572, Drake embarked on his first major independent enterprise. He planned an attack on the Isthmus of Panama, known to the Spanish as part of Tierra Firme and to the English as part of the Spanish Main.[41] This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be brought ashore and transported overland to the Caribbean Sea, where galleons from Spain would take it aboard at the town of Nombre de Dios. Drake left Plymouth on 24 May 1572, with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels, Pascha (70 tons) and Swan (25 tons), to capture Nombre de Dios.[42][43]

Drake's first raid was late in July 1572. Drake captured Nombre de Dios, but he was badly wounded when the Spanish arrived from Panama, and his forces had to retreat without the gold, silver, pearls and jewels stored in the royal treasury. Rather than sacking Nombre de Dios again, Drake raided Spanish galleons along the coast[44] and with his Cimarrón (African slaves who had escaped from their Spanish owners)[45] allies looted the mule trains that transported gold, silver and trade goods from Panama City.[46] One of these men was Diego, who later became a free man after years of service under Drake.[47]

Among Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main, his capture of the Spanish silver train at Nombre de Dios on 1 April 1573[48] made him rich and famous.[49] Near Cabo de Cativas he encountered a French privateer, Guillaume Le Testu, who was in command of the 80-ton warship Havre, and joined forces with him in a combined fleet. Drake had determined to intercept the mule train at the Campos River, two leagues from Nombre de Dios, and instructed the captains of his pinnaces to meet them at the Francisca River on 3 April to carry them off after the raid. The combined English and French raiding parties marched through the forest towards the trail, to within a mile of the city while the Cimarróns performed reconnaissance. The next morning, 1 April, they surprised the mule convoy and seized more than 200,000 pesos' worth of treasure.[48]

After their attack on the richly laden mule train, Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry, and made off with a fortune in gold.[50][51] (An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure).[52] Badly wounded, Le Testu was captured and beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some 18 miles (29 km) of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats. When they got to the coast, the boats were gone. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind.[53]

At this point, Drake rallied his men, buried the treasure on the beach, and built a raft to sail in a heavy swell with four men twelve miles along the coast to where they had left two pinnaces.[53] When Drake finally reached them, his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance. Fearing the worst, they asked him how the raid had gone. Drake could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted.[54] Then he laughed, pulled a quoit of Spanish gold from his clothes and said, "Our voyage is made."[55] By the second week of August 1573, he had returned to Plymouth.[56]

It was during this expedition that on 11 February Drake and his lieutenant John Oxenham climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the Isthmus of Panama and thus became the first Englishmen to see the Pacific Ocean, mirroring the achievement of the Spaniard Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513. The Cimarróns had cut steps into its trunk, on which Drake and the Cimarrón leader Pedro ascended to a platform at the top of the giant tree, where they were joined by Oxenham.[57] The Englishmen vowed when they saw the Pacific Ocean that one day they would sail its waters[58] – which Drake would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world.[59]

When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially. Drake was considered a hero in England and a pirate in Spain for his raids.[60]

Rathlin Island massacre

[edit]

Drake was present at the 1575 Rathlin Island massacre in Ireland. Sir John Norris (or Norreys) and Drake, acting on the instructions of Sir Henry Sidney and the Earl of Essex, Robert Devereux, laid siege to Rathlin Castle. Despite its surrender, Norris' troops killed all the 200 defenders and several hundred more men, women and children of Clan MacDonnell.[61] Meanwhile, Drake was given the task of preventing any Gaelic Irish or Scottish reinforcements reaching the island. Therefore, the remaining leader of the Gaelic defence against English power, Sorley Boy MacDonnell, was forced to stay on the mainland. Essex wrote in his letter to Queen Elizabeth's secretary that following the attack Sorley Boy "was likely to have run mad for sorrow, tearing and tormenting himself and saying that he there lost all that he ever had."[62]

Circumnavigation (1577–1580)

[edit]

Following the success of the Panama isthmus raid, Drake's so-called "Famous Voyage" – an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas – was organized and financed by a private syndicate that included Francis Walsingham, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, John Hawkins, Christopher Hatton, and Drake himself.[63] Drake acted on the plan authored by Sir Richard Grenville, who in 1574 had received a royal patent for that purpose; just a year later this patent had been rescinded after Elizabeth I learned of Grenville's intentions against the Spanish.[64] Elizabeth likely invested in Drake's voyage to South America in 1577, but never issued him a formal commission.[65][66] This would be the first circumnavigation in 58 years.[67]

Diego was once again employed under Drake; his fluency in Spanish and English would make him a useful interpreter when Spaniards or Spanish-speaking Portuguese were captured. He was employed as Drake's servant and was paid wages like the rest of the crew.[47] Drake and the fleet set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet. They were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, Cornwall, from where they returned to Plymouth for repair.[68]

After this major setback, Drake set sail again on 13 December aboard Pelican with four other ships and 164 men. He soon added a sixth ship, Mary (formerly Santa María), a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the Cape Verde Islands.[69] He also kidnapped its captain, Nuno da Silva, a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters.[70]

Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both Christopher and the flyboat Swan due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He made landfall at the gloomy bay of Puerto San Julián, in what is now Argentina. Ferdinand Magellan had called there half a century earlier, where he put to death some mutineers. Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the Spanish gibbets. Following Magellan's example, Drake tried and executed his own "mutineer" Thomas Doughty. The crew discovered that Mary had rotting timbers, so they put the vessel ashore, stripped it, and abandoned it. Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julián before attempting the Strait of Magellan.[71]

Execution of Thomas Doughty

[edit]

On his voyage to interfere with Spanish treasure fleets, Drake had several quarrels with his co-commander Thomas Doughty and on 3 June 1578, accused him of witchcraft and charged him with mutiny and treason in a shipboard trial.[72] Drake claimed to have a (never presented) commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and denied Doughty a trial in England. The main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright, who after the trial was promoted to master of the ship Marigold, and Doughty's admission of telling Lord Burghley, a vocal opponent of agitating the Spanish, of the intent of the voyage. Drake consented to his request of Communion and dined with him,[73] of which Francis Fletcher had this account:

And after this holy repast, they dined also at the same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand.[74][75]

Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. In January 1580, when Drake became stranded upon a reef off the Celebes Sea, the ship's chaplain, Francis Fletcher, in a sermon suggested that the woes of the voyage were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.[76]

Entering the Pacific (1578)

[edit]
A replica of the Golden Hind at Bankside in London

The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later in September 1578 Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships, Marigold (captained by John Thomas) in the strait and caused another, Elizabeth, captained by John Wynter, to return to England,[77] leaving only Pelican. After this passage, Pelican was pushed south and discovered an island that Drake called Elizabeth Island. Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in Richard Hakluyt's The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation of 1589) along the Chilean coast.[78] In the Magellan Strait Francis and his men engaged in skirmishes with local indigenous people, becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia. During their stay in the strait, crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of Drimys winteri could be used as remedy against scurvy. Captain Wynter ordered the collection of great amounts of bark – hence the scientific name.[79]

Historian Mateo Martinic, who examined records of Drake's travels, credits him with the discovery of the "southern end of the Americas and the oceanic space south of it".[80] The first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire around Cape Horn in 1616.[81]

Raids on Spanish American west coast

[edit]

Drake pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed Golden Hind in honour of Sir Christopher Hatton (after his coat of arms). Golden Hind sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and pillaging towns. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts to inform his navigation. Before reaching the coast of Peru, Drake visited Mocha Island off the coast of what is now Chile, where he and his manservant Diego were seriously injured by hostile Mapuche who shot them with arrows.[82] Later he sacked the port of Valparaíso further north in Chile, where he also captured a ship full of Chilean wine.[83][84]

Near Lima, Drake captured a Spanish ship with 25,000 pesos of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, which was sailing west towards Manila. It would come to be called Cacafuego. Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship, which proved his most profitable capture.[85]

Aboard Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, Drake found 36 kilograms (80 lb) of gold, a golden crucifix, jewels, 13 chests of silver reals and 26,000 kilograms (26 long tons) of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon, and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of safe conduct.[85]

Drake continued north, raiding more Spanish settlements and ships as he went. His last stop in this phase of the voyage was in the town of Guatulco, where he and his crew stayed from 13 to 16 April, looting provisions and other materials. From here, Drake began to consider how best to return to England.[86] One possibility was to sail back south, along the Spanish coast, and return to the Atlantic Ocean via the Strait of Magellan (or possibly Cape Horn); this route was ruled out, however, to avoid the dangerous weather near the strait and presumed Spanish resistance all along the coast. This left two possible routes – continue north up the American coast, and return to the Atlantic by the rumored Strait of Anián; or, sail across the Pacific, making for the East Indies, and from there return to England by completing a circumnavigation of the world.[87]

Coast of California: Nova Albion (1579)

[edit]
Drake's landing in California, engraving published 1590 by Theodor de Bry

In May, Drake's two ships passed the Baja California peninsula and continued north. Prior to Drake's voyage, the western coast of North America had only been partially explored in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo who sailed for Spain.[88] So, intending to avoid further conflict with Spain, Drake navigated north-west of Spanish presence and sought a discreet site at which the crew could prepare for the journey back to England.[89][90] The northernmost extent of this leg of the expedition has been the subject of much scholarly debate,[91][92][93] but most sources agree that Drake reached a latitude of at least 48° north before turning back and heading south.[94][95]

On 5 June 1579, the ship briefly made first landfall at what is now South Cove, Cape Arago, just south of Coos Bay, Oregon, and then sailed southward.[90][96][97] On 17 June, Drake and his crew found a protected cove when they landed on the Pacific coast of what is now Northern California.[98][99] While ashore, he claimed the area for Queen Elizabeth I as Nova Albion or New Albion. To document and assert his claim, Drake posted an engraved plate of brass to claim sovereignty for Elizabeth and every successive English monarch. After erecting a fort and tents ashore, the crew laboured for several weeks as they prepared for the circumnavigating voyage ahead by careening their ship, Golden Hind, to effectively clean and repair the hull.[100] Drake had friendly interactions with the Coast Miwok and explored the surrounding land by foot. When his ship was ready for the return voyage, Drake and the crew left New Albion on 23 July and paused the journey the next day when anchoring the ship at the Farallon Islands where they hunted sea lions[101] or seals.[102]

Across the Pacific and around Africa

[edit]

Drake left the Pacific coast, heading south-west to catch the winds that would carry his ship across the Pacific, and a few months later reached the Moluccas, a group of islands in the western Pacific, in eastern modern-day Indonesia. Harry Kelsey maintains, against scholarly consensus, that because of the contrary prevailing winds and currents, it is much more probable that Drake careened his ship on the shore of Magdalena Bay in Lower California, and sailed to the Moluccas and Spice Islands from there.[103] At this time Diego died from wounds he had sustained earlier in the voyage; Golden Hind later became caught on a reef and was almost lost. Afterwards, the sailors waited three days for convenient tides and had dumped cargo. Befriending Sultan Babullah of Ternate in the Moluccas, Drake and his men became involved in some intrigues with the Portuguese there.[104] He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Sierra Leone by 22 July 1580.

Return to Plymouth (1580)

[edit]
1829 portrait of Drake wearing the Drake Jewel
The Drake Jewel as painted by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger in a 1591 portrait of Drake

On 26 September 1580, Golden Hind sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth, and his was the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after Elcano's in 1520.[105]

Queen Elizabeth declared that all written accounts of Drake's voyages were to become the queen's secrets of the Realm, and Drake and the other participants of his voyages on the pain of death sworn to their secrecy; she intended to keep Drake's activities hidden from the eyes of rival Spain.[105]

Drake presented the queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull.[105]

To show her gratitude the queen gave him the Drake Jewel, a valuable pendant surrounded by diamonds, rubies and pearls. It was an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake wore in a 1591 portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts. On one side of the pendant is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard, on the other a sardonyx cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The Drake Jewel is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.[105]

Knighthood and arms

[edit]

Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake a knighthood aboard Golden Hind in Deptford on 4 April 1581; the dubbing being performed by a French diplomat, Monsieur de Marchaumont, who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France's brother, Francis, Duke of Anjou.[106][107] By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting, Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake's actions.[108][109][110] During the Victorian era, in a spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the knighting.[107]

Sir Francis Drake's new heraldic achievement, with motto: Sic Parvis Magna[111]

After receiving his knighthood Drake unilaterally adopted the coat of arms of the ancient Devon family of Drake of Ash, to whom he claimed a distant but unspecified kinship. The right to use the arms was disputed in court[112] so Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake his own coat of arms.

Drake's heraldic achievement and coat of arms contains the motto, Sic Parvis Magna, which means: "Great achievements from small beginnings".[111] A hand coming out of the clouds is labelled Auxilio Divino, which means "By divine aid".[113]

Political career

[edit]

Drake first became a member of parliament for the last session of the 4th Parliament of Elizabeth I,[114] on 16 January 1581, for the constituency of Camelford. He did not actively participate at this point, and on 17 February 1581 he was granted leave of absence "for certain his necessary business in the service of Her Majesty".[115]

Drake became the Mayor of Plymouth in September 1581.[9] During his tenure, he installed a compass in the town's Hoe, and passed a law regulating the local pilchard trade.[116] During his term as lord mayor, Drake contracted to construct a leat, or canal, to bring water from the River Meavy, and to build six new gristmills on it from which he derived a substantial profit.[117]

Drake became a member of parliament again in 1584 for Bossiney,[9] on the forming of the 5th Parliament of Elizabeth I.[118] He served the duration of the parliament and was active in issues regarding the navy, fishing, early American colonisation, and issues related chiefly to Devon. He spent the time covered by the next two parliamentary terms engaged in other duties and an expedition to Portugal.[115]

He became a member of parliament for Plymouth in 1593.[115] He was active in issues of interest to Plymouth as a whole, but also to emphasise defence against the Spanish.[115][119]

Great Expedition to America

[edit]
Map of Drake's Great Expedition in 1585 by Giovanni Battista Boazio

War broke out between England and Spain in 1585, after the signing of the Treaty of Nonsuch. Queen Elizabeth I, through her principal secretary Francis Walsingham, ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish colonies in a kind of pre-emptive strike. An expedition left Plymouth in September 1585 with Drake in command of twenty-one ships with 1,800 soldiers under Christopher Carleill. He first attacked Vigo in Spain and held the place for two weeks ransoming supplies.[120] He then plundered Santiago in the Cape Verde islands after which the fleet then sailed across the Atlantic, sacked the port of Santo Domingo, and captured the city of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. At Cartagena, Drake released one hundred Turkish slaves.[121] On 6 June 1586, during the return leg of the voyage, he attacked the wooden Spanish fort at San Agustín in Spanish Florida and burnt the town to the ground.[122]

After the raids he then went on to find Sir Walter Raleigh's settlement much further north at Roanoke which he replenished and also took back with him all of the original colonists before Sir Richard Grenville arrived with supplies and more colonists. He finally reached England on 22 July, when he sailed into Portsmouth, England to a hero's welcome.[122]

Conflict with the Spanish Armada

[edit]
Painting depicting 'English Ships and the Spanish Armada'

In part to prevent future such attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas, Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England.

Cádiz raid

[edit]
Portrait of Drake around 1587, in Cassell's illustrated history of England

On 15 March 1587, Drake accepted a new commission with several purposes: to disrupt the shipping routes in order to slow supplies from Italy and Andalucia to Lisbon, to trouble enemy fleets that were in their home ports, and to capture Spanish ships laden with treasure. Drake was also to confront and attack the Spanish Armada had it already sailed for England. When arriving at Cádiz on 19 April, Drake found the harbour packed with ships and supplies as the Armada was readying and waiting for a fair wind to launch the fleet to attack. In the early hours of the next day, Drake pressed his attack into the inner harbour and inflicted heavy damage. Claims of the exact Spanish ship losses vary: Drake claimed he had sunk 39 ships, while the Spanish admitted the loss of only 24.[123][124] The attack became known as the "singeing of the King's beard" and delayed the Spanish invasion by a year.[125]

Over the next month, Drake patrolled the Iberian coasts between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent, intercepting and destroying ships on the Spanish supply lines. Drake estimated that he had captured around 1,600 to 1,700 tons of barrel staves, enough to make 25,000 to 30,000 barrels (4,000 to 4,800 m3) for containing provisions.[67] The expedition resulted in a total profit for England of around £140,000, £18,235 of which went to Drake.[126]

Defeat of the Spanish Armada

[edit]
Drake was reportedly playing bowls when first informed about the approach of the Armada.
Eighteenth-century painting of the Spanish Armada, showing fire ships
Admiral Pedro de Valdés surrendering his sword to Francis Drake aboard Revenge during the attack of the Spanish Armada, 1588. Oil on canvas by John Seymour Lucas (1889)

The Spanish Armada set sail for England in May 1588, and arrived on the English coast on 29 July, near Cornwall. An English fleet consisting of 55 ships set out from Plymouth to confront the Armada, under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, with Sir Francis Drake serving as vice admiral, commanding from the galleon Revenge. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the disabled Spanish galleon Nuestra Señora del Rosario, along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and most of his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Armada.[127] Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern.[128] By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the English fleet into disarray overnight.[129] The Duke of Medina Sidonia, whom Philip had appointed to command the Armada despite his complete lack of military experience on land or at sea, made his way up the Channel towards the French shore in his flagship San Martín with the English in pursuit, thinking that if he anchored in the roadstead of Calais they would not dare molest the Spanish ships in French waters.[130]

A council of war was held aboard Howard's flagship Ark, where Howard, Drake, Seymour, Hawkins, Martin Frobisher, and two or three others, decided to launch fire ships. That night the English launched eight fire ships into the midst of the Armada at its moorings, forcing its captains to cut their anchors and sail out of Calais into the open sea.[131] The decisive action was fought the next day on the shoals off Gravelines, where Frobisher, Drake, and Hawkins pounded the Spanish ships with their guns. Drake's squadron gave Medina Sidonia's flagship San Martin a single broadside and moved on; Frobisher, directly behind him in the English line, stayed with the San Martin at close range and poured cannon shot into her oaken flanks, but failed to take her.[132] Five Spanish ships were lost.

Drake wrote as follows to Admiral Henry Seymour after coming upon part of the Spanish Armada, whilst aboard Revenge on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 OS):

The 21st we had them in chase, and so coming up unto them, there hath passed some cannon shot between some of our fleet and some of them, and as far as we perceive they are determined to sell their lives with blows.[133]

The Armada, having failed in their aim, were unable to sail back via the English channel. The English ships, including Revenge, pursued them to prevent any landing on English soil, although by this time most of Howard's ships were almost out of shot. Nevertheless, the battered Spanish fleet were forced to sail instead around the British isles and encountered heavy storms off the coast of Ireland. The fleet eventually limped back to Spanish ports having lost overall some 63 ships and vessels.[134]

The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards, perhaps because he was waiting for high tide.[135] There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later. Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer,[136] perhaps prompting a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat.

English Armada

[edit]

The people of quality dislike him for having risen so high from such a lowly family; the rest say he is the main cause of wars.

– Gonzalo González del Castillo, letter to King Philip II, 1592[137]

In 1589, the year after the failure of the Spanish Armada, the English sent their own armada to attack Spain. Drake and Norris were given three tasks. First, to destroy the battered Spanish Atlantic fleet, which was being repaired in ports of northern Spain. Second, to make a landing at Lisbon, Portugal and raise a revolt there against King Philip II (Philip I of Portugal) installing the pretender Dom António, Prior of Crato to the Portuguese throne. And, third, to take the Azores if possible so as to establish a permanent base.[138]

In the siege of Coruña, Drake and Norris destroyed a few ships in the harbour of A Coruña in Spain but were repelled. This defeat in all fronts delayed Drake for two weeks, and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon.[67]

Norris led his army on a difficult march over the rocky coast to Lisbon, while Drake sailed around the peninsula to join Essex with his heavy artillery. Norris's troops were sick and exhausted by the time they reached the western limits of the city, consequently he demanded that Dom António raise provisions and men to fight for his cause from amongst the local populace, or the army would retreat. Drake, against their agreed plans, had anchored his fleet in the mouth of the Tagus estuary, rather than running the risk of sailing past the well-defended stretches of the Tagus to bring the desperately needed heavy cannon and ordnance.[139] The anticipated rebellion never materialised and the ground campaign was a total failure, so Norris, with his army and António, re-embarked to make an attempt at capturing the treasure fleet. The weather was not in their favour so they eventually sailed for home.

However, Drake wanted to atone for such a bitter setback and, in order not to return empty-handed and with the morale of his troops sunk, he made a fleeting stop in the Galician rías, or coastal inlets, pillaging the defenceless town of Vigo for two days and razing it to the ground. This abusive demonstration did not leave the corsair unharmed, as he lost hundreds more men on land, in addition to as many as two hundred wounded.[140] The growing defences of the inhabitants, and the arrivals of militias from Portugal, put the ships in retreat again. Two of the vessels sailing back to Plymouth were captured in the Bay of Biscay by a squadron of zabras led by Captain Diego de Aramburu.[141][142]

The failure cost the lives of 11,000 English soldiers and sailors, according to Bucholz and Key;[143] Robert Hutchinson says between 8,000 and 11,000 died;[144] while Gorrochategui Santos calculates the number at over 20,000.[145] Upon his return, Drake's behaviour in the expedition was increasingly called into question, culminating in his being charged by England's Privy Council of deliberate failings and a mishandling of his command. Despite never being publicly admonished on these charges,[146] he nevertheless fell out of favour, and was not given command of another naval expedition until 1595.[147]

Defeats and death

[edit]
Drake's burial at sea off Portobello (artistic licence - he was in fact buried in a coffin). Bronze plaque by Joseph Boehm, 1883, base of Drake statue, Tavistock

Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties. In 1595, he failed to conquer the port of Las Palmas, and following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered a number of defeats, he unsuccessfully attacked San Juan de Puerto Rico, and lost the Battle of San Juan. The Spanish gunners from El Morro Castle shot a cannonball through his stateroom on the expedition's flagship, but he survived.[148]

He and his second-in-command, Thomas Baskerville, captured and burned Nombre de Dios, and started an overland crossing of the isthmus to attack the city of Panama, but were repulsed by the well-entrenched Spaniards who had barricaded the road;[149] suffering heavy casualties, they gave up the attempt.[150] A few weeks later, on 28 January 1596, Drake died (aged about 56) of dysentery, a common disease at the time, while anchored off the coast of Portobelo where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter.[151][152][153] Following his death, the English fleet withdrew defeated.[154]

Before dying, he asked to be dressed in his full armour. He was buried at sea in a sealed lead-lined coffin, near Portobelo, a few miles off the coastline. It is supposed that his final resting place is near the wrecks of two British ships, Elizabeth and Delight, scuttled in Portobelo Bay.[155] Efforts by researchers and treasure hunters to discover the location of his remains are ongoing,[148] while divers continue to search the seabed for the coffin.[156][157]

Family and heritage

[edit]
Elizabeth Sydenham Lady Drake
Buckland Abbey in Devon

Francis Drake married Mary Newman at St Budeaux church near Plymouth, on 4 July 1569.[158] She died about 24 January 1583.[159] In 1585, Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham, born around 1562, the only child of Sir George Sydenham, of Combe Sydenham,[160] who was the High Sheriff of Somerset.[161]

In 1580, Drake purchased Buckland Abbey, a large manor house near Yelverton, Devon, via intermediaries from Sir Richard Grenville. He lived there for fifteen years, until his final voyage, and it remained in his family until 1946.[162] Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the National Trust and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there. His coat of arms and full achievement is depicted in the form of a large, coloured plaster overmantel in the Lifetimes Gallery at Buckland Abbey.[111]

Drake was one of twelve children. His brother Thomas accompanied him on voyages, and named his son after him. That nephew eventually became Sir Francis Drake, 1st Baronet.[163]

Legacy and honours

[edit]

Historical sources on Drake's early life are scarce, and tend to be obscure.[13][22] Two common scholarly traditions concerning his life and contributions have resulted.[164] The older tradition can be found in Julian Corbett's biography, Drake and the Tudor Navy (1898) which identifies Drake as the single most important figure in the founding and triumph of the British navy.[165] The alternative approach locates Drake squarely within privateering. The first has tended to laud only his successes, while Sugden writes that the second approach, which emphasises his flaws and failures, has sometimes been less than just.[166] Drake left behind no words of his own, only his actions and their interpretation which, as Peter Whitfield says, "is open to deep disagreement". According to Whitfield, scholarship on Drake has moved "from the hero worship of the Victorians to the cold iconoclasm" of the twenty-first century.[167]

Drake's will was the focus of an extensive confidence scam which Oscar Hartzell perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s.[168]

Drake's Drum has become an icon of English folklore with its variation of the classic king asleep in mountain story motif.

Drake was a major focus in the video game series Uncharted, specifically its first and third instalments, Uncharted: Drake's Fortune and Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception, respectively. The series follows Nathan Drake, a self-proclaimed descendant of Drake who retraces his ancestor's voyages.[169]

Drake was the subject of a TV series, Sir Francis Drake (1961–1962). Terence Morgan played Drake in the 26-episode adventure drama.

In Valparaíso, Chile, folklore associates a cave known as Cueva del Pirata (lit. "Cave of the Pirate") with Francis Drake. A legend says that when Drake ransacked the port, he was disappointed with the scant plunder, and proceeded to enter the churches in fury to sack them and urinate on the chalices. Supposedly he still found the plunder to be not worth enough to take on board his galleon, and hid it in the cave.[170]

Geographical names

[edit]

Drake Passage, a strait connecting the southern Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, is named after him.

There are various places in the United Kingdom named after him, especially in Plymouth, Devon. Places there carrying his name include Drake's Island, Drake Circus Shopping Centre, and the Royal Navy base HMNB Devonport (also known as "HMS Drake").[171] Plymouth Hoe is also home to a statue of Drake.[127] The Sir Francis Drake Channel is located in the British Virgin Islands.[172]

Various mountains in British Columbia were named in the 1930s for Drake, or in connection with Elizabeth I or other figures of that era, including Mount Sir Francis Drake, Mount Queen Bess, and the Golden Hinde, the highest mountain on Vancouver Island. Fringe theorists suggest he may also have landed to the north of the usual site considered to be Nova Albion – among them Canadian Samuel Bawlf, who claims that its true location was on Vancouver Island at latitude 50 degrees north.[173]

Several landmarks in northern California were named after Drake, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing into the 20th century. American historian Richard White posits that these commemorations have origins in 19th-century Anglo-Saxonism.[174] Public scrutiny of these memorials intensified in 2020 after the George Floyd protests drew critical attention to place names and monuments perceived to be connected to white supremacy, colonialism, or racial injustice. Several California landmarks that commemorated Drake were removed or renamed. Citing Drake's associations with the transatlantic slave trade, colonialism and piracy,[175][176] Sir Francis Drake High School, in San Anselmo, California, changed its name to Archie Williams High School, after former teacher and Olympic athlete Archie Williams. A statue of Drake in Larkspur, California was also removed by the city authorities.[177][178] Multiple jurisdictions in Marin County considered renaming Sir Francis Drake Boulevard, one of its major thoroughfares, but left the name intact when they failed to reach a consensus.[179] In San Francisco, the Sir Francis Drake Hotel was renamed the Beacon Grand Hotel.[180]

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Edmundson, William (2009). A History of the British Presence in Chile: From Bloody Mary to Charles Darwin and the Decline of British Influence. Springer. p. 9. ISBN 978-0230101210. The fame of his exploits spread to the extent that by the mid-1570s, Philip began to refer to him as Draque, Francisco Draque, El Draque, and even more intimately as El Capitán Francisco. Educated Spaniards called him Francisco Draguez, and Spanish mothers warned their children that if they did not behave, El Draco would come and take them away – a play on words, since el drake in old Spanish means "the dragon", derived from the Latin Draco.
  2. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  3. ^ Woolsey, Matt (19 September 2008). "Top-Earning Pirates". Forbes.com. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
  4. ^ Kelsey 2000, p. 3.
  5. ^ Benson, Edward Frederic (1927). Sir Francis Drake. Harper & Brothers. p. 6.
  6. ^ Corbett 1898, p. 393.
  7. ^ Campbell, John (1841). Lives of the British Admirals and Naval History of Great Britain from the Time of Caesar to the Chinese War of 1841 Chiefly Abridged from the work of Dr. John Campbell. Glasgow: Richard Griffin & Co. p. 104. ISBN 978-0665347566. OCLC 12129656. Archived from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2012. Direct quote is followed by "this carries back his birth to 1544, at which time the six articles were in force, and Francis Russell was seventeen years of age."
  8. ^ 1921/22 edition of the Dictionary of National Biography, which quotes Barrow's Life of Drake (1843) p. 5.
  9. ^ a b c Thomson, George Malcolm (1972), 'Sir Francis Drake', William Morrow & Company Inc. ISBN 978-0436520495
  10. ^ Froude, James Anthony (1896). English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Quote: "He told Camden that he was of mean extraction. He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth. His father was a tenant of the Earl of Bedford, and must have stood well with him, for Francis Russell, the heir of the earldom, was the boy's godfather."
  11. ^ Whitfield 2004, p. 12.
  12. ^ a b Loades 2007.
  13. ^ a b Kelsey 2000, p. 11.
  14. ^ Sugden (2006), pp. 8–9.
  15. ^ Best, Brian (2021). Elizabeth's Sea Dogs and their War Against Spain. Frontline Books. p. 45. ISBN 978-1526782885.
  16. ^ Whitfield 2004, p. 20.
  17. ^ a b c d Whitfield 2004, p. 21.
  18. ^ Whitfield 2004, p. 17.
  19. ^ a b "John Hawkins | Admiral, Privateer, Slave Trader". www.rmg.co.uk. Royal Museums Greenwich. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
  20. ^ a b Sauer, Carl Ortwin (1975). Sixteenth Century North America: The Land and the People as Seen by the Europeans. University of California Press. p. 235. ISBN 978-0520027770.
  21. ^ Bradford, Ernle (2014). Drake: England's Greatest Seafarer. Open Road Media. p. 22. ISBN 978-1497617155.
  22. ^ a b Whitfield 2004, p. 13.
  23. ^ Kelsey 2000, pp. 11–13.
  24. ^ Sugden (2006), p. 9.
  25. ^ a b Kelsey 2000, p. 43.
  26. ^ Lane 2015, p. 29.
  27. ^ Sugden (2006), pp. 19–22.
  28. ^ Benezet, Anthony (1788). Some historical account of Guinea, : its situation, produce, and the general disposition of its inhabitants, with an inquiry into the rise and progress of the slave trade, its nature and lamentable effects. London: J. Phillips. p. 49.
  29. ^ Kelsey 2000, p. 32.
  30. ^ Whitfield 2004, p. 22.
  31. ^ Strickrodt, Silke (1 February 2006). "The British Transatlantic Slave Trade (4 vols.)". The English Historical Review. CXXI (490): 226–230. doi:10.1093/ehr/cej026.
  32. ^ Childs, David (2009). Tudor Sea Power: The Foundation of Greatness. Seaforth Publishing. p. 83. ISBN 978-1848320314.
  33. ^ Sugden 2012, p. 37.
  34. ^ Roberts, Clayton; Roberts, F. David; Bisson, Douglas (2016). A History of England, Volume 1: Prehistory to 1714. Routledge. p. 175. ISBN 978-1315510002.
  35. ^ Sugden 2012, p. 36.
  36. ^ Whitfield 2004, p. 24.
  37. ^ Whitfield 2004, p. 25.
  38. ^ Sims, Jennifer E. (2022). "Gaining Decision Advantage in the Anglo-Spanish War". Decision Advantage: Intelligence in International Politics from the Spanish Armada to Cyberwar. pp. 51–C3.P124. doi:10.1093/oso/9780197508046.003.0003. ISBN 978-0197508077. Hawkins's motives, like Drake's, went back to that Spanish deceit in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa.
  39. ^ Morgan, Basil (4 October 2007). "Hawkins, Sir John (1532–1595), merchant and naval commander". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/12672. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  40. ^ Sugden 2006, p. 26.
  41. ^ Sauer, Carl Ortwin (1966). The Early Spanish Main. University of California Press. pp. 2–4. Tierra Firme continued to be the common name for the south side of the Caribbean. It was translated into English as the Spanish Main, the ports of which were raided by English ships.
  42. ^ Dean, James Seay (2014). Sea Dogs: Life Aboard an English Galleon. The History Press. p. 89. ISBN 978-0750957380.
  43. ^ Whitfield 2004, p. 29.
  44. ^ Lindsay, Ivan (2014). The History of Loot and Stolen Art: from Antiquity until the Present Day. Andrews UK Limited. p. 17. ISBN 978-1906509576.
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