Kashmir: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Region in South Asia}} |
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{{About|the geographical region of Kashmir}} |
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{{Other uses|Kashmir (disambiguation)|Kasmir (disambiguation)}} |
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[[Image:Kashmir region-map 2004.jpg|thumb|right|300px|<small>'''Political Map:'''</small> the Kashmir region districts, showing the [[Pir Panjal]] range and the ''Valley of Kashmir''.]] |
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{{Distinguish|Kashmar}}{{Coord|34.5|N|76.5|E|scale:3000000|display=title}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} |
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[[Image:Kashmir map big.jpg|thumb|left|A political map of Kashmir showing the different districts.]] --> |
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{{EngvarB|date=October 2020}} |
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[[Image:Nanga parbat, Pakistan by gul791.jpg|thumb|right|300px|<small>'''Ninth-highest:'''</small> [[Nanga Parbat]], a dangerous mountain to climb, is in the Kashmiri region of [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] in Pakistan]] |
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'''Kashmir''' ([[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]: کٔشِیر, कॅशीर; [[Dogri language|Dogri]]: कश्मीर; [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]]: ཀཤམིར; [[Balti language|Balti]]: کشمیر; [[Gojri language|Gojri]]: کشمیر; [[Pothohari language|Poonchi/Chibhali]]: کشمیر; [[Shina language|Shina]]: کشمیر; [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]: كەشمىر) is the northwestern region of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' geographically denoted only the [[valley]] between the [[Great Himalayas]] and the [[Pir Panjal]] mountain range.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} Contemporarily, ''Kashmir'' denotes a larger area that includes the [[India]]n administered province of Kashmir, the [[Pakistan]]i administered [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] and [[Azad Kashmir]], and the [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]]-administered regions of [[Aksai Chin]] and the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]]. The United Nations<ref>http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unmogip/</ref> and other local entities use the designation '''Jammu and Kashmir''' to geographically denote said area. |
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'''Kashmir''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|ʃ|m|ɪər}} {{respell|KASH|meer}} or {{IPAc-en|k|æ|ʃ|ˈ|m|ɪər}} {{respell|kash|MEER}}) is the [[Northwestern Indian subcontinent|northernmost geographical region]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the [[Kashmir Valley]] between the [[Great Himalayas]] and the [[Pir Panjal Range]]. The term has since come to encompass a larger area that includes the India-administered territories of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]], the Pakistan-administered territories of [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], and the Chinese-administered territories of [[Aksai Chin]] and the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]].<ref name="britannica-intro">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 July 2016|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|archive-date=13 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|url-status=live}} Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent. It is bounded by the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to the northeast and the Tibet Autonomous Region to the east (both parts of China), by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south, by Pakistan to the west, and by Afghanistan to the northwest. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, ... The southern and southeastern portions constitute the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian- and Pakistani-administered portions are divided by a "line of control" agreed to in 1972, although neither country recognizes it as an international boundary. In addition, China became active in the eastern area of Kashmir in the 1950s and since 1962 has controlled the northeastern part of Ladakh (the easternmost portion of the region)."</ref><ref name="bbc-intro">{{cite news|title=Kashmir territories profile|work=BBC News |date=4 January 2012 |access-date=16 July 2016|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11693674|archive-date=16 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716152335/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11693674|url-status=live}} Quote: "The Himalayan region of Kashmir has been a flashpoint between India and Pakistan for over six decades. Since India's partition and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the nuclear-armed neighbours have fought three wars over the Muslim-majority territory, which both claim in full but control in part. Today it remains one of the most militarised zones in the world. China administers parts of the territory."</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Kashmir profile—timeline|work=BBC News|date=5 January 2012 |access-date=16 July 2016|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-16069078|quote=<br/>'''1950s'''—China gradually occupies eastern Kashmir (Aksai Chin).<br/>'''1962'''—China defeats India in a short war for control of Aksai Chin.<br/>'''1963'''—Pakistan cedes the Trans-Karakoram Tract of Kashmir to China.|archive-date=22 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722065125/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-16069078|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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[[File:Kashmir region. LOC 2003626427 - showing sub-regions administered by different countries.jpg|thumb|300px|Political map of the Kashmir region, showing the [[Pir Panjal Range]] and the [[Kashmir Valley]] or Vale of Kashmir]] |
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According to the [[Mahabharata]],<ref>MBH 7.4.5.</ref> the [[Kambojas]] ruled Kashmir during the [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] period with a [[Republic]]an system of government <ref>MBH 7/91/39-40.</ref><ref>Mahabharata 7.4.5</ref><ref>Political History of Ancient India, from the Accession of Parikshit to the ..., 1953, p 150, Dr H. C Raychaudhuri - India; Ethnic Settlements in Ancient India: (a Study on the Puranic Lists of the ..., 1955, p 78, Dr S. B. Chaudhuri; An Analytical Study of Four Nikāyas, 1971, p 311, D. K.Barua - Tipiṭaka.</ref> In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important center of [[Hinduism]] and later of [[Buddhism]]; later still, in the ninth century, [[Kashmir Shaivism]] arose.<ref>Basham, A. L. (2005) ''The wonder that was India'', Picador. Pp. 572. ISBN 033043909X, p. 110.</ref> In 1349, Shah Mir became the first [[Islam|Muslim]] ruler of Kashmir and inaugurated the ''Salatin-i-Kashmir'' or [[Swati (tribe)|Swati]] dynasty.<ref name=imp-gazet-history>''Imperial Gazetteer of [[India]], volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93-95.</ref> For the next five centuries, Muslim [[monarchy|monarchs]] ruled Kashmir, including the [[Mughals]], who ruled from 1526 until 1751, then the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]] that ruled from 1747 until 1820.<ref name=imp-gazet-history/> That year, the [[Sikh]]s under [[Ranjit Singh]], annexed Kashmir.<ref name=imp-gazet-history/> In 1846, upon the purchase of the region from the British under the [[Treaty of Amritsar]], the Dogras—under [[Gulab Singh]]—became the new rulers. [[Dogra]] Rule, under the ''paramountcy'' (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|former princely state]] signed an [[Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)|accession treaty with India]] after raiders from Pakistan attacked it. India applied to the [[United Nations]] a for resolution of the issue and a temporary line of control was created. The plebiscite demanded by the UN and promised by India in [[Indian_White_Paper_on_Plebiscite_in_Kashmir|Indian White Paper on Kashmir]] was never conducted for various reasons<ref>http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/kashmir_timeline/kashmir_chapters/plebiscite.shtml</ref>; chief of the reasons being that Pakistan was supposed to withdraw the troops sent in under pretence of tribal attack but never did in spite of agreeing to do so, and withdrawal of the troops was a first requirement of the said plebiscite. Thus began a problem that still remains unresolved with the [[Kashmir conflict|disputed territory]] now administered by the three countries of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and the [[People's Republic of China]] post Chinese occupation of some parts of the territory after Chinese occupation of Tibet.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} |
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[[File:Pahalgam Valley.jpg|thumb|[[Pahalgam|Pahalgam Valley]], Kashmir]] |
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[[File:Nanga parbat, Pakistan by gul791.jpg|thumb|[[Nanga Parbat]] in Kashmir, the ninth-highest mountain on Earth, is the western anchor of the Himalayas]] |
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In 1820, the [[Sikh Empire]], under [[Ranjit Singh]], annexed Kashmir.<ref name=imp-gazet-history/> In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]], and upon the purchase of the region from the [[British Empire|British]] under the [[Treaty of Amritsar (1846)|Treaty of Amritsar]], the Raja of Jammu, [[Gulab Singh]], became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the ''paramountcy'' (or tutelage<ref name=sneddon-paramountcy-tutelage>{{citation|last=Sneddon|first=Christopher|title=Independent Kashmir: An incomplete aspiration|year=2021|publisher=Manchester University Press|pages=12–13|quote=Paramountcy was the ‘vague and undefined’ feudatory system whereby the British, as the suzerain power, dominated and controlled India’s princely rulers. ... These ‘loyal collaborators of the Raj’ were ‘afforded [British] protection in exchange for helpful behavior in a relationship of tutelage, called paramountcy’.}}</ref><ref name=ganguly-hagerty-2005-paramountcy>{{citation|last1=Ganguly|first1=Sumit|last2=Hagerty|first2=Devin T.| title=Fearful Symmetry: India-Pakistan Crises in the Shadow of Nuclear Weapons|isbn=0-295-98525-9|year=2005|location=Seattle and New Delhi|publisher=University of Washington Press, and Oxford University Press|page=22|quote=... the problem of the 'princely states'. These states had accepted the tutelage of the British Crown under the terms of the doctrine of 'paramountcy' under which they acknowledged the Crown as the 'paramount' authority in the subcontinent.}}</ref>) of the [[The Crown|British Crown]], lasted until the [[Partition of India]] in 1947, when the former [[princely state]] of the [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]] became a [[Kashmir Dispute|disputed territory]], now administered by three countries: [[China]], [[India]], and [[Pakistan]].<ref name=britannica-intro/><ref name=americana>{{citation|chapter=Kashmir|title=Encyclopedia Americana|publisher=Scholastic Library Publishing|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7172-0139-6|page=328|access-date=18 December 2021|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117135716/https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|url-status=live}} C. E Bosworth, University of Manchester Quote: "KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partlv by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947";</ref><ref name="Osmanczyk2003">{{citation|last1=Osmańczyk|first1=Edmund Jan|title=Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93922-5 |pages=1191–|access-date=18 December 2021|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|url-status=live}} Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China."</ref><ref name=bbc-intro/> |
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==Etymology== |
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[[Image:Sun temple martand indogreek.jpg|thumb|left|''General view of [[Temple]] and Enclosure of [[Surya|Marttand]] (the [[Sun]]), at Bhawan, ca. A.D. 490–555; the colonnade ca. A.D. 693–729.'' [[Surya]] [[Temple]] at [[Anantnag#Martand_Sun_Temple|Martand]], Jammu & Kashmir, photographed by John Burke, 1868.]] |
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== Etymology == |
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The [[Indian]] valley of [[Kashmir]] is named after [[Rishi]] [[Kashyapa]].The ''Nilamata [[Purana]]'' describes the Valley’s origin from the waters; ''का'' ''Ka'' (“water”) + ''शिमिरि'' ''Shimir'' (“to [[desiccate]]”), hence, ''Kaashmir'' denotes “a land desiccated from water”. (The fact of Himaalaya (and the general region thereof) being raised out of ocean is known to science and hence the rest of the world only now, but was for ever known in India, and is part of Hindu legends, as the story about churning of oceans.) An alternate nominal origin theory proposes that ''Kaashmir'' is a contraction of either ''Kashyap-mira'' or ''Kashyapmir'' or ''Kashyapmeru'', denoting the “sea of Kashyapa” and the “mountain of Kashyapa”, eponyms of [[Kashyapa]], the [[wise old man|sage]][[Kashyapa]] credited with having drained the primordial ''Satisar'' lake that occupied the Kaashmir valley before he reclaimed it from the water. Considering the Valley an embodiment of the goddess [[Uma (goddess)|Uma]], the ''Nilamata Purana'' gives it the place-name ''Kaashmira'', from which derives the contemporary ''Kashmir'' place-name. Nonetheless, the Kaashmiris colloquially use the place-name ''Kashir'', which is phonetically derived from ''Kaashmir'', as noted in the Aurel Stein introduction to the ''[[Rajatarangini]]'' metrical chronicle. |
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The word ''Kashmir'' is thought to have been derived from [[Sanskrit]] and was referred to as ''{{IAST|káśmīra}}''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:2152.soas |title=A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu |access-date=29 May 2015 |archive-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205161051/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:2152.soas |url-status=dead }}</ref> A popular local etymology of ''Kashmira'' is that it is land desiccated from water.<ref name="Snedden2015">{{citation|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-84904-342-7|pages=22–|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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An alternative etymology derives the name from the name of the [[Vedic age|Vedic]] sage [[Kashyapa]] who is believed to have settled people in this land. Accordingly, ''Kashmir'' would be derived from either ''kashyapa-mir'' (Kashyapa's Lake) or ''kashyapa-meru'' (Kashyapa's Mountain).<ref name="Snedden2015"/> |
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In the ''Rajatarangini,'' a history of Kashmir written by ''[[Kalhana]]'' in the 12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kaashmir was formerly a lake. This was drained by the great [[rishi]] or sage, [[Kashyapa]], son of Marichi, son of [[Brahma]], by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (''Varaha-mula''). [[Cashmere]] is a variant spelling of Kaashmir.<ref name="OED">"Kaashmir." ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd ed. 1989.</ref> |
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The word has been referenced to in a Hindu scripture mantra worshipping the [[Hindu]] goddess [[Saraswati|Sharada]] and is mentioned to have resided in the land of ''kashmira'', or which might have been a reference to the [[Sharada Peeth]]. |
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==History== |
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{{Main|History of Kashmir}} |
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The [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] called the region ''Kasperia'', which has been identified with ''Kaspapyros'' of [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] ([[:wikt:apud|apud]] [[Stephanus of Byzantium]]) and ''Kaspatyros'' of [[Herodotus]] (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by [[Ptolemy]]'s ''Kaspeiria''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KScrDwAAQBAJ&q=kashmir+Ptolemy%27s+Kaspeiria.&pg=PT284|title=Who Killed Kasheer?|last=Khan|first=Ruhail|date=6 July 2017|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=9781947283107|language=en|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=KScrDwAAQBAJ&q=kashmir+Ptolemy%27s+Kaspeiria.&pg=PT284|url-status=live}}</ref> The earliest text which directly mentions the name ''Kashmir'' is in ''[[Ashtadhyayi]]'' written by the Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini]] during the 5th century BC. Pāṇini called the people of Kashmir ''Kashmirikas''.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lJI9avHstYC&pg=PA64 |title=India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods |last=Kumāra |first=Braja Bihārī |date=2007 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=9788180694578 |page=64 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=-lJI9avHstYC&pg=PA64 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kashur">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bb-QBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |title=Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking People |last=Raina |first=Mohini Qasba |date=13 November 2014 |publisher=Partridge Publishing Singapore |isbn=9781482899450 |page=11 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bb-QBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC&pg=PA59 |title=Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society |last=Kaw |first=M. K. |date=2004 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=9788176485371 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC&pg=PA59 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some other early references to Kashmir can also be found in [[Mahabharata]] in [[Sabha Parva]] and in puranas like [[Matsya Purana]], [[Vayu Purana]], [[Padma Purana]] and [[Vishnu Purana]] and [[Vishnudharmottara Purana]].<ref name="Patanjali">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GfF1pTv0PgkC&pg=PA2 |title=Cultural Heritage of Kashmiri Pandits |last1=Toshakhānī |first1=Śaśiśekhara |last2=Warikoo |first2=Kulbhushan |date=2009 |publisher=Pentagon Press |isbn=9788182743984 |pages=2–3 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140439/https://books.google.com/books?id=GfF1pTv0PgkC&pg=PA2 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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===Buddhism and Hinduism in Kashmir=== |
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{{See|Buddhism in Kashmir}} |
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[[Image:Buddhist tope baramula1868.jpg|thumb|right|This general view of the unexcavated [[Buddhist]] stupa near [[Baramulla]], with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE]] |
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The Buddhist [[Maurya]]n emperor [[Ashoka]] is often credited with having founded the old capital of Kashmir, Shrinagari, now ruins on the outskirts of modern [[Srinagar]]. Kashmir was long to be a stronghold of Buddhism.<ref>A.K. Warder, ''Indian Buddhism''. Motilal Banarsidass 2000, page 256.</ref> |
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[[Xuanzang|Huientsang]], the Buddhist scholar and Chinese traveller, called Kashmir ''kia-shi-milo'', while some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ''ki-pin'' (or Chipin or Jipin) and ''ache-pin''.<ref name="Kashur"/> |
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As a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] seat of learning, it is possible that the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivādan]] school dominated Kashmir.<ref>A.K. Warder, ''Indian Buddhism''. Motilal Banarsidass 2000, pages 263-264.</ref> East and [[Central Asia]]n [[Buddhist]] [[monk]]s are recorded as having visited the kingdom. In the late 4th century AD, the famous [[Kucha]]nese monk [[Kumārajīva]], born to an Indian noble family, studied [[Dirghagama|Dīrghāgama]] and [[Madhyāgama]] in Kashmir under [[Bandhudatta]]. He later became a prolific translator who helped take [[Buddhism]] to [[China]]. His mother Jīva is thought to have retired to Kashmir. [[Vimalaksa|Vimalākṣa]], a Sarvāstivādan Buddhist monk, travelled from Kashmir to Kucha and there instructed Kumārajīva in the ''[[Buddhist texts#Vinaya|Vinayapiṭaka]]''. |
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''Cashmeer'' is an archaic spelling of modern Kashmir, and in some countries{{which|date=August 2019}} it is still spelled this way. Kashmir is called ''Cachemire'' in French, ''Cachemira'' in Spanish, ''Caxemira'' in Portuguese, ''Caixmir'' in Catalan, ''Casmiria'' in Latin, ''Cașmir'' in Romanian, and ''Cashmir'' in [[Occitan language|Occitan]]. |
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[[Adi Shankara]] visited the pre-existing ''{{IAST|Sarvajñapīṭha}}'' ([[Sharada Peeth]]) in Kashmir in late 8th century CE or early 9th Century CE. The ''Madhaviya Shankaravijayam'' states this [[mandir|temple]] had four doors for scholars from the four cardinal directions. The southern door (representing [[South India]]) had never been opened, indicating that no scholar from South India had entered the Sarvajna Pitha. Adi Shankara opened the southern door by defeating in debate all the scholars there in all the various scholastic disciplines such as [[Mimamsa]], [[Vedanta]] and other branches of [[Hindu philosophy]]; he ascended the throne of Transcendent wisdom of that temple.<ref>{{cite book |
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| last = Tapasyananda |
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| first = Swami |
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| year = 2002 |
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| title = Sankara-Dig-Vijaya |
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| pages=186–195 |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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In the [[Kashmiri language]], Kashmir itself is known as ''Kasheer''.<ref>P. iv 'Kashmir Today' by Government, 1998</ref> |
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[[Abhinavagupta]] (approx. 950 - 1020 AD<ref>Triadic Heart of Shiva, Paul E. Muller-Ortega, page 12</ref><ref>Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 27</ref>) was one of [[India]]'s greatest [[Indian philosophy|philosophers]], [[Mysticism|mystics]] and [[Aesthetics|aestheticians]]. He was also considered an important [[Music of India|musician]], [[Indian poetry|poet]], [[Theatre in India|dramatist]], [[exegesis|exeget]], [[theology|theologian]], and [[Indian logic|logician]]<ref name="Re-accessing Abhinavagupta page 4">Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 4</ref><ref>Key to the Vedas, Nathalia Mikhailova, page 169</ref> - a [[polymath]]ic personality who exercised strong influences on Indian culture.<ref>The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare, page 12</ref><ref>Companion to Tantra, S.C. Banerji, page 89</ref> He was born in the [[Kashmir region|Valley of Kashmir]]<ref>Doctrine of Divine Recognition, K. C. Pandey, page V</ref> in a family of scholars and mystics and studied all the schools of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of as many as fifteen (or more) teachers and [[guru]]s.<ref>Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 35</ref> In his long life he completed over 35 works, the largest and most famous of which is [[Tantraloka|Tantrāloka]], an encyclopedic treatise on all the philosophical and practical aspects of [[Trika]] and [[Kaula]] (known today as [[Kashmir Shaivism]]). Another one of his very important contributions was in the field of philosophy of aesthetics with his famous [[Abhinavabharati|Abhinavabhāratī]] commentary of [[Natya Shastra|Nāṭyaśāstra]] of [[Bharata Muni]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Luce dei Tantra, Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta, Raniero Gnoli, page LXXVII</ref> |
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===Terminology=== |
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[[Image:Zeinulabuddin-tomb-srinagar1866.JPG|thumb|left|''Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date A.D. 400 to 500'', 1868. John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Library.]] |
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The Muslims and [[Hindu]]s of Kashmir lived in relative harmony, since the [[Sufi]]-Islamic way of life that Muslims followed in Kashmir complemented the [[Rishi]] tradition of [[Kashmiri Pandit]]s.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} This led to a syncretic culture where Hindus and Muslims revered the same local saints and prayed at the same [[shrines]] {{Citation needed|date=September 2007}}. Famous sufi saint Bulbul Shah was able to convert Rinchan Shah who was then [[prince]] of Kashgar [[Ladakh]] to an Islamic lifestyle, thus founding the Sufiana composite culture. Under this rule, Muslim, [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] Kashmiris generally co-existed peacefully. Over time, however, the Sufiana governance gave way to outright Muslim monarchs<ref>http://www.historyofjihad.org/india.html</ref> due to eternal Islamic policies as per 'Holy' [[Quran]].<ref>http://www.islam-watch.org/AliSina/from_rags_to_riches.htm</ref><ref>'Over time, however, the Sufiana governance gave way to outright Muslim monarchs' appears in the article which is true but no explanation for it is given which I provided. The reason is Islamic requirement to turn the world into Darul Islam as per Koran and hence link of the 'Holy' Quran with the appropriate verses was quoted as reference (just click the verses in link to see them in Koranic perspective). Another was a site on the History of Jihad in India with special reference to Kashmir which by any standards are most reliable sources and none can ignore Quranic instructions as non-reliable sources while discussing on Islam & its nature, in this case Islamic Government. Likewise without history of jihad the article is incomplete not only in elucidating the quoted line at the top but also in writing about overall Muslim rule in Kashmir!</ref> |
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The Government of India and Indian sources refer to the territory under Pakistan control as "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" ("POK").<ref name="Snedden 2013 p.2-3">{{cite book |first=Christopher |last=Snedden |author-link=Christopher Snedden |title=Kashmir: The Unwritten History |publisher=HarperCollins India |year=2013 |isbn=978-9350298985 |pages=2–3}}</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-enigma-of-terminology/article5621801.ece The enigma of terminology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016082903/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-enigma-of-terminology/article5621801.ece |date=16 October 2015 }}, The Hindu, 27 January 2014.</ref> The Government of Pakistan and Pakistani sources refer to the portion of Kashmir administered by India as "Indian-occupied Kashmir" ("IOK") or "Indian-held Kashmir" (IHK);<ref>{{cite web |first= Ali |last= Zain |url= http://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/pakistani-flag-hoisted-pro-freedom-slogans-chanted-in-indian-occupied-kashmir-567/ |title= Pakistani flag hoisted, pro-freedom slogans chanted in Indian Occupied Kashmir – Daily Pakistan Global |publisher= En.dailypakistan.com.pk |date= 13 September 2015 |access-date= 17 November 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151118114311/http://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/pakistani-flag-hoisted-pro-freedom-slogans-chanted-in-indian-occupied-kashmir-567/ |archive-date= 18 November 2015 |url-status= dead |df= dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://dunyanews.tv/index.php/en/World/298421-Pakistani-flag-hoisted-once-again-in-Indian-Occupi |title= Pakistani flag hoisted once again in Indian Occupied Kashmir |website=Dunya News |date= 11 September 2015 |access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref> The terms "Pakistan-administered Kashmir" and "India-administered Kashmir" are often used by neutral sources for the parts of the Kashmir region controlled by each country.<ref>South Asia: fourth report of session 2006–07 by Great Britain: Parliament: House of Commons: Foreign Affairs Committee page 37</ref> |
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===First Muslim Ruler, Shah Mir Swati=== |
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== History == |
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In the beginning of 14th century a ferocious Mongol, Dulucha, invaded the valley through its northern side Zojila Pass, with an army of 60,000 men. Like Taimur in the Punjab and Delhi, Dulucha carried sword and fire, destroyed towns and villages and slaughtered thousands. His savage attack practically ended the Hindu rule in Kashmir. Raja Sahadev was the ruler then. It was during his reign that three men, Shah Mir from Swat (tribal) territory on the borders of Afghanistan, Rinchin from Ladhak, and Lankar Chak from Dard territory near Gilgit came to Kashmir, and played a notable role in subsequentive political history of the valley. All the three men were granted Jagirs by the King. Rinchin for 3 years became the ruler of Kashmir. |
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{{For|a history of the region including the pre-19th century period|History of Kashmir|History of Gilgit-Baltistan|History of Ladakh}} |
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In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of [[Hinduism]] and later of [[Buddhism]]. During the 7th-14th centuries, the region was ruled by a series of Hindu dynasties,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2022-05-09|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|archive-date=13 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|url-status=live}} Quote: "A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled Kashmir until 1346, when it came under Muslim rule."</ref> and [[Kashmir Shaivism]] arose.<ref>Basham, A. L. (2005) ''The wonder that was India'', Picador. Pp. 572. {{ISBN|0-330-43909-X}}, p. 110.</ref> In 1320, [[Rinchan|Rinchan Shah]] became the first [[Muslims|Muslim]] ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the [[Kashmir Sultanate]].<ref name=imp-gazet-history>''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93–95.</ref> The region was part of the [[Mughal Empire]] from 1586 to 1751,<ref name=":1">{{citation|last=Puri|first=Balraj|title=5000 Years of Kashmir|date=June 2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5EWo7eszcbgC&q=end+of+muslim+rule+in+kashmir&pg=PA45|number=6|quote=It was emperor Akbar who brought an end to indigenous Kashmiri Muslim rule that had lasted 250 years. The watershed in Kashmiri history is not the beginning of the Muslim rule as is regarded in the rest of the subcontinent but the changeover from Kashmiri rule to a non-Kashmiri rule.|author-link=Balraj Puri|newspaper=Epilogue|volume=3|access-date=31 December 2016|pages=43–45|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140439/https://books.google.com/books?id=5EWo7eszcbgC&q=end+of+muslim+rule+in+kashmir&pg=PA45|url-status=live}}</ref> and thereafter, until 1820, of the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]].<ref name=imp-gazet-history/> |
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=== Sikh rule === |
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In 1819, the [[Kashmir Valley]] passed from the control of the [[Durrani Empire]] of [[Afghanistan]] to the conquering armies of the [[Sikh Empire|Sikhs]] under [[Ranjit Singh]] of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]],<ref name="imperialgazet-gulabsingh">''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. "Kashmir: History". pp. 94–95.</ref> thus ending four centuries of [[Muslim]] rule under the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] and the [[Durrani Empire|Afghan]] regime. As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.<ref name=schofield_p5-6>{{Harvnb|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|pp=5–6}}</ref> However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,<ref name=madan2008-p15>{{Harvnb|Madan, Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashimiriyat|2008|p=15}}</ref> protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41>{{Harvnb|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004|pp=39–41}}</ref> The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,<ref name=schofield_p5-6/> closing down the [[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar|Jamia Masjid]] in Srinagar,<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> and banning the [[Adhan|a''dhan'']], the public Muslim call to prayer.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs.<ref name=schofield_p5-6/><ref name=":3">{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620003316/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 June 2018 |title=Kashmir|last1=Amin|first1=Tahir|last2=Schofield |first2=Victoria|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |quote=During both Sikh and Dogra rule, heavy taxation, forced work without wages (begār), discriminatory laws, and rural indebtedness were widespread among the largely illiterate Muslim population.}}</ref> High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.<ref name=schofield_p5-6/> Many Kashmiri peasants migrated to the plains of the Punjab.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dlBjzE-1ML8C&q=kashmir+muslims+famine+punjab&pg=PA40 40]}}: "Kashmiri histories emphasize the wretchedness of life for the common Kashmiri during Sikh rule. According to these, the peasantry became mired in poverty and migrations of Kashmiri peasants to the plains of the Punjab reached high proportions. Several European travelers' accounts from the period testify to and provide evidence for such assertions."</ref> However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers;<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh Empire.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> During this time [[Kashmir shawl]]s became known worldwide, attracting many buyers, especially in the West.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> |
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The [[Jammu district|state of Jammu]], which had been on the ascendant after the decline of the Mughal Empire, came under the sway of the Sikhs in 1770. Further in 1808, it was fully conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Gulab Singh, then a youngster in the House of Jammu, enrolled in the Sikh troops and, by distinguishing himself in campaigns, gradually rose in power and influence. In 1822, he was anointed as the Raja of Jammu.{{sfn|Panikkar|1930|p=10–11, 14–34}} Along with his able general [[Zorawar Singh Kahluria]], he conquered and subdued [[Rajouri district|Rajouri]] (1821), [[Kishtwar district|Kishtwar]] (1821), Suru valley and [[Kargil district|Kargil]] (1835), [[Leh district|Ladakh]] (1834–1840), and [[Baltistan]] (1840), thereby surrounding the [[Kashmir Valley]]. He became a wealthy and influential noble in the Sikh court.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|pp=6–7}} |
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After the King, Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir Swati was the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and the founder of the Shah Miri dynasty named after him. Jonaraja, in his Rajatarangini mentioned him as Sahamera. He came from Swat, the then (Tribal) territory on the borders of Afghanistan and played a notable role in subsequentive political history of the valley. Shahmir became the ruler of Kashmir and reigned for three years.He was the first ruler of Swati dynasty, which had established in 1339. Shah Mir was succeeded by his eldest son Jamshid, but he was deposed by his brother Ali Sher probably within few months, who ascended the throne under the name of Alauddin[1] |
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==Kashmir dispute== |
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Some Kashmiri rulers, such as Sultan [[Zain-ul-Abidin]] who was popularly known as Baadshah (the King) (r.1423-1474), were tolerant of all religions in a manner comparable to [[Akbar]]. However, several Muslim rulers of Kashmir were intolerant of other religions. Sultãn [[Sikandar Butshikan]] of Kashmir (AD 1389-1413) is often considered the worst of these. Historians have recorded many of his atrocities. The [[Tarikh-i-Firishta]] records that Sikandar [[persecuted]] the [[Hindus]] and issued orders proscribing the residence of any other than Muslims in Kashmir. He also ordered the breaking of all "golden and silver images". The Tarikh-i-Firishta further states: "Many of the [[Brahmin]]s, rather than abandon their religion or their country, poisoned themselves; some emigrated from their native homes, while a few escaped. After the emigration of the Brahmins, Sikandar ordered all the temples in Kashmir to be thrown down. Having broken all the images in Kashmir, (Sikandar) acquired the title of ‘Destroyer of Idols’."<ref>''Muhammad Qãsim Hindû Shãh Firishta : Tãrîkh-i-Firishta,'' translated by John Briggs under the title "History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India." First published in 1829, [[New Delhi]] Reprint 1981.</ref> |
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=== Princely state === |
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{{Main|Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)}} |
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[[File:Maharajah Gulab Singh (1792-1857) seated holding a sword against a bolster on a terrace.webp|thumb|[[Gulab Singh]], The first [[Dogra dynasty|Maharaja]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], which was founded in 1846.]] |
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[[File:NWFP-Kashmir1909-a.jpg|thumb|1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The names of regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are underlined in red.]] |
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In 1845, the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] broke out. According to ''[[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]]:'' |
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The metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, called ''[[Rajatarangini]],'' has been pronounced by Professor H.H.Wilson to be the only [[Sanskrit]] composition yet discovered to which the appellation "history" can with any propriety be applied. (Which is ironic when one reflects that much of recent discoveries or relatively newly established theories of science, including Darwin's evolution and the fact of Himaalaya being raised out of ocean, has forever been known in Indian ancient legends of Hinduism, nevertheless labeled "myth" in west.) It first became known to the Muslims when, on [[Akbar]]'s invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to the emperor. A translation into Persian was made at his order. A summary of its contents, taken from this Persian translation, is given by [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]] in the ''Ain-i-Akbari''. The ''Rajatarangini'' was written by Kalhana about the middle of the 12th century. His work, in six books, makes use of earlier writings that are now lost. |
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<blockquote>Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the [[battle of Sobraon]] (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of [[Henry Lawrence (Indian Army officer)|Sir Henry Lawrence]]. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the [[History of Lahore|State of Lahore]] (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i.e. the Vale of Kashmir.<ref name=imperialgazet-gulabsingh/></blockquote> |
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The ''Rajatarangini'' is the first of a series of four histories that record the annals of Kashmir. Commencing with a rendition of traditional history of very early times, the ''Rajatarangini'' comes down to the reign of [[Sangrama Deva]], (''c.''1006 AD). The second work, by [[Jonaraja]], continues the history from where Kalhana left off, and, entering the Muslim period, gives an account of the reigns down to that of [[Zain-ul-ab-ad-din]], 1412. P. Srivara carried on the record to the accession of [[Fah Shah]] in 1486. The fourth work, called ''Rajavalipataka'', by [[Prajnia Bhatta]], completes the history to the time of the incorporation of Kashmir in the dominions of the [[Mogul Empire|Mogul]] emperor Akbar, 1588. |
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Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted between 1820 and 1858, the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was first called) combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities:<ref name=bowers>Bowers, Paul. 2004. [http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf "Kashmir." Research Paper 4/28] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326182755/http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf |date=26 March 2009 }}, International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons Library, United Kingdom.</ref> to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and its inhabitants practised [[Tibetan Buddhism|Buddhism]]; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. In the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly [[Kashmiri Muslims|Muslim]]—mostly [[Sunni Muslim|Sunni]], however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the [[brahmin]] [[Kashmiri Pandits]]. To the northeast, sparsely populated [[Baltistan]] had a population ethnically related to that of Ladakh, but which practised [[Shia Islam]]. To the north, also sparsely populated, [[Gilgit Agency]] was an area of diverse, mostly ''Shia'' groups, and, to the west, [[History of Poonch District|Punch]] was populated mostly by Muslims of a different ethnicity than that of the Kashmir valley.<ref name=bowers/> After the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of [[British Raj|direct rule]] by Great Britain, the [[princely state]] of Kashmir came under the [[suzerainty]] of the [[The Crown|British Crown]]. |
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===Sikh rule and Princely State=== |
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{{Main|Princely state of Kashmir and Jammu}} |
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[[Image:NWFP-Kashmir1909-a.jpg|thumb|right|1909 Map of the [[Kashmir region|Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu]]. The names of regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are underlined in red.]] |
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By the early 19th century, the [[Kashmir valley]] had passed from the control of the [[Durrani Empire]] of [[Afghanistan]], and four centuries of [[Muslim]] rule under the [[Mughals]] and the [[Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghans]], to the conquering [[Sikh]] armies. Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the [[Raja]] of [[Jammu]], the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was captured by the [[Sikh Kingdom|Sikhs]] under [[Ranjit Singh]] of [[Lahore]] and afterwards, until 1846, became a tributary to the Sikh power.<ref name=imperialgazet-gulabsingh>''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. "Kashmir: History." pp. 94-95.</ref> Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, [[Gulab Singh]], subsequently sought service at the court of [[Ranjit Singh]], distinguished himself in later campaigns, especially the annexation of the Kashmir valley by the [[Sikhs]] army in 1819, and, for his services, was appointed governor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, [[General Zorawar Singh|Zorawar Singh]], Gulab Singh soon captured [[Ladakh]] and [[Baltistan]], regions to the east and north-east of Jammu.<ref name=imperialgazet-gulabsingh/> |
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In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registered a Muslim majority population of 77%, a Hindu population of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the remaining 3%.<ref name=bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17>{{Harvnb|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003|pp=15–17}}</ref> That same year, [[Prem Nath Bazaz]], a [[Kashmiri Pandit]] journalist wrote: "The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. ... Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee [Hindu] landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the Muslim masses."<ref>Quoted in {{Harvnb|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003|pp=15–17}}</ref> Under Hindu rule, Muslims faced hefty taxation and discrimination in the legal system, and were forced into labor without any wages.<ref>{{citation |last1=Amin |first1=Tahir |last2=Schofield |first2=Victoria |chapter=Kashmir |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |year=2009 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620003316/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |url-status=live }}</ref> Conditions in the princely state caused a significant migration of people from the Kashmir Valley to the Punjab of British India.<ref name="Bose2013">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=reiwAAAAQBAJ |title=Transforming India |date=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72820-2 |pages=211 |author=Sumantra Bose |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=reiwAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> For almost a century, until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruled over a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry.<ref name=bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17/><ref name=talbot-singh-p54>{{Harvnb|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=54}}</ref> Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to landlords and moneylenders, having no education besides, nor awareness of rights,<ref name=bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17/> the Muslim peasants had no political representation until the 1930s.<ref name=talbot-singh-p54/> |
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In 1845, the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] broke out, and [[Gulab Singh]] "contrived to hold himself aloof till the [[battle of Sobraon]] (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir [[Henry Montgomery Lawrence|Henry Lawrence]]. Two treaties were concluded, of which the first gave the State of Lahore (i.e. West [[Punjab region|Punjab]]) to the British, whereas the second gave all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of [[Indus]] and west of [[Ravi River|Ravi]]" (''i.e.'' the [[Vale of Kashmir]]) to Gulab Singh.<ref name=imperialgazet-gulabsingh/><ref>[http://www.kashmir-information.com/LegalDocs/TreatyofAmritsar.html Treaty of Amritsar, March 16, 1846].</ref> Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857, his son, [[Rambir Singh|Ranbir Singh]], added the emirates of [[Hunza (princely state)|Hunza]], [[Gilgit, Pakistan|Gilgit]] and [[Nagar (princely state)|Nagar]] to the kingdom. |
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[[Image:Gulab singh1847.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the Treaty of Amritsar, when he became Maharaja by purchasing the territories of Kashmir "to the eastward of the river [[Indus]] and westward of the river [[Ravi River|Ravi]]"<ref>From the text of the Treaty of Amritsar, signed March 16, 1846.</ref> for 75 lakhs rupees from the British (Artist: [[James Duffield Harding]]).]] |
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===1947 and 1948=== |
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The ''Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu'' (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was "somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully |
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{{Further|Kashmir conflict|Timeline of the Kashmir conflict|1947 Poonch Rebellion|Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947 Jammu massacres|1947 Mirpur massacre}} |
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coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the |
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[[File:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|thumb|The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the Indian Empire]] |
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autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire."<ref name=bowers>Bowers, Paul. 2004. [http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf "Kashmir." Research Paper 4/28], International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons Library, United Kingdom.</ref> It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, [[Ladakh]] was ethnically and culturally [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly [[Sunni Islam|''Sunni'']] Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential [[Hindu]] minority, the Kashmiri [[brahmins]] or [[Kashmiri Pandits|pandits]]; to the northeast, sparsely populated [[Baltistan]] had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised [[Shia Islam|''Shi'a'' Islam]]; to the north, also sparsely populated, [[Gilgit Agency]], was an area of diverse, mostly ''Shi'a'' groups; and, to the west, [[Poonch District|Punch]] was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.<ref name=bowers/> After the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of [[British raj|direct rule]] by Great Britain, the [[princely state]] of Kashmir came under the [[suzerainty]] of the [[The Crown|British Crown]]. |
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Ranbir Singh's grandson [[Hari Singh]], who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent [[Partition of India|partition]] of the British [[British India|Indian Empire]] into the newly independent [[Dominion of India]] and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]]. According to [[Burton Stein]]'s ''History of India'', <blockquote>Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]]; it had been created rather off-handedly by the British after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a reward to a former official who had sided with the British. The Himalayan kingdom was connected to India through a district of the Punjab, but its population was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Mountbatten]]<ref>Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of India.</ref> for assistance, and the [[Governor-General of India|governor-general]] agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.<ref name=stein>Stein, Burton. 2010. ''A History of India''. Oxford University Press. 432 pages. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-9509-6}}. Page 358.</ref></blockquote> |
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===Year 1947 and 1948=== |
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{{See|Kashmir conflict|Timeline of the Kashmir conflict|Indo-Pakistani War of 1947}} |
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[[File:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|right|thumb|The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the Indian Empire.]] |
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Ranbir Singh's grandson [[Hari Singh]], who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent [[Partition of India|partition]] of the British [[British India|Indian Empire]] into the newly independent [[Union of India]] and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]]. As parties to the partition process, both countries had agreed that the rulers of princely states would be given the right to opt for either Pakistan or India or—in special cases—to remain independent. Kashmir's population was overall 77 per cent Muslim but with internal areas of non-Muslim majority. It shared a boundary with both India and Pakistan. Pakistan anticipated that the Maharaja would accede to Pakistan, when the British paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a military attack disguised with a front of guerrilla infiltration of Pashtun tribals meant to frighten its ruler into submission.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,793895,00.html | work=Time | title=INDIA-PAKISTAN: Death in the Vale | date=1947-11-10}}</ref> Instead the Maharaja appealed to India with [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Mountbatten]]<ref>Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of India.</ref> retained as first Governor General, for assistance, and the [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] pointed out to Nehru that such assistance could only be given if the state acceded to India, which Maharaja Hari Singh did though only after dilly dallying for a precious few days during which half of the state was lost to the attack."<ref name=stein>Stein, Burton. 1998. ''A History of India''. Oxford University Press. 432 pages. ISBN 0195654463. Page 368.</ref> Once the Maharaja signed the [[Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)|Instrument of Accession]], "Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The [[United Nations]] was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars."<ref name=stein/> |
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In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices |
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices. However, since the [[plebiscite]] demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,<ref name=stein/> and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]] and [[Kargil War|1999]]. |
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{{anchor|Current status and political divisions}} |
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[[Image:IMG 0542.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Karakash River]] (Black Jade River) which flows north from its source near the town of Sumde in [[Aksai Chin]], to cross the [[Kunlun Mountains]].]] |
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[[Image:Kashmir top.jpg|thumb|[[Topographic map]] of Kasmir.]] |
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The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 39|Resolution 39]], establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Pursuant to the commission's recommendation, the Security Council ordered in its [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 47|Resolution 47]], passed on 21 April 1948, that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN. With Pakistan not forgoing its occupation from what it later termed as Azad Kashmir, none of the resolutions of UNSC could come to force. |
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===Current status and political divisions=== |
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===Post-1948 developments=== |
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India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which comprises [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]], while Pakistan controls a third of the region, divided into two provinces, [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]. [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]] are administered by [[India]] as [[union territory|union territories]]. They formed a single state until 5 August 2019, when the state was bifurcated and its [[Revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir|limited autonomy]] was revoked.<ref>{{cite news|title=Article 370: What happened with Kashmir and why it matters|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49234708|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=6 August 2019|access-date=2020-11-30|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029201641/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49234708|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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{{Main|Kashmir conflict|Jammu and Kashmir|Azad Kashmir}} |
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The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the [[communist]] takeover in 1949. By the mid-1950s the [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese army]] had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.<ref name=britannica-kashmir>Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214222 Encyclopædia Britannica Online].</ref> |
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: "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the [[Aksai Chin]] area to provide better communication between [[Xinjiang]] and western [[Tibet]]. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the [[Sino-Indian war]] of October 1962."<ref name=britannica-kashmir/> |
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According to ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'': |
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[[China]] has occupied [[Aksai Chin]] since the early 1950s and, in addition, an adjoining region almost 8% of the territory, the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1963. |
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<blockquote>Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was sparsely populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in India-administered territory, with its former outlets via the [[Jhelum Valley (Kashmir)|Jhelum valley]] route blocked.<ref name="britannica-kashmir" /><ref name=britannica-intro/></blockquote> |
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Meanwhile, elections were held in Indian Jammu & Kashmir, which brought up the popular Muslim leader [[Sheikh Abdullah]], who with his party [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|National Conference]], by and large supported India. The elected [[Constituent assembly of Jammu and Kashmir|Constituent Assembly]] met for the first time in [[Srinagar]] on October 31, 1951.<ref name="Official J&K">{{cite web|url = http://jammukashmir.nic.in/profile/majev.htm#1| title = Major Events|publisher = Jammu and Kashmir Government, India |accessdate = 2007-01-09}}</ref> Then The State Constituent Assembly ratified the accession of the State to the Union of India on February 6, 1954 and the President of India subsequently issued the Constitution (Application to J&K) Order under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution extending the Union Constitution to the State with some exceptions and modifications. The State’s own Constitution came into force on January 26, 1957 under which the elections to the State Legislative Assembly were held for the first time on the basis of adult franchise the same year. This Constitution further reiterated the ratification of the State’s accession to Union of India.<ref name="Official J&K">{{cite web|url = http://jammukashmir.nic.in/profile/jkhist.htm#The%20Story%20Behind| title = The Story Behind|publisher = Jammu and Kashmir Government, India |accessdate = 2007-01-09}}</ref> However, these tidings were not recognized by Pakistan, which has continued to press for a plebiscite to ascertain the wishes of the people. Pakistan set up its own Kashmir, called [[Azad Kashmir]] in a tiny Western chunk that it controls. The much larger region of Pakistani Kashmir in the North-West, which was a province named ''Northern Areas'' in the erstwhile state, by and large bore no mention in Pakistani laws and Constitution as being of any status, until in 1982 the Pakistani President General [[Zia ul Haq]] proclaimed that the people of the Northern Areas were Pakistanis and had nothing to do with the State of Jammu and Kashmir.<ref name="Embassy of India-Northern Areas">{{cite web|url = http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/Kashmir/Kashmir_MEA/Northern_Areas.html| title = A Comprehensive Note on Jammu & Kashmir: The Northern Areas|publisher = Embassy of India, Washington D.C.|accessdate = 2007-01-09}}</ref> In 2009, the Pakistani government renamed the ''Federally-Administered Northern Areas'' as ''Gilgit-Baltistan''. |
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The eastern region of the former princely state of Kashmir is also involved in a boundary dispute that began in the late 19th century and continues into the 21st. Although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and China's official position has not changed following the [[Chinese Communist Revolution|communist revolution of 1949]] that established the People's Republic of China. By the mid-1950s the [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese army]] had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.<ref name="britannica-kashmir">Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 March 2007, from [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214222 Encyclopædia Britannica Online]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113042440/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214222 |date=13 January 2008 }}</ref> |
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==Current status and political divisions== |
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{{Main|Aksai Chin|Azad Kashmir|Jammu and Kashmir|Gilgit-Baltistan}} |
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<!--[[Image:Kashmir.png|thumb|left|Map showing the divisions of Kashmir between India, Pakistan, and China]]This map has no details; replaced with US Government Map below--> |
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[[Image:Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh.JPG|thumb|left|Populous [[Kashmir valley]] (Bordered in brown),<ref name="britannica.com">http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312921/Vale-of-Kashmir</ref> [[Jammu]] and [[Ladakh]] are in Indian controlled state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]].]] |
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<blockquote>By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the [[Aksai Chin]] area to provide better communication between [[Xinjiang]] and western [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]]. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the [[Sino-Indian War]] of October 1962.<ref name="britannica-kashmir" /></blockquote> |
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The region is divided among three countries in a [[History of the Kashmir conflict|territorial dispute]]: [[Pakistan]] controls the northwest portion ([[Northern Areas]] and [[Azad Kashmir]]), [[India]] controls the central and southern portion ([[Jammu and Kashmir]]) and [[Ladakh]], and [[People's Republic of China|China]] controls the northeastern portion ([[Aksai Chin]] and the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]]). India controls the majority of the [[Siachen Glacier]] area including the [[Saltoro Ridge]] passes, whereas Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls {{convert|101338|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of the disputed territory, Pakistan {{convert|85846|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and China, the remaining {{convert|37555|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}. |
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[[File:Border_of_Azad_Kashmir_And_Indian_state_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir.jpg|thumb|A white border painted on a suspended bridge delineates [[Azad Kashmir]] from [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]]] |
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The region is divided amongst three countries in a [[Kashmir conflict|territorial dispute]]: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and the People's Republic of [[China]] controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the [[Siachen Glacier]] area, including the [[Saltoro Mountains|Saltoro Ridge]] passes, whilst Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls {{cvt|101338|km2|sqmi}} of the disputed territory, Pakistan controls {{cvt|85846|km2|sqmi}}, and the People's Republic of China controls the remaining {{cvt|37555|km2|sqmi|0}}. |
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Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie south and west of the [[Pir Panjal range]], and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively. These are populous regions. Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly known as the ''Northern Areas'', is a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the [[Karakoram]], the western [[Himalayas]], the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]], and the [[Hindu Kush]] ranges. With its administrative centre in the town of [[Gilgit]], the Northern Areas cover an area of {{convert|72,971|km2}} and have an estimated population approaching 1 million (10 [[lakh]]s). |
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Ladakh is between the [[Kunlun Mountains|Kunlun]] mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south.<ref name="Ladakh">{{Citation |title=Ladakh: The Land and the People |last=Jina |first=Prem Singh |year=1996 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-057-6 }}</ref> Capital towns of the region are [[Leh]] and [[Kargil]]. It is under Indian administration and was part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir until 2019. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] and Tibetan descent.<ref name="Ladakh" /> Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude [[desert]] of salt that reaches altitudes up to {{convert|5000|m|ft}}. Geographically part of the [[Tibetan Plateau]], Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements. |
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The [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], formerly called ''Northern Areas'', are a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the [[Karakoram]], the western [[Himalaya]]s, the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]], and the [[Hindu Kush]] ranges. With its administrative center at the town of [[Gilgit]], the [[Northern Areas]] cover an area of 72,971 km² (28,174 mi²) and have an estimated population approaching 1,000,000. The other main city is [[Skardu]]. |
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Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]] established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing [[line of control]] established by the United Nations. The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire. |
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[[Ladakh]] is a region in the east, between the [[Kunlun Mountains|Kunlun]] mountain range in the north and the main Great [[Himalaya]]s to the south.<ref name="Ladakh">{{cite book |title=Ladakh: The Land and the People |last=Jina |first=Prem Singh |year=1996 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=8173870578 }}</ref> Main cities are [[Leh]] and [[Kargil town|Kargil]]. It is under Indian administration and is part of the state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]]. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] and [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] descent.<ref name="Ladakh"/> |
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==Geography== |
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[[Aksai Chin]] is a vast high-altitude [[desert]] of [[salt]] that reaches altitudes up to {{convert|5000|m|ft}}. Geographically part of the [[Tibetan Plateau]], Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements. |
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[[File:Kashmir top.jpg|thumb|[[Topographic map]] of Kashmir]] |
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[[File:Approaching_K2_Base_Camp.jpg|thumb|[[K2]], a peak in the [[Karakoram]] range, is the [[List of highest mountains on Earth|second highest mountain in the world]]]] |
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The Kashmir region lies between latitudes [[32nd parallel north|32°]] and [[36th parallel north|36° N]], and longitudes [[74th meridian east|74°]] and [[80th meridian east|80° E]]. It has an area of {{cvt|68000|mi2|km2}}.<ref name=drew>{{Cite book|last=[[Frederick Drew|Drew Frederic]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_fVlAAAAcAAJ|title=Jummoo and Kashmir Territories |date=1875 |publisher=Stanford|pages=3–6|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=_fVlAAAAcAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> It is bordered to the north and east by China (Xinjiang and Tibet), to the northwest by [[Afghanistan]] (Wakhan Corridor), to the west by [[Pakistan]] (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab) and to the south by [[India]] (Himachal Pradesh and Punjab).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tamang|first=Jyoti Prakash |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EimHj9veADgC&pg=PA2|title=Himalayan Fermented Foods: Microbiology, Nutrition, and Ethnic Values |date=2009-08-17|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-9325-4|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=28 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228103212/https://books.google.com/books?id=EimHj9veADgC&pg=PA2|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The topography of Kashmir is mostly mountainous. It is traversed mainly by the [[Western Himalaya]]s. The Himalayas terminate in the western boundary of Kashmir at [[Nanga Parbat]]. Kashmir is traversed by three rivers namely [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]] and [[Chenab River|Chenab]]. These river basins divide the region into three valleys separated by high mountain ranges. The Indus valley forms the north and north-eastern portion of the region which include bare and desolate areas of [[Baltistan]] and Ladakh. The upper portion of the Jhelum valley forms the proper Vale of Kashmir surrounded by high mountain ranges. The [[Chenab valley]] forms the southern portion of the Kashmir region with its denuded hills towards the south. It includes almost all of the [[Jammu Division|Jammu region]]. High altitude lakes are frequent at high elevations. Lower down in the Vale of Kashmir there are many freshwater lakes and large areas of swamplands which include [[Wular Lake]], [[Dal Lake]] and [[Hokersar]] near [[Srinagar]].<ref name=flowers>{{Cite book|last=B. O. Coventry|title=Wild flowers of Kashmir |publisher=Raithby, Lawrence & Co.|place=London|year=1923 |url=http://archive.org/details/WildFlowersOfKashmir}}</ref> |
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Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]] established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing line of control established by the United Nations. The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire. |
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[[File:Kashmir map (UN).png|center|thumb|300px|Simplified [[UN]] map of Kashmir and its surrounding area and rivers]] |
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To the north and northeast, beyond the Great Himalayas, the region is traversed by the [[Karakoram]] mountains. To the northwest lies the Hindu Kush mountain range. The upper Indus River separates the Himalayas from the Karakoram.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Western Himalayas {{!}} mountains, Asia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Himalayas |access-date=2020-10-29 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |archive-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228233852/https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Himalayas|url-status=live}}</ref> The Karakoram is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The [[Siachen Glacier]] at {{cvt|76|km|mi}} and the [[Biafo Glacier]] at {{cvt|63|km|mi}} rank as the world's second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. Karakoram has four [[eight-thousander]] mountain peaks with [[K2]], the second highest peak in the world at {{cvt|8611|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-longest-non-polar-glaciers-in-the-world.html|title=Longest non polar glaciers in the world|website=Worldatlas|date=25 April 2017|access-date=2020-10-27|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031015000/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-longest-non-polar-glaciers-in-the-world.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-12-17|title=The Eight-Thousanders |url=https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/8000MeterPeaks|access-date=2020-10-27|url-status=live |website=www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov |archive-date=3 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503184334/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/8000MeterPeaks/}}</ref> |
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[[File:Indus river basin without boundaries of disputed regions.png|thumb|The Indus River system]] |
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The Indus River system forms the [[drainage basin]] of the Kashmir region. The river enters the region in Ladakh at its southeastern corner from the [[Tibetan Plateau]], and flows northwest to run a course through the entire Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan. Almost all the rivers originating in these region are part of the Indus river system.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indus River {{!}} Definition, Length, Map, History, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River|access-date=2020-10-27|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507163743/https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River|url-status=live}}</ref> After reaching the end of the Great Himalayan range, the Indus turns a corner and flows southwest into the Punjab plains. The Jhelum and Chenab rivers also follow a course roughly parallel to this, and join the Indus river in southern Punjab plains in Pakistan. |
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The geographical features of the Kashmir region differ considerably from one part to another. The lowest part of the region consists of the plains of Jammu at the southwestern corner, which continue into the plains of Punjab at an elevation of below 1000 feet. Mountains begin at 2000 feet, then raising to 3000–4000 feet in the "Outer Hills", a rugged country with ridges and long narrow valleys. Next within the tract lie the Middle Mountains which are 8000–10,000 feet in height with ramifying valleys. Adjacent to these hills are the lofty [[Great Himalayas|Great Himalayan]] ranges (14000–15000 feet) which divide the drainage of the [[Chenab River|Chenab]] and [[Jehlum River|Jehlum]] from that of the Indus. Beyond this range lies a wide tract of mountainous country of 17000–22000 feet in Ladakh and [[Baltistan]].<ref name=drew/>{{Clarify|reason=It is unclear how all these ranges relate to the geography; where is the Kashmir Valley in this system?|date=April 2021}} |
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===Climate=== |
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{{climate chart |
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| Srinagar |
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| −2 | 7 | 48 |
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| −0.7 | 8.2 | 68 |
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| 3.4 | 14.1 | 121 |
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| 7.9 | 20.5 | 85 |
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| 10.8 | 24.5 | 68 |
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| 14.9 | 29.6 | 39 |
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| 18.1 | 30.1 | 62 |
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| 17.5 | 29.6 | 76 |
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| 12.1 | 27.4 | 28 |
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| 5.8 | 22.4 | 33 |
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| 0.9 | 15.1 | 28 |
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| −1.5 | 8.2 | 54 |
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| float = left |
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| source = HKO <ref name = HKO>{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/asia/india/srinagar_e.htm |
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| title = Climatological Information for Srinagar, India |
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| publisher = [[Hong Kong Observatory]] |
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| access-date = 2012-06-09 |
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| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120406095303/http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/asia/india/srinagar_e.htm |
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| archive-date = 6 April 2012 |
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| url-status = live |
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}}</ref> }} |
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Kashmir has a different climate for every region owing to the great variation in altitude. The temperatures ranges from the tropical heat of the Punjab summer to the intensity of the cold which keeps the perpetual snow on the mountains. Jammu Division, excluding the upper parts of the Chenab Valley, features a humid subtropical climate. The Vale of Kashmir has a moderate climate. The [[Astore Valley]] and some parts of [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] features a semi-Tibetan climate. While as the other parts of Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh have Tibetan climate which is considered as almost rainless climate.<ref name=drew/><ref>{{Cite book|last=[[Aurel Stein|Stein M. A.]]|url=http://archive.org/details/anceintgeographyofkashmirsteinm.a._667_j|title=Ancient Geography Of Kashmir|date=1899|publisher=Kamala Dara|pages=257–269}}</ref> |
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The southwestern Kashmir which includes much of the Jammu province and Muzaffarabad falls within the reach of Indian monsoon. The Pir Panjal Range acts as an effective barrier and blocks these monsoon tracts from reaching the main Kashmir Valley and the Himalayan slopes. These areas of the region receive much of their precipitation from the wind currents of the Arabian Sea. The Himalayan slope and the Pir Panjal witness greatest snow melting from March until June. These variations in snow melt and rainfall have led to destructive inundations of the main valley. One instance of such Kashmir flood of a larger proportion is recorded in the 12th-century book ''[[Rajatarangini]]''. A single cloudburst in July 1935 caused the upper Jehlum river level to rise 11 feet.<ref>{{Cite book|author2=[[T. T. Paterson]]|author=[[Helmut de Terra]]|url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3233|title=Studies on the ice age in India and associated human cultures|publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1939}}</ref> The [[2014 India–Pakistan floods|2014 Kashmir floods]] inundated the Kashmir city of Srinagar and submerged hundreds of other villages.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2014-09-07|title=India Pakistan floods: Kashmir city of Srinagar inundated|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29100226|access-date=2020-11-01|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111183926/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29100226|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==Flora and fauna== |
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{{multiple image|align=right|direction=horizontal|total_width=450|image1=Mount_Harmukh.JPG|caption1=Alpine flowers at [[Gangabal Lake]] below [[Harmukh|Mount Harmukh]] in the northwestern [[Himalaya Range|Himalayan range]]|image2=Zaniskari_Horse_in_Ladhak,_Jammu_and_kashmir.jpg|caption2=The [[Zaniskari]] is a breed of horse in [[Ladakh]], well adapted to the [[Hypoxia (environmental)|hypoxic]] Kashmiri environment}} |
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{{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical|total-length=450|image1=8. Deosai Plains.jpg|caption1=Shepherding in the [[Deosai Plains]]|image2=Snow Leopard in Naltar Valley.jpg |caption2=A female snow leopard which was rescued in 2012 from a partly frozen river stream in the Wadkhun area of [[Sust]] in the [[Karakoram mountain range]], now in the [[Naltar Wildlife Sanctuary]]}} |
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Kashmir has a recorded forest area of {{convert|20230|km2|mi2}} along with some [[Deosai National Park|national parks]] and [[Hemis National Park|reserves]]. The forests vary according to the climatic conditions and the altitude. Kashmir forests range from the [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical deciduous forests]] in the foothills of Jammu and [[Muzafarabad]], to the [[temperate forests]] throughout the Vale of Kashmir and to the [[Alpine tundra|alpine grasslands]] and high altitude meadows in Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dar|first1=Ghulam Hassan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyPTDwAAQBAJ|title=Biodiversity of the Himalaya: Jammu and Kashmir State|last2=Khuroo|first2=Anzar A.|date=2020-02-26|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-329-174-4|pages=193–200|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyPTDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bari Naik|first=Abdul|title=Tourism Potential in Ecological Zones and Future Prospects of Tourism: in Kashmir Valley |date=22 April 2016|publisher=LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing (April 22, 2016)|isbn=978-3659878626|pages=48}}</ref> |
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The Kashmir region has four well defined zones of vegetation in the tree growth, due to the difference in elevation. The tropical forests up to 1500 m, are known as the Phulai (''Acacia modesta'') and Olive (Olea cuspid ata) Zone. There occur semi-deciduous species of ''[[Shorea robusta]]'', ''[[Acacia catechu]]'', ''[[Dalbergia sissoo]]'', ''[[Albizia lebbeck]]'', ''[[Garuga pinnata]]'', ''[[Terminalia bellirica]]'' and ''[[Tilia tomentosa|T. tomentosa]]'' and ''[[Pinus roxburghii]]'' are found at higher elevations. The temperate zone between (1,500–3,500 m) is referred as the Chir Pine (Finns longifolia). This zone is dominated by [[oak]]s (''Quercus'' spp.) and ''[[Rhododendron]]'' spp. The Blue Pine (Finns excelsa) Zone with ''[[Cedrus deodara]]'', ''[[Abies pindrow]]'' and ''[[Picea smithiana]]'' occur at elevations between 2,800 and 3,500 m. The Birch (Betula utilis) Zone has Herbaceous genera of [[Anemone]], [[Geranium]], [[Iris (plant)|Iris]], [[Lloydia]], [[Potentilla]] and [[Primula]] interspersed with dry dwarf alpine scrubs of [[Berberis]], [[Cotoneaster]], [[Juniperus]] and [[Rhododendron]] are prevalent in alpine grasslands at 3,500 m and above.<ref name=flowers/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manish|first1=Kumar|last2=Pandit |first2=Maharaj K. |date=2018-11-07|title=Geophysical upheavals and evolutionary diversification of plant species in the Himalaya|journal=PeerJ |volume=6|pages=e5919 |doi=10.7717/peerj.5919|issn=2167-8359|pmc=6228543 |pmid=30425898|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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Kashmir is referred as a beauty spot of the medicinal and herbaceous flora in the Himalayas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaul|first=S. N. |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.509480 |title=Forest Products Of Jumma and Kashmir|date=1928 |publisher=Kashmir Pratap Stream Press,srinagar|pages=vii}}</ref> There are hundreds of different species of wild flowers recorded in the alpine meadows of the region.<ref name=flowers/> The [[Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Botanical Garden|botanical garden]] and the [[Indira Gandhi Memorial Tulip Garden|tulip garden]]s of Srinagar built in the [[Zabarwan]]s grow 300 breeds of flora and 60 varieties of tulips respectively. The later is considered as the largest Tulip Garden of Asia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Experts |first=Arihant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NhrzDwAAQBAJ&q=300+flora|title=Know Your State Jammu and Kashmir|date=2019-06-04 |publisher=Arihant Publications India limited|isbn=978-93-131-6916-1|language=en|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=NhrzDwAAQBAJ&q=300+flora|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Around the world, tulips turn hillsides into colorful patchwork quilts |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/04/18/around-the-world-tulips-turn-hillsides-into-colorful-patchwork-quilts/|access-date=2020-10-29|archive-date=2 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102031353/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/04/18/around-the-world-tulips-turn-hillsides-into-colorful-patchwork-quilts/|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Kashmir region is home to rare species of animals, many of which are protected by sanctuaries and reserves. The [[Dachigam National Park]] in the Valley holds the last viable population of [[Kashmir stag]] ''(Hangul)'' and the largest population of [[Asian black bear|black bear]] in Asia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jkwildlife.com/pdf/pub/final_management_plan_DNP_06082011.pdf |title=MANAGEMENT PLAN (2011-2016) DACHIGAM NATIONAL PARK|publisher=jkwildlife.com|access-date=2020-10-30|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122030329/http://www.jkwildlife.com/pdf/pub/final_management_plan_DNP_06082011.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Gilgit-Baltistan the [[Deosai National Park]] is designated to protect the largest population of [[Himalayan brown bear]]s in the western Himalayas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nawaz|first1=Muhammad Ali|last2=Swenson|first2=Jon E. |last3=Zakaria|first3=Vaqar|date=2008-09-01|title=Pragmatic management increases a flagship species, the Himalayan brown bears, in Pakistan's Deosai National Park|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320708002206|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=141|issue=9|pages=2230–2241|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.012|bibcode=2008BCons.141.2230N |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> [[Snow leopard]]s are found in high density In the [[Hemis National Park]] in Ladakh.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cCTPP2xUUpkC&q=hemis+national+park+snow+leopards&pg=PA4|title=Making a Difference: Dossier on Community Engagement on Nature Based Tourism in India|publisher=EQUATIONS|language=en|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140441/https://books.google.com/books?id=cCTPP2xUUpkC&q=hemis+national+park+snow+leopards&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}</ref> The region is home to [[musk deer]], [[markhor]], [[leopard cat]], [[jungle cat]], [[red fox]], [[jackal]], [[Himalayan wolf]], [[serow]], [[marten|Himalayan yellow-throated marten]], [[marmot|long-tailed marmot]], [[Indian porcupine]], [[Himalayan mouse-hare]], [[langur]] and [[Siberian weasel|Himalayan weasel]]. At least 711 bird species are recorded in the valley alone with 31 classified as globally threatened species.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jammu and Kashmir bird checklist - Avibase - Bird Checklists of the World|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?region=INwhjk&list=howardmoore|access-date=2020-10-20|website=avibase.bsc-eoc.org|archive-date=22 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022004158/https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?region=INwhjk&list=howardmoore|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Walter R. (Walter Roper) |url=http://archive.org/details/valleyofkashmir00lawr|title=The valley of Kashmír|date=1895|place=London|publisher=H. Frowde |pages=106–160}}</ref> |
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==Demographics== |
==Demographics== |
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=== Colonial era === |
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<!--[[Srinagar]], the ancient capital, lies alongside [[Dal Lake]] and is famous for its [[canal]]s and [[houseboat]]s. [[Srinagar]] (alt. 1,600 m. or 5,200 ft) served as a favoured summer [[capital]] for many [[foreign]] [[conqueror]]s who found the heat of the Northern Indian plains in the summer season to be oppressive. Just outside the city are the beautiful Shalimar, Nishat and Chashmashahi gardens created by [[Mughal]] [[emperor]]s.--> |
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In the 1901 Census of the British [[British Raj|Indian Empire]], the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) were Muslims, 689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and 35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) others). |
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In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, Muslims constituted 74.16% of the total population of the princely state of ''Kashmir and Jammu''where Gujjar Muslims constitute 20% population, [[Hindus]], 23.72%, and [[Buddhists]], 1.21%. The [[Hindus]] were found mainly in [[Jammu]], where they constituted a little less than 70% of the population.<ref name = imperialgazetteerkashmir/> In the [[Kashmir Valley]], Muslims constituted 95.6% of the population and Hindus 3.24%.<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years.<ref name=mridurai/> Forty years later, in the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus for 4%.<ref name = mridurai>Rai, Mridu. 2004. ''[[Hindu]] Ruler, Muslim Subjects: Islam and the History of Kashmir''. Princeton University Press. 320 pages. |
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ISBN 0691116881. p. 37.</ref> In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95%<ref name=BBC2003>BBC. 2003. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/south_asia/03/kashmir_future/html/default.stm ''The Future of Kashmir? In Depth.'']</ref> and those of [[Hindus]] 4%; the same year, in [[Jammu]], the percentage of [[Hindus]] was 66% and those of Muslims 30%.<ref name=BBC2003/> |
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In the 1901 Census of the British [[Indian Empire]], the population of the [[princely state]] of ''Kashmir and [[Jammu]]'' was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims (74.16%), 689,073 [[Hindus]] (23.72%), 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 [[Buddhists]]. |
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[[Image:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg|thumb|right|A Muslim shawl making family shown in ''Cashmere shawl manufactory'', 1867, chromolith., William Simpson.]] |
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Among the Muslims of the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of [[Hindus]], but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as ''krams'' ..."<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> It was recorded that these ''kram'' names included "Tantre," "Shaikh,", "Bhat", "Mantu," "Ganai," "Dar," "Damar," "Lon" etc. The [[Syed#Ibn Battutah on the usage of Sayyid in India|Saiyids]], it was recorded "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their ''kram'' name is "Mir." While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> The ''Mughals'' who were not numerous were recorded to have ''kram'' names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg," "Bandi," "Bach," and "Ashaye." Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where [[Pathan]] colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak [[Pashtu]]."<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> Among the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title Khawaja and the Khatri use the title Shaikh the Gujjar use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous of the princely state and many Hindus also belong to these tribes. |
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The |
The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 60% of the population.<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir>''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99–102.</ref> In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (''i.e.'' 5.24%), and in the frontier ''wazarats'' of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641.<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "[[Brahmin|Brahmans]] (186,000), the [[Rajput]]s (167,000), the [[Khatri|Khattris]] (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> |
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In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the Second World War, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%).<ref name=brush>{{cite journal |last1=Brush |first1=J. E. |year=1949 |title=The Distribution of Religious Communities in India |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=39 |issue=2| pages=81–98 |doi=10.1080/00045604909351998 |issn = 0004-5608 }}</ref> |
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The [[Kashmiri Pandit]]s, the only Hindus of the Kashmir valley, who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5% of the population of the valley during Dogra rule (1846–1947), and 20% of whom had left the Kashmir valley to other parts of India in the 1950s,{{sfn|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004|p=318|ps=: Since a majority of the landlords were Hindu, the (land) reforms (of 1950) led to a mass exodus of Hindus from the state. ... The unsettled nature of Kashmir's accession to India, coupled with the threat of economic and social decline in the face of the land reforms, led to increasing insecurity among the Hindus in Jammu, and among Kashmiri Pandits, 20 per cent of whom had emigrated from the Valley by 1950.}} underwent a complete [[Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus|exodus]] in the 1990s due to the [[Kashmir insurgency]]. According to a number of authors, approximately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit population of 140,000 left the valley during that decade.{{sfn|Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir|1997|p=71}}{{sfn|Rai, Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects|2004|p=286}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=274|ps=: The Hindu Pandits, a small but influential elite community who had secured a favourable position, first under the maharajas, and then under the successive Congress regimes, and proponents of a distinctive Kashmiri culture that linked them to India, felt under siege as the uprising gathered force. Of a population of some 140,000, perhaps 100,000 Pandits fled the state after 1990; their cause was quickly taken up by the Hindu right.}} Other authors have suggested a higher figure for the exodus, ranging from the entire population of over 150 thousand,{{sfn|Malik, Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, International Dispute|2005|p=318}} to 190 thousand of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand (200,000),{{sfn|Madan, Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashimiriyat|2008|p=25}} to a number as high as 300 thousand (300,000).<ref>{{Cite web|title=South Asia :: India — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|date=14 February 2022|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/|access-date=24 January 2021|url-status=live|archive-date=18 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318202107/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india}}</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" |
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|+ Population of Jammu & Kashmir Princely State by Province (1901–1941) |
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! rowspan="2" |[[Census in British India|Census Year]] |
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! colspan="2" |Jammu Province |
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! colspan="2" |Kashmir Province |
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! colspan="2" |Frontier Regions |
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! colspan="2" |Jammu & Kashmir Princely State |
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|- |
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![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]] |
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!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} |
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!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} |
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!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} |
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!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} |
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!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} |
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!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} |
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!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} |
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|- |
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! 1901<ref name="Census1901"/> |
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| 1,521,307 |
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| {{Percentage | 1521307 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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| 1,157,394 |
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| {{Percentage | 1157394 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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| 226,877 |
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| {{Percentage | 226877 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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! 2,905,578 |
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! {{Percentage | 2905578 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! 1911<ref name="Census1911"/> |
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| 1,597,865 |
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| {{Percentage | 1597865 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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| 1,295,201 |
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| {{Percentage | 1295201 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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| 265,060 |
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| {{Percentage | 265060 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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! 3,158,126 |
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! {{Percentage | 3158126 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! 1921<ref name="Census1921"/> |
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| 1,640,259 |
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| {{Percentage | 1640259 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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| 1,407,086 |
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| {{Percentage | 1407086 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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| 273,173 |
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| {{Percentage | 273173 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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! 3,320,518 |
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! {{Percentage | 3320518 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! 1931<ref name="Census1931"/> |
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| 1,788,441 |
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| {{Percentage | 1788441 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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| 1,569,218 |
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| {{Percentage | 1569218 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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| 288,584 |
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| {{Percentage | 288584 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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! 3,646,243 |
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! {{Percentage | 3646243 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! 1941<ref name="Census1941"/> |
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| 1,981,433 |
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| {{Percentage | 1981433 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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| 1,728,705 |
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| {{Percentage | 1728705 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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| 311,478 |
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| {{Percentage | 311478 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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! 4,021,616 |
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! {{Percentage | 4021616 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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|} |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" |
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|+ Religious groups in Jammu & Kashmir Princely State ([[British Raj|British India]] era) |
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! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]]<br>group |
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! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25366883 |jstor=saoa.crl.25366883 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. Vol. 23A, Kashmir. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1901 |pages=20}}</ref> |
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! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25394111 |jstor=saoa.crl.25394111 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 20, Kashmir. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911 |pages=17}}</ref> |
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! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430177 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430177 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 22, Kashmir. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921 |pages=15}}</ref> |
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! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25797120 |jstor=saoa.crl.25797120 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 24, Jammu & Kashmir State. Pt. 2, Imperial & state tables. |year=1931 |pages=267}}</ref> |
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! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215644 |jstor=saoa.crl.28215644 |access-date=3 November 2024 |title=Census of India, 1941. Vol. 22, Jammu & Kashmir |year=1941 |pages=337–352}}</ref> |
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|- |
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![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]] |
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!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} |
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!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} |
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!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} |
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!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} |
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!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} |
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!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} |
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!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} |
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!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}} |
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!{{Abbr|%|percentage}} |
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|- |
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! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]] |
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| 2,154,695 |
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| {{Percentage | 2154695 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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| 2,398,320 |
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| {{Percentage | 2398320 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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| 2,548,514 |
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| {{Percentage | 2548514 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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| 2,817,636 |
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| {{Percentage | 2817636 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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| 3,101,247 |
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| {{Percentage | 3101247 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]] |
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| 689,073 |
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| {{Percentage | 689073 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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| 690,390 |
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| {{Percentage | 690390 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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| 692,641 |
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| {{Percentage | 692641 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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| 736,222 |
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| {{Percentage | 736222 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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| 809,165 |
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| {{Percentage | 809165 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]] |
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| 35,047 |
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| {{Percentage | 35047 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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| 36,512 |
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| {{Percentage | 36512 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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| 37,685 |
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| {{Percentage | 37685 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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| 38,724 |
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| {{Percentage | 38724 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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| 40,696 |
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| {{Percentage | 40696 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]] |
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| 25,828 |
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| {{Percentage | 25828 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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| 31,553 |
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| {{Percentage | 31553 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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| 39,507 |
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| {{Percentage | 39507 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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| 50,662 |
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| {{Percentage | 50662 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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| 65,903 |
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| {{Percentage | 65903 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]] |
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| 442 |
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| {{Percentage | 442 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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| 345 |
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| {{Percentage | 345 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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| 529 |
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| {{Percentage | 529 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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| 597 |
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| {{Percentage | 597 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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| 910 |
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| {{Percentage | 910 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]] |
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| 422 |
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| {{Percentage | 422 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
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| 975 |
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| {{Percentage | 975 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
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| 1,634 |
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| {{Percentage | 1634 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
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| 2,263 |
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| {{Percentage | 2263 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
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| 3,509 |
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| {{Percentage | 3509 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
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|- |
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! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]] |
|||
| 11 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 11 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
|||
| 31 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 31 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
|||
| 7 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 7 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
|||
| 5 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 5 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
|||
| 29 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 29 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
|||
|- |
|||
! [[Tribal religions in India|Tribal]] |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| 134 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 134 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
|||
| 51 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 51 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
|||
|- |
|||
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]] |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| {{N/a}} |
|||
| 10 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 10 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
|||
|- |
|||
! Others |
|||
| 60 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 60 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
|||
| 0 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 0 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
|||
| 1 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 1 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
|||
| 0 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 0 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
|||
| 95 |
|||
| {{Percentage | 95 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
|||
|- |
|||
! Total population |
|||
! 2,905,578 |
|||
! {{Percentage | 2905578 | 2905578 | 2 }} |
|||
! 3,158,126 |
|||
! {{Percentage | 3158126 | 3158126 | 2 }} |
|||
! 3,320,518 |
|||
! {{Percentage | 3320518 | 3320518 | 2 }} |
|||
! 3,646,243 |
|||
! {{Percentage | 3646243 | 3646243 | 2 }} |
|||
! 4,021,616 |
|||
! {{Percentage | 4021616 | 4021616 | 2 }} |
|||
|- class="sortbottom" |
|||
| colspan="11" | {{small|Note: The Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir includes the contemporary administrative divisions of [[Jammu division|Jammu]], [[Kashmir division|Kashmir]], [[Ladakh]], [[Azad Kashmir]], and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]].}} |
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|} |
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=== Modern era === |
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In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of ''Kashmir and Jammu'' had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) [[Buddhists]]. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the second world war, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%).<ref name = brush>Brush, J. E. 1949. "The Distribution of Religious Communities in India" |
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People in Jammu speak Hindi, Punjabi and Dogri, the Kashmir Valley people speak Kashmiri, and people in the sparsely inhabited Ladakh speak Tibetan and Balti.<ref name=britannica-intro/> |
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''Annals of the Association of American Geographers'', 39(2):81-98.</ref> |
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The population of India-administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh combined is 12,541,302;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geohive.com/cntry/in-01.aspx |title=India, Jammu and Kashmir population statistics |publisher=GeoHive |access-date=29 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419221846/http://www.geohive.com/cntry/in-01.aspx |archive-date=19 April 2015 }}</ref> that of Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir is 4,045,366; and that of Gilgit-Baltistan is 1,492,924.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-26 |title=Census 2017: AJK population rises to over 4m |url=https://nation.com.pk/27-Aug-2017/census-2017-ajk-population-rises-to-over-4m |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=The Nation |language=en |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140054/https://nation.com.pk/27-Aug-2017/census-2017-ajk-population-rises-to-over-4m |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gilgit-Baltistan: Districts & Places - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/pakistan/cities/gilgitbaltistan/ |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=www.citypopulation.de |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920172116/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/pakistan/cities/gilgitbaltistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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According to political scientist Alexander Evans, 1,00,000 of the total population of 7,00,000 of Kashmir Hindus or [[Brahmins]], also called [[Kashmiri Pandits]] since Kashmiri Hindus has no caste system as Vedic [[Arya]] Hindus (Kashmir described as [[Aryan]] homeland by many famous scholars<ref>http://books.google.co.in/books?id=8VnAk14pODsC&pg=PA219&lpg=PA219&dq=kashmir+is+aryan+homeland&source=bl&ots=AHbcaP7ixW&sig=TFzyL0AClsBU8WjEokR-N1yk9Uw&hl=en&ei=lXAGTLPrFYK7rAeFrqjnDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CEQQ6AEwCQ</ref>), left the state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] 300,000 of whom, half all internally displaced, are in [[UN]] refugee camps of [[Jammu]] & [[Udhampur]] <ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html#Issues CIA Factbook: India–Transnational Issues]</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable" |
{| class="wikitable" |
||
|- |
|- |
||
! Administered by !! Area !! Population !! % Muslim !! % [[Hindu]] !! % [[Buddhist]] !! % |
! Administered by !! Area !! Population !! % [[Muslim]] !! % [[Hinduism|Hindu]] !! % [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] !! % other |
||
|- |
|- |
||
| rowspan=" |
| rowspan="3"| {{IND}} |
||
|Kashmir Valley |
|[[Kashmir Valley]] |
||
|~4 million |
|~4 million (4 million) |
||
|95% |
|95% |
||
|4% |
|4% |
||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Jammu Division|Jammu]] |
|||
| |
|||
|~3 million (3 million) |
|||
|Jammu |
|||
|~3 million |
|||
|30% |
|30% |
||
|66% |
|66% |
||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|4% |
|4% |
||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Ladakh]] |
|||
| |
|||
|~0.25 million (250,000) |
|||
|Ladakh |
|||
|~0.25 million |
|||
|50% |
|||
|– |
|||
|46% |
|46% |
||
| |
|12% |
||
|40% |
|||
|2% |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|rowspan=" |
| rowspan="2"| {{PAK}} |
||
|Azad Kashmir |
|[[Azad Kashmir]] |
||
|~ |
|~4 million (4 million) |
||
|100% |
|100% |
||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|[[Gilgit-Baltistan]] |
|||
| |
|||
|~2 million (2 million) |
|||
|Northern Areas |
|||
|~1 million |
|||
|99% |
|99% |
||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
|rowspan=" |
| rowspan="2"| {{CHN}} |
||
|Aksai Chin |
|[[Aksai Chin]] |
||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|- |
|||
|[[Trans-Karakoram Tract|Trans-Karakoram]] |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|– |
|||
|- |
|- |
||
| colspan ="7" | |
| colspan ="7" | |
||
* |
*Statistics from the [[BBC]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/south_asia/03/kashmir_future/html/default.stm In Depth] report. |
||
* About 135,000 Hindus/Muslims in Indian Administered Kashmir are [[internally displaced]] due to militancy. [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html - CIA] |
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|} |
|} |
||
<gallery widths="200" heights="200"> |
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==Culture and cuisine== |
|||
File:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg|A Muslim shawl-making family shown in ''Cashmere shawl manufactory'', 1867, chromolithograph, William Simpson |
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[[Image:Kashmir Ladakh women in local costume.jpg|thumb|right|Brokpa women from [[Kargil town|Kargil]], northern [[Ladakh]], in local costumes]] |
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File:KashmirPundit1895BritishLibrary.jpg|A group of Pandits, or Brahmin priests, in Kashmir, photographed by an unknown photographer in the 1890s |
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{{further|[[Cuisine of Kashmir]]|[[Wazwan]]|[[Kashmiri literature]]|[[Kashmiri music]]|[[Kashmiri Pandit Festivals]]}} |
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File:Kashmir Ladakh women in local costume.jpg|[[Brokpa]] women from [[Kargil town|Kargil]], northern [[Ladakh]], in local costumes |
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[[Cuisine of Kashmir|Kashmiri cuisine]] includes [[dum aloo]] (boiled potatoes with heavy amounts of spice), tzaman (a solid cottage cheese), [[rogan josh]] (lamb cooked in heavy spices), yakhiyn (lamb cooked in curd with mild spices), hakh (a spinach-like leaf), rista-gushtaba (minced meat balls in tomato and curd curry),danival korme and of course the signature rice which is particular to Asian cultures. The traditional [[wazwan]] feast involves cooking meat or vegetables, usually mutton, in several different ways. |
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</gallery> |
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Alcohol is strictly prohibited in most places. There are two styles of making tea in the region: nun chai, or salt tea, which is pink in colour (known as chinen posh rang or peach flower colour) and popular with locals; and [[kahwah]], a tea for festive occasions, made with [[saffron]] and spices (cardamom, cinamon,sugar, noon chai leaves), and lipton tea. |
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==Economy== |
==Economy== |
||
{{ |
{{Further|Azad Kashmir#Economy|Jammu and Kashmir (state)#Economy}} |
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[[Image:Kashmir Dal lake boat.jpg|thumb|right|Tourism is one of the main sources of income for vast sections of the Kashmiri population. Shown here is the famous [[Dal Lake]] in [[Srinagar]].]] |
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[[Image:SkarduFromFort1175.JPG|thumb|right|[[Skardu]] in the [[Northern Areas]], is the point of departure for mountaineering expeditions in the [[Karakoram]]s.]] |
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Kashmir's economy is centred around agriculture. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like [[asparagus]], artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, |
Kashmir's economy is centred around [[agriculture]]. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its [[temperate climate]], it is suited for crops like [[asparagus]], artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, [[peach]]es, and cherries. The chief trees are [[Cedrus deodara|deodar]], firs and [[pine]]s, [[Platanus orientalis|chenar]] or plane, maple, birch and [[walnut]], apple, cherry. |
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Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when [[Cashmere wool]] was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at [[knitting]] and making [[Pashmina]] [[ |
Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when [[Cashmere wool]] was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at [[knitting]] and making [[Pashmina]] [[shawl]]s, silk carpets, rugs, [[kurta]]s, and pottery. [[Saffron]], too, is grown in Kashmir. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, [[papier-mâché]], wood-carving, and the weaving of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the [[2005 Kashmir earthquake]] which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in the India-administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir. |
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{{Wide image|Srinagar pano.jpg|800px|Srinagar, the largest city of Kashmir|center}} |
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The economy was badly damaged by the [[2005 Kashmir earthquake]] which, as of October 8, 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian controlled Kashmir. |
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===Transport=== |
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The [[Jammu and Kashmir|Indian-administered portion of Kashmir]] is believed to have potentially rich rocks containing hydrocarbon reserves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008\10\22\story_22-10-2008_pg7_41|title=Italian company to pursue oil exploration in Kashmir|publisher=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]]|author=Iftikhar Gilani|date=2008-10-22|accessdate=2009-11-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_india-pakistan-to-explore-oil-jointly_1152227|title=India, Pakistan to explore oil jointly|publisher=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|author=Ishfaq-ul-Hassan|date=2008-02-22|accessdate=2009-11-20}}</ref> |
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Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharatonline.com/kashmir/travel-tips/local-transport.html |title=Local Transport in Kashmir – Means of Transportation Kashmir – Mode of Transportation Kashmir India |publisher=Bharatonline.com |access-date=3 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-date=17 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517211236/http://www.bharatonline.com/kashmir/travel-tips/local-transport.html}}</ref> Kashmir has a {{cvt|135|km|0}} long modern [[Jammu–Baramulla line|railway]] line that started in October 2009, and was last extended in 2013 and connects Baramulla, in the western part of Kashmir, to Srinagar and [[Banihal]]. It is expected to link Kashmir to the rest of India after the construction of the railway line from [[Katra, Jammu and Kashmir|Katra]] to Banihal is completed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baapar.com/blog/how-to-reach-kashmir-by-train-air-bus/ |title=How to Reach Kashmir by Train, Air, Bus? |publisher=Baapar.com |access-date=22 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308230308/http://www.baapar.com/blog/how-to-reach-kashmir-by-train-air-bus/}}</ref> |
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==In culture== |
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==History of Tourism in Kashmir== |
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{{see also|Kashmiri handicrafts}} |
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<!--[[Image:Maharaja-boat-bourne1860.jpg|thumb|right|Maharaja's boat in Munshi Bagh, Srinagar, c. 1860. Photo: Samuel Bourne. The caption states, 'One of the Maharaja's boats such as lent to the Comr or Resident on duty & to others, as myself. He has several of these each with 20 rowers.]]--> |
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[[File:KASHMIR DURBAR CARPET NORTH INDIA.png|thumb|Large Kashmir Durbar Carpet (detail), 2021 photo. "Durbar", in this context, means [[Royal family|Royal]] or Chiefly.]] |
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During the 19th century rule, Kashmir was a popular tourist destination due to its climate. Only 200 passes a year were issued by the government. European sportsmen and travellers, in addition to residents of India, traveled there freely. The railway to [[Rawalpindi]], and a road thence to [[Srinagar]] made access to the valley easier. When the temperature in Srinagar rose at the beginning of June, the residents migrated to [[Gulmarg]], which was a fashionable hill station during [[British Raj|British rule]]. This great influx of visitors resulted in a corresponding diminution of game for the sportsmen. Special game preservation rules were introduced, and ''nullahs'' were let out for stated periods with a restriction on the number of head to be shot. [[Rawalakot]] was another popular destination. |
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Irish poet [[Thomas Moore]]'s 1817 romantic poem ''[[Lalla Rookh]]'' is credited with having made Kashmir (spelt ''Cashmere'' in the poem) "a household term in [[Anglophone]] societies", conveying the idea that it was a kind of [[paradise]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Arts and South Asia|via=Issuu|publisher=Harvard South Asia Institute|date=12 May 2017|page=45|chapter=At the threshold of paradise: Kashmir in Mughal Persian poetry|first=Sunil|last=Sharma|url=https://issuu.com/harvardsai/docs/sai_arts_final|access-date=30 January 2021|archive-date=10 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410050659/https://issuu.com/harvardsai/docs/sai_arts_final|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
||
* [[1941 Census of Jammu and Kashmir]] |
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* [[Human rights abuses in Kashmir]] |
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* [[Kashmiris]] |
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* [[List of territorial disputes]] |
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== Notes == |
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*[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 47]] |
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{{notelist}} |
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* [[Line of Control]] |
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* [[Kashmir Conflict]] |
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* [[Who's Who of Kashmir]] |
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* [[Kargil War]] |
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* [[2005 Kashmir earthquake]] |
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* [[List of Jammu and Kashmir related articles]] |
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* [[Srinagar]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{Reflist| |
{{Reflist|30em}} |
||
*{{1911}} |
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KASHMIR LIT e JOURNAL http://kashmirlit.org/default.aspx |
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Article on Kashmir http://www.imow.org/community/directory/user/index?id=19180 |
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scroll down for kashmir project) http://hrc.berkeley.edu/past_fellows.html |
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Article on World Pulse http://www.worldpulse.com/magazine/articles/my-life-my-kashmir |
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== |
==Bibliography== |
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=== General history === |
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{{refbegin|2}} |
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{{Refbegin}} |
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* Blank, Jonah. "Kashmir–Fundamentalism Takes Root," Foreign Affairs, 78,6 (November/December 1999): 36-42. |
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* {{Citation |last1=Bose |first1=Sugata |author-link1=Sugata Bose |last2=Jalal |first2=Ayesha |author-link2=Ayesha Jalal |year=2003 |title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy |publisher=London and New York: Routledge, 2nd edition. Pp. xiii, 304 |isbn=978-0-415-30787-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/modernsouthasiah00bose }}. |
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* Drew, Federic. 1877. “The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations; 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971. |
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* {{Citation|last1=Brown |first1=Judith M. |author-link=Judith M. Brown |year=1994 |title=Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy |publisher=Oxford and New York: [[Oxford University Press]]. Pp. xiii, 474 |isbn=978-0-19-873113-9}}. |
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* Evans, Alexander. Why Peace Won’t Come to Kashmir, Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April 2001 p. 170-175. |
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* {{citation |last=Copland |first=Ian |title=The Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire, 1917–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h0QKqCA-QHIC |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89436-4 |ref={{sfnref|Copland, The Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire|2002}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140443/https://books.google.com/books?id=h0QKqCA-QHIC |url-status=live }} |
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* {{Citation |last=Khan |first=Yasmin |year=2007 |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |publisher=New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 250 pages |isbn=978-0-300-12078-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/greatpartitionma00khan }} |
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* {{Citation |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |author-link1=Hermann Kulke |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |year=2004 |title=A History of India |publisher=4th edition. Routledge, Pp. xii, 448 |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0}}. |
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* {{Citation |last1=Metcalf |first1=Barbara |author-link1=Barbara Metcalf |last2=Metcalf |first2=Thomas R. |author-link2=Thomas R. Metcalf |year=2006 |title=A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise Histories) |publisher=Cambridge and New York: [[Cambridge University Press]]. Pp. xxxiii, 372 |isbn=978-0-521-68225-1}}. |
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* {{Citation |last = Ramusack |first = Barbara |author-link=Barbara Ramusack |year = 2004 |title = The Indian Princes and their States (The New Cambridge History of India) |publisher = Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 324 |isbn = 978-0-521-03989-5|title-link = The New Cambridge History of India }} |
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* {{Citation |last1=Stein |first1=Burton |author-link=Burton Stein |year=2001 |title=A History of India |publisher=New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiv, 432 |isbn=978-0-19-565446-2}}. |
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* {{Citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India |year =2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press. Pp. xviii, 206 |isbn=978-0-521-76177-2}} |
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* {{Citation |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Wolpert |year=2006 |title=Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India |publisher=Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 272 |isbn=978-0-19-515198-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/shamefulflightla00wolp }}. |
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{{refend}} |
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=== Kashmir history === |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* {{citation |last=Bose |first=Sumantra |author-link=Sumantra Bose |title=The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self-Determination and a Just Peace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EhuAAAAMAAJ |year=1997 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-8039-9350-1 |ref={{sfnref|Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir|1997}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140442/https://books.google.com/books?id=-EhuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{citation |first=Sumantra |last=Bose |author-link=Sumantra Bose |title=Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01173-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ACMe9WBdNAC |ref={{sfnref|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140444/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ACMe9WBdNAC |url-status=live }} |
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* {{citation|last=Keenan|first=Brigid|title=Travels in Kashmir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oilxiI9uso8C|year=2013|publisher=Hachette India|isbn=978-93-5009-729-8|ref={{sfnref|Keenan, Travels in Kashmir|2013}}}} |
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* {{citation |last=Korbel |first=Josef |author-link=Josef Korbel |title=Danger in Kashmir |publisher=Princeton University Press |edition=second |year=1966 |orig-date=1954 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Q7WCgAAQBAJ |ref={{sfnref|Korbel, Danger in Kashmir|1966}} |isbn=9781400875238 |access-date=27 September 2016 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140444/https://books.google.com/books?id=7Q7WCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{citation |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |title=Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQ5WAAAAYAAJ |year=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-date=first published 1991 by Roxford Books |isbn=978-0-19-577423-8 |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140444/https://books.google.com/books?id=YQ5WAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{citation |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |title=Incomplete Partition: The Genesis of the Kashmir Dispute, 1947–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vi9WAAAAYAAJ |year=2002 |orig-date=first published 1997 by Roxford Books |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780195797671 |ref={{sfnref|Lamb, Incomplete Partition|2002}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140446/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vi9WAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{citation |last=Malik |first=Iffat |title=Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, International Dispute |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n9J8QgAACAAJ |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-579622-3 |ref={{sfnref|Malik, Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, International Dispute|2005}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140446/https://books.google.com/books?id=n9J8QgAACAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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* {{citation |last=Panikkar |first=K. M. |title=Gulab Singh |author-link=K. M. Panikkar |publisher=Martin Hopkinson Ltd |year=1930 |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/gulabsingh179218031570mbp }} |
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* {{citation |title=Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir |first=Mridu |last=Rai |publisher=C. Hurst & Co |year=2004 |isbn=978-1850656616 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTHTI-Eus8kC |access-date=15 September 2020 |ref={{sfnref|Rai, Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects|2004}}}} |
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* {{citation |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIUMAQAAMAAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-81-7304-751-0 |ref={{sfnref|Aparna Rao, The Valley of Kashmir Composite Culture|2008}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140446/https://books.google.com/books?id=nIUMAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }} |
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** {{citation |last=Evans |first=Alexander |chapter=Kashmiri Exceptionalism |pages=713–741 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Alexander, Kashmiri Exceptionalism|2008}}}} |
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** {{citation |last=Kaw |first=Mushtaq A. |chapter=Land Rights in Rural Kashmir: A Study in Continuity and Change from Late-Sixteenth to Late-Twentieth Centuries |pages=207–234 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Kaw, Land Rights in Rural Kashmir|2008}}}} |
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** {{citation |last=Khan |first=Mohammad Ishaq |chapter=Islam, State and Society in Medieval Kashmir: A Revaluation of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani's Historical Role |pages=97–198 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Khan, Islam, State and Society in Medieval Kashmir|2008}}}} |
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** {{citation |last=Madan |first=T. N. |author-link=Triloki Nath Madan |chapter=Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashmiriyat: An Introductory Essay |pages=1–36 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Madan, Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashimiriyat|2008}}}} |
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** {{citation |last=Reynolds |first=Nathalène |chapter=Revisiting Key Episodes in Modern Kashmir History |pages=563–604 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Reynolds, Revisiting Key Episodes in History|2008}}}} |
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** {{citation |last=Witzel |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Witzel |chapter=The Kashmiri Pandits: Their Early History |pages=37–96 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Witzel, Kashmiri Pandits Early History|2008}}}} |
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** {{citation |last=Zutshi |first=Chitraleka |chapter=Shrines, Political Authority, and Religious Identities in Late-Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth-century Kashmir |pages=235–258 |editor-last=Rao |editor-first=Aparna |title=The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture? |year=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Zutshi, Shrines, Political Authority and Religious Identities|2008}}}} |
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* {{citation |last=Schaffer |first=Howard B. |title=The Limits of Influence: America's Role in Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kyYOWdA5PNkC |date=2009 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=978-0-8157-0370-9 |ref={{sfnref|Schaffer, The Limits of Influence|2009}} |access-date=1 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140452/https://books.google.com/books?id=kyYOWdA5PNkC |url-status=live }} |
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* {{citation |first=Victoria |last=Schofield |author-link=Victoria Schofield |title=Kashmir in Conflict |publisher=I. B. Taurus & Co |location=London and New York |year=2003 |orig-date=2000 |isbn=978-1860648984 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkTetMfI6QkC |ref={{sfnref|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003}} }} |
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* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Bawa Satinder |title=Raja Gulab Singh's Role in the First Anglo-Sikh War |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=5 |pages=35–59 |number=1 |year=1971 |jstor=311654 |ref={{sfnref|Satinder Singh, Raja Gulab Singh's Role|1971}} |doi=10.1017/s0026749x00002845|s2cid=145500298 }} |
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* {{citation |last=Zutshi |first=Chitralekha |title=Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity, and the Making of Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dlBjzE-1ML8C&pg=PA318 |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |isbn=978-1-85065-700-2 |ref={{sfnref|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004}} |year=2004 |access-date=15 September 2020}} |
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{{Refend}} |
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=== Historical sources === |
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{{Refbegin}} |
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* Blank, Jonah. "Kashmir–Fundamentalism Takes Root", ''Foreign Affairs'', 78.6 (November/December 1999): 36–42. |
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* Drew, Federic. 1877. ''The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations''; 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971. |
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* Evans, Alexander. Why Peace Won't Come to Kashmir, Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April 2001 p. 170–175. |
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* Hussain, Ijaz. 1998. "Kashmir Dispute: An International Law Perspective", National Institute of Pakistan Studies. |
* Hussain, Ijaz. 1998. "Kashmir Dispute: An International Law Perspective", National Institute of Pakistan Studies. |
||
* Irfani, Suroosh, ed "Fifty Years of the Kashmir Dispute": Based on the proceedings of the International Seminar held at Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir |
* Irfani, Suroosh, ed "Fifty Years of the Kashmir Dispute": Based on the proceedings of the International Seminar held at Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir 24–25 August 1997: University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, AJK, 1997. |
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* [[Manoj Joshi|Joshi, Manoj]] Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the Nineties (Penguin, New Delhi, 1999). |
* [[Manoj Joshi (journalist)|Joshi, Manoj]] Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the Nineties (Penguin, New Delhi, 1999). |
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* Khan, L. Ali [ |
* Khan, L. Ali [https://ssrn.com/abstract=987561 The Kashmir Dispute: A Plan for Regional Cooperation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140944/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=987561 |date=17 January 2023 }} 31 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, 31, p. 495 (1994). |
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* Knight, E. F. 1893. ''Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries''. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971. |
* Knight, E. F. 1893. ''Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries''. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971. |
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* Knight, William, Henry. 1863. ''Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere and Thibet''. Richard Bentley, London. Reprint 1998: Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. |
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* [[Hans Köchler|Köchler, Hans]]. [http://i-p-o.org/Koechler-Kashmir_Discourse-European_Parliament-April2008.htm ''The Kashmir Problem between Law and Realpolitik. Reflections on a Negotiated Settlement'']. Keynote speech delivered at the "Global Discourse on Kashmir 2008." European Parliament, Brussels, 1 April 2008. |
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* [[Hans Köchler|Köchler, Hans]]. [http://i-p-o.org/Koechler-Kashmir_Discourse-European_Parliament-April2008.htm ''The Kashmir Problem between Law and Realpolitik. Reflections on a Negotiated Settlement''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402012239/http://i-p-o.org/Koechler-Kashmir_Discourse-European_Parliament-April2008.htm |date=2 April 2010 }}. Keynote speech delivered at the "Global Discourse on Kashmir 2008." European Parliament, Brussels, 1 April 2008. |
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* Lamb, Hertingfordbury, UK: Roxford Books,1994, "Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy. |
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* [[William Moorcroft (explorer)|Moorcroft, William]] and [[Trebeck, George]]. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. |
* [[William Moorcroft (explorer)|Moorcroft, William]] and [[Trebeck, George]]. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. |
||
* Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). ''The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c''. 18th Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of this edition is unknown |
* Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). ''The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c''. 18th Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of this edition is unknown – but the 16th edition was published in 1938). |
||
* Schofield, Victoria. 1996. ''Kashmir in the Crossfire''. London: I B Tauris. |
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* Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. ''Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī–A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr'', 2 vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979. |
* Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. ''Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī–A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr'', 2 vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979. |
||
* Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward 1917. ''Kashmir''. A. & C. Black, London. |
* Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward 1917. ''Kashmir''. A. & C. Black, London. |
||
* Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. "Kashmir and the Convergence of Time, Space and Destiny", 2004; ISBN |
* Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. "Kashmir and the Convergence of Time, Space and Destiny", 2004; {{ISBN|0-945747-00-4}}. First published as a four-part series, March 2002 – April 2003, in 'Prakash', a review of the Jagat Guru Bhagavaan Gopinath Ji Charitable Foundation. [http://www.patrizianorellibachelet.com/Kashmir.html Kashmir and the Convergence of Time Space and Destiny by Patrizia Norelli Bachelet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928141452/http://www.patrizianorellibachelet.com/Kashmir.html |date=28 September 2007 }} |
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* Muhammad Ayub. ''An Army; |
* Muhammad Ayub. ''An Army; Its Role & Rule (A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947–1999)''. Pittsburgh: Rosedog Books, 2005. {{ISBN|0-8059-9594-3}}. |
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{{ |
{{Refend}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{wikiquote}} |
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* [http://mha.nic.in/pdfs/AccessionDoc.pdf Instrument of Accession] |
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{{commons category}} |
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* [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unmogip/ United Nations Military Observers Group in Kashmir] |
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{{wikivoyage|Kashmir}} |
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* [http://jammukashmir.nic.in/ Official website of the Jammu and Kashmir Government] (Indian-administered Kashmir) |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080514065929/http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unmogip/ United Nations Military Observers Group in Kashmir] |
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* [http://www.ajk.gov.pk/ Official website of the Azad Jammu and Kashmir Government] (Pakistan-administered Kashmir) |
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* [http://www.iakf.org/main/files/uplink/2007_05_22_Letter_to_Ambassador_Khalid.pdf Letter of Baroness Nicholson which refers to the 1909 map of Kashmir ] |
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* [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kasnehru.htm Excerpts of telegram dated 26 October 1947 from Jawaharlal Nehru to the British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee] |
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* [http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/ Kashmir Website with Historical Timeline] |
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{{Regions and administrative territories of Kashmir}} |
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{{Jammu and Kashmir topics}} |
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{{Territorial disputes in East, South, and Southeast Asia}} |
{{Territorial disputes in East, South, and Southeast Asia}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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Latest revision as of 18:58, 18 December 2024
34°30′N 76°30′E / 34.5°N 76.5°E
Kashmir (/ˈkæʃmɪər/ KASH-meer or /kæʃˈmɪər/ kash-MEER) is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. The term has since come to encompass a larger area that includes the India-administered territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, the Pakistan-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, and the Chinese-administered territories of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract.[1][2][3]
In 1820, the Sikh Empire, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir.[4] In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War, and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage[5][6]) of the British Crown, lasted until the Partition of India in 1947, when the former princely state of the British Indian Empire became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: China, India, and Pakistan.[1][7][8][2]
Etymology
The word Kashmir is thought to have been derived from Sanskrit and was referred to as káśmīra.[9] A popular local etymology of Kashmira is that it is land desiccated from water.[10]
An alternative etymology derives the name from the name of the Vedic sage Kashyapa who is believed to have settled people in this land. Accordingly, Kashmir would be derived from either kashyapa-mir (Kashyapa's Lake) or kashyapa-meru (Kashyapa's Mountain).[10]
The word has been referenced to in a Hindu scripture mantra worshipping the Hindu goddess Sharada and is mentioned to have resided in the land of kashmira, or which might have been a reference to the Sharada Peeth.
The Ancient Greeks called the region Kasperia, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus of Miletus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria.[11] The earliest text which directly mentions the name Kashmir is in Ashtadhyayi written by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini during the 5th century BC. Pāṇini called the people of Kashmir Kashmirikas.[12][13][14] Some other early references to Kashmir can also be found in Mahabharata in Sabha Parva and in puranas like Matsya Purana, Vayu Purana, Padma Purana and Vishnu Purana and Vishnudharmottara Purana.[15]
Huientsang, the Buddhist scholar and Chinese traveller, called Kashmir kia-shi-milo, while some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ki-pin (or Chipin or Jipin) and ache-pin.[13]
Cashmeer is an archaic spelling of modern Kashmir, and in some countries[which?] it is still spelled this way. Kashmir is called Cachemire in French, Cachemira in Spanish, Caxemira in Portuguese, Caixmir in Catalan, Casmiria in Latin, Cașmir in Romanian, and Cashmir in Occitan.
In the Kashmiri language, Kashmir itself is known as Kasheer.[16]
Terminology
The Government of India and Indian sources refer to the territory under Pakistan control as "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" ("POK").[17][18] The Government of Pakistan and Pakistani sources refer to the portion of Kashmir administered by India as "Indian-occupied Kashmir" ("IOK") or "Indian-held Kashmir" (IHK);[19][20] The terms "Pakistan-administered Kashmir" and "India-administered Kashmir" are often used by neutral sources for the parts of the Kashmir region controlled by each country.[21]
History
In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later of Buddhism. During the 7th-14th centuries, the region was ruled by a series of Hindu dynasties,[22] and Kashmir Shaivism arose.[23] In 1320, Rinchan Shah became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Kashmir Sultanate.[4] The region was part of the Mughal Empire from 1586 to 1751,[24] and thereafter, until 1820, of the Afghan Durrani Empire.[4]
Sikh rule
In 1819, the Kashmir Valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of the Punjab,[25] thus ending four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghan regime. As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.[26] However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,[27] protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.[28] The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,[28] which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,[26] closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar,[28] and banning the adhan, the public Muslim call to prayer.[28] Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs.[26][29] High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.[26] Many Kashmiri peasants migrated to the plains of the Punjab.[30] However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers;[28] Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh Empire.[28] During this time Kashmir shawls became known worldwide, attracting many buyers, especially in the West.[28]
The state of Jammu, which had been on the ascendant after the decline of the Mughal Empire, came under the sway of the Sikhs in 1770. Further in 1808, it was fully conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Gulab Singh, then a youngster in the House of Jammu, enrolled in the Sikh troops and, by distinguishing himself in campaigns, gradually rose in power and influence. In 1822, he was anointed as the Raja of Jammu.[31] Along with his able general Zorawar Singh Kahluria, he conquered and subdued Rajouri (1821), Kishtwar (1821), Suru valley and Kargil (1835), Ladakh (1834–1840), and Baltistan (1840), thereby surrounding the Kashmir Valley. He became a wealthy and influential noble in the Sikh court.[32]
Kashmir dispute
Princely state
In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out. According to The Imperial Gazetteer of India:
Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i.e. the Vale of Kashmir.[25]
Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted between 1820 and 1858, the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was first called) combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities:[33] to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. In the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Muslim—mostly Sunni, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the brahmin Kashmiri Pandits. To the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to that of Ladakh, but which practised Shia Islam. To the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency was an area of diverse, mostly Shia groups, and, to the west, Punch was populated mostly by Muslims of a different ethnicity than that of the Kashmir valley.[33] After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of direct rule by Great Britain, the princely state of Kashmir came under the suzerainty of the British Crown.
In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registered a Muslim majority population of 77%, a Hindu population of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the remaining 3%.[34] That same year, Prem Nath Bazaz, a Kashmiri Pandit journalist wrote: "The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. ... Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee [Hindu] landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the Muslim masses."[35] Under Hindu rule, Muslims faced hefty taxation and discrimination in the legal system, and were forced into labor without any wages.[36] Conditions in the princely state caused a significant migration of people from the Kashmir Valley to the Punjab of British India.[37] For almost a century, until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruled over a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry.[34][38] Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to landlords and moneylenders, having no education besides, nor awareness of rights,[34] the Muslim peasants had no political representation until the 1930s.[38]
1947 and 1948
Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. According to Burton Stein's History of India,
Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as Hyderabad; it had been created rather off-handedly by the British after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a reward to a former official who had sided with the British. The Himalayan kingdom was connected to India through a district of the Punjab, but its population was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to Mountbatten[39] for assistance, and the governor-general agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.[40]
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices. However, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,[40] and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999.
Current status and political divisions
India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which comprises Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, while Pakistan controls a third of the region, divided into two provinces, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh are administered by India as union territories. They formed a single state until 5 August 2019, when the state was bifurcated and its limited autonomy was revoked.[41]
According to Encyclopædia Britannica:
Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was sparsely populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in India-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked.[42][1]
The eastern region of the former princely state of Kashmir is also involved in a boundary dispute that began in the late 19th century and continues into the 21st. Although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and China's official position has not changed following the communist revolution of 1949 that established the People's Republic of China. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.[42]
By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian War of October 1962.[42]
The region is divided amongst three countries in a territorial dispute: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and the People's Republic of China controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the Siachen Glacier area, including the Saltoro Ridge passes, whilst Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls 101,338 km2 (39,127 sq mi) of the disputed territory, Pakistan controls 85,846 km2 (33,145 sq mi), and the People's Republic of China controls the remaining 37,555 km2 (14,500 sq mi).
Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie south and west of the Pir Panjal range, and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively. These are populous regions. Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly known as the Northern Areas, is a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram, the western Himalayas, the Pamir, and the Hindu Kush ranges. With its administrative centre in the town of Gilgit, the Northern Areas cover an area of 72,971 square kilometres (28,174 sq mi) and have an estimated population approaching 1 million (10 lakhs).
Ladakh is between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south.[43] Capital towns of the region are Leh and Kargil. It is under Indian administration and was part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir until 2019. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent.[43] Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). Geographically part of the Tibetan Plateau, Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements.
Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing line of control established by the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire.
Geography
The Kashmir region lies between latitudes 32° and 36° N, and longitudes 74° and 80° E. It has an area of 68,000 sq mi (180,000 km2).[44] It is bordered to the north and east by China (Xinjiang and Tibet), to the northwest by Afghanistan (Wakhan Corridor), to the west by Pakistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab) and to the south by India (Himachal Pradesh and Punjab).[45]
The topography of Kashmir is mostly mountainous. It is traversed mainly by the Western Himalayas. The Himalayas terminate in the western boundary of Kashmir at Nanga Parbat. Kashmir is traversed by three rivers namely Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. These river basins divide the region into three valleys separated by high mountain ranges. The Indus valley forms the north and north-eastern portion of the region which include bare and desolate areas of Baltistan and Ladakh. The upper portion of the Jhelum valley forms the proper Vale of Kashmir surrounded by high mountain ranges. The Chenab valley forms the southern portion of the Kashmir region with its denuded hills towards the south. It includes almost all of the Jammu region. High altitude lakes are frequent at high elevations. Lower down in the Vale of Kashmir there are many freshwater lakes and large areas of swamplands which include Wular Lake, Dal Lake and Hokersar near Srinagar.[46]
To the north and northeast, beyond the Great Himalayas, the region is traversed by the Karakoram mountains. To the northwest lies the Hindu Kush mountain range. The upper Indus River separates the Himalayas from the Karakoram.[47] The Karakoram is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km (47 mi) and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km (39 mi) rank as the world's second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. Karakoram has four eight-thousander mountain peaks with K2, the second highest peak in the world at 8,611 m (28,251 ft).[48][49]
The Indus River system forms the drainage basin of the Kashmir region. The river enters the region in Ladakh at its southeastern corner from the Tibetan Plateau, and flows northwest to run a course through the entire Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan. Almost all the rivers originating in these region are part of the Indus river system.[50] After reaching the end of the Great Himalayan range, the Indus turns a corner and flows southwest into the Punjab plains. The Jhelum and Chenab rivers also follow a course roughly parallel to this, and join the Indus river in southern Punjab plains in Pakistan.
The geographical features of the Kashmir region differ considerably from one part to another. The lowest part of the region consists of the plains of Jammu at the southwestern corner, which continue into the plains of Punjab at an elevation of below 1000 feet. Mountains begin at 2000 feet, then raising to 3000–4000 feet in the "Outer Hills", a rugged country with ridges and long narrow valleys. Next within the tract lie the Middle Mountains which are 8000–10,000 feet in height with ramifying valleys. Adjacent to these hills are the lofty Great Himalayan ranges (14000–15000 feet) which divide the drainage of the Chenab and Jehlum from that of the Indus. Beyond this range lies a wide tract of mountainous country of 17000–22000 feet in Ladakh and Baltistan.[44][clarification needed]
Climate
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Kashmir has a different climate for every region owing to the great variation in altitude. The temperatures ranges from the tropical heat of the Punjab summer to the intensity of the cold which keeps the perpetual snow on the mountains. Jammu Division, excluding the upper parts of the Chenab Valley, features a humid subtropical climate. The Vale of Kashmir has a moderate climate. The Astore Valley and some parts of Gilgit-Baltistan features a semi-Tibetan climate. While as the other parts of Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh have Tibetan climate which is considered as almost rainless climate.[44][52]
The southwestern Kashmir which includes much of the Jammu province and Muzaffarabad falls within the reach of Indian monsoon. The Pir Panjal Range acts as an effective barrier and blocks these monsoon tracts from reaching the main Kashmir Valley and the Himalayan slopes. These areas of the region receive much of their precipitation from the wind currents of the Arabian Sea. The Himalayan slope and the Pir Panjal witness greatest snow melting from March until June. These variations in snow melt and rainfall have led to destructive inundations of the main valley. One instance of such Kashmir flood of a larger proportion is recorded in the 12th-century book Rajatarangini. A single cloudburst in July 1935 caused the upper Jehlum river level to rise 11 feet.[53] The 2014 Kashmir floods inundated the Kashmir city of Srinagar and submerged hundreds of other villages.[54]
Flora and fauna
Kashmir has a recorded forest area of 20,230 square kilometres (7,810 sq mi) along with some national parks and reserves. The forests vary according to the climatic conditions and the altitude. Kashmir forests range from the tropical deciduous forests in the foothills of Jammu and Muzafarabad, to the temperate forests throughout the Vale of Kashmir and to the alpine grasslands and high altitude meadows in Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh.[55][56] The Kashmir region has four well defined zones of vegetation in the tree growth, due to the difference in elevation. The tropical forests up to 1500 m, are known as the Phulai (Acacia modesta) and Olive (Olea cuspid ata) Zone. There occur semi-deciduous species of Shorea robusta, Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Albizia lebbeck, Garuga pinnata, Terminalia bellirica and T. tomentosa and Pinus roxburghii are found at higher elevations. The temperate zone between (1,500–3,500 m) is referred as the Chir Pine (Finns longifolia). This zone is dominated by oaks (Quercus spp.) and Rhododendron spp. The Blue Pine (Finns excelsa) Zone with Cedrus deodara, Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana occur at elevations between 2,800 and 3,500 m. The Birch (Betula utilis) Zone has Herbaceous genera of Anemone, Geranium, Iris, Lloydia, Potentilla and Primula interspersed with dry dwarf alpine scrubs of Berberis, Cotoneaster, Juniperus and Rhododendron are prevalent in alpine grasslands at 3,500 m and above.[46][57]
Kashmir is referred as a beauty spot of the medicinal and herbaceous flora in the Himalayas.[58] There are hundreds of different species of wild flowers recorded in the alpine meadows of the region.[46] The botanical garden and the tulip gardens of Srinagar built in the Zabarwans grow 300 breeds of flora and 60 varieties of tulips respectively. The later is considered as the largest Tulip Garden of Asia.[59][60]
Kashmir region is home to rare species of animals, many of which are protected by sanctuaries and reserves. The Dachigam National Park in the Valley holds the last viable population of Kashmir stag (Hangul) and the largest population of black bear in Asia.[61] In Gilgit-Baltistan the Deosai National Park is designated to protect the largest population of Himalayan brown bears in the western Himalayas.[62] Snow leopards are found in high density In the Hemis National Park in Ladakh.[63] The region is home to musk deer, markhor, leopard cat, jungle cat, red fox, jackal, Himalayan wolf, serow, Himalayan yellow-throated marten, long-tailed marmot, Indian porcupine, Himalayan mouse-hare, langur and Himalayan weasel. At least 711 bird species are recorded in the valley alone with 31 classified as globally threatened species.[64][65]
Demographics
Colonial era
In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) were Muslims, 689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and 35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) others).
The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 60% of the population.[66] In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."[66] In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641.[66] Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."[66]
In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the Second World War, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%).[67]
The Kashmiri Pandits, the only Hindus of the Kashmir valley, who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5% of the population of the valley during Dogra rule (1846–1947), and 20% of whom had left the Kashmir valley to other parts of India in the 1950s,[68] underwent a complete exodus in the 1990s due to the Kashmir insurgency. According to a number of authors, approximately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit population of 140,000 left the valley during that decade.[69][70][71] Other authors have suggested a higher figure for the exodus, ranging from the entire population of over 150 thousand,[72] to 190 thousand of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand (200,000),[73] to a number as high as 300 thousand (300,000).[74]
Census Year | Jammu Province | Kashmir Province | Frontier Regions | Jammu & Kashmir Princely State | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | |
1901[75] | 1,521,307 | 52.36% | 1,157,394 | 39.83% | 226,877 | 7.81% | 2,905,578 | 100% |
1911[76] | 1,597,865 | 50.6% | 1,295,201 | 41.01% | 265,060 | 8.39% | 3,158,126 | 100% |
1921[77] | 1,640,259 | 49.4% | 1,407,086 | 42.38% | 273,173 | 8.23% | 3,320,518 | 100% |
1931[78] | 1,788,441 | 49.05% | 1,569,218 | 43.04% | 288,584 | 7.91% | 3,646,243 | 100% |
1941[79] | 1,981,433 | 49.27% | 1,728,705 | 42.99% | 311,478 | 7.75% | 4,021,616 | 100% |
Religious group |
1901[75] | 1911[76] | 1921[77] | 1931[78] | 1941[79] | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | Pop. | % | |
Islam | 2,154,695 | 74.16% | 2,398,320 | 75.94% | 2,548,514 | 76.75% | 2,817,636 | 77.28% | 3,101,247 | 77.11% |
Hinduism | 689,073 | 23.72% | 690,390 | 21.86% | 692,641 | 20.86% | 736,222 | 20.19% | 809,165 | 20.12% |
Buddhism | 35,047 | 1.21% | 36,512 | 1.16% | 37,685 | 1.13% | 38,724 | 1.06% | 40,696 | 1.01% |
Sikhism | 25,828 | 0.89% | 31,553 | 1% | 39,507 | 1.19% | 50,662 | 1.39% | 65,903 | 1.64% |
Jainism | 442 | 0.02% | 345 | 0.01% | 529 | 0.02% | 597 | 0.02% | 910 | 0.02% |
Christianity | 422 | 0.01% | 975 | 0.03% | 1,634 | 0.05% | 2,263 | 0.06% | 3,509 | 0.09% |
Zoroastrianism | 11 | 0% | 31 | 0% | 7 | 0% | 5 | 0% | 29 | 0% |
Tribal | — | — | — | — | — | — | 134 | 0% | 51 | 0% |
Judaism | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 10 | 0% |
Others | 60 | 0% | 0 | 0% | 1 | 0% | 0 | 0% | 95 | 0% |
Total population | 2,905,578 | 100% | 3,158,126 | 100% | 3,320,518 | 100% | 3,646,243 | 100% | 4,021,616 | 100% |
Note: The Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir includes the contemporary administrative divisions of Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh, Azad Kashmir, and Gilgit-Baltistan. |
Modern era
People in Jammu speak Hindi, Punjabi and Dogri, the Kashmir Valley people speak Kashmiri, and people in the sparsely inhabited Ladakh speak Tibetan and Balti.[1]
The population of India-administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh combined is 12,541,302;[80] that of Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir is 4,045,366; and that of Gilgit-Baltistan is 1,492,924.[81][82]
Administered by | Area | Population | % Muslim | % Hindu | % Buddhist | % other |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
India | Kashmir Valley | ~4 million (4 million) | 95% | 4% | – | – |
Jammu | ~3 million (3 million) | 30% | 66% | – | 4% | |
Ladakh | ~0.25 million (250,000) | 46% | 12% | 40% | 2% | |
Pakistan | Azad Kashmir | ~4 million (4 million) | 100% | – | – | – |
Gilgit-Baltistan | ~2 million (2 million) | 99% | – | – | – | |
China | Aksai Chin | – | – | – | – | – |
Trans-Karakoram | – | – | – | – | – | |
-
A Muslim shawl-making family shown in Cashmere shawl manufactory, 1867, chromolithograph, William Simpson
-
A group of Pandits, or Brahmin priests, in Kashmir, photographed by an unknown photographer in the 1890s
Economy
Kashmir's economy is centred around agriculture. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut, apple, cherry.
Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making Pashmina shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery. Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, papier-mâché, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in the India-administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
Transport
Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the region.[83] Kashmir has a 135 km (84 mi) long modern railway line that started in October 2009, and was last extended in 2013 and connects Baramulla, in the western part of Kashmir, to Srinagar and Banihal. It is expected to link Kashmir to the rest of India after the construction of the railway line from Katra to Banihal is completed.[84]
In culture
Irish poet Thomas Moore's 1817 romantic poem Lalla Rookh is credited with having made Kashmir (spelt Cashmere in the poem) "a household term in Anglophone societies", conveying the idea that it was a kind of paradise.[85]
See also
- 1941 Census of Jammu and Kashmir
- Human rights abuses in Kashmir
- Kashmiris
- List of territorial disputes
Notes
References
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1962—China defeats India in a short war for control of Aksai Chin.
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- ^ Sneddon, Christopher (2021), Independent Kashmir: An incomplete aspiration, Manchester University Press, pp. 12–13,
Paramountcy was the 'vague and undefined' feudatory system whereby the British, as the suzerain power, dominated and controlled India's princely rulers. ... These 'loyal collaborators of the Raj' were 'afforded [British] protection in exchange for helpful behavior in a relationship of tutelage, called paramountcy'.
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... the problem of the 'princely states'. These states had accepted the tutelage of the British Crown under the terms of the doctrine of 'paramountcy' under which they acknowledged the Crown as the 'paramount' authority in the subcontinent.
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